October 2020

October 2020
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October 2020
in every issue features

departments
6 EDITOR’S NOTE 26 Ready for Launch
BY MARK MAVES, PE, AND MARTIN
9 STEEL INTERCHANGE FURRER, SE, PE
12 STEEL QUIZ A Minneapolis bridge project takes
62 NEWS & EVENTS advantage of an innovative launching
66 STRUCTURALLY SOUND process to remove an existing Warren
truss and install its replacement.
resources
65 ADVERTISER INDEX
65 MARKETPLACE &
32 Urban Update
BY KEVIN WAGSTAFF, AIA,
EMPLOYMENT BRIAN HERMILLER, PE, AND
CAMERON BAKER, PE
A downtown Pittsburgh structural
expansion blends steel history with
steel present.
38 Long-Term Analysis for

Short-Span Bridges
BY MICHAEL G. BARKER, PE, PhD
A recent life-cycle cost analysis
compares steel and concrete short-
span bridges.
42 That’s Not Fracture-Critical!

BY BRANDON CHAVEL, PE, PhD, AND
JASON LLOYD, PE, PhD
Advice on classifying system-
redundant members.
42 48 Redundancy Made Simple

BY CEM KORKMAZ, PhD, AND
ROBERT CONNOR, PhD
A simplified approach for designing
columns system-redundant members in
steelwise field notes composite continuous twin-tub girder
bridges.
16 Keeping Cross-Frames 22 Industry ACE
in Check INTERVIEW BY GEOFF WEISENBERGER
BY DEVIN ALTMAN, PE, AND Project executive Angela Cotie is strengthening 54 Lone Star State
Houston’s construction industry one student at a time. Redundancy Update
BRANDON CHAVEL, PE, PhD
BY JAMIE F. FARRIS, PE, JOHN HOLT, PE,
When in doubt, don’t just
business issues KARL FRANK, PE, PhD, AND
make your cross-frames stout.
24 Leveraging Layout
IAN WARNER
GREG TURCO, PE
Riveting research results in
Layout plays an important role in efficient, successful redundancy revelations in Texas.
steel projects.
ON THE COVER: A weathering steel bridge forges a new path over an old railyard in Minneapolis, page 26. (Photo: Mark Maves)
MODERN STEEL CONSTRUCTION (Volume 60, Number 10) ISSN (print) 0026-8445: ISSN (online) 1945-0737. Published monthly by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC), 130 E Randolph Street, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. Subscriptions: Within the U.S.—single issues $6.00; 1 year, $44. Outside the U.S. (Canada and
Mexico)—single issues $9.00; 1 year $88. Periodicals postage paid at Chicago, IL and at additional mailing offices. Postmaster: Please send address changes to MODERN
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DISCLAIMER: AISC does not approve, disapprove, or guarantee the validity or accuracy of any data, claim, or opinion appearing under a byline or obtained or quoted
Printed on paper made
from an acknowledged source. Opinions are those of the writers and AISC is not responsible for any statement made or opinions expressed in MODERN STEEL from a minimum of
CONSTRUCTION. All rights reserved. Materials may not be reproduced without written permission, except for noncommercial educational purposes where fewer than 25 10% recycled content.
photocopies are being reproduced. The AISC and Modern Steel logos are registered trademarks of AISC.
4 | OCTOBER 2020
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editor’s note
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130 E Randolph St, Ste 2000
Chicago, IL 60601
312.670.2400
Editorial Contacts
EDITOR AND PUBLISHER
Scott Melnick
312.670.8314
melnick@aisc.org
SENIOR EDITOR
Geoff Weisenberger
312.670.8316
weisenberger@aisc.org
DIRECTOR OF PUBLICATIONS
Keith A. Grubb, SE, PE
As I sit in my basement office, hopping from one virtual meeting to another, my 312.670.8318
grubb@aisc.org
mind constantly drifts to the future. I know that eventually we’ll be able to resume PRODUCTION SPECIALIST
our pre-COVID lives, but as with many people, I wonder what will be different. Erika Salisbury
312.670.5427
salisbury@aisc.org
At first, when I saw how well people could We’ll see fewer retail establishments, and GRAPHIC DESIGN MANAGER
do their jobs remotely, I thought about all of the ones that prosper will be those who either Kristin Hall
the advantages of no longer having to com- offer immediacy (I have a headache and even 312.670.8313
hall@aisc.org
mute, of being able to take my laptop out on if Amazon can deliver in two hours, I want my
the deck to enjoy the sunshine, and of saving aspirin now!), a unique browsing experience AISC Officers
CHAIR
money by visiting my kitchen instead of a (sure, Zappos is convenient and I can return Jack Klimp, Cianbro Fabrication
nearby restaurant. But as the days turned into shoes that don’t fit, but it’s still not the same & Coating Corporation
weeks, and the weeks turned into months, as seeing my options laid out before me in VICE CHAIR
some of the charm wore off. I couldn’t spon- the excitement of a retail environment), or Stephen Knitter
Geiger & Peters, Inc.
taneously meet with two or three colleagues those who offer superior service (yes, Home
SECRETARY/LEGAL COUNSEL
to discuss something; we needed to sched- Depot is almost always less expensive than Edward Seglias, Cohen Seglias
ule a meeting. Some of the casual ideas that Crafty Beaver, but I often want a salesperson Pallas Greenhall & Furman, PC
occurred organically during wildly disparate who can give me advice and not just show me PRESIDENT
discussions disappeared. And I imagined that my options). Charles J. Carter, SE, PE, PhD
SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT
on-boarding would become a nightmare and Will cities change? Yes, but there’s no sub-
Scott Melnick
our corporate culture would slowly vanish. stitution for the excitement of a crowded VICE PRESIDENT
Schools moved online, but it wasn’t the downtown and the population density that Lawrence F. Kruth, PE
same—and not just because many teachers allows for fabulous dining options, notable VICE PRESIDENT
were woefully unprepared and not trained museums, and live theater. Mark W. Trimble, PE
or organized to handle the switch. The I know we’ll take away from this time valu- Editorial Advisory Panel
peer-to-peer interaction was lost and the able lessons that teach us different ways of Caroline R. Bennett, PE, PhD
University of Kansas
interpersonal student-teacher relationship doing things. I’m certain that many people Amanda Dean, PE
disappeared. will never go back to five days a week in an Walter P Moore
We successfully held online conferences, office. I’m certain that we’ll permanently see Bryan Frazier,
but we no longer met new people or took an increase in alfresco dining (even in places Zalk Josephs Fabricators, LLC
Keith R. Griesing, PE
part in casual conversations that are almost like Chicago, thanks to portable heaters). Hardesty and Hanover
always as valuable as (if not more so than) any And the stigma of online degrees will dis- Stephen Knitter
technical presentations. sipate. But to paraphrase the famous Barbra Geiger & Peters, Inc.
So in six months, when a vaccine is hope- Streisand tune, people need people. And we Advertising Sales
fully readily available, will the world be differ- should all feel lucky about that. M.J. Mrvica Associates, Inc.
ent than six months ago? Certainly. 2 W Taunton Avenue
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Address Changes and
Scott Melnick Subscription Concerns
Editor 312.670.2401
subscriptions@aisc.org
Reprints
Erika Salisbury
312.670.5427
salisbury@aisc.org
6 | OCTOBER 2020
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If you’ve ever asked yourself “Why?” about something
related to structural steel design or construction, steel
Modern Steel’s monthly Steel Interchange is for you! interchange
Send your questions or comments to solutions@aisc.org.
All mentioned AISC codes and standards, unless noted otherwise, refer Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360). The softcover was used to make
to the current version and are available at aisc.org/specifications. it more economical for purchase.
Design guides can be found at aisc.org/dg, and Modern Steel Jonathan Tavarez, PE
Construction articles can be found at www.modernsteel.com.
Conference Proceedings
Steel Dimensioning Tool Are the proceedings from the 8th International Conference
On the Structural Steel Dimensioning Tool page of the on Composite Construction in Steel and Concrete available
AISC website (aisc.org/dimensioningtool) there appear to be on your website? I could not locate them.
issues with the workable gage measurements not changing
to reflect wider flange selections within a specific family. This proceeding was recently added to our website and is now
For example, within the W10 family, the base workable available. You can find and download this proceeding for free at
gage dimension is 2.5 in. for a 4-in.-wide flange. It then aisc.org/publications/conference-proceedings.
increases to 2.75 in. when the flange width reaches 5.75 in. Jonathan Tavarez, PE
It then changes one last time within the W10 family, to 5.5
in., when the flange width reaches 8 in. From a flange width
of 8 in. right to the maximum of 10.375 in., the workable Helpful AISC Publications
gage remains unchanged at 5.5 in., which cannot be correct. I am working on several projects involving steel construction,
In another example, within the W12 family, the workable and I do not know which AISC publication I should purchase
gage does not change for a flange width of 8 in. right to the to help me in my work. Would the 15th Edition Manual suit
maximum of 13.375 in., which again, cannot be correct. my needs, or is there another publication I should buy?
Please investigate this issue, as there appears to be
legitimacy with the functionality of the workable gage The 15th Edition Manual would be an excellent choice to use
measurement. for any steel construction work. The Manual contains the AISC
Specification, which is referenced in the International Building Code
The Structural Steel Dimensioning Tool lists the usual gage (IBC). In addition, the Manual includes the AISC Code of Standard
measurements used in steel fabrication. The typical double- Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges (ANSI/AISC 303) and the
angle shear connection for a beam to a column flange is made RCSC Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts.
with either a L4×3½×5⁄16 or L4×3½×3⁄8 with the 4-in. leg being The Manual also contains many design tables to aid in the se-
outstanding. To maintain edge distances on the outstanding legs lections of members, connections, bolts, welds, and many design
of the angles, the gage in the column flange is typically limited to solutions related to steel construction. You may want to look at
5½ in. The last time that the wide flange usual gage was tabulated AISC’s list of Design Guides, which provide guidance on special-
in the AISC Steel Construction Manual was 7th Edition. There is ized steel-related topics and are authored and reviewed by recog-
no requirement to use the usual gages as tabulated in the Steel nized industry experts and AISC staff.
Dimensioning Tool if the proper edge distances are maintained. Jonathan Tavarez, PE
For this reason, the usual gage is no longer listed in the Manual.
Jonathan Tavarez, PE Eye Bolts
I need to provide an eye bolt style connection to a structural
steel element to suspended items from a roof. The maximum
Fourth Edition Seismic Design Manual vertical load that would be pulling on the eyebolt is 400 lb.
Are there any plans to produce the new seismic design
But I don’t see any AISC information on eye bolts—just
manual in hardcover like the AISC Manual or older AISC
clevises, turnbuckles, etc. Is there info on eye bolts?
Seismic Design Manuals?
AISC does not provide strength information on eye bolts. I
There is no plan to produce the 4th Edition Seismic Design Man-
recommend reaching out to manufacturers as they would be able
ual in a hardcover. In order to price the Seismic Design Manual for
to provide more insight. Check out the bolting section of Modern
$100, which is one-half the price of the Steel Construction Manu-
Steel’s online Product Directory under the Resources section at
al, we decided to use a high-end softcover for the Seismic Design
www.modernsteel.com.
Manual. To use the Seismic Design Manual and the AISC Seismic
You can also search for AISC member fabrication shops at
Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 341) it is nec-
aisc.org/aisc-membership.
essary to have the Manual and the AISC Specification for Structural
Jonathan Tavarez, PE
Modern Steel Construction | 9
steel interchange
Ordinary Moment Frame Weld Requirements
I am having trouble interpreting the requirements in the AISC Seismic
Provisions for an ordinary moment frame (OMF). I have a one-story frame
in an SDC B. We would like to use R = 3.5 instead of R = 3. The plan for the
connections is to weld flange plates to the columns with fillet welds and bolt
to the beam flanges. It appears to me that an OMF requires full-penetration
groove welds to the column and not fillet welds. Is this correct?
You will find the requirements for OMF systems in Section E1 of the AISC Seismic
Jonathan Tavarez (tavarez@aisc.org) Provisions and requirements for the connections, specifically, in E1.6. I am not aware
is a staff engineer with AISC’s of a requirement for only complete-joint-penetration (CJP) welds to be used in
Steel Solutions Center. OMFs, or a prohibition of the use of fillet welds.
I believe you might be confusing the requirement in Section E1.6b(c)(2),
which requires that the beam flange to column flange be CJP welded. CJP welds
are only required if this option is used, and it would require the beam flange to
be directly welded to the column flange. A flange plate option is not addressed
here, and this requirement for CJP in this option does not extend to flange
plates designed using other options discussed in Section E1.6b. Another option
would be to use a prequalified connection. The bolted flange plate prequalified
connection would require that the flange plates be CJP welded to the column
flange, as can be seen in Chapter 7 of Prequalified Connections for Special and
Intermediate Steel Moment Frames for Seismic Applications (ANSI/AISC 358)—
although again, there are likely more economical options than using one of the
prequalified connections in an OMF system.
I will note that I believe it would be more economical to design the structure as
R = 3 as opposed to R = 3.5 if this is permitted. You may want to discuss this with a
fabricator likely to bid to project to get a better feel for what the difference in cost
might be.
PDF Copy of Seismic Design Manual

Is there any way to purchase a pdf copy of the AISC Seismic Design Manual?
With the majority of our office working remotely, we are struggling to share
our resources among all our employees.
Unfortunately, we do not sell a PDF copy of the Seismic Design Manual. However,
you can download a PDF of the Seismic Provisions. Also, AISC has provided electronic
licensing to IHS Global, MADCAD, and TECHSTREET to publish PDF versions of
our manuals (visit aisc.org/customerservice for more information).
Steel Interchange is a forum to exchange useful

and practical professional ideas and information
on all phases of steel building and bridge
construction. Contact Steel Interchange with
questions or responses via AISC’s Steel Solutions
Center: 866.ASK.AISC | solutions@aisc.org
The opinions expressed in Steel Interchange
do not necessarily represent an official position
of the American Institute of Steel Construction
and have not been reviewed. It is recognized
that the design of structures is within the
scope and expertise of a competent licensed
structural engineer, architect or other licensed
professional for the application of principles to
a particular structure.
The complete collection of Steel Interchange
questions and answers is available online at
www.modernsteel.com.
10 | OCTOBER 2020
steel This month’s Steel Quiz is
quiz all about bridges.
The answers can be found in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications 1 What is the minimum thickness
(9th Edition), AASHTO/NSBA Collaboration G12.1: Guidelines to Design for requirement for structural steel
Constructability (available at aisc.org/gdocs), NSBA’s Skewed and Curved Steel according to the AASHTO LRFD
I-Girder Bridge Fit document (available at aisc.org/nsba/skewed-curved), and Specifications?
even in this very issue of Modern Steel. a. ¼ in. c. 3⁄8 in.
5⁄16 in.
b. d. ½ in.
2 True or False: AASHTO LRFD
Specifications Fatigue Category
Details D, E, and E' for load-induced
fatigue should always be avoided for
new steel bridge designs.
3 True or False: According to Skewed
and Curved Steel I-Girder Bridge Fit,
total dead load fit (TDLF) should be
specified for horizontally curved steel
I-girder bridges when the maximum
span length to radius ratio is 0.05.
4 When designing the bracing
members for a steel I-girder bridge
with a girder spacing of 12 ft and
a girder depth of 4 ft, what type of
cross-frame or diaphragm should
be selected if there are large forces
present in the members? (Hint: The
answer can be found in this issue of
Modern Steel.)
a. X-type cross-frames with top and
bottom struts
b. K-type cross-frames with top and
bottom struts
c. Solid diaphragm
d. Any of the above
5 Tr u e o r F a l s e : A c c o rd i n g t o
AASHTO LRFD Specifications,
bolted connections subjected
to stress reversal, heavy impact
loads, severe vibration, or located
where stress and strain due to joint
slippage would be detrimental
to the serviceability of the bridge
require slip-critical designed and
designated connections.
6 True or False: Shear stud connectors
on continuous composite steel
I-girder bridges need only be
designed for AASHTO LRFD
Specifications Fatigue and Strength
Limit State requirements.
TURN TO PAGE 14 FOR THE ANSWERS

12 | OCTOBER 2020
Everyone is welcome to submit questions and answers for the Steel Quiz. If you are
steel quiz ANSWERS

interested in submitting one question or an entire quiz, contact AISC’s Steel Solutions
Center at 866.ASK.AISC or solutions@aisc.org.
1 b. AASHTO LRFD Specifications minimum steel girder flange thick- included in new steel bridge designs
Section 6.7.3 states that 0.3125 in. ness of ¾ in. Note that gusset plates when necessary. However, when they
(5⁄16 in.) is the minimum thickness used in trusses and orthotropic steel are used, the designer must appro-
required for structural steel. This decks require other minimum thick- priately consider the factored fatigue
requirement generally governs for nesses per Section 6.7.3. stress range and the factored resis-
cross-frame and diaphragm mem- tance for these details in accordance
2 False. While Fatigue Category with AASHTO LRFD Specifications,
bers. AASHTO/NSBA Collaboration Details D, E, and E' should be
G12.1 recommends a minimum steel Article 6.6. As long as the appropri-
avoided when possible, they can be
girder web thickness of ½ in. and a ate stress range and resistance are
considered, designing a new bridge
for Category Detail B is no different
than designing for Category Detail
E. In some cases, a Category Detail
E' is unavoidable for cross-frame
member welded end connections.
3 False. According to Table 3 of the
Skewed and Curved document, steel
dead load fit (SDLF) is recommended
for this scenario. TDLF is not recom-
mended for curved I-girder bridges
with or without skew and a maximum
L/R greater than 0.03.
4 c. See this month’s SteelWise article
“Keeping Cross-frames in Check.”
K-Type cross-frames should be
selected in general when the girder
spacing (S) to girder depth (D) is 1.5
or greater. However, when lateral
member forces are large, a solid
diaphragm composed of a channel,
a bent plate, or a welded I-girder is
recommended.
5 True. Per AASHTO LRFD Specifica-
tions, Section, 6.13.2.1.1, slip-critical
connections shall be proportioned
to prevent slip under Service II load
combination and also provide bear-
ing, shear, and tensile resistance at
the applicable strength limit state
combinations per Table 3.4.1-1.
6 True. Shear Connectors on con-
tinuous steel I-girder bridges are
designed according to AASHTO
LRFD Specifications, Section
6.10.10, including the fatigue and
strength limit state requirements.
If steel I-girders are designed such
that they are noncomposite for
negative flexure in the final condi-
tion, 6.10.10.3 (special requirements
for points of permanent load contra
flexure) also needs to be checked.
14 | OCTOBER 2020
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steelwise
KEEPING
CROSS- When in doubt, don’t just make
FRAMES your cross-frames stout.
IN CHECK
BY DEVIN ALTMAN, PE AND
BRANDON CHAVEL, PE, PhD
CROSS-FRAMES ARE A BIG DEAL—and they’re getting bigger.

Cross-frames are important bridge components, as they provide stability to the primary
longitudinal girder members and improve the lateral or torsional stiffness and strength of
the bridge system during construction and service. They also help distribute gravity loads
through the bridge system. In horizontally curved bridges, cross-frames transfer forces
between adjacent girders in order to provide equilibrium, resulting in forces that need to
be considered by the designer. And in straight bridges, they have been historically designed
to transmit wind loads within the structure. Now, however, it seems designers are building
overly complex 3D models and obtaining design forces from them.
Over the last few years, the steel bridge industry has seen a general increase in the
size of cross-frames used in steel I-girder bridges across the country, in terms of both
the individual member sizes and the connections themselves.
Along with the sizes of the members and connections getting larger, connections
that were historically welded are now being bolted in place instead. Furthermore,
X-type and K-type cross-frames are being used in situations where a solid bent plate or
built-up diaphragm would make more sense from a geometry, fabrication, and instal-
lation perspective.
So why are cross-frames getting larger, and why might this create inefficiency—
and what can we do to address this issue and ensure that they are sized efficiently?
Devin Altman (altman@aisc.org) is a
High Steel
bridge steel specialist and Brandon
Chavel (chavel@aisc.org) is director of
market development, both with AISC's
National Steel Bridge Alliance.
Cross-frames are becoming stouter—in some cases more than double the size of what they
need to be to effectively and efficiently perform their job.
16 | OCTOBER 2020
steelwise
AISC AISC
A welded member end connection (left) and an X-type cross-frame with welded member end connections (right).
Bigger but not Necessarily Better the load and resistance models for calibration of the fatigue and
One of the main reasons bridge designers have claimed larger service limit states.
cross-frames and their connections are warranted is because of However, with all the requirements stated above, it should be
modern fatigue requirements. Fatigue and fracture criteria have noted that the general consensus amongst the bridge industry is
been evolving considerably in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design that no cross-frame has failed due to fatigue while in service or
Specifications and have changed a great deal over the last ten to caused a failure of a steel bridge girder-system. This anecdotal
fifteen years. In 2009, the single fatigue load combination was evidence applies to cross-frames designed today, as well as all the
replaced with Fatigue I (infinite fatigue) and Fatigue II (finite cross-frames designed well-before the Detail Category E’ designa-
fatigue) load combinations. These different methods were effec- tion was introduced.
tively the same as the prior check but stated and arranged differ-
ently. Prior to Fatigue I and Fatigue II load combinations, there Analysis Strategies
were no limits for average daily truck traffic (ADTT) in a single So what analysis strategies can designers use to help reduce the
lane for infinite fatigue life. Infinite fatigue life has a significantly size of cross-frames per the AASHTO LRFD Specifications?
higher load factor (more than double) compared with finite fatigue While the fatigue live load factors have increased, and the nom-
life per the AASHTO LRFD Specifications. inal fatigue resistance of the welded end connection has decreased,
In the 7th Edition, the 2016 interims increased the previous there have been other changes in the AASHTO LRFD Specifica-
load factors from 1.50 to 1.75 for infinite fatigue life and from tions that can help to reduce the fatigue design stress range. When
0.75 to 0.80 for finite fatigue life. This increased the demand a designer uses a refined analysis, these AASHTO recommenda-
for finite fatigue life by 7%, and the demand for infinite fatigue tions should be considered.
life increased by 17% compared with the prior (2009) AASHTO Strategy 1. The AASHTO LRFD Specifications 2020/9th Edi-
LRFD Specifications. The 2016 interims also changed the fatigue tion Commentary Article C6.6.1.2.1 recommends that the fatigue
detail category from E to E’ for longitudinal fillet welded angle truck be positioned to determine the maximum range of stress or
or tee sections connected to a gusset or connection plate (Table torque, as applicable, with the truck confined to one critical
6.6.1.2.3-1), effectively reducing the threshold stress range from transverse position per each longitudinal position throughout
4.5 ksi to 2.6 ksi for cross-frame members welded to stiffeners or the length of the bridge in the analysis. This is because there is
gusset plates. This detail category applied to all cross-frame mem- an extremely low probability of the truck being located in two crit-
bers welded to a gusset plate or connection stiffener, a type that ical relative transverse positions over millions of cycles. This provi-
was not originally part of the 5th Edition but was introduced as sion allows the designer to use the fatigue live load stress range for
Detail Category E in the 2010 interims. the cross-frame members based on the fatigue truck in only one
This detail category change and reduction in the allowable lane at a time, and not in two different transverse positions. The
threshold stress range resulted in a reduced fatigue resistance fatigue stress range for cross-frame members should not be based
for typical cross-frames by 41% for finite fatigue limits and on stresses resulting from the fatigue truck in transverse positions
73% for infinite fatigue life levels. These changes in the LRFD 1 and 4, for example (i.e., two critical relative transverse positions).
Bridge Design Specifications came from The SHRP2 Project R19B – In a refined analysis, the designer need only take the envelope of
Bridges for Service Life Beyond 100 Years: Service Limit State Design the maximum fatigue stress ranges caused by the fatigue truck con-
(Modjeski and Masters, 2015), which studied various aspects of fined in lane 1, then lane 2, then lane 3, then lane 4, and so on.
steelwise
The fatigue live load stress range is, in theory, less under Designing Downsizing
this method of load application than taking the maximum Here are some design tips that can be used to help reduce the size of
stress range from all of the individual configured lanes cross-frames.
loaded differently transversely and longitudinally and used Design tip 1. A simple tip that can be used for reducing the sizes for the
together for the fatigue stress range (this recommendation cross-frames is to group them and have multiple designs throughout the
was added in the 2014/7th Edition). Designers need to bridge. In some cases, bridge designers take the worst-case loading results
be aware of what their refined analysis software is doing. from dead load, wind load, live load, fatigue, etc., combine these load effects,
When using a refined analysis, consideration should be and design one cross-frame for the entire bridge. Most of the cross-frames
given to the different fatigue live load analyses required do not experience the severity of this loading scenario, and having multiple
for girders and cross-frames. A slight adjustment to the cross-frame designs can result in a more efficient design throughout the
analysis steps will contribute to reducing the cross-frame bridge. For example, if the designer groups cross-frames by addressing dif-
member and connection sizes. ferent levels of loads and fatigue stress ranges, they could have an “x” num-
Strategy 2. Designers can also reduce the force demand ber of “heavy” cross-frames, “y” number of “medium” cross-frames, and “z”
on cross-frame members in a refined analysis by reducing number of “light” cross-frames. Most likely, the majority of cross-frames
the member stiffness to 0.65AE to account for the con- would be in the “medium” and “light” category, with a few on the “heavy”
nection stiffness and second-order stiffness softening end of the spectrum. The vast majority of the cross-frames on bridges
(where A is the area of the cross-frame member and E is should not be designed for a few areas of high load effects.
the modulus of elasticity for steel). Lowering the stiffness Design tip 2. A similar procedure to the above tip can be employed
in the cross-frames results in a reduction of the strength for bolting the end connections of cross-frame members to gusset plates.
design forces and the fatigue load stress ranges in the cross- As mentioned previously, member end connections that were historically
frame members. The 2014 edition interims introduced the welded are now being bolted in-place because of computed fatigue stress
commentary article C4.6.3.3.4, which states: “In addition, ranges. However, the fabrication of welded end connections is often more
the axial rigidity of single-angle members and flange-con- cost-effective as compared to bolted end connections. Therefore, end
nected tee-section cross-frame members is reduced due to bolted-connections should only be specified where needed, as all cross-
end connection eccentricities (Wang et al., 2012). In lieu of frame members are probably not subjected to the maximum fatigue stress
a more accurate analysis, (AE)eq of equal leg single angles, range. As with the first tip, cross-frame end connections can be grouped
unequal leg single angles connected to the long leg, and into those that need bolted end connections due to computed fatigue
flange-connected tee-section members may be taken as stress ranges and those that can be welded. If this procedure is adopted,
0.65AE.” the majority of cross-frames will most likely have welded end-connections.
Strategy 3. Designers should carefully consider the Note that welded and bolted member end connections should not be
use of the Fatigue I and Fatigue II load combinations. In mixed in a single cross-frame. The welding, hole drilling, and bolting are
cases where there is low volume truck traffic and the details typically done at different times and in locations within a fabrication facil-
being considered are not on fracture-critical members, the ity, resulting in extra handling time and costs.
Fatigue II load combination and its lower load factor may be
permissible. In accordance with AASHTO LRFD Specifica-
tions Article 6.6.1.2.3, when the 75-year single-lane ADTT
is less than or equal to the applicable value specified in Table
6.6.1.2.3-2 for the Detail Category under consideration
Fatigue II, load combination may be used in combination
with the nominal fatigue resistance for finite life.
Strategy 4. When designers use a 2D grid, plate and
eccentric beam (PEB), or 3D models using one member
to represent the truss-type cross-frame, they should follow
the NCHRP Report 725 Guidelines for Analysis Methods and
Construction Engineering of Curved and Skewed Steel Girder
Bridges recommendations for shear-deformable (Timosh-
enko) beam element representation of cross-frames and for
developing their stiffness and member area. Bridge Design
Specifications article C4.6.3.3.4 and the AASHTO/NSBA
Steel Bridge Collaboration Guidelines for Steel Girder Bridge
Analysis G13.1 article 3.11.3 discuss this in greater detail.
In general, the shear-deformable (Timoshenko) beam
approach is considered to be a closer approximation for
cross-frame modeling than the classical (Euler-Bernoulli)
beam elements due to its more accurate prediction of the A K-type cross-frame with bolted end connections—not recommended
physical cross-frame behavior. unless absolutely necessary.
18 | OCTOBER 2020
steelwise
above: Lean-on cross-frame bracing shown in AASHTO/NSBA below: An example framing plan of a staggered cross-frame layout
G12.1-2016: Guidelines to Design for Constructability. (adapted from NSBA’s Skewed and Curved Steel I-Girder Bridge Fit).
Design tip 3. Intelligent detailing practices and application of offsetting the cross-frame ends will often result in reduced design
lean-on bracing or staggered cross-frame layout methods can be forces in the cross-frame members. This offset will reduce the in-
used appropriately to reduce stiffness of transverse load paths, espe- plane bending stiffness of the cross-frame, reducing its contribu-
cially in heavily skewed bridges. Applying lean-on bracing allows tion to the transverse stiffness of the system.
several girders to be braced across the width of the bridge by a sin- Design tip 6. If the bridge is straight with no skewed supports,
gle cross-frame, the adjacent girder bays “lean on” the cross-frame or has a skew index (see Appendix B of AASHTO/NSBA G13.1:
brace with top and bottom struts controlling the twisting action of Guidelines for Steel Girder Bridge Analysis) that permits a less rigor-
girders (Helwig, et. al, 2012). Lean-on bracing will generally result ous analysis, a line girder analysis program such as LRFD Simon
in reduced cross-frame member strength forces and fatigue stress (available for free at aisc.org/nsba/design-resources) can be used
ranges. Lean-on bracing was the topic of a 2018 NSBA webinar, to analyze and design the girders. Cross-frame members can typi-
which you can view at aisc.org/bridgebracing. cally be designed for wind load per Bridge Design Specifications and
Skewed bridges with considerable transverse stiffness can stability forces/stiffness requirements per the FHWA Steel Bridge
often result in large cross-frame forces, including increased live Design Handbook, Volume 13: Bracing System Design (also available
load and fatigue stress ranges. When bridge supports are skewed, for free at aisc.org/nsba/handbook).
designers should consider the recommendations of AASHTO
LRFD Specifications Article 6.7.4.2 by placing cross-frames or dia- Shaping Up the Diaphragm
phragms at supports along the skew and spacing them away from Now that we’ve provided some advice on reducing cross-frame
the supports. sizes, let’s discuss how to determine the best cross-frame type or
Design tip 4. In a refined analysis, boundary conditions can diaphragm shape to use.
have a significant impact on the cross-frame forces, especially at An X-type cross-frame consists of top and bottom struts, and
locations near and at the bridge supporting substructure elements. diagonals that intersect themselves near the center of the cross-
Models can incorporate transverse and longitudinal stiffness frame bay. A K-type cross-frame consists of top and bottom struts,
associated with the pier and/or bearing instead of a hard point and diagonals that intersect the bottom strut. Generally, for inter-
that is infinitely stiff and fixed. Allowing for appropriate levels mediate cross-frames locations, the following guidelines are often
of movement associated with a bridge’s expected behavior will employed by designers:
alleviate high force concentrations and provide a more realistic • X-type cross-frames are typically used in cases where the
representation of the structure’s response to force effects. ratio of girder spacing (S) to girder depth (D) is 1.0 or less
Design tip 5. When designers use 3D finite element models, (i.e., S/D ≤ 1.0)
it might be advantageous to use nodal or member end offsets to • K-type cross-frames are typically used in cases where the
where the cross-frame work points are located. As compared to ratio of girder spacing (S) to girder depth (D) is 1.5 or greater
locating the end connection directly to the web/flange junction, (i.e., S/D ≥ 1.5)

steelwise
In cases where the ratio of girder spacing (S) to girder depth (D) is A solid plate diaphragm may consist of a channel,
between 1.0 and 1.5, either an X-type or K-type cross-frames may be a bent plate, or a welded I-girder. These are generally
used. However, the designer should consider the following two items: used when it is necessary to address high diaphragm force
• Achieve a generally efficient angle between the cross-frame diago- effects and large diagonal and horizontal (chord/strut)
nal and the horizontal (chord/strut) members as close to 45° as pos- members would otherwise be required for an X- or K-type
sible. Keeping this angle close to 45° degrees helps to limit either diaphragm. Solid plate diaphragms are also typically used
the depth or length of the gusset plate used to attach the cross- where the girders are tightly spaced or have a small depth,
frame member to the girder connection plate. and the angles of the diagonals of an X- or K-type dia-
• Minimize the shop handling of cross-frames by using K- cross- phragm are not efficient, thus making large gusset plate
frames which do not need to be removed from their fabrication jig connections necessary.
and inverted to weld the second diagonal. K-type cross-frames will Additional design advice is forthcoming. The current
have all welds on the same side of the cross-frame. study “National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP) 12-113” may offer some improvements in the
design of cross-frames members and their end connections
for fatigue. The NCHRP 12-113 researchers, led by Todd
Helwig and Michael Engelhardt at the University of Texas
at Austin, are investigating possible modifications to the
AASHTO LRFD Specifications for the design and analysis
of cross-frames as related to the proper loading conditions
to establish fatigue design stress ranges, strength and stiff-
ness requirements for stability bracing, and the influence
of cross-frame member end connections on cross-frame
stiffness in refined analyses. The research is expected to
conclude by the end of 2020.
Common Sense Design

When detailing cross-frames, bridge designers can
employ permitted AASHTO strategies and general guid-
ance to produce solutions that will be efficient and propor-
tioned in an intelligent way to preserve material, fabrica-
tion, erection, and the maintenance costs for the integrity
and life of the structure. Stiffness attracts load, and increas-
ing the sizes of our bridge members has an associated cost
with making these cross-frame members unnecessarily
bulky. The fabrication costs of cross-frames can be as
much as five times more than the fabrication costs of the
steel I-girders they frame into.
If you get significantly large cross-frame forces in bridge
models or analyses, double-check your results and verify
they make sense. Consider your framing plan and possibly
reconfigure the cross-frame arrangement, as the layout for
steel I-girder bridges can have the greatest influence on
the loads in your bracing elements. Furthermore, when
using a refined analysis, consider the methods allowed
by the AASHTO LRFD Specifications and detailed in this
article to help reduce the size of the cross-frame mem-
bers and connections to improve the overall efficiency
of your structure.
Please reach out to your local NSBA Bridge Steel
Specialist (aisc.org/nsba) or an AISC member/certified
fabricator or erector. All are here to help you with your
X-type cross-frame and K-type cross-frame bent-plate diaphragms designs and to provide beneficial feedback that improves
(figures are from AASHTO/NSBA G12.1-2016). the design and constructability of our steel bridges. And
remember: When in doubt, don’t just make your cross-
frames stout! ■
20 | OCTOBER 2020
EVERY DETAIL
MATTERS
Why choose High Steel for your next project?

A reputation built on nine decades of service
Cost-saving design suggestions to meet budget goals
Plate girders and complex weldments to

help vision become reality
Transportation solutions that provide delivery

directly to job sites
At High Steel Structures, we know that every detail matters. From project
inception to completion, you can count on High Steel to be attentive to
project needs, budget, scope and timelines. Whether you need one girder
to complete your job or 100 girders to complete your bid, call us for
competitive pricing, quality fabrication and a commitment to detail that
ensures the job is done right the first time.
Lancaster, PA | 1-800-468-9570 HighSteel.com/details

field notes
Project executive Angela Cotie is
INDUSTRY strengthening Houston’s construction industry
ACE one student at a time.
INTERVIEW BY
GEOFF WEISENBERGER
Field Notes is ANGELA COTIE is the chair

Modern Steel of ACE Mentoring Houston
Construction’s (we’ll get to what, exactly, that is
podcast series, in a bit) where she takes a lead-
where we interview ing role in introducing the next
people from all generation to the wide breadth of
corners of the structural steel industry careers in the construction indus-
with interesting stories to tell. Listen in try. When she first started in col-
at modernsteel.com/podcasts. lege, she had a pretty specific idea
of what her role in the industry
would be, but then she discov-
ered that it could be even more
than she expected—and when she
graduated, her career started off
with a grand slam. Want to find
more? Read on!
Did you always know you wanted

to be in the buildings world?
I always wanted to be an
architect. When I was little, I
would always look at things and
want to change them around,
and my family would laugh at me because I’d see an old building and I would turn
it into something else. Then I discovered Penn State architectural engineering and
thought it sounded interesting and then I got to school and thought, “Wait a second, this
is math and science.” So I applied to the architecture school. As part of the AE program,
I was taking a construction class while I was waiting to hear back from the architecture
school, and it wasn’t what I initially thought of when I thought of construction. It was
math and science—but also money, logistics, puzzles, and all of what goes into actually
getting the job done. I actually got accepted into the architecture school, I passed it up
and stayed in architectural engineering, focusing on construction. And I’m glad I did. It’s
been a great challenge for me over the years.
On that note, did you have a favorite building when you were younger that inspired
you and made you want to get into architecture in the first place?
I grew up outside of Washington D.C., and I liked the grandeur of the buildings there,
the fact that the architecture felt so permanent. As an architect, you may only work on
one big impressionable building that you’ll be remembered for, but as a contractor I can
Geoff Weisenberger influence multiple buildings. I can get involved early in a project, and I can actually assist
(weisenberger@aisc.org) is senior and help the architect. If you also have a sensitivity towards architecture, you can help
editor of Modern Steel Construction. with executing the building even more successfully.
22 | OCTOBER 2020
field notes
Tell me a bit about one of your first big projects. can use their hands. And that’s one thing that we’re really trying to
Minute Maid Park, where the Houston Astros play, was my first introduce kids to, the idea that being part of a trade can be more
job (I work for Gilbane Building Company, but this project was lucrative than any of the other careers I just mentioned. Starting
with a previous employer). I got spoiled because I got to see how in a trade might be one of the best ways for them to reach one of
a building could change a community. I never realized the power those careers. The best electrical engineers I know were electri-
of a building until I saw what that ballpark did for Houston. Now, cians first.
20 or so years later, that entire area of Houston is completely dif- We also teach the students about confidence. At the end of the
ferent, and had that ballpark not been there, had they not chosen year, we have a final competition, and they have to stand up and
that spot to develop it, Houston wouldn’t be what it is now. Since present as a team. So not only do they have to learn about team-
then, I’ve been able to work on a lot of projects that have been work but they also each have to stand up and present their portion
game-changers for their respective communities. of the project. One of my favorite parts of the whole program is
seeing them get dressed up for their “parts,” and some are wear-
Speaking of communities, tell me about ACE Mentoring. ing business clothes and others are wearing hard hats, or they’ll
It’s a mentoring program for high school students who are have made little business cards for their team, and they come in
interested in architecture, construction, and engineering. It’s and introduce themselves as the project manager, and the architect,
free for the students and the mentors. There are affiliates across and so on. Usually, the kids on the team don’t know each other
the country and each city has a different model, but in Houston when they first start because there’s probably 60 different schools
we have eight locations where students can meet with mentors. that participate in the Houston program, so the students are com-
They team up and work on a project, usually from November ing from everywhere. They’ll get up there and present their part
until April, and each week when they meet, for about two hours, and talk about their design, and when we coach them, we empha-
they learn about architecture, the different types of engineering, size that it is indeed their design. We tell them no one knows what
and construction. We give them an RFP at the beginning of the it is; you have to pitch it. You have to sell it because it’s yours, and
school year, which they work on throughout the year, then they the amount of pride and confidence that these kids have is amazing.
present it at the end of the year. Unfortunately, this year, thanks
to COVID, we’ve had to go virtual. But despite the fact that we Do you see a good follow-through with the program?
don’t get to have face-to-face mentoring, I’m excited because vir- This will be our 12th year in Houston, and we are starting to
tually, we have the opportunity to reach more students. Last year, see students that have graduated from high school go through col-
we had between 200 and 300 kids signed up and by the end, 225 lege and eventually come back as mentors. So we have a dozen or
kids completed the program and about 80% of those kids were so students now that went from being mentees to mentors. One of
coming from disadvantaged circumstances. We know Houston my favorite stories is from I was doing a presentation at an archi-
doesn’t have a widespread public transportation system, so I’m tecture firm, and this young woman, an architect, comes up to me.
excited that we’ve been able to bring more exposure to kids who She has a brochure in her hand, and she’s pointing to the picture
are far from their mentors. on the back, saying that the photo was of her old mentor, and she
When it comes to engineering, a lot of kids interested in that was wondering how to get ahold of her. That young woman is now
career only think of petroleum engineers—because we’re in Hous- a mentor and is on our associates’ board, helping with our student
ton, right? But we’re able to explain to them that “engineer” can recruitment and several other things. So I’m happy to see the cycle
mean so many different types of jobs: acoustical engineer, lighting of keeping former students engaged. ■
engineer, structural engineer. They’re able to see that not every
architecture job is designing skyscrapers. They see that not every This article is excerpted from my conversation with Angela. To hear the
contractor is always on-site. Or they even see careers where they podcast in its entirety, visit modernsteel.com/podcasts.

business
issues Layout plays an important role
LEVERAGING in efficient, successful steel projects.
LAYOUT
BY IAN WARNER
THERE’S BEEN A LOT WRITTEN about how structures are conceptualized and
designed, and there’s no shortage of information about how every aspect of a structure
is physically erected.
But for those who aren’t closely involved in the full construction process, the inte-
gral set of steps between those two bookends is largely a mystery.
While often underappreciated, the project phase in which ideas generated by the
architects, engineers, and detailers are first translated into the real world, also known
as construction layout, is critical to success. Layout is required for every single item
within a building, from the concrete foundations to the light fixtures, with steel anchor
Ian Warner is product manager for rods, embeds, and framing members leading the way for the project. Just as a building
Trimble’s Field Technology Group. constructed on a weak or damaged foundation is bound to crumble, the installation of
For more information, visit an anchor rod, column, or beam based on inaccurate layout points is bound to cause
buildings.trimble.com/field- cascading issues for the rest of the project’s duration.
technologies. The core purpose of layout is to transfer reference points and alignment from
detailed drawings or models to the site to facilitate construction. Without the ref-
erence points and subsequent field points supplied by surveyors and layout profes-
sionals, no actual building work can commence, much less succeed. At the same
time, errors made during the layout process can have a snowball effect on the
rest of the build, leading to costly RFIs, rework, delays, and even potential safety
hazards. This further underscores the important role layout plays in an efficient,
successful building project.
Layout for Steel Erection

As one of the first trades to arrive on-site after the initial surveying and site prep
work has been completed, steel layout often involves structural layout tasks along
with more detailed point marking within the structure as construction progresses.
For decades, this work was a completely manual process that required at least
two people, with large or complex projects usually requiring larger layout teams.
These teams would carry around a host of tools, including string lines, 300 ft and
100 ft, and regular tape measures, levels, plumb bobs, piano wire, and more. Highly
complex calculations were done manually as well, creating massive potential for
human error when computing angles, using trigonometry, and even just adding
dimension strings, let alone fractional feet—all in the field and on the back of scrap
steel or wood.
The first electronic total stations introduced in the early 1970s were a step in the
right direction, as were CAD advances related to the generation of layout points and
verification of point placement accuracy, but there was still room for improvement.
Most of the people using early total stations and CAD programs were surveyors and
engineers, leaving steel installation crews feeling like these were magic processes
that require advanced degrees to master. This perception still permeates the steel
industry today, with many erectors and fabricators continuing to outsource complex
layout to surveyors or general contractors.
24 | OCTOBER 2020
business issues
Advances in Layout Hardware and detailers, that contain constructible data on components down
In recent years, advances in technology have dramatically im- to the nut, bolt, and rebar level of detail. These structural 3D mod-
proved the accuracy, speed, and efficiency of construction layout. els can be combined with architectural models, MEP models, or
Robotic total stations go beyond the capabilities of traditional even PDF drawings to ensure notes, sections, and other details are
mechanical total stations by reducing the opportunity for human not overlooked. The layout professional or foreman can combine
error and freeing up layout professionals for higher priority work. models and PDFs and then use smart layering tools and section
Controlled remotely using a tablet or controller, robotic total sta- boxes to focus on certain items or areas, or easily access almost all
tions make it possible for one person to handle even the most com- of the project information.
plex layout tasks without needing to be a trained surveyor. Many steel fabricators and erectors now have the option to re-
Newer robotic total stations can be operated from almost 2,000 ft quest a layout using IFC models, which are similar to CAD draw-
away and equipped with self-stabilizing magnetic motors. While most ings except that the 3D objects contain data such as the steel shape,
total stations can measure to a prism, reflective glass usually mounted type, piece marks, weight, center of gravity (for lifting), elevations,
to a survey rod, some are equipped with visible laser pointers that can and more. This allows the layout professional or foreman to help
measure with the laser and show exactly where the building compo- with installation while precisely pointing to the exact location with
nents are to be placed with true elevations. There are even models a laser or prism. With new improvements such as component-
that measure with a red laser beam and then switch over to a green based set-up, fabricators and field crews can layout complex as-
laser beam to indicate the point is at the exact position, all within semblies in the fabrication shop or in the field for precise pre-fab-
a few seconds. Basically, the layout process can be as easy as: red rication, even with the assembly laying down versus being drawn
light, green light, install! vertically, such as with stair railings or canopies.
The most advanced modern robotic total stations not only As the project progresses, updated plans or models can be sent
handle the necessary measurements and calculations on the fly, from the office to the field controller, and as-built data can be fed
but also provide powerful visualization tools, such as photographic back from the field to the office to update the model in near real-
documentation and augmented reality-style overlays, and coordi- time, so all project stakeholders stay informed. The data gathered
nate directly with powerful layout software solutions for true field- by connected equipment on-site can easily be viewed in context by
to-office connectivity. Similar in function and benefit to robotic all stakeholders for clash detection, fabrication, and more. Fabri-
total stations are laser-based rapid positioning tools and GNSS cation shop or field crews can now update the models with instal-
receivers that allow steel contractors to choose the features, toler- lation status, field reports, and as-built deviations, and send these
ances, and price point required for a given project. updates to the office with the click of a button.
As many of the anchor rods, embeds, sleeves, and other items
Layout Software are literally set in concrete by the time the steel erection crews ar-
Moving beyond the paper drawings that layout professionals rive, adopting a robotic total station layout can help steel erectors
relied on in the past, cutting edge software seamlessly integrates and fabricators achieve quality installations. The ability to quickly
the layout process into the overall construction workflow via build- check the concrete crews prior to the placement of these critical
ing information modeling (BIM). These BIM platforms not only components can save thousands of dollars and weeks of rework,
accommodate 2D plan views but also 3D views that provide a bet- and enhance relationships with owners, designers, contractors, and
ter understanding of the entire project. Some layout controllers other trades on the project—and it’s worth considering for your
in the field can now handle large 3D models, created by designers next project. ■

A Minneapolis bridge project takes advantage of an innovative launching process
to remove an existing Warren truss and install its replacement.
Ready
for Launch
BY MARK MAVES, PE, AND MARTIN FURRER, SE, PE
THE ST. ANTHONY PARKWAY BRIDGE is at a nexus of sorts.

The bridge is located over the BNSF Northtown rail yard in Minneapolis, one of the
most heavily used rail yards in the Midwest, with approximately 20% of all BNSF rail
traffic in the United States passing through it. An average of 14 trains of 100 or more
cars are assembled here each day, and an additional 60-plus trains operate daily on two
main line tracks along the western portion of the yard. At the crossing location, the
bridge spans 23 tracks.
Built in 1925, the original bridge at this crossing was a 535-ft, five-span steel Warren
truss bridge that had become structurally and geometrically deficient, containing fracture-
critical members (FCMs) as well as narrow travel lanes, poor bike and pedestrian trails,
and substandard vertical clearances.
Since the bridge was eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places, every
effort was made to save it. But in 2012, after a series of many meetings and ongoing con-
sultation between the City of Minneapolis, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), and
Minnesota State Historical Preservation Office (MnSHPO), these entities agreed that the
bridge was too badly deteriorated and needed to be replaced. The existing bridge was even-
tually closed to traffic prior to replacement due to vehicles violating the posted weight limits.
St. Anthony Parkway crosses the Northtown yard at a 27° skew, and the approach
Mark Maves (mmaves@sehinc.com) roadways to the bridge are on significant grades with roadway intersections near each
is the leader of Short Elliott abutment. These constraints significantly limited the ability to modify bridge skew and
Hendrickson’s (SEH) bridge group vertical roadway profiles. In addition, existing horizontal clearances between tracks and
in St. Paul. Martin Furrer (martin. in-yard piers did not meet current code requirements, causing concern for rail yard
furrer@parsons.com) is Program worker safety. The locations of the four piers in the yard also acted as pinch points and
Director, Bridge with Parsons. severely impeded BNSF operations and flexibility for future expansion. Due to these
26 | OCTOBER 2020
Total Structure Length: 560 ft, 6 in.
Span Lengths: 305 ft (main); 127 ft and 127 ft (approaches)
Average Width: 58 ft
Total Steel Tonnage: 1,094 tons
Coating/Protection System: Weathering steel
The new St. Anthony Parkway bridge

used more than 1.000 tons of steel to
cross the BNSF Northtown rail yard
in Minneapolis, one of the busiest rail
yards in the Midwest.
All photos: Mark Maves
issues, BNSF requested a bridge replacement design that reduced set plates and using a post-tensioned concrete bottom chord. The
the number of piers in the yard to two. approach spans consist of conventional steel girders, and all three
Uninterrupted service through the yard and beneath the bridge spans incorporate a full-depth cast-in-place concrete deck con-
is essential to BNSF’s operation, especially along the two main line structed with stay-in-place metal deck forms in order to improve
tracks. BNSF understood that lateral clearance on the ground would safety and minimize construction impacts to the rail yard below.
have to be provided for the duration of this job in order to provide The design consists of a 305-ft-long steel Warren truss struc-
safe conditions for both bridge and rail workers. As the area is already ture with two 127-ft-long conventional steel girder approach
constrained, providing these needed clearances during bridge con- spans. The following strategies were employed to eliminate any
struction would result in a disruption to normal rail service. In addi- FCMs from the truss structure:
tion, rerouting trains to adjacent tracks within to perform construc- • Split steel member tension verticals and diagonals (two
tion had to be scheduled during tight windows, as BNSF would not T-sections), individually bolted to adjacent members, were
allow its operations to be shut down for extended periods of time. used, and the members and connections were designed for
That meant the project could take much longer to complete, require the fracture of the accompanying twin member and included
a less conventional method of removal and erection, and potentially in the plans as a system-redundant member (SRM).
be more expensive. In addition, per the Minnesota Department of • The bottom chord is a post-tensioned concrete member
Transportation (MnDOT) and FHWA, the replacement bridge encased with a U-shaped steel shell, where the shell provides
needed to be redundant and minimize or eliminate the use of FCMs. the tension chord for erection and launching before provid-
When it came to the new bridge’s design, community feedback ing the permanent formwork and steel fascia for the post-
during public outreach meetings pushed for an above-deck struc- tensioned concrete.
ture visually similar to the existing steel Warren trusses and that • Transverse steel floor beams are spaced at roughly 10 ft and
the aesthetics should maintain an urban industrial feel. As a result, made composite with the concrete deck, where the deck is
the bridge’s main span consists of a redundant steel truss structure, shown to be capable of sustaining the loss of a floor beam by
incorporating unique load path and internal redundancy measures spanning between adjacent floor beams and included in the
including eliminating fracture critical steel truss members and gus- plans as an SRM.

above: Removing the trusses from the original bridge, which
had been used to cross the rail yard for nearly a century.
The design solution was reviewed with FHWA to

confirm that eliminating FCMs in lieu of SRMs negates
the bridge requiring biannual hands-on inspections. The
use of unpainted weathering steel and practical detail-
ing minimize future maintenance work over the railroad
tracks while providing the community with the desired
urban industrial feel and the familiarity of the truss struc-
tural shape that has provided this railroad crossing for
nearly a century. This minimization of future inspection
and maintenance reduces the City’s life-cycle cost for
the crossing, and eliminating two yard piers minimizes
impacts to BNSF’s operation.
Removing the existing bridge trusses and erecting the
above and below: Fabricator Industrial Steel Construction, Inc. (ISC) first new main span truss and approach spans were integral
assembled the bridge trusses in its Gary, Ind., shop to ensure that everything
considerations during design, and the design team evalu-
fit together. The steel was then disassembled and trucked to the bridge site.
ated constructability and erection approaches that could
be achieved in the track shutdown windows that were
acceptable to BNSF. It was determined that longitudinally
launching the existing trusses out and the new main span
truss in using a set of launching beams was the most likely
method a contractor would want to use, and a suggested
launching scheme was included in the construction plans
and specifications.
Selected contractor Lunda Construction Compa-
ny’s erection approach closely followed the launching
approach envisioned by the design team with one notable
change: The three easternmost truss spans were removed
conventionally in the yard, using 10-day closure windows
for the yard tracks. The launching system was sized for
the roughly 800-ton new truss structure but was first used
to remove the two existing westernmost steel trusses,
28 | OCTOBER 2020
The new bridge trusses were installed
and the old ones removed via a set of
launching beams.
including the concrete deck system, over

the BNSF’s main line tracks to the western
approach embankment for demolition.
The launching assembly consisted of
twin plate girders bolted together with cross
bracing near each truss. Lunda selected
Hilman rollers as the moving vehicle that
traveled in channel sections acting as tracks
and welded to the top of the launching
beams. Transverse beams spanned between
the launching assemblies located on each
side of the truss. The transverse beams
were connected to the truss that was being
launched with post-tensioning bars located
at each corner of the truss. These post-ten-
sioning bars were used to raise and lower
the truss with hydraulic jacks.
The longitudinal jacking setup consisted
of a series of post-tensioning bars coupled
together and supported on wood blocking
spanning between the top flanges of the twin
launching beams. Two jacks located at the end
of the launching beams pushed against the
transversely spanning jacking beam that in turn
is connected to the leading post-tensioning
right and below: The launching system was

sized for the new roughly 800-ton truss struc-
ture but was first used to remove the two
existing westernmost steel trusses over the
BNSF’s main tracks to the western approach
embankment for demolition.

above and below: The bottom chord right: An upper chord node with split tension
is a post-tensioned concrete member members and connections.
encased in a U-shaped steel shell.
Mart
in Fu
rrer
bars. As the selected system was a pull-only system, it was set up on the sioning, concrete installation, and as a protective shielding for rail-
western approach embankment for the truss removals and then moved road traffic. The new truss was then launched 310 ft, via the same
east of the new eastern truss pier for the launch of the new truss. The method that was used to remove the original trusses, during two
launched removal of the 130-ft-long Truss 5 (farthest to the west) took four-hour windows. Once in its final plan position, the truss was set
two four-hour windows—including the learning curve for the crew down on steel columns attached to the west abutment and the east-
members, which were performing this type of operation for the first ern truss pier so that the launching beams could be removed. From
time. When it came time to remove the 240-ft-long Truss 4, the team there, the truss was lowered onto the permanent bearings using
was able to do the job in a single six-hour window. the vertical jacking system of post-tensioning bars and hydraulic
When it came to building the new truss, fabricator Industrial Steel jacks. The lower chord post-tensioning conduits, hardware, and
Construction, Inc. (ISC) first assembled it (as well as the end portal reinforcing steel were then installed in the steel shell. After the
system) in its Gary, Ind., shop to ensure that everything fit together. bottom chord concrete was poured and cured, the post-tensioning
The steel was then disassembled and trucked to the bridge site. Full tendons were stressed, and deck reinforcement was installed before
under-roof shop assembly allowed optimum alignment, eliminating the deck concrete was poured. Finally, the sidewalks, railing, and
thermal distortions caused by weather, and on-site workers installed fencing were installed.
more than 27,000 bolts without field drilling or reaming. In order to pay homage to the historic structure, the project
Field assembly on the western approach embankment pro- includes an interpretive plaza adjacent to the west approach that
gressed from the east to west with a crane supplying the stick-built describes the previous bridge crossings, the history of the neighbor-
truss elements. After completing steel assembly, the team removed hood, and the technical aspects of the new bridge. Portions of the
the intermediate blocking, and then the stay-in-place metal deck- steel from the removed bridge were even incorporated into elements
ing was installed to act as a working platform for rebar, post-ten- such as planter boxes to pay tribute to the historic structure. ■
30 | OCTOBER 2020
above: Erecting one of the two 127-ft-long below: The west end of the new bridge is
approach spans, which are supported by highlighted by planter boxes made from
conventional plate girders. steel from the original bridge.
Owner
City of Minneapolis - Public Works
General Contractor
Lunda Construction Company
Structural Engineers
Short Elliott Hendrickson, Inc. (SEH),
St. Paul, Minn. (EOR)
Parsons Corporation, Minneapolis and
Chicago (EOR, truss span)
Steel Team
Fabricator
Industrial Steel Construction, Inc.,
Gary, Ind.
Erector
Danny’s Construction Company,
Inc., Shakopee, Minn.
Detailer
Tenca Steel Detailing, Inc.,
Quebec, Canada

r
mille
n Her
Bria
ho tos:
All p
Urban Update
BY KEVIN WAGSTAFF, AIA, BRIAN HERMILLER, PE, AND CAMERON BAKER, PE
32 | OCTOBER 2020
A downtown Pittsburgh
structural expansion blends steel history with steel present.
PITTSBURGH’S STEEL STORY continues to this day.

Like many American cities that experienced rapid expansion during the industrializa-
tion of the late 1800s and early 1900s, Steel City has many “transitional” structures from
that era integrating structural steel framing with various cladding and fire-resistive sys-
tems, terracotta floor and wall systems, mass masonry, and wood.
These structures are generally considered to have maintained robustness for floor load-
ing, but the way systems were originally integrated does not lend to easy structural modi-
fication for adaptive reuse. In addition, the refined craft and preservation skills needed to
work with these historic materials make them challenging to maintain and modify.
The McNally and Bonn Buildings in downtown Pittsburgh are two such transitional
structures. The buildings, both eight stories with full basements, were built in the 1890s
and encompass a combined total of 65,600 sq. ft of space. Both are long, slender struc-
tures with footprints approximately 25 ft by 140 ft. The McNally Building has perimeter
masonry bearing walls and structural clay tile flat arch floor and roof construction sup-
ported by steel beams that span the width of the building. The Bonn Building has perim-
eter masonry bearing walls and wood floor deck supported by timber joists that span the
width of the building. In fact, the two buildings share a masonry bearing wall.
And now they share much more. The $35 million Eighth and Penn project has combined
these two historic structures with two new steel-framed buildings to create a total of 173,100
sq. ft of mixed-use space featuring 136 apartment units and street-level retail and restaurant
space. The resulting structure is an elegant ensemble with an exterior that appears as a col-
lection of old and new buildings and an interior that functions as a single building.
The design presented a number of unusual and complex structural challenges, including:
• Integrating a new vertical circulation system to serve three different floor-to-floor
heights in a single core
• Integrating old and new at the interface between the existing structures and the
new construction
• Maintaining the structural integrity of the mass shear walls of the historic
buildings while removing large sections to make connections to the vertical circula-
tion core in the Bonn Building Kevin Wagstaff (kwagstaff
@pwwgarch.com) is a principal-in-
New Vertical Circulation charge with PWWG, Brian Hermiller
For optimal circulation and to maximize natural lighting in the apartment units, the (bhermiller@tsepgh.com) is a princi-
new stair and elevator core were centrally located within the existing Bonn Building. pal and vice president
Because the floors in the historic buildings and the adjacent addition do not align, the core with Taylor Structural Engineers,
was made accessible from four sides on each floor, with a front and rear opening eleva- and Cameron Baker (cbaker
tor, ramps, and steps resolving the varying floor elevations at each story. And because the @sippelsteelfab.com) is a structural
difference in floor elevations is inconsistent throughout, unique steel framing solutions engineer with Sippel Steel Fab.
were devised for each level of the new core. Each of the access points to the core required
different steps and ramp designs at most levels. In order to accommodate these varying
elevations throughout while maintaining clearances above and below, the team designed
and fabricated mitered steel “Z-beams” that span the width of the Bonn Building. Posts
and hangers were also used to support beams that could not span across the width of the
building without causing interferences, even with a mitered beam configuration.
Connecting Historic to New Construction

The new portion of the project consists of two wings. The 11-story main wing,
directly abutting the Bonn Building, is similar in height to the historic buildings but
has lower floor-to-floor heights, allowing for three additional stories in the same build-
ing height. The steel framing cantilevers from the new column grid to avoid impart-
ing gravity loads on the existing wall. The second wing, the rear wing, is seven stories

In order to accommodate varying elevations
while maintaining clearances above and
below, the team designed and fabricated
mitered steel “Z-beams” that span the width
of one of the existing buildings.
with a usable green roof and a connect-

ing element to the main wing that bridges
over a public walkway. The new portion
uses a grout-topped hollow-core concrete
plank floor system supported by a 700-ton
structural steel frame and is stabilized by
shared existing shear walls and moment-
resisting frames.
The uneven surface of the Bonn Build-
ing’s exterior masonry wall also created a
challenge, especially since the height and
scale of the elevation did not lend itself to
conventional survey techniques. To over-
come the challenge of connecting to this
uneven surface, the general contractor
retained local firm Cadnetics to create a
3D point cloud of the existing wall to map
the existing conditions. The steel detailer
(Sippel Steel, also the project’s steel fab-
ricator) then used this data to coordinate
the final dimensioning of new steel fram-
ing with the existing conditions. The 3D
point cloud allowed Sippel to adjust the
length of the cantilevers throughout to
the surveyed location, and a field adjusted
pour stop allowed the erector to close the
gap after erection and plumbing of the
frame were complete but before the hol-
low-core plank was grouted.
Reestablishing Lateral Integrity

The two historic buildings relied on
perimeter brick masonry shear walls for lat-
eral stability in their long direction. Early
in the project, it was determined that these
existing shear walls would be sufficient to
brace both the new and existing construc-
tion in one direction once the addition was
completed. However, as the design of the
stair and elevator core evolved, it was neces-
sary to remove a large section of the masonry
between the Bonn Building and the main
wing of the addition, essentially breaking
one long wall into two shorter shear walls.
A Vierendeel-style steel coupling frame was
installed to reestablish the connection of the
two resulting shear walls with comparable
stability to the original wall.
Where the Z-beam framing scheme could not

clear span the building, posts and hangers
connecting to adjacent levels were used to
support the framing.
34 | OCTOBER 2020
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A plan showing the existing buildings and the new addition. The two
existing buildings, both eight stories with full basements, are long,
slender structures with footprints of approximately 25 ft by 140 ft.
To stabilize the original shear wall, the designers and construc- struction was completely erected and the permanent lateral system
tion team had to carefully coordinate demolition sequencing for was established. Sections of the coupling frame were lowered into
the existing wall segment, installation of the coupling framing, position by crane between the new and existing structures. Crane
and erection of the new construction. To maintain overall building capacity and reach and shipping size limitations were constraints
stability, wall demolition was not performed until the new con- that drove fabrication decisions for the coupling frame, and splice
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1. The two existing buildings prior to construction of the new portion. 2. Erection of the 11-story addition.
locations were chosen to eliminate field welding, which would have Therefore, a new lateral load resisting system was designed for the
been nearly impossible given the location of the frame between new building to provide stability for the entire completed ensem-
two completed structures. ble. Steel moment-resisting frames were selected to accommodate
In the short direction of the existing buildings, there was inad- expansive glass facades and the open first-floor plan. Drift limita-
equate lateral bracing to meet lateral loads mandated by today’s tions higher than those mandated by code were necessary to assure
building codes. Improving or supplementing the existing shear deformation compatibility with the existing masonry walls and to
walls was determined to be cost-prohibitive and impractical with- minimize second-order effects that result from the mass of both
out significant disturbance to the buildings’ historic architecture. existing buildings leaning on the new structure.
36 | OCTOBER 2020
3. The new steel is topped out. 4. Substantial completion of the new addition.
The Eighth and Penn project is an example of a creative struc- General Contractor
tural adaptation that brings modern amenities, accessibility, and Mistick Construction, Pittsburgh
resiliency to a historic building while maintaining the urban fab- Architect
ric of a vibrant downtown area. It’s an excellent illustration of the Perfido Weiskopf Wagstaff + Goettel (PWWG), Pittsburgh
flexibility of structural steel as a framing option to solve complex
Structural Engineer
geometric challenges when joining old to new. ■
Taylor Structural Engineers, Pittsburgh
Owner
Steel Fabricator and Detailer
Trek Development Group
Sippel Steel Fab, Ambridge, Pa.

Long-Term
Analysis for Short-
Span Bridges
BY MICHAEL G. BARKER, PE, PhD
A recent life-cycle cost analysis compares steel and concrete short-span bridges.
THERE HAS HISTORICALLY BEEN a healthy competition between material types

for new bridge construction.
In personal discussions over the years with officials from state departments of trans-
portation and local county engineers on effective and economical bridge construction, a
frequent question that arises is the difference in life-cycle costs (LCC) between steel and
concrete girder bridges. Both the concrete industry and the steel industry cite various
anecdotal LCC advantages using their assumptions on cost and maintenance for their
materials. Even though owners want to consider LCC in bridge design decisions, they are
unconvinced with anecdotal discussions—they want evidence.
Michael G. Barker (barker@uwyo.edu) This is where a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) comes in. An LCCA is an economical
is a professor of civil and architectural method to compare design alternatives over the entire life of the structure. It considers
engineering at the University of not only initial costs, but also future costs, their timing, and the service life of the bridge.
Wyoming. He works with the Short An LCCA determines the “true cost” of bridge alternatives, considering the time value of
Span Steel Bridge Alliance (SSSBA) money, for an equivalent monetary comparison.
to educate bridge owners, engineers, For instance, if one alternative has a higher initial cost and no future costs, an
designers, and students on the LCCA can compare this to an alternative that has a lower initial cost and costly
design and construction of short-span rehabilitation in the future, discounting future costs to equivalent today costs for a
steel bridges. direct economic comparison.
When addressing the question of steel versus concrete, again, there are many assump-
tions but a lack of hard evidence, so the Short Span Steel Bridge Alliance (SSSBA) initiated
a study to develop useful owner information on historical LCCs for typical bridges. The
study included a subset of the bridge inventory from the Pennsylvania Department of
Transportation (PennDOT). It was narrowed down to five types of bridges: simple- and
multi-span steel rolled beam, steel plate girder, concrete box adjacent, concrete box spread,
and concrete I-beam bridges. Here, we’ll explore the results. (The full report, “Historical
Life Cycle Costs of Steel and Concrete Girder Bridges”—including a detailed explanation
of the criteria, calculations, and results—is available at www.shortspansteelbridges.org.)
The final LCC database, which serves as the basis for the study, consists of 1,186
state bridges out of the 6,587 built between 1960 (modern era for prestressed concrete
and steel construction techniques) and 2010—i.e., 18% of the PennDOT inventory.
The initial costs, LCCs, and future costs of the 1,186 bridges in the database were
examined with respect to variability in bridge type, bridge length, number of spans,
38 | OCTOBER 2020
Table 1: Life Cycle Costs
All Bridges Bridge Length 140 ft or Less
Bridge Type Bridges in Deterioration Avg Life Bridges in Initial Cost Capitalized Costs Avg Life
Database Rate (years) Database ($/ft2) ($/ft2) (years)
Steel Rolled Beam 54 -7.11% 81.6 27 222.08 266.24 82.5
Steel Plate Girder 144 -8.14% 80.0 18 257.19 311.26 81.3
P/S Box – Adjacent 282 -8.13% 73.8 240 235.03 292.38 74.0
P/S Box – Spread 397 -7.99% 79.5 325 225.14 272.20 80.8
P/S I Beam 309 -8.38% 73.3 98 231.20 281.64 77.2
and bridge life. Calculations to compare the five types of 1.2

bridges in the study included: Rolled
• Historical bridge initial and maintenance costs. Plate
These were converted to present-day dollars using con- 1.0
struction cost indices. Future costs were discounted at a Box Adjacent
rate of 2.3%. The LCC analyses used the perpetual pres- Box Spread
ent value cost, or capitalized cost, of bridge alternatives 0.8
PC I Beam
for an equivalent comparison between each bridge of the
bridge types. Capitalized cost is the present value cost of
continuing the bridge into perpetuity. 0.6
• Deterioration rate. To model the deterioration rate, Probability Bridge
it was assumed the superstructure condition rating Lasts > 75 Years
0.4
decreased linearly over time based on the average dete- Steel Rolled 73.0%
rioration rates of the 6,587 bridges in the PennDOT Steel Plate 62.7%
inventory for each bridge type. 0.2 Conc Box Adjacent 45.6%
• Bridge life. To estimate the remaining life for each Conc Box Spread 65.6%
bridge, it was assumed the bridge would be replaced Conc I Beam 44.3%
when the superstructure condition rating reached 3 0
given the current condition and the deterioration rate. 0 150 100 150
Fig. 1. Cumulative density function for bridge life (all bridges).
Research Results
Careful analysis of the data demonstrated that:
• Steel I-beams have the lowest average deterioration rate
(Table 1) with a deterioration rate of 7.11% of a condi-
tion rating per year. 0.09
• Steel I-beams have the longest average expected life (over Rolled
81 years). A useful method to analyze bridge life is to Plate
0.08
consider the probability that a bridge will last at least Box Adjacent
75 years, the expected life for a bridge. Figure 1 shows Box Spread
0.07
the cumulative density function for bridge life for all of PC I Beam
the bridges in the database, assuming the life is normally
0.06
distributed. There is a 73% probability that a steel rolled
beam bridge will last at least 75 years.
• Steel I-beams have the lowest average initial and capi- 0.05
talized costs (Table 1) for short-span bridges (defined as
up to 140 ft). Steel plate girder bridges have the highest 0.04
average costs, but this would be expected for these short Average Cost / ft2
spans since plate girder bridges are not as economical 0.03
Steel Rolled $232.78
below about 80 ft.
Steel Plate $273.71
• All five types of bridges are competitive for initial costs, 0.02
Conc Box Adjacent $278.30
future costs, life-cycle costs, and bridge life. Figure 2
Conc Box Spread $256.11
shows the capitalized cost probability density function 0.01
Conc I Beam $217.50
for the statistical properties of all of the bridges in the
database for the five types of bridges assuming the costs 0
are normally distributed. With the relative average costs 0 2100 200 300 400 500
for a given bridge project, any of the five types may result
in the lowest LCC. Fig. 2. Probability density function for capitalized costs (all bridges).

Pennoni
above: One of the six bridges in Philadelphia’s Vine Street Expressway (I-676) Overall, the results show that steel performs well and
Reconstruction Project. is a competitive and economical option in the short-span
below: An Anchor Bay Drive bridge in St. Clair County, Mich., one of three market and that owners should consider steel alternatives
galvanized steel press-brake-formed tub girder bridges bundled for the project. for short-span bridges.
Both short-span steel bridge projects were 2020 NSBA Prize Bridge Award
winners. Read about all the winners in the July 2020 issue at Significance
www.modernsteel.com. Again, for years assumptions and anecdotes have served
as the primary sources of information (or misinformation)
on the LCC of steel and concrete bridges, especially short-
span bridges—which happen to comprise most of the bridge
inventory in the United States. County engineers and officials
from state departments of transportation continue to struggle
with balancing limited funding and an increased demand to
replace the country’s aging bridge infrastructure. They are
also challenged with incorporating sustainable and cost-effec-
tive design and engineering practices into their projects.
The results presented in this study provide them with a
tool to assist in making their bridge material choices. Impor-
tantly, they are no longer dependent on anecdotes, but now
have data to back up their analyses. The need exists for a more
comprehensive database of costs for different types of bridges
over a diverse set of circumstances, but the research summa-
rized here provides a valid first step—and again, verifies steel
TEG Engineering as an excellent choice for short-span bridge projects. ■
40 | OCTOBER 2020
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That’s Not
Fracture-
Critical!
BY BRANDON CHAVEL,
PE, PHD, AND JASON
LLOYD, PE, PHD
Advice
on classifying
system-redundant
members.
THE STEEL BRIDGES we design and build today are not your parents’ bridges—so
let’s stop treating them that way.
What do we mean by that? To put it simply, we don’t need to overuse fracture-critical
designations.
Bridge engineers and owners now have the resources available to them to remove FCM
designations for in-service inspection and recognize system redundancy, allowing them to
more efficiently manage resources for steel bridge inspections. Additionally, advances in
analysis tools can enable engineers to assess a bridge as a full 3D system, allowing them to
consider redundancy and fracture control in a much more integrated fashion.
A Brief History of Fracture Control

To understand where we are going, let’s first look at where we’ve been as it relates to
design, fabrication, and in-service inspection of FCMs. Research in the 1970s related to
the fatigue and fracture limit states resulted in significant additions to the 1974 Ameri-
can Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) bridge design
specifications, including Charpy V-notch (CVN) testing requirements to ensure a mini-
mum toughness (i.e., resistance to fracture in the presence of a crack) at the lowest antici-
pated service temperature of the non-load-path redundant member. Also in 1974, the first
comprehensive fatigue design provisions were added to the AASHTO bridge design speci-
Brandon Chavel (chavel@aisc.org) fications, introducing the fatigue categories and their respective fatigue resistances. As
is director of market development, such, steel used in bridges designed prior to 1974 was not subjected to the CVN require-
and Jason Lloyd (lloyd@aisc.org) ments or the fatigue provisions we design for today.
is the West Region bridge steel In 1978, AASHTO published the first edition of the Guide Specifications for Fracture
specialist, both with AISC’s Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Members, and this became known as the AASHTO
National Steel Bridge Alliance. Fracture Control Plan (FCP). These guide specifications introduced the term “fracture-
42 | OCTOBER 2020
left: The Broadway Bridge over the Arkansas River in Little below: The 130th Street and Torrence Avenue Railroad
Rock, Ark., a 2020 NSBA Prize Bridge Award winner (to read Truss Bridge in Chicago, a 2014 NSBA Prize Bridge
about it, see the July 2020 issue at www.modernsteel.com). Award winner (to read about it, see the July 2014 issue).
Trey Cambern/Courtesy of HNTB Courtesy of Alfred Benesch & Company
critical” and further distinguished such members to have more Vehicle Data, at tinyurl.com/istatecrashrate). This queue level
stringent CVN requirements than were published in AASHTO can result from several things, including closed lanes on bridges
M270/ASTM A709; reduced the permissible fatigue stress ranges for arms-length inspections.
for fracture-critical members; and introduced more stringent While legislation and research shaped policy for FCMs, includ-
fabrication and weld quality requirements. These guide specifi- ing frequency and depth of inspection, it remains incumbent upon
cations are no longer published by AASHTO, as the provisions the engineer of record (EOR) to identify FCMs in new design, as
have been fully integrated into ASTM A709, the AASHTO LRFD well as inspectors in existing bridges. Article 6.6.2 of the AASHTO
Bridge Design Specifications, and Clause 12 of the AASHTO/AWS LRFD Bridge Design Specifications states that the engineer “shall
D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. have the responsibility for determining which, if any, component is
The Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assis- a fracture-critical member.”
tance Act of 1987 expanded the scope of bridge inspection pro- Several industry improvements have occurred since the
grams to identify FCMs and establish inspection procedures for establishment of the FCP in 1978, as well as following the defi-
them. In 1988, a maximum in-service inspection frequency of 24 nition of FCM inspection requirements in 1988. These include
months for FCMs was defined in the NBIS, as well as the “hands- improved materials, design and detailing methods, and fabrica-
on” (arm’s length) inspection requirement. This inspection fre- tion practices, along with the advances in the analysis tools that
quency was only based on expert consensus, not necessarily on engineers can employ to consider 3D system behavior. In fact,
scientific research or statistical modeling. The hands-on require- since the implementation of FCP standards, there have been
ment for inspection and its frequency can be time-consuming no known fractures of FCMs designed and fabricated to these
and costly to bridge owners, often requiring traffic closures and FCP standards (for more information, see the fourth quarter
disruptions. Furthermore, while hands-on inspection of FCMs 2019 AISC Engineering Journal article “Simplified Transforma-
was intended to improve public safety, a study carried out for tive Approaches for Evaluating the Criticality of Fracture in
Indiana Interstates revealed that overall congested crash rates Steel Members” at aisc.org/ej). As such, the industry has real-
were 24.1 times higher than uncongested rates with traffic queues ized that these improvements and advances can provide a way
of five minutes or more (for more information, see Character- to better define FCMs for new designs and to reevaluate past
izing Interstate Crash Rates Based on Traffic Congestion Using Probe FCMs designations.

The Speer Boulevard Bridge over the
South Platte River in Denver, a 2001
NSBA Prize Bridge Award winner
(to read about it, see the
October 2001 issue).
Enter System-Redundant Members 12 (FCP requirement) but once in-service, it will not need to be
In June 2012, FHWA issued a Memorandum, Clarifica- routinely inspected at arms-length because it is not an FCM.
tion of Requirements for Fracture Critical Members (fhwa.dot.gov/ However, it should be noted that non-load-path redundant ten-
bridge/120620.cfm), which introduced the new member classifi- sion members in existing bridges that were not fabricated to meet
cation of system-redundant members (SRMs). The FHWA Mem- the modern FCP introduced in 1978 are not eligible for consider-
orandum defines an SRM as a member that receives fabrication ation as SRMs at this time.
according to the AWS FCP, but does not need to be considered In order to obtain the SRM classification, the owner has to
an FCM for in-service inspection. SRMs are to be designated on demonstrate that the structure has adequate strength and stability
the design plans with a note indicating that they shall be fabricated sufficient to avoid partial or total collapse and carry traffic in the
in accordance with AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code Clause 12 and presence of a fractured member. Once this is done, the owner must
using steel meeting fracture-critical toughness requirements. With submit the detailed analysis and evaluation criteria that are used
this memo, the FHWA has provided bridge owners a means for to conduct the study for review by FHWA Office of Bridges and
removing fracture-critical member inspection requirements from Structures. The submittal is to be sent through the local FHWA
certain non-load path redundant structures, allowing a better allo- Division Office, who will then forward it to the FHWA Office
cation of inspection resources and reducing life cycle inspection of Bridges and Structures. Once reviewed and FHWA Office of
costs of the bridge. Bridges and Structures indicates their agreement with the criteria,
In the Memorandum, the FHWA recognizes that currently these criteria can then be employed by the owner systematically on
available refined analysis techniques can provide a means to more their inventory.
accurately classify FCMs for new designs and to reevaluate existing The FHWA Memorandum provides a path to design new
bridge members that were previously classified as fracture-critical steel bridges, and evaluate existing steel bridges, that have non-
on the record design documents. When a refined analysis dem- load-path redundant tension members and adequate system-level
onstrates that a structure has adequate strength and stability suf- redundancy such that the bridge will not collapse and can safely
ficient to avoid partial or total collapse and carry traffic in the pres- support live load.
ence of a completely fractured member (by structural redundancy),
the member does not need to be considered fracture-critical for Determining SRMs
in-service inspection protocol and can be designated as an SRM. So where can a bridge owner or engineer get help on deter-
The criteria and procedures for the refined analysis and subse- mining SRMs? AASHTO’s Guide Specifications for Analysis and Iden-
quent evaluation should be agreed upon between the engineer and tification of Fracture Critical Members and System Redundant Mem-
owner. The assumptions and analyses conducted to support this bers (tinyurl.com/specanaid) is a tool that allows owners to take
determination need to become part of the permanent inspection advantage of previously unexploited system-level redundancy and
records or bridge file so that it can be revisited and adjusted as efficiently allocate resources to provide better infrastructural solu-
necessary to reflect changes in bridge conditions or loadings. Addi- tions to the public.
tionally, the owner must verify and document that the materials Released in 2018 and available at www.aashto.org, this new
and fabrication specifications of any existing bridge assessed for Guide Specifications document tackles a complex problem: charac-
structural redundancy would meet the FCP. Again, an SRM is a terizing the demand and capacity of a structure in which a primary
member that must be fabricated according to AWS D1.5 Clause steel tension member is assumed to have failed. For a system to
44 | OCTOBER 2020
be considered redundant, two fundamen-
tal concepts regarding load were followed.
First, the bridge cannot be expected to
operate as reliably in the faulted condition
as in the pristine condition. Second, the
bridge must be able to survive the failure
event and provide service in the faulted
state. A February 2020 Modern Steel Con-
struction article, “Revisiting Redundancy:
Part Two” (www.modernsteel.com), fur-
ther explains the new Guide Specifications.
Non-load-path redundant tension mem-
bers evaluated and meeting the criteria of the
Guide Specifications will be deemed acceptable
for consideration as SRMs in accordance
with the 2012 FHWA Memorandum. How-
ever, as noted previously, the owner is still
required to submit the detailed analysis and
evaluation conducted per the Guide Speci-
fications for review by the FHWA Office of
Bridges. While there may be an additional
design cost associated with the required anal-
ysis and evaluation, a life cycle cost savings
can be realized by the owner as SRMs do not
need the calendar-based hands-on in-service
inspections required for FCMs.
Alternative Path to
SRM Classification
The 2012 FHWA Memorandum does
allow bridge owners to choose an appro-
priate analysis and evaluation method on
their own for SRM classification and are
not necessarily bound to the Guide Specifi-
cations. Of course, the chosen analysis and
Need a PDH?
evaluation methods should be founded in Attend our Bolting
Webinar.
suitable research and investigation. Two
bridge owners have developed their own
methodology (that have been accepted by
the FHWA Office of Bridges and Struc- Since it’s a virtual
tures) and have been codified within the Lunch-n-Learn,
owner’s bridge design specifications for
future use. Two examples of how an owner
we donate a meal to Big Gap
can develop their own methodology and your local food bank
obtain FHWA acceptance are provided on your behalf.
Call for details.
in the following two articles. The first
involves the Texas Department of Trans-
portation (TxDOT) working in conjunc-
tion with the University of Texas at Austin
to develop and implement a methodology
to design and evaluate twin-tub (trapezoi-
dal box) girder bridges, that provides ade-
quate system redundancy in the unlikely
event of bottom tension flange and web
fracture. In the second example, the Wis- DuraSquirt DTIs ®
consin Department of Transportation

(WisDOT), working with Purdue Univer-
sity, has developed an approach to evalu-
ate system redundancy in existing and new 1 800 552 1999 info@appliedbolting.com
twin-tub girder bridge systems. 1 802 460 3100 appliedbolting.com

It is very important to note that other
bridge owners can adopt either of these meth-
ods, or other FHWA-approved SRM meth-
odologies, as their own, thereby avoiding
much of the administrative or technical crite-
ria required of the initial owner. The bridge
owner will need to obtain formal approval of
the chosen method from the FHWA Office of
Bridges and Structures in order to evaluate the
owner’s particular bridge or set of bridges.
The steel bridge industry has a long,
proven history of reliability, durability, and
sustainability. Decades of research have
resulted in further improvements to materi-
als, detailing practices, analysis tools, and fab-
rication processes that can be integrated with
an in-service inspection program that sup-
ports even more efficient and reliable steel
bridges. The classification of SRMs provides
many advantages to owners allowing them
to optimize designs, more efficiently manage
resources for in-service inspections, improve
inspection worker safety, and further increase
safety for the traveling public. ■
Again, see the following two articles for two

Milwaukee’s Marquette Interchange twin-tub girder bridge project (to read about it, see examples of how owners can develop their own
“Steel Bridge News” in the March 2007 issue at www.modernsteel.com). methodology and obtain FHWA acceptance.
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46 | OCTOBER 2020
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Redundancy
Made Simple BY CEM KORKMAZ, PHD, AND ROBERT CONNOR, PHD
Milwaukee’s “Zoo Interchange.”

Mulitple twin-tub girder bridges
were analzyed for the Purdue/
WisDOT study.
Image from Google Maps
STEEL TWIN-TUB-GIRDER BRIDGES have become a Eighteen multi-span twin-tub girder bridge units (a total of
popular choice for curved bridges, owing to their high tor- 2.4 miles and 70 spans) located in the state of Wisconsin DOT
sional rigidity. (WisDOT) were primarily used to develop this proposed simpli-
Currently, all two-girder bridges are classified as having frac- fied guidance along with knowledge gained by analyzing bridges
ture-critical members (FCMs), thus potentially subjecting them located in other states. Guide limitations were imposed on a
to expensive arm’s-length biennial field inspections. number of geometric characteristics to ensure future designs
However, recent research performed by Purdue University has exhibit similar behavior in the faulted state as the multi-span
resulted in a new, simplified approach for designing twin-tub girder twin-tub girder bridge units analyzed for the state of Wiscon-
bridges as having structurally redundant members (SRMs) without sin. The ratio of the length of the span (where the fracture is
the necessity of explicitly modeling fracture in a finite element anal- assumed to occur) to the pre-fracture dead load displacement
ysis (FEA). This approach was developed using the procedures, load- (of that span) was found to heavily influence the overall load
ing criteria, and failure criteria included in the AASHTO Guide Spec- redistribution characteristics of the bridge.
ifications for Analysis and Identification of Fracture Critical Members and Bottom line, if the simplified guidance is met, future twin-tub
System Redundant Members (hereafter referred to as the AASHTO girders can be automatically classified as having SRMs without
SRM Guide Specifications), meaning that bridges designed using this the necessity of explicitly modeling fracture via FEA. Thus, if
simplified approach will satisfy this document. The research showed a bridge is designed and detailed to meet the proposed criteria,
that twin-tub girder bridges often possess significant reserve capac- acceptable post-fracture behavior is ensured.
ity even when one girder is completely severed.
48 | OCTOBER 2020
Guide Limitations
Geometric limitations based on the types of bridges analyzed were developed to ensure
the desired post-fracture behavior would be achieved, and are as follows:
• Minimum of a two-span continuous composite bridge with properly detailed shear
studs (there is no upper limit on the number of continuous spans)
• Total deck width shall be no more than 50 ft and a maximum of three design lanes.
• Maximum center to center girder spacing is 25 ft A simplified approach
• Web vertical height must be between 60 in. and 90 in.
• Interior span lengths must be between 70 ft and 250 ft, and exterior lengths shall be for designing system-
between 100 ft and 200 ft
• Ratio of adjacent span length to assumed-fractured span length must be between redundant members
0.60 and 1.70
• The radius of curvature over the longest span length is no more than 1.85 in composite
• The bridge supports must all have a skew angle of less than 10°
The ratio of span length (LF) to pre-fracture (unfactored) dead load displacement continuous twin-tub
(DF) has been found to be a useful predictor in providing insight into the expected
post-fracture behavior. If the displacement is high compared to span length, there
will likely be moderate to significant inelastic behavior, and the methodology may
girder bridges.
not be able to accurately estimate the behavior. Based on the overall observed behav-
ior, it is apparent that as the flexibility of the bridge in the unfaulted stated increases,
so does the level of damage in the faulted state. In fact, the authors believe this is
somewhat intuitive. In order to ensure acceptable performance, a limit was selected
based on the worst (i.e., most flexible) performing bridge while adding some con-
servatism. Hence, using the limit of LF/DF ≥ 300, it has been determined that this
methodology can be applied. This same limit (i.e., LF/DF ≥ 300) can be conservatively
applied to interior spans as well.
Proposed Design Guidance

An attractive feature of this approach is that it simply uses the pre-fracture resistance
capacities under the AASHTO LRFD Strength I load combination and does not require
the engineer to explicitly model the fracture or identify the location that would be criti-
cal. This was considered during the development of the procedure and is effectively “built
into” the approach. The discussion below will show how post-fracture demands (i.e., those
due to Redundancy I and II in the faulted state required by the AASHTO SRM Guide
Specifications) are satisfied by setting additional limitations on the demand/capacity ratios
associated with the Strength I loading in the unfaulted state. As stated, this included 18
multi-span twin-tub girder bridge units in the state of Wisconsin. The FE analysis results
were used to obtain the post-fracture demand/capacity ratios under the Redundancy I and
II load combinations. These ratios were compared to the demand/capacity ratios under
the familiar Strength I load combination.
In many cases, the demand/capacity ratio in the faulted state under the Redundancy
load combinations were very low. In addition, in many cases, the demand/capacity ratio
in the faulted state under the Redundancy load combination was almost always less than
it was under Strength I in the unfaulted state. In a few isolated cases, the ratio in the Cem Korkmaz (ckorkmaz
faulted state exceeded the ratio in the unfaulted state, but only by a few percent. Hence, @purdue.edu) is a research
as will be shown, many failure modes listed below will not need to be considered under engineer, and Robert Connor
Redundancy load factors in the faulted state. The demand/capacity ratios under the (rconnor@purdue.edu) is the Jack
Strength I load combination do provide some insight into the outcome following a and Kay Hockema Professor and the
fracture. However, they cannot be used directly. In other words, one cannot simply Director of the S-BRITE Center (as
assume acceptable behavior if the Strength I demand/capacity ratios are less than 1.0 well as an AISC T.R. Higgins Award
in the unfaulted state. After a detailed evaluation of the data and all failure modes in the winner), both with the Lyles School
bridges, it was found that setting additional limits on the Strength I demand/capacity of Civil Engineering at Purdue
ratios in the unfaulted state resulted in acceptable performance (e.g., limiting D/C ≤ 0.8 University in West Lafayette, Ind.
for some limit state during design). The proposed guidance explicitly addresses all the
failure modes defined in the AASHTO SRM Guide Specifications though they are handled
“behind the scenes” to the user.
All the twin-tub girder bridges analyzed in Phase I have multiple full-depth & full-
width intermediate diaphragms and continuous spans. These features provide additional
load paths and help to make the bridges redundant, thereby avoiding many failure
modes that simple-span bridges and continuous bridges without full-depth and full-

width intermediate diaphragms are likely
to experience following the fracture of a
tub girder. Minimum section details and
the locations and number of intermediate
diaphragms needed to ensure adequate
load transfer in the faulted state are stipu-
lated in the methodology.
Further, the following twin-tub girder
members and/or components shall be
designed as a minimum to satisfy:
1. The shear stud provisions
2. The provisions for intermediate
diaphragms
3. The bottom flange buckling
resistance provisions
4. The maximum positive moment
flexural resistance
The study revealed that the following
failure modes need not be explicitly con-
sidered under the Redundancy load factors
in the faulted state if the above are satisfied:
1. Web shear buckling
2. Deck related failure modes due to
flexure, shear, and torsion
3. Support bearing failure due to
excessive reactions and excessive
horizontal displacements
4. Excessive vertical displacement in
the faulted state
5. Brace failures
Shear Stud Provision

Properly designed and detailed studs
have also been shown to be critical in the
post-fracture performance of twin-tub
girder bridges. The superior ability of
composite steel bridges to transfer load is
documented in “Modeling the Response
of Fracture Critical Steel Box-Girder
Bridges,” Report No. FHWA/TX-10/9-
5498-1, which was based on full-scale
experiments in a simple-span twin-tub
Typical 3D FEA
girder bridge that underwent failure of models used to evaluate
the bottom flange and webs of one of the system redundancy for a
tub girders. In order to increase ductility twin-tub girder bridge.
for concrete breakout capacity, shear studs
shall extend a minimum of 2 in. above the
bottom layer of reinforcement. The pro-
posed methodology specifies the required L/500. Therefore, it was proposed that the first diaphragm be placed as close as practi-
placement and geometry of intermediate cal to the location where the pre-fracture dead load deflection is less than L/500 to
diaphragms to avoid shear stud pull-out. It avoid shear stud failure.
is also noted that the behavior of the shear It was found that when all other criteria contained in these proposed guidelines are
studs (i.e., the tension demand) was found satisfied, the normal AASHTO shear stud design will ensure adequate performance
to be directly affected by the pre-fracture in the faulted state. Since the greatest longitudinal spacing that was included in the
(unfactored) dead load displacement at study was 22 in., this was selected as an upper limit when three shear studs are used
the location where the first intermedi- transversely. In cases where two studs are to be placed transversely, it is proposed to
ate diaphragm is located. There were no simply use a maximum longitudinal spacing for two studs that is 2⁄3 of the maximum
other failures in any of the bridges evalu- longitudinal spacing used for three studs, or 14 in. (2⁄3 × 22 in. = approximately 14 in.).
ated when the first diaphragm was located Based on the AASHTO SRM Guide Specifications, the minimum distance between the
where the dead deflection was less than outermost stud and the haunch edge should be 1.5 in.
50 | OCTOBER 2020
Provisions for Intermediate
Diaphragms
The load after fracture is primarily
redistributed from the faulted girder to
the intact girder through the intermedi-
ate diaphragms. The diaphragms were
capable of transferring both shear and
moment during post-fracture behavior,
and in most cases had substantial reserve
strength themselves. Further, the FEA also
confirmed these diaphragms also possessed
adequate stiffness to transfer the load to
the intact girder. Results indicated that the
top and bottom flanges of the diaphragms
should be at least the same as the smallest
top flange used in the longer exterior span
girder. While this is conservative, it will
provide adequate stiffness and hence load A sample twin-tub girder bridge cross section.
distribution. Similarly, it is also proposed
that the web sections of the diaphragms be
equal to the minimum web section of the 2. reduce the post-fracture moment at the pier; 3. minimize the damage to the deck; and
longer exterior span exterior girder. The 4. eliminate shear stud pull-out failures. It is also very important to note that the number
connections should be designed using nor- and locations of the diaphragms have a significant influence on the distribution of the
mal AASHTO procedures. negative moment transferred to the pier between the girders. In short, the deck alone is
The optimal number and location of not capable of reliably distributing the moments between the fractured and intact girder
the diaphragms in a span were studied to when considering the negative moment at the pier. (While the deck may possess strength
understand how to 1. distribute the loads through yield line analysis, it does not provide enough stiffness to transfer the load to the
between the intact and fractured spans; intact girder as the thin deck is far less stiff than the tub girders themselves.)
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The parametric study has confirmed that properly spaced and should be placed symmetrically with the first diaphragm within
detailed diaphragms are required in multi-span bridges. It was the span. For interior spans, two intermediate diaphragms should
found that the placement and quantity of the intermediate dia- be placed as close as is practical to the third points of the span. The
phragms can be easily determined in relation to the pre-fracture intermediate diaphragms of interior spans should possess the same
dead load deflection. For exterior spans, if the dead load deflection cross-section as the exterior span diaphragms.
at 30% of the span length (0.3L) from the abutment is less than or
equal to L/500, two intermediate diaphragms are recommended. Bottom Flange Buckling Resistance in Negative
The first diaphragm should be placed between 0.3L and 0.4L and Moment Region
should not be located beyond the location where the displacement The parametric study has demonstrated that bottom flange
is equivalent to L/500. The second diaphragm should be placed local buckling in the negative moment region is the most likely
symmetrically within the same span. If the deflection at 30% of failure mode in the faulted state due to the redistribution of posi-
the span length (0.3L) is more than L/500, the study found that tive moment (to the negative moment region) in the span that con-
a minimum of three intermediate diaphragms should be placed in tained the assumed fracture. It is also important to note that the
the span. The first diaphragm should be placed as close as prac- most critical section is wherever the bottom flange section changes,
tical to the location where the deflection is L/500. The second such as at a flange transition to a thinner section away from the
diaphragm should be placed at mid-span. The third diaphragm pier, as shown in Figure 1 (next page). Obviously, the thinner sec-
tion’s capacity needs to be sufficient to avoid local bottom flange
buckling in the post-fracture behavior. In order to eliminate this
Thinner section bottom flange buckling at the form of failure, locations of flange thickness changes are recom-
section change in the fracture girder mended as a function of span length in the approach. Thus, using a
Fracture very simple criterion, this failure mode can be prevented.
It has also been observed that the maximum pre-fracture dead
load displacement is a strong indicator of the potential for bottom
flange buckling in the faulted state. According to the AASHTO
Report A Simplified Approach for Designing SRMs in Composite Con-
tinuous Twin-Tub Girder Bridges, there is really no need to check
the sections between the pier for a distance of 0.2L away from
this pier, since all of the demand/capacity ratios under Strength I
Fig. 1. A thinner section local bottom flange buckling
at the section change in a fractured span. are generally higher than those produced in the faulted state using
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52 | OCTOBER 2020
the Redundancy load combinations. Thus, no additional criteria rior girder under Strength I load combinations is less than 0.8, no
appear needed in this region. However, to avoid the high demand/ plasticity was observed in intact girder for post-fracture behavior.
capacity ratios in the faulted state at a flange transition between It is therefore proposed to limit the pre-fracture demand/capacity
0.2L and 0.3L away from a pier, the pre-fracture demand/capacity ratio to less than or equal to 0.8 for both girders.
ratio should be less than 0.7 for the Strength I load combination.
The sections more than 0.3L away from a pier do not need to Easy, Reliable Design
be checked. Additional FE analysis was evaluated on the critical- The simplified guideline and associated design checks will ensure
ity of buckling in the negative moment region when a fracture is that newly designed twin-tub girder bridges meet the requirements
assumed to occur within an interior span. Due to the double can- of AASHTO SRM Guide Specifications without the need for full non-
tilever behavior at an interior span, the effects were found to be linear FEA. The updated method was developed using these specifi-
insignificant and do not need to be considered. In summary, it was cations and approved by FHWA for analysis and design of twin-tub
observed that fracture in an end or exterior span was more critical girder bridges. Thus, the simple guidance in this project is sufficient
than a fracture within an interior span. to classify continuous composite twin-tub girder bridges within the
above stated geometric limitations as having SRMs.
Flexural Yielding in Positive Moment Region of Flanges The methodology requires future twin-tub girder bridges to
in Intact Girder have intermediate diaphragms in order to be redundant. The full-
After fracture occurs, a significant amount of the load is redis- depth intermediate diaphragms used by WisDOT also appear to
tributed from the fractured girder to the intact girder. In the frac- reduce the likelihood of shear stud failures, bottom flange buckling
tured span, the positive moment flexural resistance of the intact at (or close to) support, deck and parapet crushing, deck reinforce-
girder should be checked. The most critical location for this ment yielding, lateral brace failing, and torsional buckling in the
check is at the maximum positive moment closest to the assumed intact girders. These diaphragms were shown to be very effective
fracture. When the intact girder substantially exceeds its elastic in transferring load in the faulted condition and significantly con-
moment capacity, the post-fracture moment redistribution is dif- tributed to the excellent system performance of the bridges in the
ficult to estimate with simplified methods. For example, a consid- Wisconsin inventory.
erable amount of plasticity in the positive moment region causes The guideline provided in Appendix-A of the AASHTO Report
more moment to be redistributed to the cross sections close to the (see A Simplified Approach for Designing SRMs in Composite Con-
pier. The overall method developed herein ensures there will be tinuous Twin-Tub Girder Bridges for more information) presents a
little-to-no yielding in the positive moment region of the intact method on how twin-tub girder bridges can be easily and reliably
girder. When the pre-fracture demand/capacity ratio in the exte- designed as redundant structures. ■
LAST CALL!
Did you work on a remarkable project that featured structural steel and opened
on or after January 1, 2018? Enter it for an AISC IDEAS² Award and
show it off nationwide! Entries close on October 15, 2020.
enter now at aisc.org/ideas2
2021
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2020 National Award
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Daytona Beach, Fla. Innovative Design in Engineering and
Photo: Brad Feinknopf Architecture with Structural Steel

Lone Star State
Redundancy
Update
BY JAMIE F. FARRIS, PE, JOHN HOLT, PE,
KARL FRANK, PE, PhD, AND GREG TURCO, PE
Riveting research results in

redundancy revelations
in Texas.
54 | OCTOBER 2020
A COMMON BRIDGE TYPE historically assumed to
include fracture-critical members (FCMs), based on a sim-
plistic load-path redundancy assessment, is the steel twin-
tub girder bridge.
These bridges consist of two steel box girders, fre-
quently trapezoidal-shaped, and a concrete deck and are
a very effective solution for curved ramps and connec-
tors in multi-level interchanges. The two bottom flanges
and webs of a steel twin-tub-girder bridge are considered
to be fracture-critical elements in the positive bending
moment region.
Texas has more than 480 existing twin-tub girder spans
currently in use, and the Texas Department of Transporta-
tion (TxDOT) spends more than $2.3 million every two
years inspecting twin-tub girder spans—not including traf-
fic control costs, which can be up to $2,000 per span per
day for a fracture-critical bridge (FCB) inspection. This
added expense of the field inspections limits the use of
what is a very efficient structural system.
Thanks to recent research, a simplified method for
evaluating system redundancy in two-tub girder span
bridges has been added to the state’s bridge design policy.
The TxDOT Bridge Design Manual–LRFD now presents an
LRFD-based methodology to design spans with two tub
girders in cross section such that the span will continue to
safely carry traffic after the fracture of one of the girders.
The probability of such a fracture for tub girders designed
for infinite fatigue life is considered exceedingly small in
comparison to the bridge’s design life. Therefore, the Texas
method addresses the design of a simulated fracture as an
extreme event limit state.
UT Twin-Tub Research
Several historical events have shown that severe dam-
age can occur to a bridge without resulting in its col-
lapse. Early research into multiple incidents, including a
full-depth fracture of in-service fracture-critical bridges
(FCB), suggests that in some cases, a redundant load path
does exist for some FCBs. To address concerns that cur- Jamie F. Farris is the Bridge
rent provisions do not reflect the performance of steel Division deputy director and
twin-tub girders during a fracture event, TxDOT and the Greg Turco is a Bridge Design
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) sponsored a Group leader, both with the Texas
research project at the University of Texas at Austin to Department of Transportation.
characterize the level of redundancy that exists in a steel John Holt is a senior project
twin-tub girder bridge. The main goal of Research Proj- manager/regional director with
ect 0-5498: “Modeling the Response of Fracture Critical Modjeski and Masters, and
Steel Box Girder Bridges” was to develop guidelines for Karl Frank is a professor emeritus
modeling a bridge’s behavior in the event that a critical at the University of Texas at Austin,
bottom tension flange fractures. The research included and a consultant.
To address concerns
that current provisions
a combination of laboratory testing, experimental evalu-
do not reflect the ation of a full-scale tub girder bridge, and detailed struc-
performance of steel tural analysis.
twin-tub girders dur- The tested bridge was taken out of service and recon-
ing a fracture event,
TxDOT and the FHWA structed at the Ferguson Structural Engineering Labo-
sponsored a research ratory (FSEL) at UT to evaluate the redundancy after a
project at UT Austin to series of tests. The experimental bridge’s geometry rep-
characterize the level
resented a worst-case scenario, as it was a 120-ft-long
of redundancy that
exists in a steel twin- horizontally curved simple-span bridge with no external
tub girder bridge. diaphragms. The first test included using a linear shape-

charge explosive to rapidly cut through the entire width of the the jack system were rapidly cut using explosives, which released
bottom flange of the outside girder, simulating a fracture of the the energy stored in the jacks instantaneously. In its damaged
flange, with the equivalent of an HS-20 truckload positioned at state, the mid-span of the girder deflected 7 in., while the deck
the most severe location over the fracture. A second test on the had a maximum deflection of 3.8 in. The final, third test was con-
bridge included a simulated full-depth fracture of the outside ducted to define the ultimate load that the bridge could sustain in
girder webs. The bridge was lifted to its original position and tem- the damaged state. The bridge was incrementally statically loaded
porarily supported by using an external jack system. The equiva-
lent HS-20 truckload was positioned to have the highest possible
bending moment acting at the fracture location, and the webs of A test simulating a full-depth fracture of the outside girder webs of a
the damaged girder were then cut using a torch. The tie-rods of twin-tub girder bridge.
56 | OCTOBER 2020
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until it collapsed—after 182 tons of weight
was placed on the deck.
The three tests on the experimen-
tal bridge clearly demonstrated system
redundancy. Data gathered from the
experimental testing program were used
to validate nonlinear finite element mod-
els and develop a simplified procedure to
assess the redundancy of steel twin-tub
girder bridges in Texas. (For more details
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The study’s third test, in which a bridge was incrementally loaded until it collapsed—after 182 tons of weight was placed on the deck.
on the tests, see the expanded version of this article in the digi- FHWA to discuss a path to move forward addressing steel twin-
tal edition of this issue at www.modernsteel.com.) tub girder bridges using the proposed analytical modeling meth-
ods proposed in the 0-5498 research. The research includes a
Redundancy Case Studies simple method, which assumes a full-depth fracture in one of the
Following a memorandum that introduced the new member two girders, for analyzing steel twin-tub girder bridges. TxDOT
classification of system redundancy member (SRMs) (see the arti- bridge design engineers analyzed three existing steel twin-tub
cle “That’s Not Fracture-Critical” on page 42), TxDOT met with bridges using the simplified modeling procedure developed in
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58 | OCTOBER 2020
the 0-5498 research. The three TxDOT Table 1 Bridge Geometries for Case Studies
case studies represented typical highway
flyover steel twin-tub girder bridge con- Overall Girder Centerline
figurations. Table 1 summarizes the bridge Year Span
Deck Depth Structure
geometry for each bridge. Designed Lengths (ft)
Width (ft) (ft) Radius (ft)
The three TxDOT case studies rep- Case 1 1998 148 – 265 – 190 30 6.5 716
resented typical highway flyover steel
Case 2 2007 199 – 243 – 179 28 6 1,033
twin-tub girder bridge configurations.
The results of the redundancy case studies
indicated that the intact girders had suffi- led TxDOT to develop language for its own bridge design policy manual and sub-
cient bending capacity as well as adequate mit to FHWA for approval. Through several conversations and correspondence with
deck shear strength and shear stud tensile TxDOT and FHWA, the TxDOT design methodology to design twin-tub girders for
capacity. In all cases, the intact girder failed system redundancy was approved by FHWA in late 2019. The FHWA approval means
in combined torsion and shear at the sup- a steel twin-tub girder bridge designed according to TxDOT’s design methodology
ports, but the margin of inadequacy was and submitted to TxDOT for approval is recognized as system-redundant by FHWA.
small. Compared to the 0-5498 experimen-
tal bridge, the three TxDOT study cases
had longer span lengths and a sharper hori-
zontal curvature, which lead to a greater
dead load, larger eccentricity, and therefore
higher torsion and shear at support loca-
tions. In addition, none of the three cases
passed the simplified method criteria at
the support girder section’s shear capacity
check due to the large torque and shear
forces. However, none of the cases failed
due to a lack of shear stud tensile capacity.
This led TxDOT to believe that new steel
twin-tub girder bridges could be designed
and detailed for system redundancy by
accounting for the large torque and shear
forces. Thus, they would not be considered
fracture-critical.
Texas Steel Quality Council Now available:

Task Group
In September of 2016, the Texas
Steel Quality Council (TSQC) insti-
tuted a Twin-Tub Task Group to develop
SJI 45th edition
LRFD-based design specifications that
would govern the analysis and design
of non-fracture-critical steel twin-tub
girder spans. The task group member- FULLY UPDATED STANDARD JOIST SPECIFICATIONS
ship reflected the overall structure of the Expedite project specification. Cut down costly RFIs. Design
TSQC, with 17 members participating. quicker and more efficiently.
The TSQC was originally established in
Newly updated with all the load tables, specifications and
1995 and is a joint owner-industry forum
made up of TxDOT inspectors, design- standards you need for successful steel joist and deck projects.
ers, fabrication, erection engineers, INTERACTIVE PDF
VERSION 3.1
consultant engineers, FHWA bridge

engineers, academics, steel bridge fabri- [ FREE DOWNLOAD:
newmill.com/loadtables
cators, detailers, trade association repre-
sentatives, and steel mill representatives.
Through the effort of the task group,
an AASHTO Ballot Item was developed Design Guide
Standard Joists
and presented at several industry and • Fully updated to SJI 45th Edition Standard Specifications
• Load and weight tables for K, LH, DLH-Series and Joist Girders
• Economical Design Guide load tables for lowest cost joist selection
AASHTO meetings around the nation.

In the end, AASHTO was not ready to
put language in the specifications specifi-
cally for twin-tub girder bridges, which

above: One of Texas’ nearly 500 twin-tub girder bridges currently in service.
below: Table 2 Supplement to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 to Include Extreme Event III
DC Use One of These at a Time

DD
DW
EH
EV
ES
Load
PS
Combination
CR
Limit State
SH LL
IM
CE
BR
PL
LS WA WS WL FR TU TG SE EQ BL IC CT CV
Extreme
γp 1.10 1.00 — — 1.00 — — — — 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Event III
TxDOT Design Methodology

nent failure. Tables 2 and 3 supplement AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1
The TxDOT Bridge Design Manual—LRFD presents an LRFD-
and Table 3.4.1-2, respectively:
based methodology to design spans with two tub girders in cross sec-
tion such that the span will not collapse if one of the girders fractures. Table 3 Supplement to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 to Include Load
The bridge is designed as it normally would be, using the fol- Factors for Extreme Event III
lowing limit states and exceptions:
Type of Load, Foundation Load Factor
• Design for Strength Limit State using a Redundancy Factor, Type, and Method Used to
ηR = 1.05 Calculate Downdrag Maximum Minimum
• Design for Service Limit State DC: Components and
• Design for Infinite Fatigue life for Fatigue and Fracture Attachments for the
Limit State evaluation of system
redundancy as specified 1.10 0.90
Next, the bridge is designed for member failure. The bottom
in the TxDOT Bridge Design
flange in tension of the critical girder and the webs attached to that Manual–LRFD,
flange are assumed to be fully fractured at the location of the maxi- for Extreme Event III only
mum factored tensile stress in the bottom flange determined using
Strength I load combination. In order to create the worst-case load- All load effects during an assumed fracture event due to both
ing scenario, the girder assumed to be fractured is chosen based on permanent and assumed transient loads are then amplified by a
its position in the cross section relative to the traffic lanes and its factor of 1.20 to simulate the dynamic effects of a fracture on the
eccentricity to the deck and railing. If the span under consideration twin tub girder span(s).
is horizontally curved, the girder with the largest radius is assumed to Two types of analysis can be used to evaluate Extreme Event III:
be the fractured girder, and the investigation for system redundancy • Approximate structural analysis, as described in Research
is limited to end spans of continuous units and all simple spans. Report 5498-1: Modeling the Response of Fracture Critical Steel
The probability of such a fracture for tub girders designed for Box-Girder Bridges, and the simplified method, as described in
infinite fatigue life is considered exceedingly small compared to the TxDOT Bridge Design Guide, for two tub girder bridges
the bridge’s design life. Therefore, the TxDOT method addresses are permitted when:
the design of a simulated fracture with the extreme event limit • Spans do not exceed 250 ft
state. TxDOT revises the AASHTO definition of Extreme Event • Supports are skewed no more than 20°
Limit State to include structural member or component failure. A • Horizontal curvature greater than 700 ft
new load combination is introduced as Extreme Event III, which • The engineer ascertains that the use of an approximate
is defined as a load combination relating to a structural or compo- analysis method is adequate
59.1 | OCTOBER 2020
For the approximate analysis to be permitted for spans sat-
isfying the conditions specified above, the entire self-weight
of the span under consideration and the entire live load is
assumed to be carried by the intact girder after the assumed
fracture event. It is assumed that prior to fracture, the frac-
tured girder was carrying 50% of the total dead load and the
entire live load on the bridge, and thus it is assumed that the
bridge slab must transfer this load from the fractured girder
to the intact girder.
• Refined structural analysis, as described in Research Report
5498-1, accounts for the capacity of the intact girder as Fig 1. Deflected shape and moment diagram before any failure of
shear studs.
well as portions of the fractured girder that can still provide
structural resistance, such as interior support locations. The
load distribution between the intact girder and the fractured
girder is realistically modeled. A table of live load distribu-
End diaphragms and their connection to both tub girders are also
tion coefficients for extreme force effects in each span is not
checked to ensure adequate resistance to the torque applied to the
required when evaluating system redundancy, as specified in
intact girder after the assumed fracture event under Extreme Event
the TxDOT Bridge Design Manual.
III load combination. Stud shear connectors connecting the deck to
A structurally continuous railing, barrier, or median barrier, act-
the assumed fractured girder are designed to have sufficient tension
ing compositely with the supporting components, may be consid-
capacity to develop the plastic beam mechanism in the bridge deck
ered structurally active at Extreme Limit State III when evaluating
after the assumed fracture event. All shear connectors are detailed to
system redundancy as specified in the TxDOT Bridge Design Manual.
extend above the bottom mat of deck reinforcement.
Under Extreme Event III, live load includes both truck and lane
The radius of curvature must be considered for the intact tub
load. The truck is positioned on the bridge deck directly above the
girder. A decrease in the radius of curvature increases the torsion
presumed fracture location to cause the most severe internal stresses
on the bridge, which must be resisted by the intact girder in the
to develop in the assumed intact girder. Consistent with the experi-
event of a fracture of a critical tension flange. Under such condi-
mental testing program described in Research Report 5498-1, the
tions, the eccentricity should be computed as the distance from
number, width, and location of design lanes are taken as the number,
the center of gravity of the loads to the line of the intact girder
width, and location of striped traffic lanes on the bridge. If the future
interior supports. The center of gravity for non-prismatic girders
lane configuration is known at the time of design, it should also be
can be determined by using equations in Guidance for Erection and
considered when evaluating redundancy. It is considered overly con-
Construction of Curved I-Girder Bridges (Technical Report FHWA/
servative to place additional live load in a striped shoulder to repre-
TX-10/0-5574-1) modified for the case of tub girders. This applied
sent a parked or disabled truck when evaluating system redundancy.
torque is resisted by a couple generated by the bearings of the two
The 1.10 live load factor in the Extreme Event III limit state is con-
girders—i.e., bearing reactions. The reaction at the bearing of the
sidered appropriate for determining system redundancy because of
fractured girder is equal to the torque applied to the intact girder
the very low probability of fracture of one steel tub girder in a twin-
divided by the distance between the bearings of the two girders.
tub girder superstructure cross section that has been designed for
If two bearings per girder are used, then the torque applied to the
infinite fatigue life.
intact girder could be distributed to its two bearings.
The intact tub girder and portions of the fractured girder that
can still resist load are checked for adequate flexural and shear
Diaphragms
resistance after the assumed fracture event under Extreme Event
TxDOT requires steel twin-tub girder bridges to include
III load combination, according to the provisions of the AASHTO
internal and external diaphragms at all supports. The diaphragms
Articles. The flexural resistance of the intact girder in regions of
and connections must be designed to resist the torsional moment
positive and negative flexure needs to be checked after the assumed
in the assumed intact girder, and also to transmit vertical and
fracture event to ensure that the girder can sustain the load trans-
lateral forces to the bearings during and after an assumed frac-
ferred from the fractured girder in conjunction with the self-weight
ture event. In addition, they must be designed to act compositely
of the intact composite girder. For shear, St. Venant torsional
with the slab with shear connectors. Also, at least two perma-
shears are included in the calculation of Vu, where applicable. The
nent external intermediate diaphragms, designed according to
concrete deck is also checked for adequate shear resistance to resist
AASHTO and Extreme Event III, must be provided on each side
the shear due to torsion after the assumed fracture event under the
of the location of maximum factored tensile stress in the bot-
Extreme Event III load combination. Figure 1 depicts the deflected
tom flange in the span under consideration determined using
shape of the concrete deck and bending moment diagram, assum-
Strength I load combination. This is intended to enhance sys-
ing that the shear studs have adequate tensile capacity. The bridge
tem redundancy by providing additional load paths on each side
deck is a vital link in the transfer of load from the fractured girder
of the assumed fracture location. In Texas, external intermediate
to the intact girder, and the shear studs connecting the deck to the
bracing elements are sometimes removed after the deck place-
fractured girder must also have sufficient tension capacity. The use
ment for aesthetic purposes, but with the new requirements they
of empirical deck design is prohibited due to a lack of research on
must permanently remain in the structure to provide additional
the behavior of this type of deck design and system redundancy of
load paths in the event of a fracture.
steel twin-tub girder bridges.
Modern Steel Construction | 59.2

+1-740-642-3600 Detailing
www.infosight.com TxDOT also requires several detail-
sales@infosight.com ing criteria when designing steel twin-tub
girder bridges for system redundancy. All
details on both tub girders, except for drain
holes in the bottom flange and details on
KettleTag®PLUS the bracing members, are detailed to have
a fatigue resistance based on Detail Cat-
egory C’ or higher. Drain holes in the bot-
tom flange (Category D) are detailed to be
located at least 20 ft from the location of
the maximum tensile stress in the flange
determined using the Strength I load com-
bination. Positive restraint and adequate
support lengths are provided to keep the
superstructure on the substructure after
the assumed fracture event. Bearings do
not need to be evaluated for this limit
state. Finally, structurally continuous bar-
rier railings at least 32 in. in height must
be provided and should be considered to
be structurally active for the analysis at the
Extreme Event III limit state.
Fabrication and Inspection

Twin-tub girder spans satisfying the
system redundancy requirements of the
TxDOT Bridge Design Manual—LRFD
The Only Tag That Survives The Galvanizing Process are assumed to possess adequate system
redundancy at Extreme Event III Limit
State. Members or portions within spans
that would otherwise have been classi-
Digital Manual Sale! fied as fracture-critical, when evaluated

based on load path redundancy alone, are
Get 50% Off a One-Year Subscription instead designated in the contract docu-
ments as SRMs. They are also not subject
to the hands-on in-service inspection pro-
tocol for FCMs described in 23 CFR 650.
The SRMs are fabricated according to the
American Welding Society (AWS) D1.5:
Bridge Welding Code fracture-control plan
(FCP).
Moving Forward
Future twin-tub spans will be designed
with the updated methodology and classi-
fied as SRMs. TxDOT is currently devel-
oping in-house spreadsheet tools to allow
for the simple application of the approxi-
mate analysis method per research project
0-5498. In addition, prototype models are
under development to provide guidance
aisc.org/publications for future redundancy evaluations. A future
goal is to have all existing twin-tub girder
spans evaluated for redundancy using this
methodology. The implementation of this
Smarter. Stronger. Steel. methodology will result in twin-tub girder
American Institute of Steel Construction bridges that are more economical, as the
life-cycle costs of future inspections are
312.670.2400 | www.aisc.org
reduced with the SRM classification. ■
60 | OCTOBER 2020
AISC
Night School Class begins October 6
Structural Stability:
Behavior and Practice presented by
Ronald D. Ziemian, PE, PhD, and Craig Quadrato, PE, PhD
Tuesday nights | 7:00 p.m. Eastern Time

Eight sessions presented as 90 minute webinars.
Earn up to 12 PDHs.
Topics will include stability of:

• compression members
• flexural members
• beam-columns
• systems
The course will feature:

• Review of the fundamentals of stability
• Active learning, using freely distributed
analysis software
• Discussion of case studies from practice
involving stability
This Night School is

brought to you by AISC
and the Structural Stability
Research Council.
aisc.org/nightschool
news & events
HSS
A Totally Tubular Resource People and Companies
While HSS (hollow structural sections) design manuals—that engineers, fabricators, • A S C E ’s newest publication,
are increasingly specified for columns and service centers would find valuable,” said Composite Special Moment
and bracing, availability is still a concern Kim Olson, a consulting engineer at STI. Frames: Wide Flange Beam
with some designers. To help alleviate this In addition to its Capability Tool, to Concrete-Filled Steel
issue, the Steel Tube Institute (STI) has STI offers an extensive resource library C o l u m n C o n n e c t i o n s , p ro -
developed a new tool to indicate which on its website (steeltubeinstitute.org/ vides a state-of-the-art over-
sizes are most often produced in the U.S. resources-overview/resources/). Topics view for designing connections
The free capability tool can be accessed at range from composite column connections to for composite special moment
steeltubeinstitute.org/hollow-structural- CJP HSS welds. In all, the library offers nearly frames (C-SMFs), focusing on
sections/capability-tool/. 150 free articles, papers, and brochures. beam-to-column moment con-
“This tool was designed to help specifi- “Another good resource is our e-news- nections for both continuous
ers and those within the steel supply chain letter,” Olson added. The newsletter is sent beam and continuous column
locate producers of specific sizes of HSS,” out eight times per year and contains infor- connections, and C-SMFs with
explained Joseph Anderson, STI’s execu- mation about technical articles and recent rectangular or circular con-
tive director. “To use, simply designate the developments in HSS design and availabil- crete-filled tube (CFT) columns.
size (or range), material grade (ASTM A500 ity. You can subscribe to the newsletter at Prepared by the Composite
B/C, A1085, or A1065) then click on the steeltubeinstitute.org/email-sign-up/. Construction Committee of the
search button. A chart will display indicat- “As STI continues to increase our efforts, Metals Technical Administrative
ing the sizes that are produced by STI mem- we feel it is essential to hear from you: Committee, the book provides
ber companies. Click on any square to view the design community and supply chain,” an experimental database of
which STI producers currently manufacture Anderson said. STI is specifically seeking 165 tests conducted on beam-
or can manufacture the size requested.” input on the following questions: to-column connections for
STI not only represents manufacturers • What can we create that will help you C-SMFs, design equations, and
of products like HSS, steel conduit, stan- as it pertains to HSS? examples for estimating the
dard pipe, and mechanical tubing—as well • What resources do you need that you panel zone shear strength of
as provides code and standard support—but do not have? double split-tee. You can pur-
also serves as a resource for end users of • What topics should we expand on? chase it via the ASCE Bookstore
HSS and conduit. Everyone who submits input by October at ascelibrary.org.
“Over the last eight years, we have focused 31 will be entered in a drawing to win one
much of our efforts on developing specific of two $50 Visa gift cards. Please send any • DeSimone has welcomed
resources—like webinars, e-newsletters, and input to hssinfo@steeltubeinstitute.org. Joseph Castellano, PE, as a new
director in the firm’s risk man-
PUBLIC REVIEWS agement services practice. As a
licensed Professional Engineer
Seismic Provisions, Code, Structural Stainless and a construction professional,
Steel Spec All Available for Public Review Mr. Castellano has held leader-
Public review periods for the 2021 or 2022 and available in 2021, and the Seismic Pro- ship positions at major firms in
editions of three AISC publications are all visions and Code are expected to be com- the construction, real estate, and
underway or will be soon: the AISC Seismic pleted and available in 2022. Review copies insurance industries, focusing on
Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings (AISC are also available (for a $35 charge) by call- construction advisory, forensic
341), the AISC Code of Standard Practice ing 312.670.5411. insurance and contract claims,
(AISC 303), and the AISC Specification for Please submit comments using the and litigation advisory. He has
Structural Stainless Steel Buildings (AISC 370). forms provided online. You can also sub- served clients, both public and
The Seismic Provisions draft is available for mit Seismic Provisions and Structural Stain- private, across multiple market
public review until October 16. A draft of the less Steel Specification comments to Cynthia sectors, including healthcare,
Code is available for public review from Octo- J. Duncan, AISC’s director of engineering hospitality, transportation, retail,
ber 1 until October 31. Finally, a draft of the (duncan@aisc.org), by October 16 and higher education, industrial, and
Structural Stainless Steel Specification will be November 11, respectively, for consid- manufacturing.
available from October 14 to November 11. eration. Code comments can be submit-
Drafts of all three publications and ted to Jonathan Tavarez, secretary of the
their respective review forms are available Committee on Code of Standard Practice
at aisc.org/publicreview. The Structural (tavarez@aisc.org), by October 31 for
Stainless Steel Specification will be completed consideration.
62 | OCTOBER 2020
news & events
ENGINEERING JOURNAL
Fourth Quarter 2020 EJ Now Available
The fourth quarter 2020 issue of AISC’s predict flexural strength exhibited an aver- brace spacing of Lb per Section D1.2a for
Engineering Journal is now available. (You age error of 5% compared to the tests. The moderately ductile members. Instead of
can access this issue as well as past issues SCB was shown to have exceptional defor- using Equation D1-2, which is applicable
at aisc.org/ej.) Below is a summary of this mation capacity as the specimens were to I-shaped beams only, equations for
issue, which includes articles on self-center- subjected to as much as 6% story drift, and SCCS columns have been derived for both
ing beam moment frames, special cantilever the detailing was shown effective at con- I-shaped members and rectangular HSS or
column systems, and continuity plates. centrating inelasticity in the replaceable box-shaped members. The proposed revi-
energy dissipating elements. The proposed sion provides specific situations when brac-
Experimental Investigation of a Self- design procedure is shown to be capable of ing is required.
Centering Beam Moment Frame controlling the story drift associated with
Matthew R. Eatherton and Abhilasha Maurya undesirable limit states, limiting story drifts Steel Structures Research Update:
The self-centering beam (SCB) is a at zero force (eliminate residual drifts), Continuity Plate Design for Special
shop-fabricated unit that can be imple- and producing no observable inelasticity and Intermediate Moment Frames
mented in moment-resisting frames using outside the energy-dissipating element at Judy Liu
conventional field construction methods to design-level drifts. Recent advances in continuity plate
minimize permanent residual drifts after design for special and intermediate
earthquakes and concentrate seismic dam- Technical Note: Unbraced Length moment frames are highlighted. The fea-
age in replaceable elements. An experimen- Requirements for Steel Special tured research includes a comprehensive
tal program was conducted on five SCB Cantilever Column Systems experimental and computational study
specimens that were approximately two- Robert J. Walter and Chia-Ming Uang by Dr. Chia-Ming Uang and Dr. Mathew
thirds scale relative to a prototype build- AISC Seismic Provisions Section E6.4b Reynolds. Chia-Ming Uang is a professor
ing. The results showed that the beam end for steel special cantilever column sys- of structural engineering at the Univer-
moments are not equal, as much as 60% tems (SCCS) requires clarification based sity of California, San Diego (UCSD). Dr.
different at peak moment, so total flex- on inquiries to the AISC Steel Solutions Reynolds completed this research as his
ural strength, calculated as the sum of the Center. In the 2016 edition, it is unclear if doctoral work at UCSD under Dr. Uang’s
moments at both ends, is a better way to bracing is required for all special cantile- guidance and is now working as a bridge
characterize SCB flexural strength. Using ver columns or for columns with unbraced engineer for Kiewit in Burnaby, British
this approach, the proposed equation to lengths that exceed the maximum beam Columbia, Canada.
FLASH STEEL CONFERENCE

AISC to Host First CONSTRUCTION COLLABORATION
Flash Steel Conference Design Assist or Delegated Design?
this Month Industry Experts Release Recommended Guidance
Registration is now open for The Flash Over the past few years, AISC and the result in contrasting expectations amongst
Steel Conference! American Institute of Architects (AIA) project participants. Thus, the two orga-
Taking place October 20-22, this new and have worked together to study design nizations set their goals for the paper:
fall conference will deliver 20 timely collaboration techniques commonly describe the roles and responsibilities of
(and efficient!) technical sessions to you used in the construction industry. As a project participants in these design col-
online—in a flash! Each 30-minute webi- result of this joint effort, AIA and AISC laboration scenarios and offer definitions
nar will be taught by top speakers from the have published a paper titled “Design and guidelines that design professionals
structural steel industry, such as Larry Muir Collaboration on Construction Projects. and the construction industry can adopt
and Amit Varma (the keynote speakers), as Delegated Design, Design Assist, and for their use.
well as Carol Drucker, Jon Magnusson, Informal Involvement—What Does This jointly authored paper will be
Duane Miller, and many more. it all Mean?” (available at aisc.org/ released in two parts. Part 1 (now available)
Participants can earn up to 10 PDHs, design-collaboration). generally focuses on three collaborative
and there are registration options for both Along the way, they discovered that techniques: informal involvement, design
individuals and groups (AISC will assist the terms “design assist” and “delegated assist, and delegated design. Part 2, which
with group registrations for those working design,” while commonly used in the will be published at a later date, will address
from home). For more information on the industry, often mean different things to design assist as it relates to fabricated struc-
sessions and speakers, as well as to register, different people. These differences can tural steel.
visit aisc.org/flash.

safety matters
Welcome to Safety Matters, which high- When it comes to periodic inspections, Practice and
lights various safety-related items. This here is a list of items to be inspected:
month’s topics are gantry crane safety and • Deformed, cracked, or
Procedure Rules
OSHA has revised its “Rules of Agency
new OSHA rules of agency safety practice corroded members
Practice and Procedure Concerning
and procedure. • Loose bolts or rivets
Occupational Safety and Health Admin-
• Cracked or worn sheaves and drums
istration Access to Employee Medical
Gantry Cranes • Worn, cracked or distorted parts,
Records.” Responsibility for the overall
Overhead and/or gantry cranes are such as pins, bearings, shafts, gears,
administration and implementation of
one of the largest safety hazards in the rollers, locking, and clamping devices
the procedures has been transferred from
metal fabrication industry. Due to the • Excessive wear on brake-system
the Assistant Secretary to the OSHA
size and weight of the objects often parts, linings, pawls, and ratchets
Medical Records Officer (MRO). OSHA
being lifted and transported by these • Inaccuracies in load, wind, and
reports that the procedures set forth in
cranes, routine inspections are necessary other indicators
§ 1913.10 are internal agency procedures
to ensure continued safe operation. An • Electric, gasoline, diesel, or
and do not affect employer compliance
inspection of the crane (new or altered) is other types of motors for improper
with OSHA requirements. Employers
required prior to initial use. Once placed performance
and employees will benefit from the fol-
into service, overhead cranes require two • Excessive wear of chain drive sprock-
lowing revisions:
different types of inspection. Frequent ets and excessive chain stretch
• Employers will know sooner if such a
inspections are done daily to monthly, • Deteriorated electrical components,
review is authorized at their work site
while periodic inspections are completed such as pushbuttons, limit switches,
• The procedures to protect the
at monthly to annual intervals. The pur- or contactors
security and privacy of employee
pose of the two inspection types is to In addition to the initial inspection, OSHA
medical records will be strengthened
examine critical components of the crane also requires that all new and altered crane-
• The elimination of the requirement
and to determine the extent of wear, dete- functions are tested for:
to remove direct personal
rioration, or malfunction. • Hoisting and lowering
identifiers before taking medical
• Trolley travel
information off-site will enhance
• Bridge travel
employee privacy
• Limit switches, locking, and
safety devices
Frequent Crane Inspections Date of Interest
Fire Prevention Week, October 4-10,
Items To Be Inspected Frequency National Fire Protection Association,
Functional operating mechanisms for maladjustment Daily www.nfpa.org
Deterioration or leakage in lines, tanks, valves,

Daily We are always on the lookout for ideas
drain pumps, and other parts of air or hydraulic systems
for safety-related articles and webinars that
Hooks with deformation or cracks (visual) Daily are of interest to AISC member compa-
Hooks with deformation or cracks nies. If you have safety-related questions or
Monthly suggestions, we would love to hear them.
(written record with signature of inspector and date)
Contact us at schlafly@aisc.org. And visit
Hoist chains and end connections for excessive wear,
AISC’s Safety page at aisc.org/safety for
twist, or distortion interfering with proper function,
Daily various safety resources. In addition, AISC
or stretch beyond manufacturer‘s recommendations
has established its own resource page with
(visual)
information on employment, contract, and
Hoist chains and end connections for excessive wear, safety issues regarding COVID-19. It’s at
twist, or distortion interfering with proper function, aisc.org/covid19.
Monthly
or stretch beyond manufacturer‘s recommendations
(written record with signature of inspector and date)
Running rope and end connections for wear, broken “Presumption is the
strands, etc. (written record with signature of inspector, Monthly
rope identity, and date) opposite of prevention.”
Functional operating mechanisms for excessive wear Daily to monthly
Rope reeving according to manufacturers‘
—Bhavik Sarkhedi
As recommended
recommendations
64 | OCTOBER 2020
marketplace & employment
Contract Auditor
Quality Management Company, LLC (QMC) is seeking
qualified independent contract auditors to conduct site
audits for the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
Certified Fabricators and Certified Erector Programs.
This contract requires travel throughout North America and

limited International travel. This is not a regionally based
contract and a minimum travel of 75% should be expected.
Contract auditors must have knowledge of quality
management systems, audit principles and techniques.
Knowledge of the structural steel construction industry
quality management systems is preferred but not required as
is certifications for CWI, CQA or NDT. Prior or current auditing
experience or auditing certifications are preferred but not
required. Interested contractors should submit a statement of
interest and resume to contractor@qmconline.org.
Structural Engineers
Are you looking for a new and exciting opportunity?
We are a niche recruiter that specializes in matching great
structural engineers with unique opportunities that will help
you utilize your talents and achieve your goals.
• We are structural engineers by background and enjoy
helping other structural engineers find their “Dream Jobs.”
• We have over 30 years of experience working with
structural engineers.
• We will save you time in your job search and provide
additional information and help during the process of
finding a new job.
• For Current Openings, please visit our website and
select Hot Jobs.
• Please call or email Brian Quinn, PE:
616.546.9420 | Brian.Quinn@FindYourEngineer.com
so we can learn more about your goals and interests.
All inquiries are kept confidential.
SE Impact by SE Solutions, LLC | www.FindYourEngineer.com
Search employment ads online at www.modernsteel.com. To advertise, contact M.J. Mrvica Associates, Inc.: 856.768.9360 | mjmrvica@mrvica.com
advertiser index
AISC 41 | 47 | 53 | 60 | 61 LNA Solutions 14
Applied Bolting 45 MDX Software 57
Automated Layout Technologies 35 New Millennium Building Systems 59
Bend-Tech 51 Nucor Vulcraft—RediCor 3
Bull Moose Industries back cover Peddinghaus Corporation 2
Burlington Automation 67 QuickFrames USA 45
Chicago Metal Rolled Products insert SDS/2 7
Controlled Automation 12 SidePlate 46
FICEP 15 Smith-Emery San Francisco 11
High Steel Structures 21 St. Louis Screw & Bolt 57
InfoSight Corporation 60 Trimble 13
Infra-Metals 8 Voortman Corporation 52
Integrated Engineering Software 5 Whitefab, Inc. 58
structurally sound
MOVABLE FEAST
THE VAST DESERTED AREA lining the Quebec City marina calls out for new public uses.
But how to fill the void?
Université Laval students Hatem Bouassida and Antoine Hurez have an idea: Food Machine. This visionary steel design would bring
new life to surrounding streets in all seasons, providing a lively and stimulating addition to the urban promenade between the city’s
marina, Lower Town, and Upper Town. Its location would be easily accessible to cruise passengers, tourists, and residents, making it
an ideal starting point for exploring the historic city. Much like a machine, the building’s parts can move and pull apart, following the
trajectory of the tracks in the former marshalling yard and evoking memories of the port area’s industrial past.
Food Machine is one of the winners of this year’s Student Design Steel Competition awards. Administered by the Association of Col-
legiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA) and sponsored by AISC, the competition encourages North American architecture students to
explore the myriad functional and aesthetic uses for steel in design and construction. This year’s competition included two categories:
Category I (for which this project is a winner) was designated as Urban Food Hub, and Category II was an open competition.
You can learn more about Food Machine, as well as all of this year’s winners, in next month’s issue (you can also view the winners at
www.acsa-arch.org). ■
66 | OCTOBER 2020
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HOLLOW STRUCTURAL STEEL TUBE FROM BULL MOOSE
BUILD A
LANDMARK.
For projects that will stand the test of time, start with Bull Moose HSS tube. BULL MOOSE ADVANTAGES
• Strength ranges of 46 KSI to 110 KSI
Our direct-form manufacturing process enables us to use the highest grade • Tighter tolerances, sharper edges,
HSLA steel…and form it directly into a tube. and straighter tubes
• Widest variety of custom sizes/lengths,
With sizes ranging from 1.5” square to 18”x6”, and wall thicknesses from including metric
1/8” through 5/8”, Bull Moose features one of the largest size ranges of • In-line NDT weld testing available
on all tube
HSS products in the industry.
• Readily available weathering grade steel
For strength, versatility and reliability, build with Bull Moose. • Fast delivery with 8 domestic sites
1819 Clarkson Rd.

Chesterfield, MO 63017 | 800.325.4467 | BULLMOOSETUBE.COM

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VISIT US AT REDICOR.COM FOR THE REDICOR STORY.

in every issue features

38 Long-Term Analysis for

42 That’s Not Fracture-Critical!

42 48 Redundancy Made Simple

SDS/2 customer Joe Bintner, Detailer at

SDS/2 Estimodeling is the only software on the market to provide automatic

PDF Copy of Seismic Design Manual

Steel Interchange is a forum to exchange useful

TURN TO PAGE 14 FOR THE ANSWERS

steel quiz ANSWERS

greater control and

Contact us for solutions

fabricators across the

ANGLE A range SP range HP range XP range RAPID range

A drive to constantly improve, to meet increased demands for higher efficiency

Don’t just take our word, ask our customers…

CROSS-FRAMES ARE A BIG DEAL—and they’re getting bigger.

Modern Steel Construction | 19

Common Sense Design

Why choose High Steel for your next project?

Cost-saving design suggestions to meet budget goals

Plate girders and complex weldments to

Transportation solutions that provide delivery

Lancaster, PA | 1-800-468-9570 HighSteel.com/details

Field Notes is ANGELA COTIE is the chair

Did you always know you wanted

Modern Steel Construction | 23

Layout for Steel Erection

Modern Steel Construction | 25

THE ST. ANTHONY PARKWAY BRIDGE is at a nexus of sorts.

The new St. Anthony Parkway bridge

All photos: Mark Maves

Modern Steel Construction | 27

The design solution was reviewed with FHWA to

including the concrete deck system, over

right and below: The launching system was

Modern Steel Construction | 29

Modern Steel Construction | 31

PITTSBURGH’S STEEL STORY continues to this day.

Connecting Historic to New Construction

Modern Steel Construction | 33

with a usable green roof and a connect-

Reestablishing Lateral Integrity

Where the Z-beam framing scheme could not

Tempe Town Bridge (Tempe, AZ)

Our nation needs infrastructure improvements.

We also roll stair stringers, helical hand rails,

Visit cmrp.com for more information.

603-402-3055 • Automated Layout Technology™

The first automated marking machine created specifically

“I think it’s fair to say that this machine continues to

“The machine is fantastic and could not be happier.

Modern Steel Construction | 35

Modern Steel Construction | 37

THERE HAS HISTORICALLY BEEN a healthy competition between material types

and bridge life. Calculations to compare the five types of 1.2

Modern Steel Construction | 39