IN-DEPTH: BEHAVIOR

Is It Psychological, Physical, or Both?

Sue M. McDonnell, PhD, CAAB

Behavior changes in the absence of obvious physical causes are often challenging to diagnose. The
role of the veterinarian is to carefully rule out all possible physical root causes. Whether or not the
causes can be determined and whether or not the root cause is physical or psychological, behavioral
abnormalities provide an excellent opportunity for the veterinarian to recommend detailed monitor-
ing of the behavior and if necessary, involve the professional assistance of an equine-behavior
specialist. In many cases, detailed review of videotaped samples of the horse undisturbed in its stall
or paddock (“stall video”) can be an efficient aid in identification of physical discomfort. Author’s
address: Equine Behavior Lab, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, New
Bolton Center, 382 West Street Road, Kennett Square, PA 19348; e-mail: suemcd@vet.upenn.edu.
© 2005 AAEP.

1. Introduction causes of behavior changes. The author’s experi-

A common and often considerable challenge when ence involves cases that are referred from primary
evaluating undesirable or abnormal behavior is to care general large animal or equine practitioners or
sort out physical from psychological primary and specialty groups within a veterinary teaching hospi-
secondary factors. Almost any physical discomfort tal when one or more physical causes have been
can result in behavior changes that are easily inter- ruled out and advice is being sought on other possi-
preted as primarily psychological (social, learned, or ble physical causes or on diagnosing and treating a
“normal” adaptation to suboptimal environmental psychological problem. The emphasis of this paper
conditions). Common example complaints include is on cases referred as likely psychological behavior
a negative change in attitude toward work or a gen- problems in which further detailed evaluation by a
eral drop in athletic performance without recognized team including a behavior specialist led to identifi-
sign of a physical cause, a variety of types of epi- cation and treatment of a physical root cause.
sodes of hyper-reactivity, spookiness, or apparent
panic with bolting or “freezing,” and any of a variety 2. General Approach
of specific undesirable behaviors such as kicking, Our approach to evaluation of behavior complaints
stomping, pawing, biting, tail-wringing or slapping, is to consider and rule out physical discomfort as the
teeth-grinding, head-tossing, or self-mutilation at primary cause. Our general method includes re-
work and/or at rest without a readily apparent viewing medical, management, training, perfor-
source of physical discomfort. mance, and behavior histories, observing behavior,
The objectives of this article are to outline a gen- and evaluating suspected sources of physical dis-
eral strategy and to share practical tips for differen- comfort (medicine, sports medicine, imaging, repro-
tiating between psychological and physical primary duction, etc.).

NOTES

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 IN-DEPTH: BEHAVIOR
3. History 4. Detailed Evaluation
Whenever possible, the medical, performance, and Physical Examination and Direct Observation
general management history is reviewed with own-
We recommend that evaluation of a behavior prob-
ers, trainers, and referring veterinarians. It is use-
lem begin with a physical examination with the
ful to communicate directly with people who have
specific behavior complaint in mind. Particular at-
been working regularly with and/or caring for the
tention is paid to any injuries that may be associated
horse, including those who have observed the horse
with the problem behavior, specifically charting lo-
first hand. Whether discussing normal or problem
cations of any lesions or blemishes. This can also
behavior, we find it most useful to present questions
be a good opportunity to observe the general tem-
that elicit specific descriptions of the problem behav-
perament and compliance of the horse and the han-
iors as opposed to interpretive summary statements. dler-horse interaction, which is potentially relevant
The main objective is to reach as precise of an ana- to the behavior problem. If the behavior occurs
tomical description as possible (e.g., “stallion turns predictably or can be reliably provoked with chal-
head back to the flank, usually to the left but some- lenge situations, direct observation of the problem
times to the right, sniffs prepuce, nips at stifle, behavior can be very helpful.
squeals, kicks out, and turns in a circle to the left” as
opposed to “he pitches a fit, trying to get attention, Direct Observation and Videotaping of the Horse in
tearing the barn down, getting even with the barn Demonstration and Challenge Situations
manager, and even hurting himself”). Video sam- In some cases, the frequency and predictability of
ples or photodocumentation, when available, can be the problem behavior or the history of provocation
helpful in developing a clear understanding of the make it practical to try to directly observe the prob-
specific problem behavior. Similarly, it is useful to lem behavior. For example, for a horse with a his-
establish precise descriptions of what precedes and tory of reliably collapsing during saddling, a
terminates an episode: how does it start, how does demonstration (or partial demonstration) may be
it end, when and how did the behavior develop, staged for direct observation and videotaping for
when and where does it occur, when and where does review.
it not occur, what is the observed frequency, are
there any apparent ameliorating or exacerbating Multi-Hour or Multi-Day Continuous Video Samples
conditions, and can the behavior be predicted or In many instances and in many types of behavior
produced. complaints, we find that a multi-hour or even multi-
Another goal that can be accomplished in history day sample of videotaped behavior of the horse un-
taken directly from the people working with the disturbed in a stall or small paddock can be helpful
horse is to identify possible conditioned stimuli, re- in identifying a specific physical discomfort or deter-
inforcement, and social or environmental conditions mining if the problem is physical or behavioral.
that may be involved in shaping or maintaining the There are many advantages to the use of multi-hour
behavior. If the root cause of a problem behavior is videotaped samples compared with direct live obser-
primarily psychological, then it should be able to be vation. Some key advantages can be summarized
taught or prompted with social or environmental as follows:
manipulation alone. In taking the history and
throughout the evaluation of such a case, it is useful ● Observation of the horse’s behavior over a
to keep in mind questions such as how could this longer period than is practical for direct obser-
behavior have been inadvertently prompted and/or vation enables identification of infrequent
shaped, is it possibly being reinforced by the conse- behaviors.
quences, what do you do when you see the behavior, ● Similarly, hours-long samples viewed over a
and can the behavior be interrupted. In other shorter time span often enables the detection
words, how might operant or classical conditioning of repeated subtle signs of discomfort.
models specific to this horse’s situation explain the ● Problem behaviors or episodes can be reviewed
problem behavior in part or in whole. Another multiple times, using real-time, slow-play, and
question to keep in mind when taking a history in even frame-by-frame mode to evaluate the el-
this regard is could this particular behavior be ements and details. Examples of problem be-
taught to a horse, and how would that be done, havior can be reviewed with owners and with
deliberately and inadvertently. A related concept, consulting specialists.
if the problem behavior is achieving a goal for the ● Certain abnormal behaviors and patterns of
horse (e.g., avoiding work), is it a fairly efficient behavior appear to be more readily recognized
method of achieving that goal? Discussion of this when viewed in fast forward than at real time.
type with the people working with the horse can For example, postural sway associated with
often provide insight into their understanding and various neurologic conditions or abnormally
skill with horse behavior, which may be helpful both frequent weight shifting associated with limb,
in understanding the problem as well as in develop- back, or abdominal discomfort typically is
ing a plan for effective behavior modification. much more conspicuous when viewed at fast
232 2005 Ⲑ Vol. 51 Ⲑ AAEP PROCEEDINGS
 IN-DEPTH: BEHAVIOR
forward than when observed directly or viewed Table 1. Equipment and Supplies for Obtaining Stall Videos
from video at real time. VHS or VHS-C color* video camcorder with wide-angle lens
● Associated environmental events can be iden- and time/date feature* to obtain the image ($200–$300 used,
tified that appear to precipitate, exacerbate, or $200–$600 discount retail).
ameliorate problem behavior. Many problem VHS video recorder (VCR) or monitor/VCR with SLP
behaviors occur in association with particular continuous recording mode† to record sample ($50–$400
events, for example, in association with feed- discount retail).
ing time or before and/or after work. Evalu- T-120, T-180, or T-200 VHS video cassettes to record 6–, 8–, or
ation of repeated 24-hour samples enables 10–h samples per tape, respectively, in SLP–recording mode
Video tripod or camera mount to hold camera stable for hours
identification of these patterns.
Extension cord, power strip, and cables to connect camcorder
● In most situations, hours-long or longer video to VCR
sampling enables evaluation of the horse with Cable ties and duct tape for securing cords
and without human presence and handling. Labels and marking pen
Human presence and associated events can of-
ten either worsen discomfort, or distract a horse *Common to almost all models made after 1990.
†
Continuous recording rather than time lapse is essential for
from apparent discomfort. this purpose. Time–lapse recording is a series of still single
● The frequency, duration, and severity of a be- frames or continuous samples recorded at a fixed time interval.
havior problem can be compared over time, Consumer– grade recorders that have time-lapse features typi-
especially to evaluate effectiveness of treat- cally have one or more options for the time-lapse interval and
ment, by repeating samples under otherwise sample length (e.g., 1 s recorded at 1-min intervals, 1 s recorded
at 1-h intervals, or 1 min recorded at 1– h intervals). More so-
standard conditions. phisticated time-lapse recorders (usually professional grade
● In addition to identification of specific problem equipment) can be programmed to set the recording interval and
behavior, evaluation of hours or days-long sample length. Although time lapse enables a single videotape to
samples enables assessment of the general record over a very long time, short samples at intervals will miss
all or part of the behaviors of greatest interest.
normalcy and comfort of the horse. This is
not only useful in determining whether the
root problem is physical or psychological, but
can be useful in advising clients on the welfare sis with exact frequencies and durations of a variety
status of the horse. of measures or the construction of a quantitative
time budget. For clinical purposes, it is usually not
Video sampling can be done with the horse in a stall or necessary to do the more detailed video analysis,
small-paddock situation using a video camera with a which can take up to several hours to evaluate a
wide-angle lens that can span the entire space and 24-h sample.
adequate lighting. Inexpensive ordinary consumer Table 2 summarizes examples of behaviors indi-
models of video equipment available from second-hand cating physical discomfort that can be seen on these
or discount sources are adequate to obtain good sam- “stall videos” as well as examples of specific diag-
ples. Table 1 lists the equipment and supplies we noses that have been reached with follow-up exam-
used to obtain video samples. For reasons described inations. Table 3 summarizes our reference ranges
in the footnote of Table 1, videotaped samples are for stalled horses. These are based on clinical and
recorded in the ordinary continuous recording mode research experience. We also find that a good un-
rather than in a time-lapse mode. derstanding of natural behavior of horses is helpful
Samples are viewed on a standard monitor. in identifying unusual behaviors. Recommended
Tapes are viewed at fast forward, stopping and re- references are Houpt,1 McGreevy,2 McDonnell,3 and
winding for real-time viewing of any periods of Waring.4
interest. At fast forward, a T-200 recorded at super Figure 1 is an example of our basic “stall video”
long play (SLP) mode yields ⬃630 min (10.5 h) of report form that we use as a template. In practice,
tape when viewed at 22 times real speed without this report form is more or less custom modified for
pause or stops and examining the tape takes ⬃30 each case.
min. With stops, rewinding, reviewing, and note-
taking, an experienced technician generally requires 5. Follow-Up Specialty Examinations
1 h to review a single 10.5 h taped sample. For a Depending on the history, physical examination, di-
standard 24-h sample, we typically use one of three rect observation, and video sample results, we for-
combinations: three T-160 videotapes, two T-180 mulate a step-wise plan for follow-up examinations
and one T-120 tapes, or four T-120 tapes. In any of and consultations, including services such as cardi-
those combinations, viewing and basic note-taking ology, medicine, dermatology, reproduction, sports
of the 24-h sample requires 2–3 h of technician time. medicine, and imaging. We often conclude that,
These typical viewing times are for obtaining basic especially with referral cases, imaging procedures
information for the general report shown below such as endoscopy and nuclear scintigraphy are the
along with notation of times and capture of example most efficient approach when done early in the plan.
footage. The estimates do not include the time re- We find it useful for one or two clinicians to serve as
quired for a detailed time-based quantitative analy- a primary clinician to coordinate communication
AAEP PROCEEDINGS Ⲑ Vol. 51 Ⲑ 2005 233
 IN-DEPTH: BEHAVIOR
Table 2. Example Behaviors Observed in “Stall Videos” and Possible Physical Causes

Specific Behavior Observation Possible Physical Problem or Discomfort Example Diagnoses

Apparent reluctance to lie down and/or Limb pain, neck or back pain, sore feet Joint disease, fractured pelvis, neurologic
difficulty lying down or getting up disorders, back pain
Partial or full collapse
Forelimb bucking or falling to knees Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, Narcolepsy, cataplexy, epilepsy, inability to
cardiac dysfunction, recumbent sleep get down and up for recumbent rest
deprivation
Hindlimb collapse Neuropathy Cervical vertebral malformation (CVM),
equine protozoal myeloencephalitis
(EPM)
Forelimb and hindlimb collapse CNS disorders, cardiac dysfunction Narcolepsy, cataplexy, epilepsy, CVM
Stumbling, collapse when startled Neurologic disorders EPM
Seizure Neurologic disorders Epilepsy, EPM
Treading when recumbent Neurologic disorder Seizure
Altered mentation CNS disorders Narcolepsy, epilepsy, trauma,
tranquilization, fluphenazine toxicosis6,7
Ataxia Neurologic disorders EPM, CVM
Leaning hindquarters or side into wall, Neurologic disorders, hindlimb pain Narcolepsy, EPM
fence, or corner
“Non-physiologic” postures
Head tilt Head discomfort, neurologic disorder Vestibular disease, neoplasia, EPM
Head held lower than normal Neck discomfort, weakness EPM
Limb position not “corrected” from Neurologic disorder EPM, CVM
far forward or back, limbs crossed,
or limb “wide”
Stiff gait Muscle soreness, back pain, limb pain Lyme disease
Frequent pawing, rolling, dog-sitting Abdominal pain Gastric ulcers, colic
Tail lifting, slapping, wringing Abdominal, urogenital discomfort Vaginitis, urethritis, kidney stones,
testicular torsion
Frequent urination or posturing and/or Abdominal, urogenital discomfort Vaginitis, urethritis, bladder stones,
straining to urinate cystitis
Frequent defecation or posturing and/ Caudal abdominal discomfort Impaction, flatulent colic
or straining to defecate
Odd pawing or hind leg extensions into Extra-pyramidal signs Fluphenazine toxicosis6,7
space, odd neck extensions with
head tilt, glazed eye, “spacey” gaze
Hind leg lifting, drawing stifle toward Abdominal, pelvic discomfort Kidney stones, bladder stones, inguinal
body hernia, colic, jejunal abscess, gastric
ulcers, cystitis, pelvic fracture, genital
trauma
Kicking out with one or both hindlimbs Abdominal, pelvic discomfort Kidney stones, bladder stones, inguinal
hernia, jejunal abscess, gastric ulcers,
cystitis, testicular torsion, vaginitis,
genital trauma, seminal vesiculitis
Kicking toward abdomen Abdominal discomfort Kidney stones, bladder stones, inguinal
hernia, jejunal abscess, gastric ulcers,
cystitis, testicular torsion, genital
trauma, seminal vesiculitis
Stomping, forelimb or hindlimb Skin irritation, abdominal discomfort, Chorioptic mange, back pain, myopathy
fasciculations
Throwing head or biting at dorsal Back pain, skin irritation Muscle soreness, Lice
midline
Throwing head or biting at abdomen Abdominal pain Colic
Throwing head or biting at shoulder, Pain, discomfort Myopathy
chest
Throwing head or biting at flank Abdominal, pelvic pain Kidney stones, bladder stones, inguinal
hernia, jejunal abscess, gastric ulcers,
cystitis, testicular torsion, seminal
vesiculitis
Biting at legs, rubbing one limb Pain, skin irritation Laminitis, degenerative hock disease,
against another chorioptic mange
Shifting weight frequently on Foot pain, back pain, caudal abdominal Pelvic fracture, laminitis
hindlimbs* discomfort, pelvic discomfort
Shifting weight frequently on Foot pain Navicular disease
forelimbs*
Shifting weight frequently from the Limb pain, back pain Laminitis, sore back
forelimbs to the hindlimbs†

234 2005 Ⲑ Vol. 51 Ⲑ AAEP PROCEEDINGS

 IN-DEPTH: BEHAVIOR
Table 2. (continued)

Specific Behavior Observation Possible Physical Problem or Discomfort Example Diagnoses

Sudden interruption of quiet eating or Sharp intense pain Kidney stones, seminal vesiculitis
resting, as if startled
Muscle fasciculation at shoulder, flank, Myopathy, mini seizure Myopathy, epilepsy
or hindquarters
Head movements and non-physiologic
postures
Jerking up and down with snorting, Trigeminal irritation Photic headshaking syndrome (trigeminal
nose-flicking, nose-rubbing neuralgia)
Figure-eight head toss “Frustration” with any type of physical Kidney stones, testicular torsion
pain, usually intermittent acute
Apparent reluctance or discomfort to Neck discomfort Trauma
forage with head high (e.g., from
elevated hay rack)
Frequent rolling Abdominal pain, skin irritation Colic, lice
Teeth grinding Extreme physical pain, CNS neurologic Gastric ulcers
Lip quivering, repeated yawning Sudden intermittent or chronic pain, Colic, small airway disease, seminal
outside usual rest context, repeated irritation vesiculitis
flehmen response without olfactory
stimulus context, frequent lip
licking, lip smacking, sighing
Hyper-reactivity to visual, auditory, or Pain, CNS, trigeminal stimulation Trigeminal neuralgia
tactile stimulation
Frequent masturbation (⬎36 episodes Pain, genital irritation Laminitis, genital trauma
per 24 h for stallions and ⬎24
episodes per 24 h for geldings)
Rubbing hindquarters against objects Tail, anal, vaginal irritation Parasites, vaginitis, clitoral inflammation

*On fast-forward viewing, a rhythmic side-to-side rocking or sway at 1–5 s intervals (20 s–2 min real time) distinct from normal
standing rest and standing sleep. During undisturbed, normal standing rest, the hind quarters remain relatively motionless for
intervals of ⱖ30 s of viewing in fast forward, which at 22 times real time represents ⬎10 min real time.
†
On fast-forward viewing, a rhythmic rostral-caudal rocking is distinct from normal standing rest and standing sleep.

among the various services or consults and to lead detailed evaluation. Three examples are dis-
the client through the diagnostic plan. In our facil- cussed: a change in attitude and performance, a
ity, this is usually the admitting clinician (usually variety of types of episodes of hyper-reactivity, spoo-
sports medicine, medicine, reproduction, or surgery) kiness, or apparent panic with bolting and “freez-
and/or the behavior clinician. ing,” and self-mutilation.
6. Examples of Common Behavior Complaints Change in Attitude and Performance
Certain types of behavior patterns are especially Psychologically stressful management, handling,
difficult to determine if the root cause is physical or training and work program, or social environment
psychological; these cases are commonly referred for alone can certainly induce changes in attitude and

Table 3. Reference Ranges for Behavior of Horses Alone in Stalls or Small Paddock
2,8
Behavior Typical Frequency and/or Duration

Major activity changes (eating, standing rest, standing 30–110 episodes, typically 20–60 min per activity when
alert, resting recumbent) undisturbed (includes stallions and estrus mares,
which typically have more changes than geldings and
non-estrus mares)
Standing rest 10–30 episodes, 5–120 min each, 8–12 h total
Recumbent rest 0–6 episodes, 10–80 min each, 0–6 h total
Eating when fed hay 2–3 times daily or continuously 10–30 episodes, 5–30 min each, 4–12 h total
Drinking 2–8 episodes, 10–60 sec each, 1–8 min total
Urination 4–15 episodes (greater for mares in estrus and stallions
in situations where marking behavior is elicited)
Defecation 4–15 episodes
Rolling 2–8 bouts, 2–8 rolls per bout
Spontaneous erection and masturbation stallions, 18–36 episodes; geldings, 9–24 episodes

AAEP PROCEEDINGS Ⲑ Vol. 51 Ⲑ 2005 235

 IN-DEPTH: BEHAVIOR

Fig. 1. Example stall video report form.

performance in a physically healthy horse and may diminished and attitude soured to the point that she
adversely affect the horse’s physical health. Gas- aggressively refused to work and was retired to be a
tric ulcers is probably the best example. Many times, broodmare. On reproductive examination, a granu-
a sour attitude is assumed to be psychological; how- losa cell tumor weighing over 60 lb was identified.
ever, underlying physical problems are eventually Another classic case was a mare that showed a sour
identified as the primary cause. We have seen many attitude, and later, recurrent mild colic, whenever
examples of physical problems over the years. One getting ready for work. After months, she became
such example was a race mare whose performance dangerously resistant to work and at times, self-
236 2005 Ⲑ Vol. 51 Ⲑ AAEP PROCEEDINGS
 IN-DEPTH: BEHAVIOR
mutilative. Eventually, a jejunal abscess was rhythmically repetitive in form. It may seem to be
found with a wire twist tie at the core. the result of boredom or frustration, because epi-
sodes tend to occur at similar times of the day when
Episodes the animal is not doing other meaningful activities
A common presenting complaint that can be chal- or being socially challenged. Like other stereotyp-
lenging to diagnose is an “episode” involving ies, such as weaving, episodes of this self-directed
changes in mentation, perception, or posture that inter-male aggression form of self-mutilation typi-
clients may refer to as spells, “zoning out,” falling cally begins slowly and may build to a frenzied rate
asleep, or “freezing.” Conditions such as narco- of fixed repetitions. Stallions may spin violently as
lepsy, cataplexy, and epilepsy or myopathies can if chasing their tail.
occur in mild and infrequent episodes that go unrec- In contrast, self-mutilation in response to physical
ognized. Minor episodes can be interpreted by pain or irritation does not usually include self-sniff-
owners and trainers as misbehavior, such as unwill- ing, sniffing of feces, or the inter-male type of vocal-
ingness to work. Because horses sometimes re- izations. Episodes often begin without warning,
spond as if frightened by the episodes, the behavior interrupting ongoing meaningful behaviors such as
may be interpreted by trainers as intermittent spoo- grazing or resting recumbent. In cases of sharp
kiness or “panic attacks.” The stall-video tech- pain, episodes often begin quite explosively. Ob-
niques described earlier can be extremely useful in servers often describe the horse as responding as if it
obtaining examples of the behavior, but depending has been stung by a bee. The horse may spin in
on the frequency of the episodes, it may take days to circles as if it is desperately trying to reach the site
catch an episode. We find it worthwhile in many of discomfort. The spinning, although similar to
instances to persist, because these horses are often the spinning seen in the inter-male form of self-
at a considerable risk of injury if used. If the be- mutilation, is usually shorter in duration, and it is
havior is seen in the undisturbed horse, it usually typically interrupted by other behaviors that seem
clarifies the cause immediately as physical; whether aimed at trying to reach the site of discomfort.
or not a specific diagnosis can be reached, it helps Another distinguishing feature of discomfort related
the owner or trainer understand that this is not a self-mutilative behavior is that there are usually
misbehavior. less conspicuous signs of discomfort, such as leg
lifting or occasional kicks toward the abdomen, in-
Self-Mutilation terspersed between the major episodes. These mi-
In the author’s experience, self-mutilation, includ- nor signs often go unnoticed in casual observation of
ing biting at the flank, chest, abdomen, or limbs, the horse, but they become more obvious when view-
kicking at the body or at walls, or stomping, more ing long video samples, especially in fast forward.
often than not indicates current physical discomfort. We do see cases for which commonly used diag-
This is particularly true in mares. In stallions and nostics for various conditions have been negative,
geldings, on the other hand, there seems to be two yet serious physical problems are eventually identi-
forms of self-mutilative behavior. One form is the fied as the root cause of self-mutilative behavior.
result of current pain or irritation. The other less One recent example was a young stallion with inter-
common form is self-directed inter-male aggression. mittent flank-biting, kicking, and bucking self-mu-
Some of the elements of these two forms can be tilative behavior. Episodes had been noticed when
similar, but with careful evaluation, one can usually the horse was challenged socially by another stallion
distinguish between them. or when sexually excited and thwarted from reach-
In the self-directed inter-male aggression form of ing the mare. This behavior had been of some con-
self-mutilation, the sequence includes most or all of cern but had been present intermittently for several
the elements of the natural interactive agonistic years and was accepted as “just stallion behavior.”
sequence that would occur between two stallions When the horse was presented for evaluation of
meeting under natural social conditions.5 The af- questionable semen quality, the manager asked if
fected stallion typically sniffs his flank, groin, feces, something could be irritating the testicle and pro-
or oily body residues on walls, gates, or doorways voking the episodes, which had worsened in recent
and then nips at his flank or testicles. This se- months. Examination of the testicles failed to iden-
quence is what two stallions would do in a typical tify a problem that would account for the behavior.
inter-male head-to-tale posturing and marking se- Evaluation of video samples as described above sug-
quence, except there is only one stallion and he is his gested episodic mild to severe caudal abdominal
own target of the sniffing and biting. The sequence discomfort that at times interrupted ongoing eat-
often includes squealing or barking grunt vocaliza- ing and resting behavior. Several times per 24-h
tions, striking, and kicking, just as would occur sample, the explosive reaction was judged to be life-
among two stallions. Usually the first and most threatening in stall confinement. In some in-
common site of self-biting is the flank, but the stal- stances, episodes were associated with posturing to
lion may also bite his shoulders, abdomen, chest, urinate. Urinalysis and hematology values were
and limbs. This type of self-mutilation may become within the normal range. On transabdominal ul-
similar to a stereotypy in that it becomes fixed and trasound examination, a 5-cm cluster of nephroliths
AAEP PROCEEDINGS Ⲑ Vol. 51 Ⲑ 2005 237
 IN-DEPTH: BEHAVIOR
was identified in the left kidney. In post-nephrec- behavior. This can also cause confusion
tomy video samples (2–5 days post-surgery), the about the root cause of the behavior. The an-
stallion was free of self-mutilating behavior, and thropomorphic interpretation can be that the
eating and resting behavior patterns returned to horse is fine as long as he gets to do what he
what is normal for a stalled stallion. wants to do (e.g., the horse looks colicky until
Stall or paddock videotaping as described earlier he is fed).
can be extremely efficient in differentiating the two ● In some cases, we find that a horse may have a
forms of self-mutilation. It can also provide insight number of seemingly minor physical problems,
into the location and severity of the discomfort. each of which alone would be judged unlikely
Episodes may occur so quickly, and sometimes so to be the sole cause of a behavior prob-
explosively, that it is difficult to discern what is lem. We sometimes conclude that the prob-
bothering the horse. Video evaluation usually re- lems together are the cause of the behavior
veals behavior occurring between episodes that problem.
gives insight into the site of the problem (e.g., the ● In general, we find some horses to be ex-
horse may turn the head toward or nuzzle or gaze tremely stoic in that they tolerate and work
toward the site of discomfort). through considerable pain. This makes it
easy to miss physical problems.
7. Additional Comments on Physical Versus ● We also find most horses to be sincere in their
Psychological Causes of Behavior Change behavior in that the behavior quickly returns
to normal when the behavior-changing discom-
● The expression of undesirable behavior, fort is eliminated. In other words, a horse
whether physical or psychological, seems to be may have ample opportunity to learn that
affected by a novel environment, either wors- limping leads to less work; however, when the
ened or improved. This can complicate the pain is eliminated, the horse does not continue
evaluation and identification of the primary to limp to reduce his work.
cause.
● It is not unusual for a physical problem to be References
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238 2005 Ⲑ Vol. 51 Ⲑ AAEP PROCEEDINGS