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Equine athletes: psychology and performance

Author : Laura Jones, Sue Dyson

Categories : Equine, Vets

Date : May 16, 2016

ABSTRACT

The psychological characteristics associated with human athletic success and the influence
different practices have on the psychological state of human athletes are well studied. The huge
importance of horse and rider psychological state – and the relationship between the two – is well-
recognised both anecdotally and scientifically. Despite this, comparatively less evidence-based
information exists regarding equine psychology and its interaction with performance and
competitive success. As well as selectively breeding for desirable, often discipline-specific physical
traits, we have also selected – purposefully, as well as inadvertently – for certain temperament
traits.

The psychological characteristics of horses contribute to their suitability to perform in certain

disciplines and form a successful partnership with certain riders. Both motivation and arousal level
at competition appear to be important factors for performance success. The presence of pain will
often precipitate behavioural changes in ridden horses. The psychological state of some horses
appears to be an important factor for the degree to which performance is affected by pain.

To fully understand the implications of psychology on the partnership between horses and riders,
and then their athletic success in the disciplines, will first require an in-depth psychological
understanding of both species equally.

Athletic performance at peak ability requires optimal musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and

respiratory function, appropriate nutrition and correct psychological state.

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Figure 1. Tension and high head carriage (left) assumed to be a reflection of the horse’s
temperament. Its way of performing is transformed by abolition of pain (right) after diagnostic
analgesia to resolve subclinical lameness.

Behavioural traits of horses are acknowledged as being highly important for both ease of training
and management and competitive success by professional, competition and leisure riders and
breeders (Graf et al, 2013).

The judgement of performance in competition directly encompasses behavioural attributes. For

example, the Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) directives for judging international young
horse classes lists temperament (“attentiveness, willingness to work, natural forward-going
attitude, mental suppleness”) as one of the “most important” aspects (Fédération Equestre
Internationale, 2014).

This considered, it is somewhat surprising a relative lack of evidence-based information is available

on the effects of psychological state on the performance of the equine athlete.

Horse psychology
Basic psychological elements exist at three inter-related, but temporally separate, levels –
temperament, mood and emotional reaction (Goldsmith, 1994).

Temperament

Temperament refers to an individual’s behavioural traits, which are a predisposition for an

individual to act in a predictable way to the environment or a challenge.

Temperament is believed to partially be a psychological phenotype, influenced by genetic factors

(Hausberger et al, 2004). It is also widely regarded as being influenced by early experiences, but
then remaining static within an individual.

However, it is possible psychological events of a certain magnitude or significance to an individual

may contribute to a modulation of temperament traits (Hausberger et al, 2004).

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Definitions of personality traits of horses evaluated using performance tests are nebulous and do
not account for confounding factors, such as rider or handler influence, environmental change and
other causes of poor performance, such as pain (Pasin and König, 2013).

Verbal descriptors for equine temperament lack definition and specific meaning (Mills, 1998).

Mood and emotional reaction

Both mood and emotional reaction, together termed affective states, are influenced by an
individual’s temperament, as well as environmental factors.

Emotional reaction is the shortest-lived state, while mood implies a longer-lived circumstantial
state. Emotional reaction is the way in which an individual will immediately evaluate and react to an
environment or stimulus and, thus, is hugely influential in competitive performance in a novel
environment.

As well as being influenced by an individual’s temperament, emotional reaction is also partially

dependent on mood. For example, a negative mood state will predispose to negative emotional
reactions.

Equally, negative emotional reactions may contribute to the development of negative mood. This is
a particularly important consideration for training and management practices during the time
preceding a competition. Emotional reaction is also influenced by previous experience,
emphasising the importance of training practices.

Negative reinforcement comprises the majority of the training used for equine athletes, which
employs aversive stimuli to discourage undesirable behaviour and its well-timed removal to
encourage desirable behaviour (Innes and McBride, 2008).

Positive reinforcement-based training practices tend to produce more variable responses, often
with the individual providing the minimal effort required to obtain the reward.

However, a positive perception of working and being ridden is important in the ridden athlete. The
drive an individual horse has to work to achieve goals such as the successful avoidance of
aversive stimuli and attainment of rewards is described as motivation.

The degree of motivation may reflect variation of individual sensitivity to aversive stimuli and
rewards. Human literature suggests high motivational characteristics may even be a prerequisite
for athletic success (Anshel and Eom, 2003).

Arousal

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Figure 2. Resistant behaviour that had been assumed to be because the horse was “quirky” (left)
is abolished (right) when pain causing subclinical lameness is resolved by diagnostic analgesia.

Arousal is a physiological state involving activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which
varies along a continuum, from deep sleep to extreme excitement. Although several theories exist
on the relationship between arousal and performance of human athletes, the “inverted U theory”
has been widely accepted for many decades (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908).

Briefly, this theory suggests both under-arousal and over-arousal are equally detrimental to
performance and an optimal degree of arousal exists for specific tasks. Building on that theory, the
individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) model proposes optimal arousal level for peak
performance varies among individuals, as well as being task-specific (or sport-specific; Hanin,
2000).

Impact when competing

When extrapolating this theory to equine athletes, professional competition riders already
recognise a certain degree of arousal at competition can enhance performance. In addition to this
anecdotal belief, some equine-specific evidence supports this (Hada et al, 2003).

Should the degree of arousal exceed the IZOF, a horse can become overly excited, leading to
increased energy expenditure through locomotor activity and increased distraction by external
stimuli. The horse is likely to listen less to the rider’s aids. This decrease in concentration and
increase in energy expenditure could lead to a decrease in performance in any discipline. A
horse’s IZOF may also be pertinent to its success in a given discipline

Dressage

A dressage horse, for example, should ideally perform optimally at a relatively mildly heightened
level of arousal. Emotional reactions should only be elicited by the actions of the rider, which are
often subtle and require concentration on the part of the horse.

Racehorses

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At the other end of the spectrum, riders of racehorses prefer a greater degree of arousal, leading to
an increased sympathetic flight response and, therefore, increased performance (Hada et al,
2003).

At a racetrack, many aural and visual stimuli could drive the level of arousal towards the excited
end of the spectrum. A racehorse with a low IZOF, despite having good physical capability, may
exceed its IZOF and underperform at races – and can, therefore, be thought of as psychologically
unsuitable for this discipline.

Heightened levels of excitement may lead to increased energy expenditure; so, equally, an over-
aroused racehorse may perform well initially in a race, but fatigue faster and fall back towards the
end of the race. A horse with a high IZOF may be psychologically more suitable for racing.

Eventing

Eventing is a discipline that requires high level performance in three different phases, which each
require a different skill set. In the dressage phase, an event horse should be relatively relaxed and
listening to the rider – that is, be at a relatively low level of arousal.

In the cross country phase, the horse would ideally be much more aroused, ready for this faster
test, as well as being somewhat responsive to both the environment and the rider to successfully
navigate large, fixed fences.

Event horses tend to be excitable, which is a desirable temperament trait for performance in the
cross country and showjumping phases. However, for the dressage phase, these horses are often
more aroused than is ideal – especially because dressage is the first phase of an event and,
therefore, these fit horses will be full of energy at this point, as well as being unfamiliar with their
surroundings.

Asking these horses to restrict their emotional reactions during the dressage test can lead to
anxiety and tenseness. The use of calmers to help reduce anxiety and allow horses to adapt to
new situations faster is commonplace and an abundance of marketed products are available.
However, the majority of “active ingredients” in many products have little – or, most commonly, no
– scientific evidence to support their efficacy.

In a study, feeding magnesium aspartate reduced the reaction speed of horses (Dodd et al, 2015).
However, these horses were fed higher quantities of magnesium than is available in any
commercial supplements and it remains unclear whether the differences in reaction speed were
indeed centrally mediated.

Several studies have concluded L-tryptophan reduces aggression in a variety of species; however,
this appears to be highly variable and affected by a number of confounding factors (Grimmett and

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Sillence, 2005).

A study focusing on the behavioural effects of L-tryptophan in horses actually showed mild
excitation following administration (Bagshaw et al, 1994).

No scientific rationale exists for feeding calcium as a calming supplement and, equally, no scientific
evidence on the efficacy of B vitamins as a behaviour modulator in horses or humans. Valerenic
acid (valerian) has no scientific backing and, along with L-tryptophan, is an FEI-prohibited
substance.

Aetiology
Horse-rider relationship

The relationship between horse and rider is anecdotally of huge importance in competition. Riders
recognise it is often not the athletic capability of the horse that determines success, but a good
working partnership between a well-matched horse and rider. Subjective assessment of horse-rider
partnerships made by experienced trainers have been shown to be repeatable and consistent
(Visser et al, 2010).

It has been suggested a horse may “sense” a rider’s emotional state through the rider’s tension
or relaxation of posture in the saddle, contact in the reins and tone of voice (Williams, 1999). A lack
of scientific information exists regarding the horse-human relationship; however, the importance of
rider psychology is well recognised and practised. Many riders attribute greater consistency in
performance to psychological help – for example, practising positivity and mentally “riding the
course” well.

One study demonstrated perception of a novel horse’s temperament influences pre-competitive

arousal levels of the rider and affects performance, with self-confidence being an “important
moderator”, supporting the relationship between rider psychology and equine performance.

Breeding temperaments

With strategic breeding for desirable traits in horses – a good example being for extravagant
movement in warmblood dressage horses – difficult temperaments anecdotally appear to be being
selected for. These horses tend to be less naturally submissive, being more difficult to handle and
train and, thus, are usually best suited to skilled professional riders.

One training technique that has been used to instil submission and compliance in these horses is
the hyperflexion of the horse’s neck, so the chin is close to, or touching, the pectoral region,
termed “low, deep and round” or “rollkur”. It is also anecdotally believed to increase hindlimb
flexion, which may be a competitive advantage.

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Controversy has surrounded the technique as, badly done, it is coercive and if the posture is
maintained for excessively long periods, this may cause discomfort and negatively affect the
horse’s welfare. Several studies have demonstrated minimal stress associated with a hyperflexed
neck position (van Breda, 2006; Smiet et al, 2014), but others indicate horses prefer to avoid this
position and have demonstrated a stress response (von Borstel et al, 2009; Christiansen et al,
2014).

Pain

Musculoskeletal pain, or altered biomechanical function, is widely accepted as the most common
cause of poor performance of equine athletes (Morris and Seeherman, 1991). Horses are
motivated to avoid aversive stimuli (aids) during ridden work. If they experience musculoskeletal
pain or discomfort in association with work, they can feasibly become motivated to avoid the type of
work that elicits the pain.

This can lead to negative affective states associated with work, which can manifest as reluctance
to perform or even be tacked up, conflict behaviour, increased spookiness or
compensatory/protective movement to evade painful movements (Dyson, 2015).

With resolution of pain causing lameness – for example, following diagnostic analgesia –
reluctance, spookiness and difficult behaviour associated with pain can be abolished (Figures 1
and 2), therefore strongly supporting the association between pain and behaviour in horses.

Sometimes, behavioural changes when ridden are the first symptom of pain detected by riders or
trainers in the absence of perceived lameness. Often, these behavioural changes are erroneously
attributed to a change in psychological state, rather than as a result of pain or discomfort.

Some athletes appear more able to cope with certain degrees of discomfort or pain, which may be
attributed to their individual motivation to perform and succeed. In human athletes, including riders,
success is synonymous with winning competitions, which, for obvious reasons, cannot directly be
extrapolated to equine athletes.

However, in equine athletes, the reward for performance may be the successful avoidance of
negative stimuli and earning positive reward. A positive association with being ridden through
previous experiences may also play a part.

It is possible horses that appear to cope well with pain or discomfort are highly motivated
individuals that associate ridden work with positive outcomes. We tend to find horses with a varied
day-to-day work pattern – and those that compete in more exhilarating disciplines, such as
eventing – are more likely to continue to perform well.

Pain appears more likely to be detrimental to the performance of dressage horses sooner than

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horses performing in other disciplines – possibly because their training is often repetitive and
performed in the same environment (arena), meaning these horses quickly become bored and are
less motivated to continue performing in the presence of pain.

After abolishing or ruling out pain causing poor performance, we sometimes observe some
dressage horses will remain reluctant and not perform well until they are ridden outside of an arena
– for example, in a field. On returning to the arena, these horses will often appear hugely improved
in their way of going. However, it is as yet unknown exactly why some horses appear to be able to
cope with pain better than others with the same type and degree of injury.

Equally, some horses will continue to perform well, despite pain, when working in their individual
athletic capabilities, but when pushed to the extreme of their capabilities, will start to show
behavioural changes.

Stress

Stress is a general term encompassing both physiological and psychological responses to novel or
threatening circumstances. In temporally proximate stress, activation of the sympathetic nervous
system and subsequent release of catecholamines mediates the archetypal fight or flight response,
which can be beneficial to the horse to help it cope with a stressor.

In chronic stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is activated, which has been shown to
both impair immune responses and contribute to the progression of some types of cancer in human
literature (Reiche et al, 2004).

Although the role of psychological stress in horses is unclear, chronic stress has been implicated in
many deleterious conditions, such as gastric ulceration, colic, recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis,
decreased growth rates and reduced reproductive capability (Vatistas et al, 1999; Gonçalves et al,
2002; MacLeay et al, 1999; Apter and Householder, 1996; Berghold et al, 2007).

Correlations between heart rate, heart rate variability, behaviour scoring parameters and stress
have been identified in ridden horses (Rietmann et al, 2004). Heart rate variability has been used
as a measure of shifts in parasympathetic and sympathetic influence on heart rate during times of
stress in humans and in horses undergoing low-intensity, non-ridden exercise (Bernardi et al, 2000;
Rietmann et al, 2004).

Plasma cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone concentrations have been shown to increase in
response to competition (Cayado et al, 2006; Fazio et al, 2008). Salivary cortisol has not been
clearly correlated to changes in heart rate variability in ridden horses, but was shown to transiently
increase during competition (Becker-Birck et al, 2013). The same study showed an increase in
heart rate during grooming and tacking up, reflecting increased sympathetic tone due to
anticipatory emotional reactions, rather than physical exertion itself.

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Change in heart rate variability and increased salivary cortisol have also been demonstrated in
response to transport (Schmidt et al, 2010). The concentration of salivary cortisol was highest
towards the end of transport and was higher with increasing duration of transportation. Although no
studies, to the authors’ knowledge, demonstrate how protracted the stress response following
transport is, pre-existing levels of stress at the start of competition could feasibly impact on
performance.

Conclusion
Although clear evidence-based support exists for the importance of psychology in the performance
of equine athletes, many questions are left unanswered. The interaction between horse and rider is
quite unique; no other athletic sport combines the physical ability and mental state of two
individuals including one separate non-verbal species.

To understand the partnership first requires an in-depth understanding of the psychology of each.
Improved definitions and tests for equine temperament, as well as understanding the aetiologies
and effect of mood when training and at competition, are required. This will require an appreciation
of the different behavioural signals displayed by horses when ridden and the circumstances under
which they are displayed. This is an inevitably difficult task as countless potential confounding
factors exist when considering the ridden performance horse.

A tendency to anthropomorphise the behaviour and learning of horses is likely to be detrimental to

understanding their motivations. For this reason, more objective data is warranted, which will also
help validate the subjective judgement of behaviour and performance.

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