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These are few chapters extracted randomly from our General Studies Booklets for

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The Indian money market is classified into: the organised sector (comprising
private, public and foreign owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known

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as scheduled banks); and the unorganised sector (comprising individual or family owned
indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies (NBFCs)). The
unorganised sector and microcredit are still preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-
urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes, like ceremonies and short duration
loans.

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 Banking in India, in the modern sense, originated in the last decades of the 18th century.
Among the first banks were the Bank of Hindostan, which was established in 1770 and
liquidated in 1829-32; and the General Bank of India, established in 1786 but failed in
1791.
 The largest bank, and the oldest still in existence, is the State Bank of India (S.B.I). It

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originated as the Bank of Calcutta in June 1806. In 1809, it was renamed as the Bank of
Bengal. This was one of the three banks funded by a presidency government; the other
two were the Bank of Bombay and the Bank of Madras.
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 The three banks were merged in 1921 to form the Imperial Bank of India, which upon
India's independence, became the State Bank of India in 1955. For many years the
presidency banks had acted as quasi-central banks, as did their successors, until the
Reserve Bank of India was established in 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
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 In 1960, the State Banks of India was given control of eight state-associated banks under
the State Bank of India (Subsidiary Banks) Act, 1959. These are now called its associate
banks.
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 In 1969 the Indian government nationalised 14 major private banks. In 1980, 6 more
private banks were nationalised. These nationalised banks are the majority of lenders in
the Indian economy. They dominate the banking sector because of their large size and
widespread networks.
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 The Indian banking sector is broadly classified into scheduled banks and non-scheduled
banks. The scheduled banks are those included under the 2nd Schedule of the Reserve
Bank of India Act, 1934.
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 The scheduled banks are further classified into: nationalised banks; State Bank of India
and its associates; Regional Rural Banks (RRBs); foreign banks; and other Indian private
sector banks.
 The term commercial banks refers to both scheduled and non-scheduled commercial
banks regulated under the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
 Generally banking in India is fairly mature in terms of supply, product range and reach-
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even though reach in rural India and to the poor still remains a challenge.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.2

  The government has developed initiatives to address this through the State Bank of India
expanding its branch network and through the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural

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Development (NBARD) with facilities like microfinance.
 There are currently 27 public sector banks in India out of which 19 are nationalised banks
and 6 are SBI and its associate banks, and rest two are IDBI Bank and Bharatiya Mahila
Bank, which are categorised as other public sector banks. There are total 93 commercial

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banks in India.

Establishment of Three Presidency Banks

1) 02 June 1806 – Bank of Calcutta
2) 15th April 1840 – Bank of Bombay

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3) 01st July 1843 – Bank of Madras

Year Of Formation Of Other Public & Private Sector Banks

 1863 – Bank of Upper India  1924 – Karnataka Bank Limited

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 1865 – Allahabad Bank  1925 – Syndicate Bank
 1881 – Oudh Commercial Bank  1926 – Lakshmi Vilas Bank Limited
 19th May 1894 – Punjab National Bank  1927 – Dhanlaxmi Bank Ltd
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 1895 – Punjab National Bank In Lahore  1929 – South Indian Bank Limited
 1904 – City Union Bank  23rd October, 1931 – Vijaya Bank
 1906 – Bank of India  1934 – Reserve Bank of India
 12 March 1906 – Corporation Bank  16th Sept 1935 – Bank of Maharashtra
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 15th August 1907 – Indian Bank  1937 – Indian Overseas Bank
 1908 – Bank of Baroda  1938 – Jammu & Kashmir Bank
 01st July 1906 – Canara Hindu  26th May 1938 – Dena Bank
Permanent Fund (Rechristened to  19th February 1943 – Oriental Bank of
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Canara Bank in 1910) Commerce

 21st December 1911 – Central Bank of  1943 – UCO Bank
India  1943 – United Bank of India
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 1916 – Karur Vysya Bank  1945 – Federal Bank Limited

 11 November 1919 – Union Bank of  1954 – Nainital Bank Limited
India  1955 – State Bank of India (Post
 26th November 1920 – Catholic Syrian independence, Imperial Bank became
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Bank State Bank of India)

 1921 – Imperial Bank of India. Three  1985 – Kotak Mahindra Bank
presidency banks were merged in 1921  1994 – UTI Bank (Now Axis Bank)
and evolution of this bank took place  August 1994 – HDFC Bank
 11th May 1921 – Tamilnad Mercantile  1996 – ICICI Bank
Bank Limited  2003 – Yes Bank
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 1923 – Andhra Bank

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 ADOPTION OF BANKING TECHNOLOGY

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The IT revolution has had a great impact on the Indian banking system. The use
of computers has led to the introduction of online banking in India. The use of computers in
the banking sector in India has increased many fold after the economic liberalisation of 1991
as the country's banking sector has been exposed to the world's market. Indian banks were

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finding it difficult to compete with the international banks in terms of customer service,
without the use of information technology. The RBI set up a number of committees to define
and co-ordinate banking technology. These have included:
 In 1984 was formed the Committee on Mechanisation in the Banking Industry (1984)
whose chairman was Dr. C Rangarajan, Deputy Governor, Reserve Bank of India. The

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major recommendations of this committee were introducing MICR technology in all the
banks in the metropolises in India. This provided for the use of standardised cheque
forms and encoders.
 In 1988, the RBI set up the Committee on Computerisation in Banks (1988) headed by Dr.

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C Rangarajan. It emphasised that settlement operation must be computerised in the
clearing houses of RBI in Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati, Jaipur, Patna and
Thiruvananthapuram. It further stated that there should be National Clearing of inter-city
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cheques at Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai and MICR should be made operational. It
also focused on computerisation of branches and increasing connectivity among
branches through computers. It also suggested modalities for implementing on-line
banking. The committee submitted its reports in 1989 and computerisation began from
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1993 with the settlement between IBA and bank employees' associations.
 In 1994, the Committee on Technology Issues relating to Payment systems, Cheque
Clearing and Securities Settlement in the Banking Industry (1994) was set up under
Chairman W S Saraf. It emphasised Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) system, with the
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BANKNET communications network as its carrier. It also said that MICR clearing should
be set up in all branches of all those banks with more than 100 branches.
 In 1995, the Committee for proposing Legislation on Electronic Funds Transfer and other
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Electronic Payments (1995) again emphasised EFT system.

 In July 2016, Deputy Governor Rama Gandhi of the Central Bank of India "urged banks to
work to develop applications for digital currencies and distributed ledgers."
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INDIAN RUPEE

 The Indian rupee (sign: ₹; code: INR), is the official currency of the Republic of India. The
rupee is subdivided into 100 paise (singular paisa), though as of 2011, 25 paise coin is no
more a legal tender.
 The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank
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manages currency in India and derives its role in currency management on the basis of
the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.

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  The rupee is named after the silver coin, rupiya, first issued by Sultan Sher Shah Suri in
the 16th century and later continued by the Mughal Empire.

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 In 2010, a new symbol '₹', was officially adopted. It was derived from the combination of
the Devanagari consonant "र" (ra) and the Latin capital letter "R" without its vertical bar
(similar to the R rotunda).

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 The parallel lines at the top (with white space between them) are said to make an allusion
to the tricolour Indian flag, and also depict an equality sign that symbolises the nation's
desire to reduce economic disparity. The first series of coins with the new rupee symbol
started in circulation on 8 July 2011.
 In a major step to check undeclared black money, the Government of India on the 8
November 2016 announced demonetisation of ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes with effect

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from the same day's midnight, making these notes invalid.
 Apart from combating black money, the stated purpose is also to check fake currency
(used to finance terrorism) and corruption.
 A new redesigned series of ₹500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of ₹2000

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banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016. The new redesigned series is also
expected to be introduced to the banknote denominations of ₹1000, ₹100 and ₹50 in the
coming months.
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The values of the subdivisions of the rupee during British rule (and in the first decade of
independence) were:
 rupee = 16 anna (later 100 naye paise)
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 1 ardharupee = 8 anna, or  1⁄2 rupee (later 50 naye paise)

 1 pavala = 4 anna, or  1⁄4 rupee (later 25 naye paise)
 1 beda = 2 anna, or  1⁄8 rupee (later equivalent to 12.5 naye paise)
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 1 anna =  1⁄16 rupee (later equivalent to 6.25 naye paise)

 1 paraka =  1⁄2 anna (later equivalent to 3.125 naye paise)
 1 kani (pice) =  1⁄4 anna (later equivalent to 1.5625 naye paise)
 1 damari (pie) =  1⁄12 anna (later equivalent to 0.520833 naye paise)
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 1 rupee = 16 anna
 1 Athanni (dheli) =  1⁄2 rupee
 1 Chawanni =  1⁄4 rupee
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 1 Dawanni =  1⁄8 rupee

 1 Anna/Ekanni =  1⁄16 rupee
 1 Taka/Adhanni =  1⁄32 rupee
 Paisa =  1⁄64 rupee
 Dhela =  1⁄128 rupee ( 1⁄2 paisa)
 Pie =  1⁄3 paisa =  1⁄192 rupee
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 Damari =  1⁄4 paisa =  1⁄256 rupee.

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 MINTING

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The Government of India has the only right to mint the coins and one rupee
note. The responsibility for coinage comes under the Coinage Act, 1906 which is amended
from time to time. The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the
responsibility of the Government of India. Coins are minted at the five India Government

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Mints at Mumbai, Alipore (Kolkata), Saifabad (Hyderabad), Cherlapally (Hyderabad) and
NOIDA (UP). The coins are issued for circulation only through the Reserve Bank in terms of
the RBI Act.

COMMEMORATIVE COINS

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 After independence, the Government of India mint, minted coins imprinted with Indian
statesmen, historical and religious figures. In year 2010 and 2011 for the first time ever
₹75, ₹150 and ₹1000 coins were minted in India to commemorate the Platinum Jubilee of

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the Reserve Bank of India, the 150th birth anniversary of Rabindranath Tagore and 1000
years of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, respectively.
 In 2012 a ₹60 coin was also issued to commemorate 60 years of the Government of India
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Mint, Kolkata. ₹100 coin was also released commemorating the 100th anniversary of
Mahatma Gandhi's return to India.
 Commemorative coins of ₹125 were released on 4 September 2015 and 6 December
2015 to honour 125th birth anniversary of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and B. R. Ambedkar
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respectively.

BANK NOTES [BestCurrentAffairs.com]

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 In 1861, the government of India introduced its first paper money: 10 rupee notes in
1864, 5 rupee notes in 1872, 10,000 rupee notes in 1899, 100 rupee notes in 1900, 50
rupee notes in 1905, 500 rupee notes in 1907 and 1000 rupee notes in 1909.
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 In 1917, 1- and 2 1⁄2-rupee notes were introduced. The Reserve Bank of India began
banknote production in 1938, issuing 2, 5, 10, 50, 100, 1,000 and 10,000 rupee notes
while the government continued issuing 1 rupee notes.
 After independence, new designs were introduced to replace the portrait of George VI.
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The government continued issuing the 1 rupee note, while the Reserve Bank issued other
denominations (including the 5,000 and 10,000 rupee notes introduced in 1949).
 During the 1970s, 20 and 50 rupee notes were introduced; denominations higher than
100 rupee were demonetised in 1978. In 1987 the 500 rupee note was introduced,
followed by the 1,000 rupee note in 2000. 1 and 2 rupee notes were discontinued in
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1995.
 The design of banknotes is approved by the central government, on the
recommendation of the central board of the Reserve Bank of India.

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  Currency notes are printed at the Currency Note Press in Nashik, the Bank Note Press in
Dewas, the Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran (P) Ltd at Salboni and Mysore and at

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the Watermark Paper Manufacturing Mill in Hoshangabad.
 The Mahatma Gandhi Series of banknotes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India as
legal tender. The series is so named because the obverse of each note features a portrait
of Mahatma Gandhi.

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 Since its introduction in 1996, this series has replaced all issued banknotes of the Lion
capital series. The RBI introduced the series in 1996 with ₹10 and ₹500 banknotes.
 At present, the RBI issues banknotes in denominations from ₹5 to ₹1,000. The printing of
₹5 notes (which had stopped earlier) resumed in 2009.
 As of January 2012, the new '₹' sign has been incorporated into banknotes of the

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Mahatma Gandhi Series in denominations of ₹10, ₹20, ₹50, ₹100, ₹500 and ₹1,000.
 In January 2014 RBI announced that it would be withdrawing from circulation all currency
notes printed prior to 2005 by 31 March 2014. The deadline was later extended to 1
January 2015. Now further dead line was extended to 30 June 2016.


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There had been discussions on the necessity to withdraw notes of higher denominations
such as the ₹1000 and ₹500 banknotes, considering their role in perpetuating
unaccounted money. This move was taken to further curb the problem of fake currency
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circulation.
 On 8 November 2016 Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the demonetization of
₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series, with a detailed step-down
program. This program would stop all usage of ₹500 and ₹1000 rupee notes by 11
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November 2016.
 Citizens with valid identification will have until 30 December 2016 to exchange the notes
for lower tender at any bank or post office, and until 31 March 2017 to exchange them at
designated RBI offices by filling in a declaration form.
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 On 8 November 2016, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced the issuance of new
₹500 and ₹2000 banknotes in the Mahatma Gandhi New Series of banknotes.
 The new ₹2000 banknote has a magenta base colour, with a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi
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as well as the Ashoka Pillar Emblem on the front. The denomination also has a motif of
the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) on the back, depicting the country's first venture into
interplanetary space.
 The new ₹500 banknote has a stone grey base colour with an image of the Red Fort
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along with the Indian flag printed on the back. Both the banknotes also have the Swachh
Bharat Abhiyan logo printed on the back.
 As of 10 November 2016, the current circulating banknotes are in denominations of ₹5,
₹10, ₹20, ₹50 and ₹100 are of the Mahatma Gandhi Series, while the denominations of
₹500 and ₹2000 are of the new Mahatma Gandhi New Series, and the denomination of
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₹1 is of the Lion Capital Series.

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 CONVERTIBILITY OF INDIAN RUPEE

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 Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-determined exchange rate. However, the RBI
trades actively in the USD/INR currency market to impact effective exchange rates.
 Thus, the currency regime in place for the Indian rupee with respect to the US dollar is a
de facto controlled exchange rate. This is sometimes called a "managed float".

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 Other rates (such as the EUR/INR and INR/JPY) have the volatility typical of floating
exchange rates, and often create persistent arbitrage opportunities against the RBI.
 Unlike China, successive administrations (through RBI, the central bank) have not
followed a policy of pegging the INR to a specific foreign currency at a particular
exchange rate.

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 RBI intervention in currency markets is solely to ensure low volatility in exchange rates,
and not to influence the rate (or direction) of the Indian rupee in relation to other
currencies.
 Also affecting convertibility is a series of customs regulations restricting the import and

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export of rupees. Legally, foreign nationals are forbidden from importing or exporting
rupees; Indian nationals can import and export only up to ₹7,500 at a time, and the
possession of ₹500 and ₹1,000 rupee notes in Nepal is prohibited.
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 RBI also exercises a system of capital controls in addition to intervention (through active
trading) in currency markets.
 On the current account, there are no currency-conversion restrictions hindering buying
or selling foreign exchange (although trade barriers exist).
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 On the capital account, foreign institutional investors have convertibility to bring money
into and out of the country and buy securities (subject to quantitative restrictions). Local
firms are able to take capital out of the country in order to expand globally. However,
local households are restricted in their ability to diversify globally. Because of the
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expansion of the current and capital accounts, India is increasingly moving towards full
de facto convertibility.
 There is some confusion regarding the interchange of the currency with gold, but the
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system that India follows is that money cannot be exchanged for gold under any
circumstances due to gold's lack of liquidity; therefore, money cannot be changed into
gold by the RBI. India follows the same principle as Great Britain and the US.
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Chronology

 1991 – India began to lift restrictions on its currency. A number of reforms removed
restrictions on current account transactions (including trade, interest payments and
remittances and some capital asset-based transactions). Liberalised Exchange Rate
Management System (LERMS) (a dual-exchange-rate system) introduced partial
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convertibility of the rupee in March 1992.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.8

  1997-A panel (on capital account convertibility) recommended that India move towards
full convertibility by 2000, but the timetable was abandoned in the wake of the 1997–

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1998 East Asian financial crisis.
 2006 – Prime Minister Manmohan Singh asked the Finance Minister and the Reserve
Bank of India to prepare a road map for moving towards capital account convertibility.

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FIXED RATE SYSTEM VS FLOATING RATE SYSTEM

 If government or RBI fix the exchange rate of a currency (and does not allow any
variations according to demand and supply forces in market), such a system is called
Fixed Rate system. It is also called Bretton Woods system or Pegged Currency System.

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India was following this kind of system till 1975 and partial controls till 1993.
 Since this currency valuation mechanism is artificial, most of the countries including India
changed to Floating Rate System where currency market determines the value of a
currency.

RUPEE DEVALUATION

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 The term devaluation is used when the government reduces the value of a currency
under Fixed Rate System. When the value of currency falls under Floating Rate System, it
is called depreciation. Revaluation is a term which is used when there is a rise of currency
to the relation with a foreign currency in a fixed exchange rate.
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 In floating exchange rate correct term would be appreciation. Altering the face value of a
currency without changing its foreign exchange rate is a redenomination, not a
revaluation.
 The Indian Rupee has fallen in value against a basket of currencies since independence in
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1947. In recent years, the Indian Rupee has continued to depreciate in value.
 In 1990, you could buy $1 for 16 Indian Rupees. By 2016, the value of a Rupee had fallen,
so that you would need 70 Indian Rupees to buy $1.
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 This shows there has been a substantial fall in the value of the Indian Rupee against the
US dollar.
 When there is devaluation in the Indian Rupee it means that Indian exports become
cheaper, but imports are more expensive for Indians to buy.
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 In particular, devaluation in the Rupee is bad news for Indians who need to import raw
materials, such as oil and gold.

Causes of Devaluation in Rupee

 Lack of competitiveness / inflation: The long term decline in the value of the Rupee
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reflects India‘s relative decline in competitiveness. In particular, India has a higher

inflation rate than its international competitors. In November 2016, Indian inflation

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.9

 reached 7.24%. Therefore, there is relatively less demand for the rising price of Indian
goods; this reduction in demand causes a fall in the value of the Rupee.

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 Current account deficit: A consequence of poor competitiveness and high demand for
imports is a current account deficit. This means India is purchasing more imports of
goods and services than it is exporting. A large current account deficit tends to put
downward pressure on a currency. This is because more currency is leaving the country

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to buy imports than is coming in to buy exports.
 Oil Prices: India is a net importer of oil. It has to buy oil in dollars. Therefore, rising oil
prices worsen India‘s current account and also weaken the Rupee. More Indian‘s Rupee‘s
have to be spent on buying oil.

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Impact of Devaluation in Indian Rupee

 Inflationary pressures: India is trying to control inflation, which has been running into
double digits. But, devaluation makes itself makes it harder to control inflation. The

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devaluation increases the price of imports, such as oil and fuels, leading to cost push
inflation. Also, devaluation is considered an ‗easy‘ way of restoring competitiveness;
therefore devaluation may reduce the incentives for exporters to work on improving
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long-term competitiveness. Finally, devaluation can help boost domestic demand.
Exports will rise and consumers will switch to domestic producers rather than imports.
This can cause demand-pull inflation.
 Economic growth: Devaluation can boost domestic demand and short-term economic
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growth. However, this is not necessarily helpful for the Indian economy. India‘s economy
needs to concentrate on boosting productivity and long term productive capacity, rather
than relying on boosting domestic demand. The rapid devaluation has also caused a loss
of confidence in international and domestic investors. With a history of quick
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depreciation, foreign investors will be more nervous of investing in India. The devaluation
and inflationary impact will also discourage domestic investors, e.g. firms worried about
future oil prices. This reduction in investment is damaging to long-term economic
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growth.
 Devaluation spiral: The concern is that high Indian inflation causes devaluation, which in
turn feeds into more cost-push inflation. Thus it becomes a difficult to escape out of this
unwelcome negative spiral of inflation-devaluation-inflation.
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Policies to stem devaluation in Rupee

 Supply side policies to improve competitiveness.

 Reduce dependency on foreign oil, through domestic and renewable energy.
 Monetary policy to tackle inflation and reduce domestic demand. But, will conflict with
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lower economic growth and lead to higher unemployment.

 Financial controls, e.g. limiting the amount of gold imports to reduce the current account
deficit.

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 THE BANKING CODES AND STANDARDS BOARD OF INDIA

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 The Banking Codes and Standards Board of India (BCSBI) is an independent banking
industry watchdog that protects consumers of banking services in India.
 The board oversee compliance with the "Code of Bank's Commitment to Customers".
 It is not a compensation mechanism and looks into an individual complaint only to the

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extent it points to any systemic compliance failure.
 It is an independent and autonomous body, registered as a separate society under the
Societies Registration Act, 1860 on February 18, 2006.
 The Reserve Bank of India extended financial support to the Board, meeting its expenses
for the first five years.

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 Main aims:
 To plan, evolve, prepare, develop, promote and publish voluntary,comprehensive
Codes and Standards for banks, to provide fair treatment to their customers.
 To function as an independent and autonomous watchdog to monitor and ensure

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that the Codes and Standards are adhered to.
 To conduct and undertake research of Codes and Standards currently in use around
the world.
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 To enter into covenants with banks on observance of codes and standards and to
train employees of such banks about the Codes.
 To help people affected by natural calamities.
 S S Tarapore (Former deputy general of RBI) came up with an idea to form a committee
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for the benefit of customer so that they can get better financial services.

Who decides on the volume and value of bank notes to be printed and on what basis?
The Reserve Bank decides upon the volume and value of bank notes to be printed. The
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quantum of bank notes that needs to be printed broadly depends on the annual increase in
bank notes required for circulation purposes, replacement of soiled notes and reserve
requirements.
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Who decides on the quantity of coins to be minted?

The Government of India decides upon the quantity of coins to be minted.
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How does the Reserve Bank estimate the demand for bank notes?
The Reserve Bank estimates the demand for bank notes on the basis of the growth rate of
the economy, the replacement demand and reserve requirements by using statistical models.

How does the Reserve Bank reach the currency to people?

The Reserve Bank manages the currency operations through its offices located at
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Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Bhopal, Bhubaneshwar, Belapur(Navi Mumbai), Kolkata, Chandigarh,

Chennai, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kanpur, Lucknow, Mumbai (Fort), Nagpur, New Delhi,
Patna and Thiruvananthapuram. These offices receive fresh notes from the note presses.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.11

 Similarly, the Reserve Bank offices located at Kolkata, Hyderabad, Mumbai and New Delhi
initially receive the coins from the mints. These offices then send them to the other offices of

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the Reserve Bank. The notes and rupee coins are stocked at the currency chests and small
coins at the small coin depots. The bank branches receive the bank notes and coins from the
currency chests and small coin depots for further distribution among the public.

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What is a currency chest?
To facilitate the distribution of notes and rupee coins, the Reserve Bank has authorised
selected branches of banks to establish currency chests. These are actually storehouses
where bank notes and rupee coins are stocked on behalf of the Reserve Bank. At present,
there are over 4422 currency chests. The currency chest branches are expected to distribute

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notes and rupee coins to other bank branches in their area of operation.

What is a small coin depot?

Some bank branches are also authorised to establish small coin depots to stock small coins.

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There are 3784 small coin depots spread throughout the country. The small coin depots also
distribute small coins to other bank branches in their area of operation.
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What happens when the notes and coins return from circulation?
Notes and coins returned from circulation are deposited at the offices of the Reserve Bank.
The Reserve Bank then separates the notes that are fit for reissue and those which are not fit
for reissue. The notes which are fit for reissue are sent back in circulation and those which
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are unfit for reissue are destroyed after processingshredded. The same is the case with coins.
The coins withdrawn are sent to the Mints for melting.

From where can the general public obtain bank notes and coins?
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Bank notes and coins can be obtained at any of the offices of the Reserve Bank and at all
branches of banks maintaining currency chests and small coin depots.
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BANKING OMBUDSMAN SCHEME 2006

 The Banking Ombudsman Scheme enables an expeditious and inexpensive forum to

bank customers for resolution of complaints relating to certain services rendered by
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banks. The Banking Ombudsman Scheme is introduced under Section 35 A of the

Banking Regulation Act, 1949 by RBI with effect from 1995.
 The Banking Ombudsman is a senior official appointed by the Reserve Bank of India to
redress customer complaints against deficiency in certain banking services.
 As on date, fifteen Banking Ombudsmen have been appointed with their offices located
mostly in state capitals. The addresses and contact details of the Banking Ombudsman
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offices have been provided in the annex.

 All Scheduled Commercial Banks, Regional Rural Banks and Scheduled Primary Co-
operative Banks are covered under the Scheme.

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 Grounds of Complaints: The Banking Ombudsman can receive and consider any complaint
relating to the following deficiency in banking services (including internet banking):

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 non-payment or inordinate delay in the payment or collection of cheques, drafts, bills
etc.;
 non-acceptance, without sufficient cause, of small denomination notes tendered for any
purpose, and for charging of commission in respect thereof;

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 non-acceptance, without sufficient cause, of coins tendered and for charging of
commission in respect thereof;
 non-payment or delay in payment of inward remittances ;
 failure to issue or delay in issue of drafts, pay orders or bankers‘ cheques;
 non-adherence to prescribed working hours ;

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 failure to provide or delay in providing a banking facility (other than loans and advances)
promised in writing by a bank or its direct selling agents;
 delays, non-credit of proceeds to parties accounts, non-payment of deposit or non-
observance of the Reserve Bank directives, if any, applicable to rate of interest on

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deposits in any savings,current or other account maintained with a bank ;
 complaints from Non-Resident Indians having accounts in India in relation to their
remittances from abroad, deposits and other bank-related matters;
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 refusal to open deposit accounts without any valid reason for refusal;
 levying of charges without adequate prior notice to the customer;
 non-adherence by the bank or its subsidiaries to the instructions of Reserve Bank on
ATM/Debit card operations or credit card operations;
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 non-disbursement or delay in disbursement of pension (to the extent the grievance can
be attributed to the action on the part of the bank concerned, but not with regard to its
employees);
 refusal to accept or delay in accepting payment towards taxes, as required by Reserve
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Bank/Government;
 refusal to issue or delay in issuing, or failure to service or delay in servicing or
redemption of Government securities;
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 forced closure of deposit accounts without due notice or without sufficient reason;
 refusal to close or delay in closing the accounts;
 non-adherence to the fair practices code as adopted by the bank or non-adherence to
the provisions of the Code of Bank s Commitments to Customers issued by Banking
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Codes and Standards Board of India and as adopted by the bank ;

 non-observance of Reserve Bank guidelines on engagement of recovery agents by banks;
and
 any other matter relating to the violation of the directives issued by the Reserve Bank in
relation to banking or other services.
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A customer can also lodge a complaint on the following grounds of deficiency in service with
respect to loans and advances:
 non-observance of Reserve Bank Directives on interest rates;

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.13

  delays in sanction, disbursement or non-observance of prescribed time schedule for
disposal of loan applications;

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 non-acceptance of application for loans without furnishing valid reasons to the applicant;
and
 non-adherence to the provisions of the fair practices code for lenders as adopted by the
bank or Code of Bank‘s Commitment to Customers, as the case may be;

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 non-observance of any other direction or instruction of the Reserve Bank as may be
specified by the Reserve Bank for this purpose from time to time.
 The Banking Ombudsman may also deal with such other matter as may be specified by
the Reserve Bank from time to time.

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NON-BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES

 A Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC) is a company registered under the Companies

Act, 1956 engaged in the business of loans and advances, acquisition of

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shares/stocks/bonds/debentures/securities issued by Government or local authority or
other marketable securities of a like nature, leasing, hire-purchase, insurance business,
chit business but does not include any institution whose principal business is that of
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agriculture activity, industrial activity, purchase or sale of any goods (other than
securities) or providing any services and sale/purchase/construction of immovable
property.
 A non-banking institution which is a company and has principal business of receiving
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deposits under any scheme or arrangement in one lump sum or in installments by way of
contributions or in any other manner, is also a non-banking financial company (Residuary
non-banking company).
 NBFCs lend and make investments and hence their activities are akin to that of banks;
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however there are a few differences as given below:

 NBFC cannot accept demand deposits;
 NBFCs do not form part of the payment and settlement system and cannot issue
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cheques drawn on itself;

 deposit insurance facility of Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation is
not available to depositors of NBFCs, unlike in case of banks.
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NBFCs are categorized a) in terms of the type of liabilities into Deposit and Non-Deposit
accepting NBFCs, b) non deposit taking NBFCs by their size into systemically important and
other non-deposit holding companies (NBFC-NDSI and NBFC-ND) and c) by the kind of
activity they conduct.

Within this broad categorization the different types of NBFCs are as follows:
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Asset Finance Company (AFC) : An AFC is a company which is a financial institution

carrying on as its principal business the financing of physical assets supporting

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.14

 productive/economic activity, such as automobiles, tractors, lathe machines, generator sets,
earth moving and material handling equipments, moving on own power and general

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purpose industrial machines. Principal business for this purpose is defined as aggregate of
financing real/physical assets supporting economic activity and income arising therefrom is
not less than 60% of its total assets and total income respectively.

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Investment Company (IC) : IC means any company which is a financial institution carrying
on as its principal business the acquisition of securities.

Loan Company (LC): LC means any company which is a financial institution carrying on as
its principal business the providing of finance whether by making loans or advances or

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otherwise for any activity other than its own but does not include an Asset Finance Company.

Infrastructure Finance Company (IFC): IFC is a non-banking finance company a) which

deploys at least 75 per cent of its total assets in infrastructure loans, b) has a minimum Net

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Owned Funds of ₹ 300 crore, c) has a minimum credit rating of ‗A ‗or equivalent d) and a
CRAR of 15%.
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Systemically Important Core Investment Company (CIC-ND-SI): CIC-ND-SI is an NBFC
carrying on the business of acquisition of shares and securities which satisfies the following
conditions:-
 it holds not less than 90% of its Total Assets in the form of investment in equity shares,
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preference shares, debt or loans in group companies;
 its investments in the equity shares (including instruments compulsorily convertible into
equity shares within a period not exceeding 10 years from the date of issue) in group
companies constitutes not less than 60% of its Total Assets;
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 it does not trade in its investments in shares, debt or loans in group companies except
through block sale for the purpose of dilution or disinvestment;
 it does not carry on any other financial activity referred to in Section 45I(c) and 45I(f) of
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the RBI act, 1934 except investment in bank deposits, money market instruments,
government securities, loans to and investments in debt issuances of group companies
or guarantees issued on behalf of group companies.
 Its asset size is ₹ 100 crore or above and
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 It accepts public funds

Infrastructure Debt Fund: Non- Banking Financial Company (IDF-NBFC) : IDF-NBFC is a

company registered as NBFC to facilitate the flow of long term debt into infrastructure
projects. IDF-NBFC raise resources through issue of Rupee or Dollar denominated bonds of
minimum 5 year maturity. Only Infrastructure Finance Companies (IFC) can sponsor IDF-
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NBFCs.

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 Non-Banking Financial Company - Micro Finance Institution (NBFC-MFI): NBFC-MFI is a
non-deposit taking NBFC having not less than 85% of its assets in the nature of qualifying

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assets which satisfy the following criteria:
 loan disbursed by an NBFC-MFI to a borrower with a rural household annual income not
exceeding ₹ 1,00,000 or urban and semi-urban household income not exceeding ₹
1,60,000;

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 loan amount does not exceed ₹ 50,000 in the first cycle and ₹ 1,00,000 in subsequent
cycles;
 total indebtedness of the borrower does not exceed ₹ 1,00,000;
 tenure of the loan not to be less than 24 months for loan amount in excess of ₹ 15,000
with prepayment without penalty;

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 loan to be extended without collateral;
 aggregate amount of loans, given for income generation, is not less than 50 per cent of
the total loans given by the MFIs;
 loan is repayable on weekly, fortnightly or monthly instalments at the choice of the
borrower

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Non-Banking Financial Company – Factors (NBFC-Factors): NBFC-Factor is a non-deposit
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taking NBFC engaged in the principal business of factoring. The financial assets in the
factoring business should constitute at least 50 percent of its total assets and its income
derived from factoring business should not be less than 50 percent of its gross income.
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Mortgage Guarantee Companies (MGC) - MGC are financial institutions for which at least
90% of the business turnover is mortgage guarantee business or at least 90% of the gross
income is from mortgage guarantee business and net owned fund is ₹ 100 crore.
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NBFC- Non-Operative Financial Holding Company (NOFHC) is financial institution

through which promoter / promoter groups will be permitted to set up a new bank. It‘s a
wholly-owned Non-Operative Financial Holding Company (NOFHC) which will hold the bank
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as well as all other financial services companies regulated by RBI or other financial sector
regulators, to the extent permissible under the applicable regulatory prescriptions.

CHEQUE TRUNCATION
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 Truncation is the process of stopping the flow of the physical cheque issued by a drawer
at some point by the presenting bank en-route to the paying bank branch. In its place an
electronic image of the cheque is transmitted to the paying branch through the clearing
house, along with relevant information like data on the MICR band, date of presentation,
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presenting bank, etc.

 Cheque truncation thus obviates the need to move the physical instruments across bank
branches, other than in exceptional circumstances for clearing purposes. This effectively
eliminates the associated cost of movement of the physical cheques, reduces the time

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.16

 required for their collection and brings elegance to the entire activity of cheque
processing.

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 Cheque Truncation speeds up the process of collection of cheques resulting in better
service to customers, reduces the scope of loss of instruments in transit, lowers the cost
of collection of cheques, and removes reconciliation-related and logistics-related
problems, thus benefitting the system as a whole.

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 With the other major products being offered in the form of RTGS and NEFT, the Reserve
Bank has created the capability to enable inter-bank and customer payments online and
in near-real time. However, cheques continue to be the prominent mode of payments in
the country. Reserve Bank of India has therefore decided to focus on improving the
efficiency of the cheque clearing cycle. Offering Cheque Truncation System (CTS) is a step

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in this direction.
 In addition to operational efficiency, CTS offers several benefits to banks and customers,
including human resource rationalisation, cost effectiveness, business process re-
engineering, better service, adoption of latest technology, etc. CTS, thus, has emerged as

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an important efficiency enhancement initiative undertaken by Reserve Bank in the
Payments Systems arena.
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PAYMENT AND SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS ACT

 The PSS Act, 2007 received the assent of the President on 20th December 2007 and it
came into force with effect from 12th August 2008.
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 The PSS Act, 2007 provides for the regulation and supervision of payment systems in
India and designates the Reserve Bank of India (Reserve Bank) as the authority for that
purpose and all related matters.
 The Reserve Bank is authorized under the Act to constitute a Committee of its Central
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Board known as the Board for Regulation and Supervision of Payment and Settlement
Systems (BPSS), to exercise its powers and perform its functions and discharge its duties
under this statute.
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 The Act also provides the legal basis for ―netting‖ and ―settlement finality‖. This is of
great importance, as in India, other than the Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) system
all other payment systems function on a net settlement basis.
 Under the PSS Act, 2007, two Regulations have been made by the Reserve Bank of India,
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namely, the Board for Regulation and Supervision of Payment and Settlement Systems
Regulations, 2008 and the Payment and Settlement Systems Regulations, 2008. Both
these Regulations came into force along with the PSS Act, 2007 on 12th August 2008.
 Objectives: The Board for Regulation and Supervision of Payment and Settlement
Systems Regulation, 2008 deals with the constitution of the Board for Regulation and
Supervision of Payment and Settlement Systems (BPSS), a Committee of the Central
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Board of Directors of the Reserve Bank of India. It also deals with the composition of the
BPSS, its powers and functions, exercising of powers on behalf of BPSS, meetings of the
BPSS and quorum, the constitution of Sub-Committees/Advisory Committees by BPSS,

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.17

 etc. The BPSS exercises the powers on behalf of the Reserve Bank, for regulation and
supervision of the payment and settlement systems under the PSS Act, 2007.

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 The Payment and Settlement Systems Regulations, 2008 covers matters like form of
application for authorization for commencing/ carrying on a payment system and grant
of authorization, payment instructions and determination of standards of payment
systems, furnishing of returns/documents/other information, furnishing of accounts and

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balance sheets by system provider etc.

BHARAT BILL PAYMENT SYSTEM (BBPS)

 Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS) is an integrated bill payment system which will offer

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interoperable bill payment service to customers online as well as through a network of
agents on the ground. The system will provide multiple payment modes and instant
confirmation of payment.
 The policy guidelines for the BBPS system were issued by the Reserve Bank of India on

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November 28, 2014.
 The BBPS will operate as a tiered structure with a single Bharat Bill Payment Central Unit
(BBPCU) and multiple Bharat Bill Payment Operating Units (BBPOUs).
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 Bharat Bill Payment Central Unit (BBPCU) will be a single authorized entity operating the
BBPS. The BBPCU will set necessary operational, technical and business standards for the
entire system and its participants, and also undertake clearing and settlement activities.
As indicated in the circular dated November 28, 2015 National Payment Corporation
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(NPCI) has been identified to act as BBPCU. It will be an authorized entity under the
Payment and Settlement Systems Act, 2007.
 Bharat Bill Payment Operating Units (BBPOUs) will be authorised operational entities,
adhering to the standards set by the BBPCU for facilitating bill payments online as well as
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through a network of agents, on the ground.

 To start with, the scope of BBPS will cover repetitive payments for everyday utility
services such as electricity, water, gas, telephone and Direct-to-Home (DTH). Gradually,
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the scope would be expanded to include other types of repetitive payments, like school /
university fees, municipal taxes etc.

ELECTRONIC CLEARING SERVICE (ECS)

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 ECS is an electronic mode of payment / receipt for transactions that are repetitive and
periodic in nature. ECS is used by institutions for making bulk payment of amounts
towards distribution of dividend, interest, salary, pension, etc., or for bulk collection of
amounts towards telephone / electricity / water dues, cess / tax collections, loan
instalment repayments, periodic investments in mutual funds, insurance premium etc.
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Essentially, ECS facilitates bulk transfer of monies from one bank account to many bank
accounts or vice versa. ECS includes transactions processed under National Automated
Clearing House (NACH) operated by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.18

  Primarily, there are two variants of ECS - ECS Credit and ECS Debit.
 ECS Credit is used by an institution for affording credit to a large number of beneficiaries

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(for instance, employees, investors etc.) having accounts with bank branches at various
locations within the jurisdiction of a ECS Centre by raising a single debit to the bank
account of the user institution. ECS Credit enables payment of amounts towards
distribution of dividend, interest, salary, pension, etc., of the user institution.

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 ECS Debit is used by an institution for raising debits to a large number of accounts (for
instance, consumers of utility services, borrowers, investors in mutual funds etc.)
maintained with bank branches at various locations within the jurisdiction of a ECS
Centre for single credit to the bank account of the user institution. ECS Debit is useful for
payment of telephone / electricity / water bills, cess / tax collections, loan installment

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repayments, periodic investments in mutual funds, insurance premium etc., that are
periodic or repetitive in nature and payable to the user institution by large number of
customers etc.

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MICR CODE [BestCurrentAffairs.com]

 MICR is an acronym for Magnetic Ink Character Recognition. The MICR Code is a numeric
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code that uniquely identifies a bank-branch participating in the ECS Credit scheme. This
is a 9 digit code to identify the location of the bank branch; the first 3 characters
represent the city, the next 3 the bank and the last 3 the branch. The MICR Code allotted
to a bank branch is printed on the MICR band of cheques issued by bank branches
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 ECS Debit transaction can be initiated by any institution (called ECS Debit User) which has
to receive / collect amounts towards telephone / electricity / water dues, cess / tax
collections, loan instalment repayments, periodic investments in mutual funds, insurance
premium etc. It is a Scheme under which an account holder with a bank branch can
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authorise an ECS User to recover an amount at a prescribed frequency by raising a debit

to his / her bank account.
 The User institution has to first register with an ECS Centre. The User institution has to
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also obtain the authorization (mandate) from its customers for debiting their account
along with their bank account particulars prior to participation in the ECS Debit scheme.
The mandate has to be duly verified by the beneficiary‘s bank. A copy of the mandate
should be available on record with the destination bank where the customer has a bank
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account.

NATIONAL ELECTRONIC FUNDS TRANSFER (NEFT)

 National Electronic Funds Transfer (NEFT) is a nation-wide payment system facilitating

one-to-one funds transfer. Under this Scheme, individuals, firms and corporates can
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electronically transfer funds from any bank branch to any individual, firm or corporate
having an account with any other bank branch in the country participating in the
Scheme.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.19

  For being part of the NEFT funds transfer network, a bank branch has to be NEFT-
enabled.

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 Individuals, firms or corporates maintaining accounts with a bank branch can transfer
funds using NEFT. Even such individuals who do not have a bank account (walk-in
customers) can also deposit cash at the NEFT-enabled branches with instructions to
transfer funds using NEFT. However, such cash remittances will be restricted to a

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maximum of Rs.50,000/- per transaction. Such customers have to furnish full details
including complete address, telephone number, etc. NEFT, thus, facilitates originators or
remitters to initiate funds transfer transactions even without having a bank
 Individuals, firms or corporates maintaining accounts with a bank branch can receive
funds through the NEFT system. It is, therefore, necessary for the beneficiary to have an

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account with the NEFT enabled destination bank branch in the country.
 The NEFT system also facilitates one-way cross-border transfer of funds from India to
Nepal. This is known as the Indo-Nepal Remittance Facility Scheme. A remitter can
transfer funds from any of the NEFT-enabled branches in to Nepal, irrespective of

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whether the beneficiary in Nepal maintains an account with a bank branch in Nepal or
not. The beneficiary would receive funds in Nepalese Rupees.
 There is no limit – either minimum or maximum – on the amount of funds that could be
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transferred using NEFT. However, maximum amount per transaction is limited to
Rs.50,000/- for cash-based remittances within India and also for remittances to Nepal
under the Indo-Nepal Remittance Facility Scheme.
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INDO-NEPAL REMITTANCE FACILITY SCHEME

 Indo-Nepal Remittance Facility is a cross-border remittance scheme to transfer funds

from India to Nepal, enabled under the NEFT Scheme. The scheme was launched to
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provide a safe and cost-efficient avenue to migrant Nepalese workers in India to remit
money back to their families in Nepal.
 A remitter can transfer funds up to Indian Rupees 50,000 (maximum permissible amount)
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from any of the NEFT-enabled branches in India. The beneficiary would receive funds in
Nepalese Rupees.
 Under the Scheme, even a walk-in customer can transfer funds upto Rs 50,000 by
depositing the cash at the remitting bank branch.
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 In Nepal, the Indo-Nepal Remittance Facility Scheme is handled by Nepal SBI Ltd. (NSBL).
If the beneficiary does not have a bank account with NSBL or resides in a locality/ area in
Nepal not serviced by a NSBL bank branch, an arrangement has been entered into by
NSBL with a money transfer company in Nepal (called Prabhu Money Transfer) who
would make arrangements for delivery of cash (in Nepalese Rupees) to the beneficiary.
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BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.20

 US-DOLLAR CHEQUE COLLECTION

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 One of the services rendered by banks as part of their normal banking operations is
collection of cheques deposited by their customers, some of which, could also be drawn
or payable on banks that are outside the country. Such cheques are called foreign
currency cheques and, presently, a significant part of these cheques are US-Dollar

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denominated payable by banks in the United States of America.
 Cheques denominated in currencies other than Indian Rupees such as Euro (€), Pound
Sterling (£), US Dollar ($), Yen (¥), etc., are called foreign currency cheques.
 Foreign currency cheques include demand drafts, personal cheques, banker‘s cheques,
cashier‘s cheques, traveller‘s cheques, etc. Since such cheques are not payable in India

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they are, therefore, required to be sent to the country concerned for realization of
proceeds.
 RBI has advised banks to frame their own Cheque Collection Policy covering various
aspects relating to collection of Rupee cheques.

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 Cheques denominated in US Dollars (USD cheques) constitute a major share of foreign
currency cheques deposited by customers for realisation. In order to make the USD
cheque collection process more efficient and transparent, RBI has advised banks to refine
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their USD cheque collection procedures and frame their own USD Cheque Collection
Policy covering aspects like mode of collection, collection period, charges for collection,
etc. This policy shall be made part of their regular Cheque Collection Policy.
 There are various ways of collecting (realising) USD denominated cheques. The collection
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process followed by banks (presenting banks) varies depending on the institutional
arrangements put in place by them. There are basically three types of arrangements
adopted by banks–
 Cash Letter Arrangement (CLA): Cheques are sent by the presenting banks in India to
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their correspondent banks (CBs) in USA for domestic clearing. Funds are collected
(realised) by the CBs and credited to the account of the presenting bank maintained in
US. Such accounts are known as NOSTRO accounts. For cheques sent under CLA the CB
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gives provisional credit to the bank on a pre-determined date (which varies from 7 to 9
days after tendering of cheque to the CB). However, the provisional credit will be
subjected to a cooling period. After the cooling period, the customer‘s account with the
presenting bank in India is credited. In case of secured collection facility, the CB provides
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a guaranteed credit but at an additional cost.

 (Cooling period is the time up to which banks wait after receiving provisional credit for
the amount of cheque in their Nostro account for possible return of the cheque under
provisions of the laws of USA by the drawee bank, before giving credit to the customers.)
 (Secured Collection is a facility extended by the CBs. Under this facility, the CBs provide
guaranteed final credit without recourse within a confirmed time period unlike normal
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collection service. Hence the collection time period is better under this facility. CBs
offering this facility normally fix a cap for the amount of individual cheques collected
under the arrangement. The CBs absorb any subsequent recall of payment by the drawee

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.21

 bank as per US laws. The bank offering such service charge an additional amount for
giving credit without recourse.)

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 Direct Collection Arrangement (DCA): Cheques are sent by the banks in India directly
to the drawee banks in USA for collection. Usually collection services ensure receipts of
clear funds i.e., risk of return is almost eliminated. Therefore, high value cheques are
generally sent under collection though the time taken may be more.

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 Final Credit Services (FCS): These services are offered by some CBs. The CB offering the
service guarantees confirmed credit against the instrument. Under this arrangement
banks receive final credit in their Nostro accounts without any recourse. This service
normally does not have any cooling period as the cooling period is factored by the CBs
before releasing the clear funds.

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 Check-21 Facility: The System has been facilitated under Check-21 Legislation. It works
more or less like CTS. When using check 21 facility, dealings are cleared utilizing the
exchange of check images from bank to bank. It saves time in transit.

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NOSTRO ACCOUNT [BestCurrentAffairs.com]

 A Nostro account is a bank account established in a foreign country usually in the

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currency of that country for the purpose of carrying out transactions there. For example
most commercial banks maintain US dollar accounts with their correspondent banks in
USA in order to facilitate settlement of interbank and customer transactions in US dollar.
 The charges levied by banks for collection of such USD denominated cheques are
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dependent on the type of collection arrangement chosen by customers and the number
of intermediaries (correspondent banks) involved in the collection process. Each of the
CBs will levy their own charges for facilitating the process of collection. All these charges
will be in turn levied by the collecting banks in India from the customers. The customer‘s
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account is credited net of collection charges (proceeds minus collection charges)

SPEED CLEARING
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 Speed Clearing refers to collection of outstation cheques (a cheque drawn on non-local

bank branch) through the local clearing. It facilitates collection of cheques drawn on
outstation core-banking-enabled branches of banks, if they have a net-worked branch
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locally.
 The collection of outstation cheques, earlier required movement of cheques from the
Presentation centre (city where the cheque is presented) to Drawee centre (city where the
cheque is payable) which increases the realisation time for cheques. Speed Clearing aims
to reduce the time taken for realisation of outstation cheques.
 Even though Speed clearing hastens the process of cheque collection as compared to
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outstation cheque collection, it pre-supposes the presence of the drawee bank branch in
the clearing house location

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.22

  A person who had an outstation cheque with him/her use to deposit it with his/her bank
branch. This bank branch is called the Presenting branch. The cheque, was sent for

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collection to the city where it was payable / drawn called Destination centre or Drawee
centre. The branch providing the collection service is called the Collecting branch. On
receipt of the cheque, the Collecting branch use to present the physical instrument in
local clearing at the drawee bank branch location through its branch at the drawee bank

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branch location. Once the cheque was paid, the Collecting branch use to remit the
proceeds to the Presenting branch. On receipt of realisation advice of the cheque from
the Collecting branch, the customer‘s account was credited. This, in short, is the process
of Collection before the introduction of Speed Clearing.
 When a cheque was accepted on a collection basis by a bank, the customer‘s account

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was credited only after realisation of proceeds. In the absence of a clearing arrangement
at the Destination centre, the Presenting branch was sending the cheque directly to the
Destination branch for payment. On receiving the proceeds from Destination branch,
Presenting branch follow the practice of crediting the customer‘s account.

HOW DOES THE LOCAL CHEQUE CLEARING WORK?

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 In Local Cheque Clearing in major centres, cheques are processed by using Cheque
Truncation Systems (CTS) through movement of images. Grid based CTS are in place in
New Delhi, Chennai and Mumbai. In addition, Express Cheque Clearing Systems (ECCS)
application package is used in small clearing houses.
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 Local Clearing handles only those cheques that are drawn on branches within the
jurisdiction of the local Clearing House. Generally, the jurisdiction is determined taking
into account the logistics available to physically move to and from the Clearing House.
 It may however be noted, under grid-based CTS clearing, all cheques drawn on bank
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branches falling within in the grid jurisdiction are treated and cleared as local cheques.
The grid clearing allows banks to present/ receive cheques to/ from multiple cities to a
single clearing house through their service branches in the grid location.
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 Banks have networked their branches by implementing Core Banking Solutions (CBS). In
CBS environment, cheques can be paid at any location obviating the need for their
physical movement to the Drawee branch. Cheques drawn on outstation CBS branches of
a Drawee bank can be processed in the Local Clearing under the Speed Clearing
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arrangement if the Drawee bank has a branch presence at the local centre.

RTGS SYSTEM

 The acronym 'RTGS' stands for Real Time Gross Settlement, which can be defined as
the continuous (real-time) settlement of funds transfers individually on an order by order
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basis (without netting). 'Real Time' means the processing of instructions at the time they
are received rather than at some later time; 'Gross Settlement' means the settlement of
funds transfer instructions occurs individually (on an instruction by instruction basis).

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.23

 Considering that the funds settlement takes place in the books of the Reserve Bank of
India, the payments are final and irrevocable.

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 Difference between RTGS and NEFT: NEFT is an electronic fund transfer system that
operates on a Deferred Net Settlement (DNS) basis which settles transactions in batches.
In DNS, the settlement takes place with all transactions received till the particular cut-off
time. These transactions are netted (payable and receivables) in NEFT whereas in RTGS

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the transactions are settled individually. For example, currently, NEFT operates in hourly
batches. [There are twelve settlements from 8 am to 7 pm on week days and six
settlements from 8 am to 1 pm on Saturdays.] Any transaction initiated after a
designated settlement time would have to wait till the next designated settlement time
Contrary to this, in the RTGS transactions are processed continuously throughout the

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RTGS business hours.

BANKING CARDS

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 Cards can be classified on the basis of their issuance, usage and payment by the card
holder. There are three types of cards (a) debit cards (b) credit cards and (c) prepaid
cards.
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 Debit cards are issued by banks and are linked to a bank account. Credit cards are issued
by banks / other entities approved by RBI. The credit limits sanctioned to a card holder is
in the form of a revolving line of credit (similar to a loan sanctioned by the issuer) and
may or may not be linked to a bank account. Prepaid cards are issued by the banks /
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non-banks against the value paid in advance by the cardholder and stored in such cards
which can be issued as smart cards or chip cards, magnetic stripe cards, internet
accounts, internet wallets, mobile accounts, mobile wallets, paper vouchers, etc.
 The debit cards are used to withdraw cash from an ATM, purchase of goods and services
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at Point of Sale (POS)/E-commerce (online purchase) both domestically and

internationally (provided it is enabled for international use). However, it can be used only
for domestic fund transfer from one person to another.
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 The credit cards are used for purchase of goods and services at Point of Sale (POS) and
E-commerce (online purchase)/ through Interactive Voice Response (IVR)/Recurring
transactions/ Mail Order Telephone Order (MOTO). These cards can be used domestically
and internationally (provided it is enabled for international use). The credit cards can be
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used to withdraw cash from an ATM and for transferring funds to bank accounts, debit
cards, credit cards and prepaid cards within the
 The usage of prepaid cards depends on who has issued these cards. The prepaid cards
issued by the banks can be used to withdraw cash from an ATM, purchase of goods and
services at Point of Sale (POS)/E-commerce (online purchase) and for domestic fund
transfer from one person to another. Such prepaid cards are known as open system
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prepaid cards. However, the prepaid cards issued by authorised non-bank entities can be
used only for purchase of goods and services at Point of Sale (POS)/E-commerce (online
purchase) and for domestic fund transfer from one person to another. Such prepaid

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.24

 cards are known as semi-closed system prepaid cards. These cards can be used only
domestically.

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 The limits on cash withdrawal at ATMs and for purchase of goods and services are
decided by the issuer bank. However, in case of cash withdrawal at other bank‘s ATM,
there is a limit of Rs 10,000/- per transaction. Cash withdrawal at POS has also been
enabled by certain banks wherein, a maximum of Rs.1000/- can be withdrawn daily by

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using debit cards.

Types of Cards:
 Visa Debit Cards: These debit cards are issued with the bank‘s tie-up with VISA payment
services providing the Verified by Visa (VbV) platform for online transactions.

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 Visa Electron Debit Cards: Visa Electron debit cards are very similar to Visa debit cards
but these cards do not provide the overdraft feature.
 MasterCard Debit Cards: A MasterCard Cirrus Card or a MasterCard Maestro Card gives
customers access to their funds worldwide and they can perform online transactions

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using their bank accounts on the MasterCard SecureCode platform.
 Contactless Debit Cards: Customers can make payments with just a tap or wave of their
contactless debit cards near PoS terminals, with the cards working on Near Field
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Technology (NFC) thereby making electronic payments safer.
 RuPay Debit Cards: Introduced as a domestic card scheme by the NPCI, RuPay debit
cards facilitate online purchases and transactions on the Discover network and ATM
transactions under the National Financial Switch network.
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 Maestro Debit Card: Founded in 1992, Maestro from MasterCard is a premier,
international debit card service that has been popularly adopted at over 13 million
locations spread across 100+ countries around the world. Maestro, as easily identified by
the signature logo on all partner cards, helps the customer gain immediate access to
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his/her money through a robust, international network of compatible ATMs, POS outlets
and online resources.
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RUPAY CARDS [BestCurrentAffairs.com]

 RuPay is an Indian domestic card scheme conceived and launched by the National
Payments Corporation of India (NPCI). It was created to fulfil the Reserve Bank of India‘s
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desire to have a domestic, open loop, and multilateral system of payments in India. In
India, 90 per cent of credit card transactions and almost all debit card transactions are
domestic; however, the cost of transactions was high due to monopoly of foreign
gateways like Visa and Mastercard.
 RuPay facilitates electronic payment at all Indian banks and financial institutions. NPCI
maintains ties with Discover Financial to enable the card scheme to gain international
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acceptance.
 The IndiaPay scheme was conceived by the National Payments Corporation of India as an
alternative to the MasterCard and Visa card schemes, and to consolidate and integrate

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.25

 various payment systems in India. It was renamed to RuPay to avoid naming conflicts
with other financial institutions using the same name.

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 RuPay is a portmanteau of the words rupee and payment. The colors used in the logo are
an allusion to the tricolor national flag.
 The RuPay card was launched on 26 March 2012. NPCI entered into a strategic
partnership with Discover Financial Services (DFS) for RuPay Card, enabling the

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acceptance of RuPay Global Cards on Discover‘s global payment network outside of
India.
 On 8 May 2014, RuPay has been dedicated to India by President of India, Pranab
Mukherjee.
 RuPay cards are accepted at all automated teller machines (ATMs) across India under

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National Financial Switch, and under the NPCI's agreement with DFS, RuPay cards are
accepted on the international Discover network. According to the data published by
National Payments Corporation of India, there are around 145,270 ATMs and more than
875,000 point of sale (PoS) terminals in India under the RuPay platform.

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 In addition to the ATMs and PoS terminals, RuPay cards are accepted online on 10,000 e-
commerce websites with the same PIN which they use for ATM transactions.
 RuPay's Parent Organization, National Payments Corporation of India has been
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backed by 11 leading banks, of which 7 are public sector banks namely State Bank of
India, Bank of Baroda, Punjab National Bank, Canara Bank, Union Bank of India, Andhra
Bank and Bank of India; 2 private sector banks ICICI Bank and HDFC Bank with 2 foreign
banks namely Citi Bank and HSBC.
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NATIONAL PAYMENTS CORPORATION OF INDIA

 National Payments Corporation of India is the umbrella organisation for all retail
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payment systems in India, which aims to allow all Indian citizens to have unrestricted
access to e-payment services.
 Founded in 2008, NPCI is a not-for-profit organisation registered under section 8 of the
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Companies Act 2013. The organisation is owned by a consortium of major banks, and has
been promoted by the country‘s central bank, the Reserve Bank of India. Its recent work
of developing Unified Payments Interface aims to move India to a cashless society with
only digital transactions.
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 It has successfully completed the development of a domestic card payment network

called RuPay, reducing the dependency on international card schemes. The RuPay card is
now accepted at all the ATMs, Point-of-Sale terminals and most of the online merchants
in the country. More than 300 cooperative banks and the Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) in
the country have also issued RuPay ATM cards.
 [BestCurrentAffairs.com]
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 More than 250 million cards have been issued by various banks, and it is growing at a
rate of about 3 million per month. A variant of the card called ‗Kisan Card‘ is now being

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.26

 issued by all the Public Sector Banks in addition to the mainstream debit card which has
been issued by 43 banks. RuPay cards are also issued under the Jan Dhan Yojana scheme.

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NATIONAL FINANCIAL SWITCH

 National Financial Switch (NFS) is the largest network of shared automated teller

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machines (ATMs) in India. It was designed, developed and deployed by the Institute for
Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT) in 2004, with the goal of
inter-connecting the ATMs in the country and facilitating convenience banking. It is run
by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).
 The first ATM in India was set up in 1987 by HSBC in Mumbai. In the following twelve

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years, about 1500 ATMs were set up in India. In 1997, the Indian Banks' Association (IBA)
set up Swadhan, the first network of shared ATMs in India. It was managed by India
Switch Company (ISC) for five years, and allowed cardholders to withdraw cash from any
ATM in the network, for a fee if they did not have an account with the bank that owned

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the ATM.
 In 2002, the network connected over 1000 ATMs of the 53 member banks of the
association. The network was capable of handling 250,000 transactions per day, but only
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5000 transactions, worth about ₹100,000, took place each day.
 In contrast, ICICI Bank's network of about 640 ATMs handled transactions worth about
₹20,000,000 each day. After the contract with ISC expired, IBA failed to find a bidder to
manage the operationally uneconomical network, and shut it down on 31 December
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2003.
 After the collapse of Swadhan, Bank of India, Union Bank of India, Indian Bank, United
Bank of India and Syndicate Bank formed an ATM-sharing network called CashTree.
Citibank, the Industrial Development Bank of India, Standard Chartered Bank and Axis
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Bank formed a similar network called Cashnet. Punjab National Bank and Canara Bank
also created such networks.
 In August 2003, the IDRBT announced that it would be creating the National Financial
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Switch (NFS) to link together the country's ATMs in a single network.

 The IDRBT collaborated with Euronet Worldwide and Opus Software to build a platform
to allow banks to connect their own switches to the NFS. The NFS consisted of an inter-
ATM switch and a e-commerce payment gateway.
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AUTOMATED TELLER MACHINE (ATM)

 Automated Teller Machine is a computerized machine that provides the customers of

banks the facility of accessing their account for dispensing cash and to carry out other
financial & non-financial transactions without the need to actually visit their bank branch.
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 ATMs set up, owned and operated by non-banks are called White Label ATMs. Non-
bank ATM operators are authorized under Payment & Settlement Systems Act, 2007 by
the Reserve Bank of India.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.27

  In White Label ATM scenario, logo displayed on ATM machine and in ATM premises
pertain to WLA Operator instead of a bank. However, for a customer, using WLA is just

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like using the ATM of other bank (bank other than card issuing bank). ii) Acceptance of
cash deposits at the WLAs is not permitted at present.
 The rationale of allowing non-bank entity to set up White Label ATMs has been to
increase the geographical spread of ATM for increased / enhanced customer service.

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 The ATM/ATM cum debit cards, credit cards and open prepaid cards (that permit cash
withdrawal) issued by banks can be used at ATMs/WLAs for various transactions.
 In addition to cash dispensing, ATMs/WLAs may offer many other services/facilities to
bank customers. Some of these services include:
 Account Information

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 Cash Deposit (Acceptance of deposits are not permitted at WLAs)
 Regular Bills Payment (not permitted at WLAs)
 Purchase of Re-load Vouchers for Mobiles (not permitted at WLAs)
 Mini/Short Statement

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 PIN change
 Request for Cheque Book
 For transacting at an ATM/WLA, the customer inserts /swipes his/her Card in the
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ATM/WLA and enters his/her Personal Identification Number (PIN). Usually the
transactions are menu driven for facilitating easy operation.
 PIN is the numeric password which is separately mailed / handed over to the customer
by the bank while issuing the card. Most banks require the customers to change the PIN
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on the first use. Customer should not disclose PIN to anybody, including to bank officials.
Customers should change the PIN at regular intervals.

UNIFIED PAYMENTS INTERFACE

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 Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is a payment system launched by National Payments

Corporation of India and regulated by Reserve Bank of India which facilitates the fund
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transfer between two bank accounts on the mobile platform instantly.

 UPI (Unified Payments Interface) is an advanced version of Immediate Payment Service
(IMPS) platform designed for transferring funds using: Transfer through Virtual Payment
Address (Unique ID provided by bank) or Account Number + IFSC or Mobile Number +
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MMID(Mobile Money Identifier) or Aadhaar Number or Collect / Pull money basis Virtual
ID. A MPIN(Mobile banking Personal Identification number) is given to the banking
customer once they register for UPI which is required to be entered while confirming a
money transfer.
 Banks supporting UPI payment have started to upload their own UPI enabled Apps on
Google Play store as well as on Apple App Store also.[3] National Payments Corporation
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of India has launched a Payment app BHIM and NUUP service for performing transaction
using Aadhaar number over UPI.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.28

 BHIM (BHARAT INTERFACE FOR MONEY - BHIM APP)

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 BHIM (Bharat Interface for Money - Bhim App) is a Mobile App developed by National
Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), based on the Unified Payment Interface (UPI).
 It was launched by Narendra Modi, the Prime Minister of India, at a Digi Dhan
programme at Talkatora Stadium in New Delhi on 30 December 2016. It has been named

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after Bhim Rao Ambedkar and is intended to facilitate e-payments directly through banks
and as part of the 2016 Indian banknote demonetisation and drive towards cashless
transactions.
 This UPI app supports all Indian banks which use that platform, which is built over the
Immediate Payment Service infrastructure and allows the user to instantly transfer money

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between the bank accounts of any two parties. It can be used on all mobile devices.
 BHIM allow users to send or receive money to other UPI payment addresses or scanning
QR code or account number with IFSC code or MMID (Mobile Money Identifier) Code to
users who do not have a UPI-based bank account.

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 BHIM allows users to check current balance in their bank accounts and to choose which
bank account to use for conducting transactions, although only one can be active at any
time.
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 Users can create their own QR code for a fixed amount of money, which is helpful in
merchant — seller — buyer transactions.[citation needed] They can also have more than
one payment address.
 If the 12-digit Aadhaar is listed as a payment ID on the BHIM app will not require any
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biometric authentication or prior registration with the bank or Unified Payment Interface
(UPI).
 During Union Budget 2017, Union Finance minister Arun Jaitley said that Government will
launch two new scheme to promote the use of the BHIM app. One will be referral
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payments for individuals, and the other will cashback for merchants who accept
payments from BHIM.
 During the Union Budget 2017, Union Finance minister Arun Jaitley said that BHIM is
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currently being used by over 125 lakh Indian citizens.

IMMEDIATE PAYMENT SERVICE

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 Immediate Payment Service (IMPS) is an instant real-time inter-bank electronic funds

transfer system in India. IMPS offers an inter-bank electronic fund transfer service
through mobile phones. Unlike NEFT and RTGS, the service is available 24/7 throughout
the year including bank holidays.
 It is managed by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) and is built upon the
existing National Financial Switch network. In 2010, the NPCI initially carried out a pilot
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for the mobile payment system with 4 member banks (State Bank of India, Bank of India,
Union Bank of India and ICICI Bank), and expanded it to include Yes Bank, Axis Bank and
HDFC Bank later that year. IMPS was publicly launched on November 22, 2010.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.29

 AADHAAR

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 Aadhaar is a 12 digit unique-identity number issued to all Indian residents based on their
biometric and demographic data. The data is collected by the Unique Identification
Authority of India (UIDAI), a statutory authority established on 12 July 2016 by the
Government of India, under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology,

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under the provisions of the Aadhaar Act 2016.
 Aadhaar is the world's largest biometric ID system, with over 1.112 billion enrolled
members. 99% of Indians aged 18 and above had enrolled in Aadhaar.
 Prior to the enactment of the Act, UIDAI functioned as an attached office of Planning
Commission (now NITI Aayog) since 28 January 2009. On 3 March 2016, a money bill was

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introduced in the Parliament to give legislative backing to Aadhaar. On 11 March 2016,
the Aadhaar Act 2016 was passed in the Lok Sabha. On 26 March 2016, this Act was
notified in the Gazette of India.
 Some civil liberty groups, like Citizens Forum for Civil Liberties and Indian Social Action

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Forum (INSAF), have opposed the project on privacy concerns.
 The Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) is a statutory authority established
on 12 July 2016 by the Government of India under the Ministry of Electronics and
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Information Technology, under the provisions of the Aadhaar Act 2016.
 The UIDAI is mandated to assign a 12-digit unique identification (UID) number (termed
as Aadhaar) to all the residents of India.
 [BestCurrentAffairs.com]
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 The number is linked to the resident's basic demographic and biometric information such
as photograph, ten fingerprints and two iris scans, which are stored in a centralised
database.
 The UIDAI data center is located at Industrial Model Township (IMT), Manesar (Haryana).
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NATIONAL COMMON MOBILITY CARD

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 National Common Mobility Card or NCMC is an interoperable transport card conceived

by the Ministry of Urban Development of the government of India.
 The Urban Development Ministry brought in the National Payments Corporation of India
with the task of management, clearing and settlement of payments, simulating cards and
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terminals and maintenance of network.

 C-DAC is given the responsibility of developing standards and hardware for the card
usage and the related ecosystems. NPCI is set to launch the NCMC soon.

ASIAN CLEARING UNION (ACU)

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 The Asian Clearing Union (ACU) was established with its head quarters at Tehran, Iran, on
December 9, 1974 at the initiative of the United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP), for promoting regional co-operation.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.30

  The main objective of the clearing union is to facilitate payments among member
countries for eligible transactions on a multilateral basis, thereby economizing on the use

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of foreign exchange reserves and transfer costs, as well as promoting trade among the
participating countries.
 The Central Banks and the Monetary Authorities of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran,
Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are currently the members of the ACU.

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 The Asian Monetary Units (AMUs) is the common unit of account of ACU and is
denominated as ‗ACU Dollar‘ and ‗ACU Euro‘, which is equivalent in value to one US
Dollar and one Euro respectively. All instruments of payments under ACU have to be
denominated in AMUs. Settlement of such instruments may be made by AD Category-I
banks through the ACU Dollar Accounts and ACU Euro Accounts, which should be

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distinct from the other US Dollar and Euro accounts respectively maintained for non ACU
transactions.

LIST OF PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS IN 3. Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank Ltd.

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INDIA 4. American Express Banking Corp.
5. Antwerp Diamond Bank NV
1. Catholic Syrian Bank Ltd. 6. BNP Paribas
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2. City Union Bank Ltd. 7. Bank of America N.T. & S.A.
3. Dhanalakshmi Bank Ltd. 8. Bank of Bahrain & Kuwait B.S.C.
4. Federal Bank Ltd. 9. Bank of Ceylon
5. ING Vysya Bank Ltd. 10. Bank of Nova Scotia
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6. Jammu & Kashmir Bank Ltd. 11. Barclays Bank PLC
7. Karnataka Bank Ltd. 12. Calyon Bank
8. Karur Vysya Bank Ltd. 13. Chinatrust Commercial Bank
9. Lakshmi Vilas Bank Ltd. 14. Citibank N.A.
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10. Nainital Bank Ltd. 15. Deutsche Bank (Asia)

11. Ratnakar Bank Ltd. 16. DBS Bank Ltd.
12. South Indian Bank Ltd. 17. HSBC Ltd.
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13. Tamilnad Mercantile Bank Ltd. 18. JPMorgan Chase Bank

14. Axis Bank Ltd. 19. JSC VTB Bank
15. Development Credit Bank Ltd 20. Krung Thai Bank Public Co. Ltd.
16. HDFC Bank Ltd. 21. Mashreqbank PSC
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17. ICICI Bank Ltd. 22. Mizuho Corporate Bank Ltd.

18. IndusInd Bank Ltd. 23. Oman International Bank S.A.O.G.
19. Kotak Mahindra Bank Ltd. 24. Shinhan Bank
20. Yes Bank Ltd 25. Societe Generale
26. Sonali Bank
LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS IN INDIA 27. Standard Chartered Bank
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28. State Bank of Mauritius Ltd.

1. AB Bank Ltd. 29. The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, Ltd.
2. ABN-AMRO Bank N.V. 30. UBS AG

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.31

 BASEL NORMS

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 Basel is a city in Switzerland. It is the headquarters of Bureau of International Settlement
(BIS), which fosters co-operation among central banks with a common goal of financial
stability and common standards of banking regulations. Every two months BIS hosts a
meeting of the governor and senior officials of central banks of member countries.

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Currently there are 27 member nations in the committee. Basel guidelines refer to broad
supervisory standards formulated by this group of central banks - called the Basel
Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS).
 The set of agreement by the BCBS, which mainly focuses on risks to banks and the
financial system are called Basel accord.

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 The purpose of the accord is to ensure that financial institutions have enough capital on
account to meet obligations and absorb unexpected losses. India has accepted Basel
accords for the banking system.
 In fact, on a few parameters the RBI has prescribed stringent norms as compared to the

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norms prescribed by BCBS.

Basel I
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 In 1988, BCBS introduced capital measurement system called Basel capital accord, also
called as Basel 1. It focused almost entirely on credit risk. It defined capital and structure
of risk weights for banks. The minimum capital requirement was fixed at 8% of risk
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weighted assets (RWA). RWA means assets with different risk profiles. For example, an
asset backed by collateral would carry lesser risks as compared to personal loans, which
have no collateral.
 India adopted Basel 1 guidelines in 1999.
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Basel II
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 In June ‘04, Basel II guidelines were published by BCBS, which were considered to be the
refined and reformed versions of Basel I accord. The guidelines were based on three
parameters, which the committee calls it as pillars. - Capital Adequacy Requirements:
Banks should maintain a minimum capital adequacy requirement of 8% of risk assets -
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Supervisory Review: According to this, banks were needed to develop and use better risk
management techniques in monitoring and managing all the three types of risks that a
bank faces, viz. credit, market and operational risks - Market Discipline: This need
increased disclosure requirements. Banks need to mandatorily disclose their CAR, risk
exposure, etc to the central bank.
 Basel II norms in India and overseas are yet to be fully implemented.
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BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.32

 Basel III

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 In 2010, Basel III guidelines were released. These guidelines were introduced in response
to the financial crisis of 2008. A need was felt to further strengthen the system as banks
in the developed economies were under-capitalized, over-leveraged and had a greater
reliance on short-term funding. Also the quantity and quality of capital under Basel II

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were deemed insufficient to contain any further risk.
 Basel III norms aim at making most banking activities such as their trading book activities
more capital-intensive. The guidelines aim to promote a more resilient banking system
by focusing on four vital banking parameters viz. capital, leverage, funding and liquidity.

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'CAMELS RATING SYSTEM' [BestCurrentAffairs.com]

The CAMELS rating system is a recognized international rating system that bank
supervisory authorities use in order to rate financial institutions according to six factors

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represented by the acronym "CAMELS." Supervisory authorities assign each bank a score on
a scale, and a rating of one is considered the best and the rating of five is considered the
worst for each factor. Banks that are given an average score of less than two are considered
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to be high-quality institutions. Banks with scores greater than three are considered to be
less-than-satisfactory institutions. The components of a bank's condition that are assessed:
(C)apital adequacy
(A)ssets
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(M)anagement Capability
(E)arnings
(L)iquidity (also called asset liability management)
(S)ensitivity (sensitivity to market risk, especially interest rate risk)
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Ratings are given from 1 (best) to 5 (worst) in each of the above categories.
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INDIAN ACCOUNTING STANDARDS (IND AS)

 Indian Accounting Standards (abbreviated as Ind-AS) in India accounting standards were

issued under the supervision and control of Accounting Standards Board (ASB), which
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was constituted as a body in the year 1977. ASB is a committee under Institute of
Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) which consists of representatives from government
department, academicians, other professional bodies viz. icai, representatives from
ASSOCHAM, CII, FICCI, etc.
 The Ind AS are named and numbered in the same way as the corresponding International
Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). National Advisory Committee on Accounting
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Standards (NACAS) recommend these standards to the Ministry of Corporate Affairs

(MCA). MCA has to spell out the accounting standards applicable for companies in India.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.33

  As on date MCA has notified 39 Ind AS. This shall be applied to the companies of
financial year 2015-16 voluntarily and from 2016-17 on a mandatory basis.

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 Based on the international consensus, the regulators will separately notify the date of
implementation of Ind-AS for the banks, insurance companies etc. Standards for the
computation of Tax has been notified as ICDS in February 2015.

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LIST OF INDIAN ACCOUNTING STANDARDS
Ind As No. Name of Indian Accounting Standard
Ind AS 101 First-time Adoption of Indian Accounting Standards
Ind AS 102 Share Based Payment
Ind AS 103 Business Combinations

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Ind AS 104 Insurance Contracts
Ind AS 105 Non-Current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations
Ind AS 106 Exploration for and Evaluation of Mineral Resources
Ind AS 107 Financial Instruments: Disclosures
Ind AS 108
Ind AS 109
Ind AS 110
Operating Segments
Financial Instruments
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Consolidated Financial Statements
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Ind AS 111 Joint Arrangements
Ind AS 112 Disclosure of Interests in Other Entities
Ind AS 113 Fair Value Measurement
Ind AS 114 Regulatory Deferral Accounts
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Ind AS 115 Revenue from Contracts with Customers

Ind AS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements
Ind AS 2 Inventories
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Ind AS 7 Statement of Cash Flows

Ind AS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors
Ind AS 10 Events after Reporting Period
Ind AS 11 Construction Contracts
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Ind AS 12 Income Taxes

Ind AS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment
Ind AS 17 Leases
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Ind AS 18 Revenue
Ind AS 19 Employee Benefits
Ind AS 20 Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government Assistance
Ind AS 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
Ind AS 23 Borrowing Costs
Ind AS 24 Related Party Disclosures
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Ind AS 27 Separate Financial Statements

Ind AS 28 Investments in Associates and Joint Ventures
Ind AS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyper inflationary Economies

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.34

 Ind AS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation
Ind AS 33 Earnings Per Share

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Ind AS 34 Interim Financial Reporting
Ind AS 36 Impairment of Assets
Ind AS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets
Ind AS 38 Intangible Assets

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Ind AS 40 Investment Property
Ind AS 41 Agriculture

WHOLESALE AND LONG-TERM FINANCE BANKS IN INDIA

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The Reserve Bank of India recently released a Discussion Paper on ‗Wholesale &
Long-Term Finance Banks‘.
The discussion paper explores the scope for setting up more differentiated
banks, specifically wholesale & long-term finance banks in the context of having issued in-

small finance banks.

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principle approvals and licences to set up differentiated banks, such as, payments banks and

 The Wholesale and Long-Term Finance (WLTF) banks will focus primarily on lending to
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infrastructure sector and small, medium and corporate businesses. They will also mobilise
liquidity for banks and financial institutions directly originating priority sector assets,
through securitisation of such assets and actively dealing in them as market makers.
 They may also act as market-makers in securities, such as, corporate bonds, credit
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derivatives, warehouse receipts, and take-out financing, etc.

 These banks will provide refinance to lending institutions and shall be present in capital
markets in the form of aggregators. They may have negligible retail sector exposure on
re

asset side.
 The primary sources of funds for these banks could be a combination of wholesale and
long term deposits (above a large threshold), debt/equity capital raised from primary
market issues or private placement, and term borrowings from banks and other financial
ur

institutions.
 Since the scope of activities to be permitted for differentiated banks are mostly a subset
of those allowed for universal banks, it needs to be considered whether the niche areas
which they are envisaged to serve are currently underserved by the existing players, and
stC

whether licensing such specialised banks would result in a net positive for the
development of those niche areas and serve the larger public good.
 In sum, the issues for discussion are: (i) whether there is a need for licensing wholesale &
long-term finance banks, (ii) whether the time is opportune for the same, (iii) what would
be the net impact of such players on the financial system, and (iv) whether the proposed
Be

regulatory framework is appropriate.

Background: In the First Bi-monthly Monetary Policy Statement, 2016-17 dated April 5, 2016,
it was announced that in addition to recently licensed differentiated banks, such as,

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.35

 payments banks and small finance banks, the Reserve Bank will explore the possibilities of
licensing other differentiated banks, such as, custodian banks and banks concentrating on

m
wholesale and long-term financing. After detailed deliberations, it was felt that no significant
advantage will accrue by introducing Custodian Banks at this point of time. Hence, discussion
paper on ‗Wholesale & Long-Term Finance Banks‘ (WLTF) has been prepared and released
for discussion.

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fa irs
Af
nt
re
ur
stC
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BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.36

 m
TIGER RESERVES:

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Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India in the year 1973 to save
the endangered species of tiger in the country. Starting from nine (9) reserves in 1973-2016
the number is grown up to fifty (50). A total area of 71027.10 km2 is covered by these
project tiger areas.

irs
TIGER RESERVES OF INDIA
No. Name of Tiger State Area of the Area of Total area(In
Reserve core / critical the buffer Sq.Kms.)
tiger habitat /

fa
(In Sq. Kms.) peripheral
(In Sq.
Kms.)
Af
1 Nagarjunsagar Andhra 2595.72* 700.59* 3296.31*
Srisailam (part)* Pradesh
2 Namdapha Arunachal 1807.82 245 2052.82
Pradesh
nt
3 Kamlang Tiger Arunachal 671.00 112.00 783.00
Reserve Pradesh
4 Pakke Arunachal 683.45 515 1198.45
Pradesh
re

5 Manas Assam 840.04 2310.88 3150.92

6 Nameri Assam 200 144 344
7 Orang Tiger Assam 79.28 413.18 492.46
ur

Reserve
8 Kaziranga Assam 625.58 548 1173.58
9 Valmiki Bihar 598.45 300.93 899.38
10 Udanti-Sitanadi Chattisgarh 851.09 991.45 1842.54
stC

11 Achanakmar Chattisgarh 626.195 287.822 914.017

12 Indravati Chhattisgarh 1258.37 1540.7 2799.07
13 Palamau Jharkhand 414.08 715.85 1129.93
14 Bandipur Karnataka 872.24 584.06 1456.3
15 Bhadra Karnataka 492.46 571.83 1064.29
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16 Dandeli-Anshi Karnataka 814.884 282.63 1097.514

17 Nagarahole Karnataka 643.35 562.41 1205.76
18 Biligiri Karnataka 359.1 215.72 574.82

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.37

 Ranganatha
Temple

m
19 Periyar Kerala 881 44 925
20 Parambikulam Kerala 390.89 252.772 643.662
21 Kanha Madhya 917.43 1134.361 2051.791
Pradesh

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22 Pench Madhya 411.33 768.30225 1179.63225
Pradesh
23 Bandhavgarh Madhya 716.903 820.03509 1598.1
Pradesh
24 Panna Madhya 576.13 1021.97** 1578.55

irs
Pradesh
25 Satpura Madhya 1339.264 794.04397 2133.30797
Pradesh
26 Sanjay-Dubri Madhya 812.571 861.931 1674.502

27
28
Melghat
Tadoba-Andhari
Pradesh
Maharashtra
Maharashtra fa
1500.49
625.82
1268.03
1101.7711
2768.52
1727.5911
Af
29 Pench Maharashtra 257.26 483.96 741.22
30 Sahyadri Maharashtra 600.12 565.45 1165.57
31 Nawegaon- Maharashtra 653.674 - 653.674
Nagzira
nt

32 Bor Maharashtra 138.12 - 138.12

33 Dampa Mizoram 500 488 988
34 Similipal Odisha 1194.75 1555.25 2750
re

35 Satkosia Odisha 523.61 440.26 963.87

36 Ranthambore Rajasthan 1113.364 297.9265 1411.291
37 Sariska Rajasthan 881.1124 332.23 1213.342
38 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan 417.17 342.82 759.99
ur

39 Kalakad- Tamil Nadu 895 706.542 1601.542

Mundanthurai
40 Anamalai Tamil Nadu 958.59 521.28 1479.87
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41 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 321 367.59 688.59

42 Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu 793.49 614.91 1408.4
43 Kawal Telangana 893.23 1125.89 2019.12
44 Amrabad Telangana 2166.37* 445.02* 2611.39*
45 Dudhwa Uttar 1093.79 1107.9848 2201.7748
Pradesh
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46 Pilibhit Uttar 602.798 127.4518 730.2498

Pradesh
47 Amangarh (buffer Uttar - 80.6 80.6

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.38

 of Corbett TR) Pradesh
Corbett Uttarakhand 821.99 466.32 1288.31

m
48 Rajaji TR Uttarakhand 255.63 819.54 1075.17
49 Sunderbans West Bengal 1699.62 885.27 2584.89
50 Buxa West Bengal 390.5813 367.3225 757.9038
TOTAL 40340.12 30686.98 71027.10

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PROTECTED AREAS WITHIN TIGER RESERVES (AREA-WISE)
S.No. State Name of Tiger Protected Areas Area Status
Reserve (PAs) (sq.km.)
1 Andhra Nagarjunsagar Nagarjunsagar 1250.46 WLS

irs
Pradesh Srisailam (part) Srisailam (part)
Nagarjunsagar Gundla 1193.68 WLS
Srisailam (part) Brahmeswaram
Nagarjunsagar Buffer Zone NSTR 730.49 RF
Srisailam (part)
Nagarjunsagar
Srisailam (part) fa Peripheral Zone
(within sanctuary)
552.87 WLS
Af
2 Arunachal Kamlang Kamlang 783 WLS
Pradesh Pakke Pakke 861.95 WLS
Pakke Papum 346.25 Buffer
Pakke Tenga 168.75 Buffer
nt

3 Assam Kaziranga Kaziranga 482.03 NP

Kaziranga Buffer 376.89 *
Kaziranga Kukurakata 15.93 RF
re

Kaziranga Panbari 7.66 RF

Kaziranga Bagser 33.67 RF
Kaziranga Laokhowa 70.14 WLS
Kaziranga Burhachapori 44.06 WLS
ur

Manas Manas 500 NP

Manas Barnadi 26.22 WLS
Manas Buffer 2310.88 RF
stC

Nameri Nameri 200 NP

Nameri Buffer 144 *
Orang Core 79.28 *
Orang Buffer 413.18 *
4 Bihar Valmiki Core 598.45 *
Valmiki Buffer 300.93 *
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5 Chattisgarh Achanakmar Core 626.195 RF

Achanakmar Buffer 248.902 RF
Achanakmar Buffer 38.92 PF

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.39

 Udanti-Sitanadi Udanti 275.77 WLS
Udanti-Sitanadi Sitanadi 575.32 WLS

m
Udanti-Sitanadi Buffer 991.45 *
Indravati Core 261.5 RF
Indravati Core 728.69 PF
Indravati Core 203.71 UndePF

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Indravati Core 64.47 RA
Indravati Buffer 639.33 RF
Indravati Buffer 221.26 PF
Indravati Buffer 577.67 UndePF
Indravati Buffer 102.44 RA

irs
6 Jharkhand Palamau Core 414.08 RF
Palamau Buffer 715.85 RF
7 Karnataka Bandipur Bandipur 872.24 NP
Bandipur Bandipur 584.06 Buffer
Bhadra
Bhadra
Biligiri fa Core
Buffer
Ranganatha Core
492.46
571.83
359.1
*
*
*
Af
Temple
Biligiri Ranganatha Buffer 215.72 *
Temple
Dandeli-Anshi Anshi 339.866 NP
nt

Dandeli-Anshi Dandeli 475.018 WLS

Nagarahole Nagarhole 643.35 NP
Nagarahole Buffer 562.41 *
re

8 Kerala Parambikulam Core 390.89 WLS

Parambikulam Buffer 252.77 *
Periyar Core 881 *
ur

Periyar Buffer 44 *
9 Madhya Bandhavgarh Bandhavgarh 452.66 NP
Pradesh Bandhavgarh Panpatha 264.23 WLS
Bandhavgarh Buffer 820.03 *
stC

Kanha Kanha 917.43 NP

Kanha Buffer 1134.36 *
Panna Panna 542.66 NP
Panna Panna (Gangau) 33.47 WLS
Panna Buffer 1021.97 *
Be

Pench Indira 292.85 NP

Priyadarshini
Pench
Pench Pench Mowgli 118.47 WLS

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.40

 Pench Buffer 768.3 *
Sanjay-Dubri Sanjay 464.64 NP

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Sanjay-Dubri Sanjay-Dubri 347.94 WLS
Sanjay-Dubri Buffer 861.93 *
Satpura Satpura 483.89 NP
Satpura Bori 437.79 WLS

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Satpura Pachmarhi 417.58 WLS
Satpura Buffer 794.04 *
10 Maharashtra Bor Bor 61.1 WLS
Bor New Bor 60.7 WLS
Bor New Bor 16.32 WLS

irs
(extended)
Melghat Gugamal 361.28 NP
Melghat Melghat 778.75 WLS
Melghat Narnala 12.35 WLS
Melghat
Melghat
Melghat fa
Ambabarawa
Wan
Buffer
127.11
211
1268.03
WLS
WLS
RF
Af
Nawegaon-Nagzira Nawegaon 129.55 NP
Nawegaon-Nagzira Nagzira 152.58 WLS
Nawegaon-Nagzira Nawegaon 122.75 WLS
Nawegaon-Nagzira New Nagzira 151.33 WLS
nt

Nawegaon-Nagzira Koka 100.13 WLS

Pench Pench 257.26 NP
Pench Buffer 483.96 RF
re

Sahyadri Core 600.12 *

Sahyadri Buffer 565.45 *
Tadoba-Andhari Tadoba 116.55 NP
ur

Tadoba-Andhari Andhari 509.27 WLS

Tadoba-Andhari Buffer 1101.77 RF
11 Mizoram Dampa Core 500 *
Dampa Buffer 488 *
stC

12 Odisha Satkosia Core 523.61 *

Satkosia Buffer 440.26 *
Similipal Core 1194.75 *
Similipal Buffer 1555.25 *
13 Rajasthan Ranthambore Ranthambhore 282.03 NP
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National Park
Ranthambore Sawai Madhopur 131.3 WLS
Ranthambore Sawai Mansingh 113.7 WLS

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.41

 Ranthambore Qualji Closed Area 37.86 *
Ranthambore Amli, Gazipur, 75.76 RF/PF

m
Papada, Polghate
and Balban
Ranthambore Keladevi 672.82 WLS
Ranthambore Nibhera, 81.64 RF/PF

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Nehargarh, Viram
ki Guari, Rodhain
and Kureri
Ranthambore Buffer 297.92 *
14 Tamil Nadu Kalakad-Mundanthurai Core 895 WLS

irs
Kalakad-Mundanthurai Buffer 706.54 *
Mudumalai Mudumalai 103.23 NP
Mudumalai Mudumalai 217.76 WLS
Mudumalai Buffer 367.59 *
Sathyamangalam
Sathyamangalam
Anamalai fa Sathyamangalam
Buffer
Indira Gandhi
793.49
614.91
117.1
WLS
*
NP
Af
(Annamalai)
Anamalai Indira Gandhi 841.49 WLS
(Annamalai)
Anamalai Buffer 521.28 *
nt

15 Telangana Amrabad Core 2166.37 *

Amrabad Buffer 445.02 *
Kawal Kawal 892.23 WLS
re

Kawal Buffer 1123.21 *

16 Uttar Pradesh Amangarh (buffer of Buffer 80.6 RF
Corbett TR)
Dudhwa Dudhwa 490.29 NP
ur

Dudhwa Kishanpur 203.41 WLS

Dudhwa Katerniaghat 400.09 WLS
Dudhwa Buffer 1107.9 *
stC

Pilibhit Core 602.79 *

Pilibhit Buffer 127.45 *
17 Uttarakhand Corbett Corbett 520.82 NP
Corbett Sonanadi 301.17 WLS
Corbett Corbett 466.82 RF
Rajaji Rajaji 819.54 NP
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Rajaji Buffer 255.63 *

18 West Bengal Buxa Core 390.5813 *
Buxa Buffer 367.322 *

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.42

 Sunderbans Sundarbans 1330.1 NP
Sunderbans Sajnakhali 362.4 WLS

m
Sunderbans Buffer 892.5 *

Abbreviations:
NP - National Park, WLS - Wildlife Sanctuary, RF - Reserved Forest, PF - Protected

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Forest, UndePF - Undemarcated Protected Forest, * to be updated

ELEPHANT RESERVES IN INDIA

The Indian elephant Elephas maximus occurs in the central and southern Western
Ghats, North-east India, eastern India and northern India and in some parts of southern

irs
peninsular India. It is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and
in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and
Fauna (CITES). It occurs in 16 of the 28 states in the country and is showing an increasing
trend across its distributional range. Its population in 2007 was estimated to be in the range

fa
from 27,657 to 27,682, whereas in 2012 the population was estimated to be between 27,785
and 31,368.
Af
Elephant (Elephas maximus) population estimates for 2007 and 2012
S.No. States Elephant Population
1 Arunachal Pradesh 1690
2 Assam 5281
nt

3 Meghalaya 1811
4 Nagaland 212
5 Tripura 59
re

6 West Bengal 325-350

7 Jharkhand 688
8 Odisha 1930
9 Chattisgarh 215
ur

10 Uttarakhand 1346
11 Uttar Pradesh 380
12 Tamil Nadu 3726
stC

13 Karnataka 3900-7458
14 Kerela 6177
15 Andhra Pradesh 41
16 Maharshtra 4
27785-31368
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PROJECT ELEPHANT: It was launched by the Government of India in the year 1992 as a
Centrally Sponsored Scheme with following objectives:
1. To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.43

 2. To address issues of man-animal conflict
3. Welfare of captive elephants

m
 The Project is being mainly implemented in 16 States / UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh,
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal.

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 The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides the financial and
technical support to major elephant range states in the country through Project Elephant.

List of Landscape and Elephant Reserves in India with 2005 Census Population

irs
Sl. Elephant Range Elephant Reserve State Total Populati
N Area on in
o. (Sq. 2005
Km)

fa
1 East-Central 1. Mayurjharna ER West 414 96
Landscape Bengal
(South-West Bengal- 2. Singhbhum ER Jharkhand 4530 371
Af
Jharkhand - Orissa) 3. Mayurbhanj ER Orissa 3214 465
4. Mahanadi ER * Orissa 1038 464
5. Sambalpur ER * Orissa 427 284
6. Baitami ER # Orissa 1755 108
nt

7. South Orissa ER # Orissa 4216 138

8. Lemru ER # Chhattishg 450 -
arh
re

9. Badalkhol - Chhattishg 1048.3 -

Tamorpingla ER arh
Total 17092. 1926
3
ur

2 Kameng-Sonitpur 10. Kameng ER Arunachal 1892

Landscape
(Arunachal - Assam) 11. Sonitpur ER * Assam 1420 612
Total 3312 612
stC

3 Eastern-South Bank 12. Dihing-Patkai ER Assam 937 295

Landscape
(Assam - Arunachal) 13. South Arunachal ER Arunachal 1957.5 129
Total 2894.5 424
4 Kaziranga-Karbi 14. Kaziranga-Karbi Assam 3270 1940
Be

Anglong-Intanki Anglong ER
Landscape
(Assam - Nagaland) 15. Dhansiri-Lungding ER Assam 2740 275

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.44

 16. Intanki ER Nagaland 202 30
Total 6212 2245

m
5 North Bengal- Greater 17. Chirang-Ripu ER Assam 2600 658
Manas Landscape
(Assam - West Bengal) 18. Eastern Dooars ER West 978 300-350
Bengal

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Total 3578 1008
6 Meghalaya Landscape 19. Garo Hills ER Meghalaya 3500 1047
(Meghalaya) 20. Khasi-hills ER # Meghalaya 1331 383
Total 4831 1430
7 Brahmagiri-Nilgiri- 21. Mysore ER Karnataka 6724 4452

irs
Eastern Ghat
Landscape
(Karnataka - Kerala- 22. Wayanad ER Kerala 1200 636
Tamilnadu- Andhra) 23. Nilgiri ER Tamil 4663 2862

fa
24. Rayala ER
25. Nilambur ER
Nadu
Andhra
Kerala
766
1419
12
281
Af
26. Coimbatore ER Tamil 566 329
Nadu
Total 15338 8572
8 Anamalai- 27. Anamalai ER Tamil 1457 179
nt

Nelliampathy- High Nadu

Range Landscape
(Tamilnadu - Kerala) 28. Anamudi ER Kerala 3728 1726
re

Total 5185 1905

9 Periyar-Agasthyamalai 29. Periyar ER Kerala 3742 1100
Landscape
(Kerala - Tamilnadu) 30. Srivilliputhur ER Tamil 1249 638
ur

Nadu
Total 4991 1738
10 North-Western 31. Shivalik ER Uttarakhan 5405 1510
stC

Landscape d
(Uttarakhand - Uttar 32. Uttar Pradesh ER U.P. 744 NA
Pradesh)
Total 6149 1510
TOTAL 69,582. 21,370
80
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# Approved by Govt. of India, but not yet notified by the State Government
* Proposal for extension approved by GOI, but not yet notified by the state

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.45

 IMPORTANT COASTAL AND MARINE BIODIVERSITY AREAS (ICMBAS)

m
India has taken several steps to achieve the National Biodiversity Target no 6 and
Aichi Biodiversity Target no 11 which aim to conserve a substantial portion of the coastal and
marine areas in the country and world respectively. Towards achieving these two targets, 106
coastal and marine sites have been identified and prioritized as Important Coastal and

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Marine Areas (ICMBAs) by the Wildlife Institute of India.
Sixty-two ICMBAs have been identified along the west coast of India, and 44
have been identified along the east coast. Of these, 22 ICMBAs have been prioritized for
immediate conservation actions and proposed to be upgraded as Protected Areas under
categories such as Conservation or Communities Reserve to increase participation of the

irs
local communities in governance.

State District Identified Site North East Area Suggeste

(Sq.K d

fa
m) category
o o
Gujarat Kachchh 1. Koteshwar 23 40.3 68 33.6 146 Cons. /
(14) 63 14 Comm.
Af
Reserve
Kachchh 2. Jacau 23o14.2 68 o 36. 403 Cons. /
45 602 Comm.
Reserve
nt
Kachchh 3. Gasabara 22o57.3 69 o 00. 19 Cons. /
05 121 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Porbandar 4. Porbandar 21 39.1 69 36. 261 Wildlife
re

50 629 Sanctuary
Porbandar 5. Madhavpur 21o15.7 69 o 57. 19.6 Cons. /
17 057 Comm.
ur

Reserve
Diu-Daman 6. Diu 20o23.0 70 o 57. 179 Cons. /
34 613 Comm.
Reserve
stC

Junagad 7. Gopnath 21o26.0 72 o 06. 87 Cons. /

90 531 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Bhavnagar 8. Bhavnagar 21 45.6 72 11. 816 Cons. /
78 502 Comm.
Be

Reserve
Anand 9. Wadgham 22o16.4 72 o 27. 927 Cons. /
14 661 Comm.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.46

 Reserve
o o
Surat 10. Aliabet 21 38.2 72 42. 647 Cons. /

m
94 909 Comm.
Reserve
Surat 11. Purna 20o56.2 72 o 48. 147 Cons. /
54 201 Comm.

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Reserve
o o
Valsad 12. Ambika 20 45.3 72 51. 105 Cons. /
48 202 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Valsad 13. Damnganga 20 24.6 72 51. 9 Cons. /

irs
54 019 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Valsad 14. Umergaon 20 12.2 72 44. 22.5 Cons. /
65 976 Comm.

Maharas
htra
Thane
fa
15. Vaiterna creek 19o31.6
23
72 o 51.
116
Reserve
132.4 Cons.
Comm.
/
Af
(16) Reserve
Thane 16. Bassien/Vasai 19o19.1 72 o 51. 150 Cons. /
creek 11 203 Comm.
Reserve
nt

Thane 17. Thane creek 19o09.2 72 o 58. 152 Conserva

56 671 tion
Reserve
o o
re

Raigad 18. Dharamtar 18 41.8 73 01. 340 Cons. /

65 625 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Raigad 19. Kundalika 18 32.6 72 55. 98 Cons. /
ur

90 915 Comm.
Reserve
Raigad 20. Murud- 18o18.3 72 o 57. 141.7 Cons. /
Janjira/Mhasala 66 990 Comm.
stC

Reserve
Raigad 21. Shrivardhan 18o02.1 73 o 01. 9.6 Cons. /
02 037 Comm.
Reserve
Ratnagiri 22. Harihareshwar- 17o59.4 73 o 01. 21.77 Cons. /
Be

Savitri 55 136 Comm.

Reserve
o o
Ratnagiri 23. Dabhol/Vasishti 17 34.7 73 10. 23 Cons. /

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.47

 99 910 Comm.
Reserve

m
o o
Ratnagiri 24. Jaigad 17 17.5 73 13. 40.75 Cons. /
45 402 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Ratnagiri 25. Purnagad 16 48.5 73 19. 9.4 Cons. /

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03 349 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Ratnagiri 26. Vijayadurgh 16 33.5 73 20. 48.45 Cons. /
92 116 Comm.
Reserve

irs
Sindhudurg 27. Devgad 16o22.4 73 o 22. 14.4 Cons. /
75 278 Comm.
Reserve
Sindhudurg 28. Angria Bank 16o21.3 72 o 08. 400 Conserva

Sindhudurg fa
29. Achra-Malvan
23

16o12.3
083

73 o 26.
tion
Reserve
62.74 Cons. /
Af
26 518 Comm.
Reserve
Sindhudurg 30. Terekhol 15o43.4 73 o 41. 7.5 Cons. /
11 306 Comm.
nt

Reserve
Goa North Goa 31. Morjim-Anjuna 15o37.0 73 o 44. 11 Cons. /
(3) 19 007 Comm.
re

Reserve
North Goa 32. Zuari-Mandovi 15o27.9 73 o 48. 84.5 Cons. /
estuary 89 297 Comm.
Reserve
ur

South Goa 33. Galgibagh 14o57.8 74 o 03. 3.5 Cons. /

77 201 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Karnatak Uttara 34. Kali estuary 14 51.2 74 06. 25.3 Cons. /
stC

a Kannada 06 712 Comm.

(10) Reserve
Uttara 35. Gokarna/Tadri 14 o 50. 74 o 08. 46 Cons. /
Kannada 521 503 Comm.
Reserve
Be

o o
Uttara 36. Sharavati 14 16. 74 27. 13.6 Cons. /
Kannada /Hanovar 581 958 Comm.
Reserve

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.48

 Uttara 37. Murudeshwar 14 o05.7 74 o 29. 30 Cons. /
Kannada 09 149 Comm.

m
Reserve
o o
Udupi 38. Netrani island 14 01. 74 19. 5 Conserva
048 559 tion
Reserve

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o o
Udupi 39. Kundapur/halad 13 38. 74 42. 16.7 Cons. /
i 865 317 Comm.
Reserve
Udupi 40. Kodi 13 o 23. 74 o 44. 15 Cons. /
bengre/swarna- 334 704 Comm.

irs
sita Reserve
Udupi 41. Malpe 13 o 21. 74 o 41. 38 Cons. /
624 874 Comm.
Reserve
Dakshin
Kannada

fa
42. Mulki-Pavanje 13 o 05.
835
74 o 47.
267
3.5 Cons.
Comm.
Reserve
/
Af
Dakshin 43. Gurpur- 12 o 51. 74 o 50. 13.8 Cons. /
Kannada Netravati 254 058 Comm.
Reserve
Kerala Kasargod 44. Kumbala estuary 12 o 35. 74 o 56. 4.7 Cons. /
nt

(18) 876 457 Comm.

Reserve
Kasargod 45. Mongrol 12 o 32. 74 o 57. 4.5 Com. /
re

945 304 Cons.

Reserve
Kasargod 46. Kasargod/Chand 12 o 29. 74 o 59. 8 Com. /
ragiri 244 372 Cons.
ur

Reserve
Kasargod 47. Edayilakadu 12 o 08. 75 o 09. 38 Cons. /
144 391 Comm.
Reserve
stC

o o
Kannur 48. Azhikkal 11 56. 75 28. 25 Com. /
199 277 Cons.
Reserve
o o
Kannur 49. Kadakavu/Dhar 11 46. 75 27. 9.5 Com. /
madom 835 649 Cons.
Be

Reserve
Kozhikode 50. Kolavipalem 11 o 33. 75 o 35. 4.5 Conserva
812 481 tion

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.49

 Reserve
o o
Kozhikode 51. Beypore 11 09. 75 48. 8 Com. /

m
713 065 Cons.
Reserve
Malapuram 52. Kadalundi 11 o 07. 75 o 49. 4 Communi
592 951 ty

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Reserve
o o
Thrissur 53. Edakazhiyur 10 36. 75 59. 3.2 Com. /
beach 580 435 Cons.
Reserve
o o
Thrissur 54. Kole wetlands 10 32. 76 06. 175 Communi

irs
527 449 ty
Reserve
o o
Ernakulam 55. Vypin-Fort Kochi 09 58. 76 14. 110 Cons. /
381 394 Comm.

Alapuzha
fa
56. Kumbalanghi 09 o 51.
502
76 o 16.
795
Reserve
59.5 Cons.
Comm.
/
Af
Reserve
Alapuzha- 57. Vembanad/kum 09 o 37. 76 o 25. 230 Cons. /
Kotaya arakom 882 125 Comm.
Reserve
nt

Alapuzha 58. Kayamkulam/ayi 09 o 07. 76 o 28. 21 Com. /

ram 496 756 Cons.
Reserve
o o
re

Kollam 59. Ashtamudi 08 56. 76 32. 75 Cons. /

306 384 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Tiruvanandap 60. Paravur kayal 08 48. 76 38. 12 Com. /
ur

uram 762 924 Cons.

Reserve
Tiruvanandap 61. Kadinamkulam 08 o 38. 76 o 47. 9.5 Com. /
uram 150 722 Cons.
stC

Reserve
West 24 Pragnas 62. Jambudweep 21 o 35. 88 o 11. 5.12 Cons. /
Bengal 126 152 Comm.
(3) Reserve
Midnapur 63. Jambuchar 21 o 59. 88 o 07. 130 Cons. /
Be

976 025 Comm.

Reserve
o o
Midnapur 64. Junput 21 45. 87 51. 57.6 Cons. /

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 596 816 Comm.
Reserve

m
o o
Orissa Balasore 65. Talseri- Udaipur 21 36. 87 28. 3.5 Cons. /
(12) 340 842 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Balasore 66. Subarnarekha 21 33. 87 24. 38 Cons. /

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720 281 Comm.
Reserve
o o
Balasore 67. Chandipur 21 27. 87 02. 81.56 Cons. /
071 413 Comm.
Reserve

irs
Bhadrak 68. Dhamra/karanj 20 o 51. 86 o 56. 90 Cons. /
mal 152 835 Comm.
Reserve
Kendrapara 69. Bhopal 20 o 29. 86 o 44. 30 Com. /

Kendrapara 70. Jambudweep fa 600

20 o 24.
584

86 o 43.
Cons.
Reserve
95 Cons. /
Af
075 260 Comm.
Reserve
Jagatsinghpur 71. Paradip 20 o 15. 86 o 40. 260 Cons. /
530 736 Comm.
nt

Reserve
Puri 72. Devi 19 o 58. 86 o 19. 88.38 Cons. /
810 528 Comm.
re

Reserve
Puri 73. Chilika/Nalaban 19 o 41. 85 o 17. 1095 Wildlife
a isle 336 659 Sanctuary
o o
Ganjam 74. Rushikulya 19 22. 85 04. 18.85 Cons. /
ur

799 355 Comm.

Reserve
Ganjam 75. Gopalpur 19 o 15. 84 o 58. 5.4 Cons. /
426 326 Comm.
stC

Reserve
Ganjam 76. Bahuda swamp 19 o 13. 84 o 50. 18.55 Cons. /
720 458 Comm.
Reserve
Andhra Srikakulam 77. Sunapur/ 19 o 05. 84 o 44. 34.54 Cons. /
Be

Pradesh Nilarevu/ 342 235 Comm.

(17) Ichchap Reserve
o o
Srikakulam 78. Nuvularevu 18 40. 84 26. 10.32 Com. /

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 754 460 Cons.
Reserve

m
o o
Srikakulam 79. Naupada 18 33. 84 20. 28.98 Com. /
740 875 Cons.
Reserve
o o
Srikakulam 80. Kalingapatnam 18 20. 84 07. 10 Com. /

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535 449 Cons.
Reserve
o o
Vishakapatna 81. Gangavaram 17 38. 83 11. 3 Com. /
m 770 945 Cons.
Reserve

irs
Vishakapatna 82. Pudimadka 17 o 28. 82 o 59. 2 Com. /
m 531 599 Cons.
Reserve
Vishakapatna 83. Bangarampalem 17 o 25. 82 o 51. 4.2 Com. /
m

Puducherry 84. Yenam fa 186

16 o 43.
718

82 o 12.
Cons.
Reserve
8.4 Conserva
Af
513 565 tion
Reserve
East Godavari 85. Vashisti/Kothap 16 o 35. 82 o 17. 148 Com. /
alem 605 885 Cons.
nt

Reserve
Krishna 86. Bantumeli 16 o 20. 81 o 20. 28.44 Conserva
628 410 tion
re

Reserve
Krishna 87. Machilipatnam 16 o 07. 81 o 10. 26.38 Conserva
919 827 tion
Reserve
ur

Krishna 88. Hamasaladevi 15 o 58. 81 o 06. 42 Com. /

627 035 Cons.
Reserve
o o
Guntur 89. Nizamapatnam 15 53. 80 38. 45.64 Com. /
stC

711 584 Cons.

Reserve
Guntur 90. Chinna Ganjam 15 o 40. 80 o 15. 14.85 Communi
120 331 ty
Reserve
Be

o o
Prakasam 91. Pennar 14 34. 80 10. 23.5 Com. /
881 155 Cons.
Reserve

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 Nellore 92. Krishnapatnam 14 o 15. 80 o 75. 48.6 Com. /
341 182 Cons.

m
Reserve
o o
Nellore 93. Pulicat 13 34. 80 08. 383 Wildlife
080 454 Sanctuary
o o
Tamil Thiruvallur 94. Pulicat 13 26. 80 19. 82.4 Com. /

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Nadu & 311 516 Cons.
Puducher Reserve
o o
ry Kanchipuram 95. Muttukad/Kovala 12 48. 80 14. 32.42 Com. /
(14) m 343 576 Cons.
Reserve

irs
Villupuram 96. Kaliveli 12 o 14. 79 o 58. 101.4 Com. /
115 326 Cons.
Reserve
Puducherry 97. Ariyankuppam 11 o 54. 79 o 49. 4 Com. /

Cuddalore 98. Cuddalore fa 308

11 o 41.
553

79 o 46.
Cons.
Reserve
9.567 Com. /
Af
490 215 Cons.
Reserve
Cuddalore 99. Vellar 11 o 30. 79 o 46. 8.2 Communi
103 332 ty
nt

Reserve
Cuddalore 100. Pichavaram 11 o 25. 79 o 47. 20 Wildlife
835 601 Sanctuary
o o
re

Cuddalore 101. Pazhayaar 11 21. 79 49. 10.5 Com. /

220 531 Cons.
Reserve
o o
Nagapatnam 102. Talaingnayar 10 31. 79 43. 37 Conserva
ur

060 634 tion

Reserve
Nagapatnam 103. Vedaranyam 10 o 18. 79 o 44. 210 Communi
swamp 993 737 ty
stC

Reserve
Thiruvarur 104. Muthupet 10 o 20. 79 o 32. 70 Wildlife
301 417 Sanctuary
o o
Thanjavur 105. Adiramapatnam 10 18. 79 22. 32.25 Conserva
260 364 tion
Be

Reserve
Pudukotai- 106. Palk Bay 09 o 38. 78 o 56. 725 Wildlife
Ramnad 813 373 Sanctuary

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 Kanyakumari 107. Manakudy 08 o 06. 77 o 29. 4.41 Com. /
129 019 Cons.

m
Reserve

IMPORTANT BIRD AREAS (IBAS) IN INDIA

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Birds are excellent indicators of ecosystem health. The IBA programme of Birdlife
International aims to identify, monitor and protect a global network of IBAs for conservation
of the world's birds and associated biodiversity. The IBAs serve as conservation areas for
protection of birds at the global, regional or sub-regional level.
According to Birdlife International, designation of IBAs is based on standardized

irs
criteria, namely (i) hold significant numbers of one or more globally threatened bird species,
(ii) be one of a set of sites that together hold a suite of restricted-range species or biome-
restricted species and (iii) have exceptionally large numbers of migratory or congregatory
birds.

fa
The IBAs contain a range of habitats, such as wetlands, mudflats, microhabitats in
biodiversity hotspots, grasslands and scrublands, making them excellent indicators of
biodiversity richness (India‘s 5th National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity,
Af
2014).
The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS; www.bnhs.org) and Birdlife
International have identified 467 IBAs in India (Islam and Rahmani, 2004). Forty percent of
these IBAs fall outside the PA network and thus form an important tool for landscape-level
nt
conservation planning. BNHS has also prepared a list of 96 new/potential sites which can be
designated as IBAs in the future.

POTENTIAL IMPORTANT BIRD AREAS (IBAS) IN INDIA

re

S. No Site Name State

1 Papikanda National Park Andhra Pradesh
ur

2 Walong Arunachal Pradesh

3 Sessa Arunachal Pradesh
4 Kamlang (Split from Namdapha) Arunachal Pradesh
stC

5 Mandla - Phudung Arunachal Pradesh

6 Moriganj-Jorging-Tuting Arunachal Pradesh
7 Barail Wildlife Sanctuary Assam
8 BauwwaBeel Assam
9 Kathakal (Western) &Katakhal Reserve Assam
Forest
Be

10 Manas RF Assam
11 Chirang RF Assam
12 Dadara Assam

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 13 Krungming Assam
14 MagoriMotapangbeels Assam

m
15 Marat-Longri Assam
16 SareswarBeel Assam
17 Udaipur-SarsaiMan Lake Bihar
18 Jehanabad Bihar

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19 kachhudah Lake Bihar
20 KajraDhar and Raniganj PF Bihar
21 Achanakmar TR Chhattisgarh
22 Ghasidas Tiger Reserve Chhattisgarh
23 Bondla Goa

irs
24 Navelim Goa
25 Netravali Goa
26 Lambri Forest Himachal Pradesh
27 Inderkilla NP Himachal Pradesh
28
29
30
Khirganga NP
Naina Devi CR
Simbalbara NP fa Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Af
31 Dighal Haryana
32 Aharbal - Kausarnag Forests Jammu & Kashmir
33 Gurez Valley Jammu & Kashmir
34 Kanji WLS Jammu & Kashmir
nt

35 Rangdum Wetlands Jammu & Kashmir

36 Sheshera Reserve Forest Jammu & Kashmir
37 Shikargarh Conservation Reserve Tral Jammu & Kashmir
re

38 Suru Valley Jammu & Kashmir

39 Dalma WLS Jharkhand
40 North Karanpura Valley Jharkhand
ur

41 Tilaya Dam Jharkhand

42 TopchanchiJhil WLS Jharkhand
43 Hesaraghatta Lake Karnataka
44 Hoskote Lake Karnataka
stC

45 ThippagondanaHalli Reservoir Karnataka

46 Tungabhadra Karnataka
47 Achenkovil Kerala
48 Anamudi Shola NP Kerala
49 Camel Hump Mountain Kerala
Be

50 Kurinjimala Kerala
51 Malayattur Kerala
52 Mankulam RF Kerala

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 53 Mathikettan Shola N.P Kerala
54 MuthikulamSiruvani Kerala

m
55 Pompadum Shola Kerala
56 Beliyapani Island Lakshadweep
57 Amboli-Tilari Reserve Forest Maharashtra
58 Chandoli NP Maharashtra

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59 Hatnur Dam Maharashtra
60 Karnala Bird Sanctuary Maharashtra
61 Mahendri Reserve Forest Maharashtra
62 Pench Tiger Reserve Maharashtra
63 Phansad WLS Maharashtra

irs
64 UjjaniReservior Maharashtra
65 Dailang-Lanku Manipur
66 KeibulLamjao NP Manipur
67 Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh
68
69
70
Sirpur Lake
Thorang WLS
fa
Doyang Reservoir and Pangti Forest
Madhya Pradesh
Mizoram
Nagaland
Af
71 Heerakund Reservoir &Debrigarh WLS Orissa
72 Keshopur Punjab
73 Badopal Rajasthan
74 Jawahar Lake Rajasthan
nt

75 Jorbeer Rajasthan
76 Kharda Dam Rajasthan
77 Menar Rajasthan
re

78 SardarSamand Lake Rajasthan

79 Jawai Dam Rajasthan
80 Vaghan Rajasthan
ur

81 Megamalai Tamil Nadu

82 Melagiris Tamil Nadu
83 Pichoraman Mangrove Tamil Nadu
84 Odiyur Lagoon Tamil Nadu
stC

85 Tiruppadaimarudur Conservation Tamil Nadu

Reserve
86 Rudrasagar Tripura
87 Amangarh Reserve Forest Uttar Pradesh
88 DhanaunKhurd Uttar Pradesh
Be

89 Mahaveer WLS-Lalitpur Uttar Pradesh

90 Pilibhit Tiger Reserve Uttar Pradesh
91 Surjpur Wetland Uttar Pradesh

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 92 Vijay Sagar WL Uttar Pradesh
93 JhilmilTaal Uttarakhand

m
94 Naina Devi Himalyan Bird Uttarakhand
Conservation Reserve
95 Nandour Uttarakhand
96 Pawalgarh Conservation Reserve Uttarakhand

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NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA

An area, whether within a sanctuary or not, can be notified by the state

government to be constituted as a National Park, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral,

irs
geomorphological, or zoological association or importance, needed to for the purpose of
protecting & propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment. No human
activity is permitted inside the national park except for the ones permitted by the Chief
Wildlife Warden of the state under the conditions given in CHAPTER IV, WPA 1972. There are

fa
103 existing national parks in India covering an area of 40,500 km2, which is 1.23% of the
geographical area of the country (National Wildlife Database, April 2017).
Af
State-wise break up of National Parks
Name of State & Union State No. of Area km² % of
Territory Area km² NPs State Area
1. Andhra Pradesh 1,60,205 2 356.02 0.22
nt

2. Arunachal Pradesh 83,743 2 2,290.82 2.74

3. Assam 78,438 5 1,977.79 2.52
4. Bihar 94,163 1 335.65 0.36
re

5. Chhattisgarh 1,35,191 3 2,899.08 2.14

6. Goa 3,702 1 107.00 2.89
7. Gujarat 1,96,022 4 480.12 0.24
8. Haryana 44,212 2 48.25 0.11
ur

9. Himachal Pradesh 55,673 5 2,271.38 4.08

10. Jammu & Kashmir 2,22,236 4 3,925.00 1.77
11. Jharkhand 79,714 1 226.33 0.28
stC

12. Karnataka 1,91,791 5 2,795.76 1.46

13. Kerala 38,863 6 558.16 1.44
14. Madhya Pradesh 3,08,245 9 3,656.36 1.19
15. Maharashtra 3,07,713 6 1,273.60 0.41
16. Manipur 22,327 1 40.00 0.18
17. Meghalaya 22,429 2 267.48 1.19
Be

18. Mizoram 21,081 2 150.00 0.71

19. Nagaland 16,579 1 202.02 1.22
20. Orissa 1,55,707 2 990.70 0.64

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 21. Punjab 50,362 0 0.00 0.00
22. Rajasthan 3,42,239 5 3,947.07 1.15

m
23. Sikkim 7,096 1 1,784.00 25.14
24. Tamil Nadu 1,30,058 5 307.85 0.24
25. Telangana 1,14,840 5 1,032.47 0.90
26. Tripura 10,486 2 36.71 0.35

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27. Uttar Pradesh 2,40,928 1 490.00 0.20
28. Uttarakhand 53,483 6 4,915.02 9.19
29. West Bengal 88,752 6 1,981.65 2.23
30. Andaman & Nicobar 8,249 9 1,153.94 13.99
31. Chandigarh 114 0 0.00 0.00

irs
32. Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 0 0.00 0.00
33. Daman & Diu 112 0 0.00 0.00
34. Delhi 1,483 0 0.00 0.00
35. Lakshadweep 32 0 0.00 0.00
36. Pondicherry
Total
480
32,87,263
fa 0
103
0.00
40,500
0.00
1.23
Af
CONSERVATION RESERVES IN INDIA

Conservation reserves and community reserves in India are terms denoting

protected areas of India which typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and migration
nt

corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected
forests of India. Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are uninhabited and
completely owned by the Government of India but used for subsistence by communities and
re

community areas if part of the lands are privately owned.

These protected area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection)
Amendment Act of 2002 − the amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. These
categories were added because of reduced protection in and around existing or proposed
ur

protected areas due to private ownership of land, and land use.

State-wise break up of Conservation Reserves

stC

State Sr Name Area (km2) District

.No.
Gujarat 1. Chharidhandh Wetland 227 Kachchh
Haryana 2. Bir Bara Ban 4.19 Jind
3. Saraswati 44.53 Kurukshetra &
Kaithal
Be

Himachal 4. Darlaghat 0.67 Solan

Pradesh
5. Shilli 1.49 Solan

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 6. Shri Naina Devi 17.01 Bilaspur
Jammu & 7. Ajas (WL) 1 Bandipora

m
Kashmir
8. Ajas 48 Bandipora
9. Bahu 19.75 Jammu
10. Boodh Karbu 12 Kargil

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11. Brain-Nishat 15.75 Srinagar
12. Chatlam, Pampore (WL) 0.25 Pulwama
13. Gharana (WL) 0.75 Jammu
14. Hokera (Ramsar Site) (WL) 13.75 Srinagar
15. Hygam (WL) 7.25 Baramula

irs
16. Jawahar Tunnel 18 Doda
17. Khanagund 15 Pulwama
18. Khimber/Dara/Sharazbal 34 Srinagar
19. Khiram 15.75 Anantnag
20.
21.
22.
Khonmoh
Khrew
Kukarian (WL) fa 67
50.25
24.25
Pulwama
Pulwama
Jammu
Af
23. Malgam (WL) 4.5 Baramula
24. Manibugh (WL) 4.5 Pulwama
25. Mirgund (WL) 4 Budgam
26. Naganari 22.25 Baramula
nt

27. Nanga (WL) 15.25 Jammu

28. Narkara (WL) 3.25 Budgam
29. Norrichain (WL) 2 Leh
re

30. Panyar 10 Pulwama

31. Pargwal (WL) 49.25 Jammu
32. Sabu 15 Leh
ur

33. Sangral-Asa Chak (WL) 7 Jammu

34. Shallabugh (WL) 16 Srinagar
35. Shikargah 15.5 Pulwama
36. Sudhmahadev 142.25 Udhampur
stC

37. Thein 19 Kathua

38. Tsomoiri (Ramsar Site) (WL) 120 Leh
39. Wangat/Chatergul 12 Srinagar
40. Zaloora, Harwan 25.25 Srinagar
Karnataka 41. Afghanashini 299.52 Uttara Kannanda
Be

42. Ankasamudra Birds 0.9826 Ballari

43. Bedthi 57.3 Uttara Kannanda
44. Bankapur Peacock 0.56 Haveri

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 45. Basur Amruth Mahal Kaval 7.36 Chikmagalur
46. Hornbill Con Res 52.5 Uttara Kannanda

m
47. Jayamangali Blackbuck 3.23 Tumkur
48. Kappathagudda 178.72 Gadag
49. Magadi Kere 0.54 Gadag
50. Melapura Bee Eater Bird 0.0318 Mandya

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51.. Puttenahalli Lake Birds 0.15
52. Shalmale Ripariam Bio- 4.89 N.A
System
53. Thungabhadra Otter 34 km Bellary & Koppal
(length)

irs
54. Thimlapura 17.38 Tumkur
Maharashtra 55. Bhorkada (Bhorgad) 3.49 Nashik
56. Kolamarka 180.72 Gadchiroli
Punjab 57. Rakh Sarai Amanat Khan 4.95 Taran Taran
Rajasthan 58.
59.
60.
Bisalpur

fa
Jor Beed Gadwala Bikaner
Sundha Mata
48.31
56.47
117.49
Tonk
Bikaner
Jalore, Sirohi
Af
61. Gudha Vishnoi 2.32 Jodhpur
62. Shakambhari 131.00 Sikar & Jhunjhunu
63. Umedganj Bird 2.72 Kota
64. Jawai Band Leopard 19.79 Pali
nt

65. Gogelao 3.58 Nagaur

66. Rotu 0.73 Nagaur
67. Bir Jhunjhunu 10.47 Jhunjhunu
re

Tamil Nadu 68. Tiruppadaimarathur 0.03 Tirunelveli

69. Suchindrum-Theroor- 4.85 Kanyakumari
Managudi
Uttarakhand 70. Asan Wetland 4.444 Dehradun
ur

71. Jhilmi Jheel 37.84 Haridwar

72. Pawalgarh 58.25 Nainital
73. Naina Devi Himalayan Bird 111.90 Nainital
stC

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN INDIA

A marine protected area (MPA) is essentially a space in the ocean where human
activities are more strictly regulated than the surrounding waters - similar to parks we have
on land. These places are given special protections for natural or historic marine resources by
Be

local, state, territorial, native, regional, or national authorities.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.60

 List of Marine Protected Areas in Peninsular India

m
S. Name of MPA State Category Area Year of
No. establishment
1 Coringa Andhra Pradesh Sanctuary 235.7 1978
2 Krishna Andhra Pradesh Sanctuary 194.81 1989

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3 Pulicat Lake Andhra Pradesh Sanctuary 500 1980
4 Dadra & Nagar Dadra & Nagar Sanctuary 92.16 2000
Haveli Haveli
5 Fudam Daman & Diu Sanctuary 2.18 1991
6 Chorao Island Goa Sanctuary 1.78 1988

irs
7 Marine (Gulf of Gujarat National Park 162.89 1995
Kachchh)
8 Khijadia Gujarat Sanctuary 6.05 1981
9 Marine (Gulf of Gujarat Sanctuary 295.03 1980

10
Kachchh)
Kadalundi
Vallikkunnu Com R
Kerala
faCommunity
Reserve
1.50 2007
Af
11 Malvan Marine Maharashtra Sanctuary 29.12 1987
12 Thane Creek Maharashtra Sanctuary 16.905 2015
Flamingo
13 Bhitarkanika Odisha National Park 145 1998
nt

14 Bhitarkanika Odisha Sanctuary 672 1975

15 Chilka (Nalaban) Odisha Sanctuary 15.53 1987
16 Gahirmatha Odisha Sanctuary 1435 1997
re

17 Balukhand Konark Odisha Sanctuary 71.72 1984

18 Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu National Park 6.23 1980
Marine
19 Point Calimere Tamil Nadu Sanctuary 172.6 1967
ur

20 Pulicat Lake Tamil Nadu Sanctuary 153.67 1980

21 Sundarbans West Bengal National Park 1330.1 1984
22 West Sundarbans West Bengal Sanctuary 556.45 2013
stC

23 Haliday Island West Bengal Sanctuary 5.95 1976

24 Sajnakhali West Bengal Sanctuary 2091.12 1976
25 Lothian Island West Bengal Sanctuary 38 1976

List of Marine Protected Areas in Islands of India

Be

Sl.No PA Name State NP/ WLS Area Status

. year
1 Arial Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.05 1977

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 Nicobar
2 Bamboo Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.05 1977

m
Nicobar
3 Barren Island Andaman & Sanctuary 11.99 1977
Nicobar
4 Battimalv Island Andaman & Sanctuary 5.03 1977

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Nicobar
5 Belle Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.08 1977
Nicobar
6 Bennett Island Andaman & Sanctuary 3.46 1977
Nicobar

irs
7 Bingham Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.08 1977
Nicobar
8 Blister Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.26 1977
Nicobar
9 Bluff Island

10 Bondoville Island
Andaman
Nicobar
Andamanfa & Sanctuary

& Sanctuary
1.14

2.55
1977

1977
Af
Nicobar
11 Brush Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.23 1977
Nicobar
12 Buchanan Island Andaman & Sanctuary 9.33 1977
nt

Nicobar
13 Campbell Andaman & National 426.2 1992
Nicobar Park 3
re

14 Chanel Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.13 1977

Nicobar
15 Cinque Islands Andaman & Sanctuary 9.51 1977
Nicobar
ur

16 Clyde Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.54 1977

Nicobar
17 Cone Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.65 1977
stC

Nicobar
18 Curlew (B.P.) Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.16 1977
Nicobar
19 Curlew Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.03 1977
Nicobar
20 Defence Island Andaman & Sanctuary 10.49 1977
Be

Nicobar
21 Dot Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.13 1977
Nicobar

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 22 Dottrell Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.13 1977
Nicobar

m
23 Duncan Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.73 1977
Nicobar
24 East Island Andaman & Sanctuary 6.11 1977
Nicobar

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25 East Of Inglis Island Andaman & Sanctuary 3.55 1977
Nicobar
26 Egg Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.05 1977
Nicobar
27 Elat Island Andaman & Sanctuary 9.36 1977

irs
Nicobar
28 Entrance Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.96 1977
Nicobar
29 Galathea Andaman & National 110 1992

30 Gander Island
Nicobar
Andaman
Nicobarfa Park
& Sanctuary 0.05 1977
Af
31 Girjan Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.16 1977
Nicobar
32 Goose Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.01 1977
Nicobar
nt

33 Hump Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.47 1977

Nicobar
34 Interview Island Andaman & Sanctuary 133.8 1977
re

Nicobar 7
35 James Island Andaman & Sanctuary 2.1 1977
Nicobar
36 Jungle Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.52 1977
ur

Nicobar
37 Kyd Island Andaman & Sanctuary 8 1977
Nicobar
stC

38 Landfall Island Andaman & Sanctuary 29.48 1977

Nicobar
39 Latouche Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.96 1977
Nicobar
40 Lohabarrack Andaman & Sanctuary 22.21 1977
Nicobar
Be

41 Mahatma Gandhi Andaman & National 281.5 1983

Marine Nicobar Park
42 Mangrove Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.39 1977

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 Nicobar
43 Mask Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.78 1977

m
Nicobar
44 Mayo Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.1 1977
Nicobar
45 Megapode Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.12 1977

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Nicobar
46 Middle Button Island Andaman & National 0.44 1987
Nicobar Park
47 Montogemery Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.21 1977
Nicobar

irs
48 Mount Harriett Andaman & National 46.62 1987
Nicobar Park
49 Narcondam Island Andaman & Sanctuary 6.81 1977
Nicobar
50 North Brother Island

51 North Button Island

Andaman
Nicobar
Andamanfa & Sanctuary

& National
0.75

0.44
1977

1987
Af
Nicobar Park
52 North Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.49 1977
Nicobar
53 North Reef Island Andaman & Sanctuary 3.48 1977
nt

Nicobar
54 Oliver Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.16 1977
Nicobar
re

55 Orchid Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.1 1977

Nicobar
56 Ox Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.13 1977
Nicobar
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57 Oyster Island-I Andaman & Sanctuary 0.08 1977

Nicobar
58 Oyster Island-II Andaman & Sanctuary 0.21 1977
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Nicobar
59 Paget Island Andaman & Sanctuary 7.36 1977
Nicobar
60 Parkinson Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.34 1977
Nicobar
61 Passage Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.62 1977
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Nicobar
62 Patric Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.13 1977
Nicobar

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 63 Peacock Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.62 1977
Nicobar

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64 Pitman Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.37 1977
Nicobar
65 Point Island Andaman & Sanctuary 3.07 1977
Nicobar

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66 Potanma Islands Andaman & Sanctuary 0.16 1977
Nicobar
67 Ranger Island Andaman & Sanctuary 4.26 1977
Nicobar
68 Rani Jhansi Andaman & National 256.1 1996

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Nicobar Park 4
69 Reef Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.74 1977
Nicobar
70 Roper Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.46 1977

71 Ross Island
Nicobar
Andaman
Nicobarfa & Sanctuary 1.01 1977
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72 Rowe Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.01 1977
Nicobar
73 Saddle Peak Andaman & National 32.54 1987
Nicobar Park
nt

74 Sandy Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.58 1977

Nicobar
75 Sea Serpent Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.78 1977
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Nicobar
76 Shark Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.6 1977
Nicobar
77 Shearme Island Andaman & Sanctuary 7.85 1977
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Nicobar
78 Sir Hugh Rose Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.06 1977
Nicobar
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79 Sisters Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.36 1977

Nicobar
80 Snake Island-I Andaman & Sanctuary 0.73 1977
Nicobar
81 Snake Island-II Andaman & Sanctuary 0.03 1977
Nicobar
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82 South Brother Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.24 1977

Nicobar
83 South Button Island Andaman & National 0.03 1987

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 Nicobar Park
84 South Reef Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.17 1977

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Nicobar
85 South Sentinel Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.61 1977
Nicobar
86 Spike Island-I Andaman & Sanctuary 0.42 1977

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Nicobar
87 Spike Island-II Andaman & Sanctuary 11.7 1977
Nicobar
88 Stoat Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.44 1977
Nicobar

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89 Surat Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.31 1977
Nicobar
90 Swamp Island Andaman & Sanctuary 4.09 1977
Nicobar
91 Table (Delgarno) Island

92 Table (Excelsior) Island

Andaman
Nicobar
Andamanfa & Sanctuary

& Sanctuary
2.29

1.69
1977

1977
Af
Nicobar
93 Talabaicha Island Andaman & Sanctuary 3.21 1977
Nicobar
94 Temple Island Andaman & Sanctuary 1.04 1977
nt

Nicobar
95 Tillongchang Island Andaman & Sanctuary 36.43 1977
Nicobar
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96 Tree Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.03 1977

Nicobar
97 Trilby Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.96 1977
Nicobar
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98 Tuft Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.29 1977

Nicobar
99 Turtle Islands Andaman & Sanctuary 0.39 1977
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Nicobar
100 Kwangtung Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.57 1987
Nicobar
101 West Island Andaman & Sanctuary 6.4 1977
Nicobar
102 Wharf Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.11 1977
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Nicobar
103 White Cliff Island Andaman & Sanctuary 0.47 1977
Nicobar

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 104 Galathea Bay Andaman & Sanctuary 11.44 1997
Nicobar

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105 Cuthbert Bay Andaman & Sanctuary 5.82 1997
Nicobar
106 Pitti Lakshadweep Sanctuary 0.01 2002

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COMMUNITY RESERVES IN INDIA

Conservation reserves and community reserves in India are terms denoting

protected areas of India which typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and migration
corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected

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forests of India.
Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are uninhabited and
completely owned by the Government of India but used for subsistence by communities and
community areas if parts of the lands are privately owned. These protected area categories

fa
were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 − the amendment
to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. These categories were added because of reduced
protection in and around existing or proposed protected areas due to private ownership of
Af
land, and land use.
EXISTING COMMUNITY RESERVES IN INDIA

State Name Year of Notification Area

nt
(in sq km)

Lalwan 2007 12.67

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Karnataka Kokkare Bellur 2007 3.12

Kerala Kadalundi 2007 1.5

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Meghalaya Aruakgre 2014 1

Baladingre 2013 0.5
Bandarigre 2013 0.67
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Chandigre 2013 0.37

Dangkipara 2014 0.025
Daribokgre 2013 1.73
Dumitdikgre 2013 0.7
Dura Kalkgre 2013 0.6
Eman Asakgre 2013 0.3
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Jirang 2014 2
Ka Khloo Langdoh Kur Pyrtuh 2014 0.154
Ka Khloo Pohblai Mooshutia 2014 0.335

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 Ka Khloo Thangbru Umsymphu 2014 0.196
Khloo Amrawan 2015 1.29

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Khloo Blai Ka Raij U Landoh longlang 2016 0.15
Khloo Blai Kongwasan Khloo Blai Chyrmang 2014 0.07
Khloo Blai Sein Raij Tuber 2014 0.965
Kitmadamgre 2014 0.7

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Kpoh Eijah 2014 0.17
Lawbah 2014 2.1
Lum Jusong 2014 0.7
Lumkohkriah 2014 6.11
Mandalgre 2013 0.5

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Miewsyiar 2014 0.87
Mikadogre 2013 0.01
Mongalgre 2014 0.2
Nongsangu 2014 1
Nongumiang
Phudja-ud
Raid Nongbri fa 2003
2014
2014
0.31
1.2
0.7
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Raid Nonglyngdoh/ Pdah Kyndeng 2014 0.75
Resu Haluapra 2014 0.5
Rongma Paromgre 2013 0.62
Rongma Rekmangre 2013 1.92
nt

Ryngibah 2014 0.8

Ryngud 2014 5.22
Sakalgre 2013 1.22
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Sasatgre 2013 0.6

Selbalgre 2013 0.2
Thangkharang 2014 1.11
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Umsum Pitcher Plant 2014 0.4

FAUNAL BIODIVERSITY OF INDIA (NUMBER OF SPECIES)

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Taxonomic Group World India % in

India
Protista 31,250 3500 11.2
Animalia 153122 13,033 8.51
Mesozoa 71 10 14.08
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Porifera 5000 500 10

Cnidaria 10,105 1042 10.31
Ctenophora 100 12 12

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 Platyhelminthes 17,511 1,650 9.42
Rotifera 2500 330 13.2

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Gastrotricha 3000 100 3.33
Kinorhyncha 100 10 10
Nematoda 30,028 2902 9.66
Acanthocephala 800 229 28.63

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Sipuncula 145 35 24.14
Mollusca 66,535 5169 7.77
Echiura 127 43 33.86
Annelida 17,000 1000 5.88
Onychophora 100 1 1

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Arthropoda 1,181,398 74,175 6.28
Crustacea 60,000 3549 5.91
Insecta 1,020,007 63,423 6.22
Arachnida 73,451 5850 7.96
Pycnogonida
Chilopoda
Diplopoda fa 600
8000
7500
17
101
162
2.83
1.26
2.16
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Symphyla 120 4 3.33
Merostomata 4 2 50
Phoronida 11 3 27.27
Bryozoa 4000 200 5
nt

Entoprocta 60 10 16.67
Brachiopoda 300 3 1
Chaetognatha 111 30 27.03
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Tardigrada 514 30 5.84

Echinodermata 6600 779 11.8
Hemichordata 120 12 10
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Chordata 64,669 5,665 8.76

Protochordata 2106 119 5.65
Pisces 32,120 3,022 9.41
Amphibia 6771 342 5.05
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Reptilia 9230 526 5.7

Aves 9026 1,233 13.66
Mammalia 5416 423 7.81
Total (Animalia) 1,399,189 92,873 6.64
Grand total (Protista + 1,430,439 96,373 6.74
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Animalia)

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.69

 FLORAL BIODIVERSITY OF INDIA (NUMBER OF SPECIES)

m
Taxonomic Group World India % in India

Algae 40,800 7,244 17.75

Bryophytes 14,500 2,504 17.27

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Pteridophytes 12,000 1,267 10.56
Gymnosperms 650 74 11.38
Angiosperms 250,000 17,926 7.17
Total 317,950 29,015 9.13

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MARINE BIODIVERSITY OF INDIA (NUMBER OF SPECIES)

Plantae Number of Species

Diatoms 200+

fa
Dinoflagellates 90+
Macroalgae 844
Seagrasses 14
Mangroves 39
Af
Protista
Protozoa 532+
Foraminifera 500+
nt
Tintinnids 32+
Animalia
Porifera 486+
Cnidaria 842+
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Ctenophora 12+
Platyhelmintha 350
Annelida 338
ur

Chaetognatha 30+
Sipuncula 35
Echiura 33
Gastrotrocha 75
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Kinorhyncha 10
Tardigrada 10+
Crustacea 3498
Mollusca 3370
Bryozoa 200+
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Echinodermata 765
Hemichordata 12
Protochordata 119+

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.70

 Pisces 2546
Reptilia 35

m
Mammalia 25
Total 15,042+

ENDEMIC BIODIVERSITY OF INDIA (NUMBER OF SPECIES)

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Plant Group Total Number of species Number of Endemic Species %age
Angiosperms 17,926 4,045 22.57
Gymnosperms 74 8 10.81
Pteridophytes 1,267 196 15.47

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Bryophytes 2,504 642 25.64
Algae 7,244 1,949 26.91

SPECIES RECOVERY PROGRAMME

fa
The country's flagship and charismatic species face a variety of threats, ranging
from habitat destruction and illegal wildlife trade to reduction in forest cover outside
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protected areas. Significant populations of these species exist outside Protected Areas
moving for dispersal from their natal habitats or for seasonal migrations.
The erstwhile Ministry of Environment and Forest scheme of 'Assistance for the
Development of National Parks and Sanctuaries' was reformulated and renamed as
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'Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH)' during the 11th Plan period (2007-
2012). The MoEF, in consultation with Wildlife Institute of India and other scientific
institutions/ organizations, identified 16 terrestrial and 7 aquatic species with the objective of
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saving critically endangered species/ecosystems that to ensure their protection outside

Protected Areas, across the wider landscape/seascape.
Species Recovery Plans were prepared for several of these species. The Lion
(Panthera leo persica) and Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) populations are showing an
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increasing trend, and the Sangai (Rucervus eldii eldii) and Hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu)
populations are stable; but the populations of the Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps)
and the Nicobar megapode (Megapodius nicobariensis) have recorded declines. Vulture
populations, in particular Gyps bengalensis, that had declined substantially in recent times
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have registered a small upward trend, indicating that conservation measures taken for the
species are showing a positive outcome. Efforts are underway for developing protocols for
monitoring the status and trends of the remaining IDWH species.

Species under IDWH Scheme:

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1. Asian Wild Buffalo

2. Asiatic Lion

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.71

 3. Brow-Antlered Deer or Sangai
4. Dugong

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5. Edible Nest Swiftlet
6. Gangetic River Dolphin
7. Great Indian Bustard
8. Hangul

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9. Indian Rhino or Great One-horned Rhinoceros
10. Jerdon‘s Courser
11. Malabar Civet
12. Marine Turtles
13. Nicobar Megapode

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14. Nilgiri Tahr
15. Snow Leopard
16. Swamp Deer
17. Vultures

SACRED MOUNTAINS IN INDIA

fa
Af
Sacred places are a prominent feature of different cultures all over the world. In
most cases, it can be shown that the sacredness of a place is linked in some way or the other
to natural objects such as trees, groves, gardens, water bodies, caves, landscapes and
mountains. These sacred forms and shapes that are derived from natural objects and
nt
features often become symbolic or emblematic.
Throughout the world mountains are revered as mysterious places with the
power to evoke an overwhelming sense of the sacred. For people of many different cultures,
that mystery and sense of the sacred imbues their existence with meaning and vitality.
re

Regarded as images of the world‘s axis, these sacred mountains actually convey multiple
ideas of the center of the universe, and as such were and are venerated by all cultures.
Mount Meru was considered to be the center of all physical and spiritual
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universes in Hinduism, Buddhist cosmology, and Jain mythology alike. A number of

mountains in Asia, such as Mount Kailas in Tibet, and Gunung Agung in Bali, Indonesia,
provide the pattern for the mythical Mount Meru or Sumeru, which stands as a cosmic axis
around which the universe is organized.
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Mountains may be considered sacred in several ways

 Certain hills and peaks are designated as sacred by particular religious traditions and
enveloped with myths, beliefs and religious practices.
 For example, Mount Kailasha (at Tibet) is regarded as the abode of Lord Shiva.
 A mountain may be associated with the activities of holy persons or beings or may
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contain sacred sites such as temples and groves. For example, Mount Govardhana at
Brindavana is revered for its association with Lord Krishna.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.72

  Certain mountains that may not be considered sacred in any traditional sense are revered
as places of spiritual attainment. For example Arunachala Mountain at Thiruvannamalai

m
is revered by people and saints as a place for spiritual attainment.
 Throughout the world people look up to mountains as sources of blessings such as
water, life, fertility and healing. Hundreds of millions revere the Himalayas, the Abode of
Snow, as the source of sacred rivers, such as the Ganges, on whose life-giving waters

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they depend for their very existence.
Sacred mountains played a vital role in the conservation of local ecology and the
environment. A variety of themes are often found within sacred mountain traditions. The
beliefs demonstrate an important link between the community‘s cultural identity and
traditional patterns of land conservation. Sacred mountains are distinguished from other

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sacred sites as being exceptionally comprehensive ecosystems. Due to their topographic and
bio-cultural richness they provide opportunities for climate change adaptation and act as
refuges for plants and animals from environmental change and from competing species.
They provide opportunities for species to move up and down and to adapt to climate

fa
change, which can play a vital role in a species‘ survival.
Sacred Mountains and sacred sites within mountains have resulted in
communities maintaining and preserving their natural resources in often-pristine conditions.
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Indigenous communities have long realized the value of the high diversity and natural
resources within mountains and that mountain are resources of nature which nurture. The
sacred mountain protected due to cultural beliefs has resulted in precious water, timber,
flora, fauna, and other natural resources being maintained and preserved for future
nt
generations.
Sacred mountains have a special value that makes them worth protecting at all
costs. Beliefs and attitudes held by people who revere them can function as powerful forces
helping to preserve the integrity of natural environments.
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Ideas and beliefs associated with sacred sites in mountains can also be used to
help promote conservation, restore damaged environments and strengthen indigenous
cultures. Indian scientists have been working with Hindu priests at the major pilgrimage
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shrine of Badrinath in the Indian Himalayas to encourage pilgrims to plant seedlings for
reasons connected to their religious and cultural traditions. They hold planting ceremonies
that allow people to enrich their pilgrimage experience by restoring an ancient sacred forest.
Sacred mountains highlight values and ideals that profoundly influence how
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people view and treat each other and the world around them. In order to be sustainable over
the long term, environmental policies and programmes need to take such values and ideals
into account; otherwise, they will fail to enlist the local and popular support that they need to
succeed.
LIST OF SACRED MOUNTAINS IN INDIA
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Location Name of the Mountain

1. Andhra Pradesh Aradhagiri
Bavikonda

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.73

 Bojanna Konda and Lingalakonda
Boyakonda

m
Dolphin Hills
Dargah Konda
Horsley Hills
Indrakeeladri

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Kotappakonda
Kurmasailam hills
Mangalagiri
Nallamalai
Narasimha Konda

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Ranmandala Hill
Ratnagiri Hills
Seshachalam Hills
Simhachalam

fa
Sobhanachalam
Srisailam
Thotlakonda
Af
Tirumala Hills
Pavuralakonda

2. Arunachal Pradesh
nt

Takpa Shiri
Tawang
3. Assam
re

Agiathuri
Bagheswari Hill
Bamuni Hills
ur

Bhimapur hill
Chitra Chal Hill
Gandhamoan hills
Hatimura hill
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Kachasila Hill
Kamagiri Hills
Madan Kamdev
Monikut hill
Nilachal Hill
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Sandhyachal hill
Sukreswar or Itakhuli hill
Surya Pahar

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.74

 4. Bihar
Brahmajuni Hill

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Barabar Hills
Brahmayoni
Dungeshwari

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Gridhakuta
Gurpa Peak
Kauvadol Hills
Mandar Hill
Mundeshwari Hills

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Nagarjuni Hills
Pragbodhi
Prestshila Hills
Ramshila Hill

5. Chhattisgarh
fa
Vaibhar Hills

Dongargarh
Af
Gadiya
Ram Tekri
6. Goa Chandranath parvat
7. Gujarat
nt

Arasur Hill
Chotila Mountain
Dinodhar Hill
re

Gabbar Hills
Girnar Hill
Kailash Tekari
ur

Kalo Dungar or Black Hill

Pavagadh Hill
Shatrunjaya
Tadhavaj Hill
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Taranga hill

8. Haryana
Dhosi hill
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9.Himachal Pradesh
Manimahesh Kailash Peak

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.75

 Kinnaur Kailash
Prospect Hill

m
Tarna Hill
10. Jammu and Kashmir
Amarnath Peak
Gopadari Hill

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Gumbok Rangan
Hari Parbat

Harmukh

irs
Trikuta
Watlab
11.Jharkhand
Dhwajadhari Hill

fa
Koluha HILL
Mandar Hill
Shikharji or Parasnath Hills
Af
Tagore Hill
Trikut Pahar
12.Karnataka
Antara Gange
nt

Baba Budangiri
Biligiriranga Hills
re

Brahmagiri Hill
Bytarayanahalli betta
Chamundi Hills
ur

Chandragiri
Devaragudda
Devarayanadurga
Gangamoola
stC

Gudde Mardi
Hanumanthana gudda
Hemakuta Hill
Himavad Gopalaswamy Betta
Huthridurga
Be

Kodachadri
Kundadri Hill
Male Mahadeshwara Hills

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.76

 Malekal Tirupati hill
Malethirike hill

m
Markandeya
Matanga Hill
Mullayanagiri
Nandi Hills

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Narahari Hill
Pushpagiri or Kumara Parvatha
Savandurga
Shathashrunga
Skandagiri

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Talakaveri
Vindyagiri
Yadavagiri
Yana Hills
13.Kerala

fa
Aathanad
Amrithamedu
Af
Brahmagiri
Devikulam
Kunnathur Padi
Madayipara
nt

Malayattoor
Oorakam Mala
Pattumala
re

Ponnambalamedu
Sabarimalai
Sivagiri
ur

Thangalpara hill.
14.Madhya Pradesh
Amarkantak
Bharveli Mountain
stC

Chauragarh Hill
Devgadh Hill
Gopachal Hill
Khandargiri
Kundalgiri
Be

Mandhata hills
Muktagiri
Pachmarhi

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.77

 Ramgiri Hill
Sanchi Hill

m
Sonagiri
Trikuta hill
15. Maharashtra
Amboli

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Anjneri Hill
Bahubali Hills
Bhandar Dongar
Chandragiri
Dandoba Hills

irs
Gajadhwaja
Garbhagiri
Jeevdhan hill
Jyotiba Hill

fa
Kalsubai
Kunthalgiri
Mahabaleshwar
Af
Mandhardev hill
Mangi Tungi
Nemgiri
Osmanabad
nt

Ramtek Hills
Sahyadri Hill
Saptashrungi
re

Satmala hills
Toranmal
Vijasan Hills
ur

Wadi Ratnagiri
Yamunachala
16.Manipur
Kaina
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17. Meghalaya
Jaintia Hills
Shillong Peak
18.Mizoram
Phawngpui
Be

19. Odisha
Ampani hills
Barunei Hills

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 Baula hill
Bonda Hills

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Budhakhol
Devagiri
Dhauli hills
Gandhamardhan Hill

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Jagamanda hills
Kantilo
Kapilash hill
Khandagiri hill
Kumari hills

irs
Lalitgiri
Langudi Hills
Machkund hills
Mahendragiri

fa
Nilagiri
Olasuni hill
Ratnagiri
Af
Udayagiri
20.Rajasthan
Arbuda
Guru Shikhar
nt

Massuria hill
Moti Dungri
Mount Abu
re

Ratanada Hills
Ratnagiri Hill
ur

21. Sikkim
Gangtok
Kangchenjunga
Pemayagtse
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Samdrupste Hill
Tendong Hill
22.Tamil Nadu
Agasthiya malai
Alagarkoil / Pazhamudhir Cholai
Be

Alavaipatt
Annamalai hill
Arhatsugiri (Arihantgiri)

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.79

 Arunachala Hill
Athri Hills

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Ayikudi
Chennimalai
Chitharal Hill
Dimhatti Hill

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Droog
Gajagiri hills
Gandhamadana
Ilanji
Kanakagiri

irs
Kangeyanallur
Kanjamalai
Kapilarmalai
Keelakuyilkudi

fa
Kolli Malai
Koodalur hill
Kundrakudi hill
Af
Kurunda Malai
Mandiragiri
Marudamalai
Mukurti Peak
nt

Nambi Hill
Padmagiri
Palamutircholai
re

Palani
Pollachi
Ponnur Hills
ur

Pranava Hill
Rangaswamy Peak
Sathuragiri or Chathuragiri Hills
Servarayan hill
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Shivanmalai
Thirunarunkondai hill
Thirupparamkundram hill
Thiruvannamalai
Tiruchengode hill
Be

Tiruppinaiyanrnalai
Tiruthani
Vallimalai

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.80

 Valliyur
Vandavasi hill

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Vellaikkoyil
Velliangiri
Viralimalai
23. Telangana

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Ananthagiri Hills
Chintaikot
Garudachala
Keesaragutta
Maisamma Hill Trek

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Manyamkonda Hills
Moula Ali
Phanigiri
Yadagirigutta
24. Tripura

25. Uttar Pradesh fa

Unakoti hill
Af
Govardana Hills
Kamadgiri
26. Uttarakhand
Balakun
nt

Bandarpunch (or Bandarpoonch)

Benog Hill
Bilwa Parvat
re

Chandrashila Peak
Chaukhamba
Dunagiri
ur

Elephant Peak or Haathi Parvat

Gangolihat
Gangotri
Hardeol or 'Temple of God'
stC

Haridwar
Jyotirmath
Kalanag
Kedarnath (Mountain)
Kumaon hills
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Mana Peak
Mukteshwar
Nag Tibba

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.81

 Nanda Devi
Nanda Kot

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Neelakant (or Nilkantha)
Om Parvat
Panchchuli
Purnagiri hill

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Rishi Pahar
Swargarohini
Tarkeshwar Mahadev
Thalay Sagar
Trisul

irs
Tungnath
Yamunotri
27. West Bengal
Phalut or Falut

fa Durpin Hill
Ajodhya Hills
Susunia hill
Af
Mama Bhagne Pahar

TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

nt

As defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity, Article 8 (j):

Traditional knowledge refers to the knowledge, innovations and practices of
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indigenous and local communities around the world. Developed from experience gained
over the centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, traditional knowledge
is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively owned and
takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community
ur

laws, local language, and agricultural practices, including the development of plant species
and animal breeds. Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such
fields as agriculture, fisheries, health, horticulture, and forestry.
Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) can also be viewed as a system of self-
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management, an extremely valuable source of environmental information that allows

indigenous or other isolated native communities to protect and preserve their way of life. It
is the basis for local decision-making in agriculture, hunting and gathering, nutrition and
food preparation, resource management, education and health as well as social, economic,
and political organization. This is now recognized as ―the inextricable link between cultural
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and biological diversity‖ (1988 Declaration of Belém).

The use of TEK has found favour in conservation planning and resource
assessment for three reasons: efficiency, additionality, and community engagement. With
biodiversity concerns having been pushed upfront, in more recent times, in the context of

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.82

 global change, traditional ecological knowledge encompassing all issues linked to ecology
and natural resources management has assumed greater significance. When knowledge

m
about the consequences of management is scarce, these alternative management methods
can be of great value and help.

The following list is adapted from the IUCN Programme on Traditional Knowledge for

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Conservation (IUCN 1986):

1. Traditional knowledge for new biological and ecological insights: New scientific knowledge
can be derived from perceptive investigations of traditional environmental knowledge
systems, as in the case of life cycles of tropical reef fish.

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2. Traditional knowledge for resource management: Much traditional knowledge is relevant
for contemporary natural resource management, in such areas as wetlands. ―Rules of thumb‖
developed by ancient resource managers and enforced by social and cultural means, are in

fa
many ways as good as Western scientific prescriptions.

3. Traditional knowledge for protected areas and for conservation education: Protected areas
Af
may be set up so as to allow resident communities to continue their traditional lifestyles,
with the benefits of conservation accruing to them. Especially where the local community
jointly manages such a protected area, the use of traditional knowledge for conservation
education is likely to be very effective.
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4. Traditional knowledge for development planning: The use of traditional knowledge may
benefit development agencies in providing more realistic evaluations of environment, natural
resources and production systems. Involvement of the local people in the planning process
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improves the chance of success of development.

5. Traditional knowledge for environmental assessment: People who are dependent on local
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resources for their livelihood are often able to assess the true costs and benefits of
development better than any evaluator coming from the outside. Their time-tested, in-depth
knowledge of the local area is, in any case, an essential part of any impact assessment.
Natural Resource Management has been in the traditions of the Indian society,
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expressing itself variously in the management and utilization practices. Ancient religious
texts like Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata and non religious texts like Kautilya‘s Artha-sastra,
Krishi-Parashara, Kashyapiyakrishisukti, Vrikshayurveda, Krishi Gita deal with various aspects
of management of natural resources.
In India the necessity of natural resources for the survival of Indigenous tribes
had made them to evolve a system having some customary laws and practices, which helped
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them to conserve the surrounding natural resources. The various religious philosophies of
these tribes have contributed significantly in the conservation of forests, biodiversity and
landscapes by promulgating customary norms, practices and beliefs.

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 An assessment of TEK in India shows that it encompasses several fields, namely,
sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation by sacred groves, sacred

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landscape and sacred plant species, crop management, farm management, animal
management and therapeutic role of Ayurveda.
However, with the advent of commercial interests in the forests and biodiversity,
the indigenous philosophy and practices including religious approach adopted by the local

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communities for conservation of biodiversity were overlooked resulting in several
irregularities and concerns in the conservation and management of natural resources.
For centuries, indigenous communities were used to surviving and adjusting their
agriculture, fishing and hunting in the event of changes in climate. It is ironical that now
when the threat of climate change is so imminent we are looking for solutions outside.

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However, there is another threat looming large, that is, of losing these communities to
outright annihilation or due to their amalgamation in the mainstream.
Moreover, with the commercialization of natural resources, traditional knowledge
that managed to maintain sustainable levels of harvest has been sidelined. The existing

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policy and legal mechanisms to protect traditional knowledge usually does not involve these
communities themselves. Hence they do little to safeguard local community needs, values
and customary laws relating to traditional knowledge and genetic resources of indigenous
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and local communities. We have to preserve this aspect of culture and amalgamate it with
modern methods to work towards environmental conservation.

TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OF INDIA

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STATE TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

Andhra Pradesh Sacred animals of Andhra Pradesh

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Arunachal Pradesh Apatani Farming System

Conservation of forest resources by Aka tribes
Biodiversity conservation by Monpa tribe
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Assam Bari system of farming

Indigenous irrigation system - Dong Bandh
Bihar Ahar Pynes - Traditional flood water harvesting system in South
Bihar
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Chhattisgarh Sacred groves of Chhattisgarh

Goa Rice rituals of Goa
Traditional wisdom related to fishery
Sacred animals of Goa
Sacred tanks of Goa
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Tree worship in Goa

Gujarat Sacred Natural Sites of Gujarat
Step Wells of Gujarat

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 Himachal Pradesh Indigenous water conservation systems
Karnataka Sacred Animals of Karnataka

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Traditional practices for water conservation and management
Kerala Sacred Groves of North Kerala
Snake Worship in Kerala
Madhya Pradesh Sacred Groves and plants conserved by ethnic communities

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Maharashtra Hot water Springs of Maharashtra
Sacred Animals of Maharashtra
Sacred Tanks of Maharashtra
Traditional Water Management Systems of Eastern Vidarbha
Manipur Traditional trees and forest care practices of the Meiteis

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Meghalaya Bamboo drip Irrigation
Nagaland Zabo Farming System
Odisha Temple Tanks of Odisha
The Tradition of Banyan Tree in Odisha

Punjab
Rajasthan fa
Traditions of Animal Conservation in Odisha
Sacred Trees of Punjab
‗Oran‘ Sustainable Livelihood & Biodiversity Conservation System
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in Rajasthan
Traditional Water harvesting systems of Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu Sacred Animals of Tamilnadu
Sacred Mountains in The Nilgiris
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Sacred Tanks of Tamilnadu

Sacred trees of Tamilnadu
The Terracotta Tradition of the Sacred Groves
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The Yeri System in Tamilnadu

Telangana Bathukamma: The Floral Festival of Telangana
Uttarakhand Indigenous methods of seed conservation and protection
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Traditional knowledge of water management in Kumaon Himalaya

West Bengal Sacred Bamboo Groves of the Rajbanshi of North Bengal

SACRED GARDENS IN INDIA

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Sacred gardens are an ancient tradition in many major cultures, including our
own. They are the cultivated counterparts of the sacred groves and are a place for
meditation, spiritual awakening and celebration. Although, there is less archaeological
evidence of early gardens in India, the Hindu scriptures and books (Ramayana, Abijnana
Shakuntalam, Mrichchakatika etc.) give remarkably detailed description of elaborate gardens
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with flowerbeds, lotus ponds, fruiting trees, creepers and shady spaces. In fact, gardens are a
symbol of paradise in Hindu philosophy and art.

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 Types of Sacred Gardens:

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 Nandavanam – Divine plays (leelas) of Hindu Gods are often depicted in gardens. Most
Hindu temples are therefore associated with gardens, also known as Nandavanam. These
gardens are usually managed and maintained to serve the temple. Example: the
Thirunandavanam or Madurakavi nandavanam attached to the Ranganathar temple at

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Srirangam.
 Buddhists gardens – In Buddhism, gardens are described as a place for meditation and
healing. There were beautiful gardens in Nalanda and Taxila. It is even believed that Lord
Buddha was born under a tree at the Lumbini garden (now in Nepal), which is now listed
as a World Heritage Site. The monasteries played a central part of the life in the

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monasteries during early periods. Even today, monasteries in India have attractive
gardens attached to them.
 Bagh (Bagicha) – They are ethno-silvi-horticultural gardens, traditionally planted near
tanks, settlements or amidst forests, especially in the northern parts of our country. The

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biodiversity mainly consists of utility trees such as Mangifera indica, Madhuca latifolia,
Syzygium cuminii etc. Green felling is totally banned in these gardens. Also, there is
temple or separate space dedicated to the Gods (or village deity). For example, an
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excellent Bagh exists near a village inside the Darrah Wildlife Sanctuary in Kota.
 Gardens of Paradise - Mughal Gardens are square or rectangular in shape, along the lines
of Persian gardens. They are generally enclosed by a high wall with imposing gates on
four sides. The garden is an orderly view of paradise. They are generally associated with
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tombs, since the soul of the dead person is believed to have reached paradise, which is
replicated on earth in the garden. The tomb garden is called Char Bagh and is based on
hasht-vihisht or eight paradises plan making a cross-axial garden. The well-known tomb
gardens of India are Humayun‘s Tomb (1571), Delhi; Akbar‘s Tomb (1613), Sikandra, Agra;
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Taj Mahal (1630), Agra; and Bibi Ka Maqbara (1661) Aurangabad.

SACRED GARDENS OF INDIA:

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State Garden
Andhra Pradesh
Tiruchanur
Tirumala –Tirupati Gardens
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Bihar
Bodhgaya
Jetavana Buddha Garden
Nalanda Buddhist Monastery Garden
Delhi
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Akshardham Temple
Humayun's Tomb Garden
Lodhi Gardens

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 Lotus Temple
Roshanara Garden

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Safdarjung's Tomb Garden
Gujarat
Akshardham Temple
Haryana

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Pinjore Gardens
Jammu & Kashmir
Achabal Bagh
Chashme Shahi Garden
Dara Shikoh Garden

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Nasim Bagh
Nishat Bagh
Pari Mahal
Shalimar Gardens

Karnataka
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Verinag Garden

Bidar Fort Gardens

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Bijapur
Melkote
Madhya Pradesh
Islamnagar Gardens
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Kaliadeh Palace Garden

Mai ki Bagiya
Sanchi Great stupa Garden
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Maharashtra
Bani Begum Garden
Bibi ka Maqbara Garden
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Daulatabad Fort Garden

Meghalaya
Lalong Park
Odisha
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Ekamravan garden
Gundicha Temple Garden
Hanuman Vatika
Rajarani temple garden
Rani Sati Temple garden
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Punjab
Aam Khas Bagh
Ram Bagh

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 Rajasthan
Amer Fort Gardens

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Deeg Palace Gardens
Dholpur Lotus Garden
Kanak Vrindavan Garden
Mandore Gardens

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Ranakpur Jain Temple Garden
Sisodia Rani Ka Bagh
Tamil Nadu
Koodal Azhagar Koil
Madanagopalaswamy Temple Garden

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Madurai Meenakshi Amman temple
Mannargudi Rajagopalswamy Temple Garden
Sri Oppiliappan Temple Garden
Sri Varadaraja Perumal Temple Garden

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Srirangam Madurakavi Nandavanam
Srivilliputhur Andal Nandavanam
Thiruvanaikkaval Vaaleeswarar Temple Garden
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Uttar Pradesh
Akbar‗s Tomb
Bara Imambara Garden
Etimad-ud-Daula's Tomb
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Khusrau Bagh
Kushinagar Buddhist garden
Mehtab Bagh
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Ram Bagh
Sarnath
Sikandar Bagh
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Taj Mahal Garden

Vrindavan Gardens
Zenana Garden
West Bengal
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Pareshnath Jain Temple

SACRED FORESTS IN INDIA

A sacred forest or grove comprises patches of natural vegetation – from a few

trees to several acres – that are dedicated to local deities or tree spirits. These spaces are
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protected by local communities because of their religious beliefs and traditional rituals that
run through several generations.

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 The degree of sanctity accorded to the sacred groves varies from one area to
another. In some forests, even the dry foliage and fallen fruits are not touched. People

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believe that any kind of disturbance will offend the local deity, causing diseases, natural
calamities or failure of crops. For example, the Garo and the Khasi tribes of north-eastern
India prohibit any human interference in the sacred groves. In other places, deadwood or
dried leaves may be picked up, but the live tree or its branches are never cut. For example,

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the Gonds of central India prohibit the cutting of a tree but allow fallen parts to be used.

Sl.No. State Local term for Sacred Forests No.of

documented
Sacred

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Forests
1. Andhra Pavithravana 677
Pradesh
2 Arunachal Gumpa Forests (Sacred Groves attached 159

3
Pradesh
Assam
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to Buddhist monestries)
Sacred Grove 29
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4 Bihar Sarhuli Mander 43
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5 Chhattisgarh Matagudi 63

6 Goa Deorai, Pann 93

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7 Gujarat Sabarkantha, Dahod,Banaskantha 42

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8 Gurudwara grove
Haryana
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57

9 Himachal Kul Deveta

Pradesh
329
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10 Jammu & Bani 92

Kashmir

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 11 Jharkhand Sarana/Jaherthan 29

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12 Karnataka Devara Vana, Devara Kadu, Huli
devarakadu, Nagavan, Bhatappavana,
Jatakappan bana, Ghowdibana, Kan 1476

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13 Kerala Kavu, Sarp Kavu

1096
14 Madhya Sharana,Devkot, Matikot, Devsthali, 170
Pradesh Budhadev

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15 Maharashtra Van, Deovan, Deorai, Devgudi, Pen Gada 2820
/ Gonds, Devarahati
16 Manipur Gamkhap, Mauhak ( sacred bamboo 166

17 Meghalaya
reserves)

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Ki Law Lyngdoh, Ki Law Kyntang, Ki Law 105
Niam
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18 Odisha Jahera, Thakuramma 188

19 Puducherry Kovil Kadu 108

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20 Rajasthan Vani, Malvan, Kenkri, Orans, Shamlat 560

deh, Devabani, Jogmaya
21 Sikkim Pandam 16
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22 Tamil Nadu Swami Shola, Koil Kadu, Katttu Koil, 1275

Vanakkoil
23 Telangana Pavithravana 57
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24 UttaraKhand Deo Bhumi, Bugyal (sacred alpine 133

meadows)
25 Uttar Pradesh Dev van,Van 32
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26 West Bengal Gramthan, Santalburitan Shitalatan, 562

Haritan Sabitritan, Jahera, Deo Tasara,
Mawmund
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BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.90

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NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE

 Due to the rapid decline in wildlife population, the Government of India during 1952 had

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constituted an advisory body designated as the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). The
Indian Board for Wildlife was chaired by the Prime Minister. Since its inception, twenty-
one meetings have been convened and several important decisions relating to
conservation of wildlife has been taken by the Board.
 During the 1970‘s the Government of India appointed a committee for recommending

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legislative measures and administrative machinery for ensuring environmental protection.
Accordingly, a comprehensive central legislation was enacted in 1972 called the Wildlife
(Protection) Act for providing special legal protection to our wildlife and to the
endangered species of fauna in particular. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 has been

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amended, the latest being in 2006. As per the amendment of the Act in 2002, a provision
was incorporated for the constitution of the National Board for Wildlife, replacing the
Indian Board for Wildlife.
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 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) is a statutory Board constituted on 22nd September
2003 under Section 5 of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The NBWL is chaired by the
Hon‘ble Prime Minister. The NBWL has 47 members including the Chairman. Amongst
these, 19 members are ex-officio members.
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ECO-SENSITIVE ZONES

 The National Wild Life Action Plan (2002-2016) provided for declaring identified areas
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around Protected Areas and corridors as ecologically fragile under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986, wherever necessary. The Indian Board for Wild Life on 21st
January, 2002 considered Wild Life Conservation Strategy, 2002 and recommended that
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lands falling within 10 km of the boundaries of National Parks and Sanctuaries should be
notified as eco-fragile zones under Section 3(v) of the Environment (Protection) Act and
Rule 5 Sub-Rule 5(viii) & (x) of Environment (Protection) Rules.
 The National Board for Wild Life reviewed the matter on 17th March, 2005 and
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recommended that delineation of eco-sensitive zones would have to be site specific, and
relate to regulation, rather than prohibition, of specific activities. The following criteria, as
proposed by the Ministry were agreed by the National Board for Wildlife for declaration
of Eco-Sensitive Zones around National Parks and Sanctuaries:
 Complete protection to endemic species in its entire range;
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 Development processes not to reduce, damage or destroy the habitat of critically

endangered or any other threatened species;
 Protection to biological corridors;

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.91

  Protection to highly complex and diversified ecosystems susceptible to irreversible
damage, like coral reefs, mangroves, etc.;

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 Sites associated with reproductive, breeding or nurturing behaviour of rare and
threatened species;
 Existence of pristine forests;
 Steep slopes ( more than 60º)

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 Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 gives power to the Central
Government i.e. the Union Min-istry of Environment and Forests to take all measures that
it feels are necessary for protecting and improving the quality of the environment and to
prevent and control environmental pollution. Eco-Sensitive Zones are notified and
regulated accordingly under Section 3(2)(v) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

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 Ministry has been in engagement with the States/UTs on submission of ESZ proposals
around the PAs. Meetings were held with representatives of States/UTs in January,
February and April 2014 and in February, March, April and May 2015.
 Process adopted in the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for

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notification of Eco-Sensitive Zones:
 Proposal received are scrutinized in consultation with the Wildlife Institute of India.
 After finalizing the draft notification, the same is got vetted legally after approval of
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competent authority and thereafter, published in Government Gazette and also
placed in public domain for 60 days in accordance with the Rule 5 of the Environment
(Protection) Rules, seeking views of public.
 The views/comments/activities recommended are compiled and considered by the
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Expert Committee for finalizing the final notification to be issued under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
 The Expert Committee is a multi-disciplinary Committee comprising of subject expert
institutions for examining the comments and finalizing the draft final notification
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based on the draft notification and the comments received thereon.

 The draft final notification thus prepared is again got vetted legally after approval of
competent authority before it is finally published in the Government Gazette.
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 As per the Gazette Notification No. G.S.R. 513 (E) dated 28th June 2012, final
notifications for eco-sensitive zones are to be issued within a period of 545 days, for
those proposals for which comments have been received from the public, after the
publication of preliminary notification.
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WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU

 The Wild Life Crime Control Bureau has been created under Section 38Y of the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972. The mandate has been specified under Section 38(z) which
includes collection, collation of intelligence and its dissemination, establishment of a
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centralized Wild Life crime databank , coordination of the actions of various enforcement
authorities towards the implementation of the provisions of the Act, implementation of
the international Conventions, capacity building for scientific and professional

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.92

 investigation, assistance to authorities in other countries for a coordinated universal
action towards control of Wild Life crime and to advise the government on various policy

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and legal requirements.

CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY

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 The Central Zoo Authority was created by the Central Government through an
amendment of the Wild Life (Protection) Act in the year 1992. The main objective was to
enforce certain minimum standards and norms for upkeep and health care of animals in
Zoos and to restrain mushrooming of unplanned and ill-conceived Zoos that were
cropping up as adjuncts to public parks, industrial complex and highways.

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NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK

 The National Zoological Park was set up on 1st November 1959 as per the decision taken

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in the 1st Meeting of the Indian Board for Wild Life in 1952. It is being directly managed
by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.
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WILDLIFE INSTITUTE OF INDIA

 Wildlife Institute of India was established in 1982 as an attached office of the Ministry of
Environment and Forests. Subsequently, it was granted autonomous status in 1986. The
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institute is mandated by Government of India to carry out research on various aspects on
Wild Life conservation, conduct training programmes for capacity building of Wild Life
managers, build up repository of knowledge of Wild Life and provide technical and
advisory services to the State and Central Governments in the country.
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ENVIRONMENTALLY IMPORTANT DAYS

February
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February 2 World Wetlands Day

February 27 International Polar Bear Day
February 28 National Science Day
March
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March 3 World Wildlife Day

March 14 International Day of Action for Rivers
March 20 World Sparrow Day
March 21 World Forestry Day, World Planting Day, World Wood Day
March 22 World Water & Sanitation Day
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March 23 World Meteorological Day, World Resources Day

April
April 7 World Health Day

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 April 10 World Atmosphere Day
April 18 World Heritage Day

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April 22 World Earth Day
May
May 3 International Energy Day
May 8 World Migratory Bird Day

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May 11 National Technology Day
May 14 Endemic Bird Day
May 22 World Biodiversity Day
June
June 5 World Environment Day

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June 8 World Ocean Day
June 9 Coral Triangle Day
June 15 Global Wind Day
June 17 World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought
July
July 1 – July 7
July 11
Van Mahotsav Saptah
World Pollution Day fa
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July 26 International Mangrove Day
July 29 International Tiger Day
August
August 10 World Lion Day
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August 12 World Elephant Day

August 22 Honey Bee Day
September
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September 8 World Cleanup Day

September 16 World Ozone Day
September 18 World Water Monitoring Day
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September 21 Zero Emissions Day

September 26 World Environmental Health Day
October
October 1 – Oct 7 Wildlife Week
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October 3 World Nature Day, World Habitat Day

October 4 World Animal Day
October 6 World Wildlife Day
October 24 International Day of Climate Action
November
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November 6 International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the

Environment in War and Armed Conflict
November 12 World Birds Day

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.94

 November 14 World Energy Conservation Day
December

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December 5 World Soil Day
December 11 International Mountain Day
December 14 National Energy Conservation Day

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States Animal Bird Tree Flower Butterfl
y
Andhra Blackbuck Indian Neem Nelumbo; Water *
Pradesh Roller lily
Arunachal Mithun Great Hollong Lady Slipper *

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Pradesh Hornbill Orchid
Assam Indian One- White- Hollong Kopouphul *
horned Rhino winged Foxtail Orchids
Wood

Bihar Gaur
Duck
Indian
Roller faPeepal Kachnar *
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Chhattisgarh Wild Buffalo Hill Myna * Indian Laurel *
Delhi * House * * *
sparrow
Goa Gaur Black Matti * *
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Crested
Bulbul
Gujarat Asiatic Lion Greater * Marigold *
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Flamingo (Galgota)
Haryana Blackbuck Black Peepal Lotus *
Francolin
Himachal Snow Leopard Western Deodar Pink *
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Pradesh Tragopan Rhododendron

Jammu & Hangul Black Chinar Common *
Kashmir necked Rhododendron
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Crane
Jharkhand Elephant koel Sal Palash/Parrot *
Tree
Karnataka Elephant Indian Sandal Lotus *
Roller
Kerala Elephant Great Coconut Kanikonna/Golde *
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Hornbill n Shower Tree

Madhya Swamp Deer Paradise * Palash/Parrot *
Pradesh Fly catcher Tree

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.95

 Maharashtra Giant Squirrel Green Mango Jarul Blue
Imperial Mormon

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Pigeon
Manipur Sangai Mrs. Toon Siroi Lily *
Hume's
Pheasant

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Meghalaya Clouded Hill Myna Gamari Lady Slipper *
Leopard Orchid
Mizoram Hillock Gibbon Mrs. Iron Wood Red Vanda *
Hume's
Pheasant

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Nagaland Mithun Blyth's Alder Phododendron *
Tragopan
Orissa Elephant Peacock Banyan Lotus *
Punjab Blackbuck Northern Sheesham * *

Rajasthan Chinkara
Goshawk
Indian
Bustard fa
Khejri Rohira *
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Sikkim Red Panda Blood Rhododendro Nobile Orchid *
Pheasant n
Tamil Nadu NilgiriTahr Emerald Palmera Palm Kandhal *
Dove
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Telangana Spotted Deer Indian Shami (Jammi Peacock's Pride *

(Jinka) Roller chettu) (Thangedu puvvu)
(Paalapitta
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)
Tripura Phayre'sLangu Green Agar Nageshwar *
r Imperial
Pigeon
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Uttranchal Musk Deer Himalayan Burans Brahm Kamal *

Monal
Uttar Swamp Deer Sarus Ashok Brahm Kamal *
Pradesh Crane
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West Bengal Fishing cat White- Chatian Shephali *

throated
King
Fisher
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Union Animal Bird Tree Flower Butterfl

Territories y
Andaman & Dugong Andaman Andaman Pyinma *

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 Nicobar Wood Padauk Tree
Islands Pigeon (Lagerstroemia

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hypoleuca)
Chandigarh Indian grey Indian Mango Dhak *
Mongoose grey
Hornbill

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Dadar& * * * * *
Nagar Haveli
Daman & * * * * *
Diu
Lakshwadee Butterfly Fish Sooty Tern Bread Fruit * *

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p
Puducherry Squirrel Asian Koel vilva tree Cannon ball *
flower (Nagalinga
flower)

HUMAN-ANIMAL CONFLICT
fa
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In India, human-animal conflict is seen across the country in a variety of forms,
including monkey menace in the urban centers, crop raiding by ungulates and wild pigs,
depredation by elephants, cattle lifting and human death and injury by tigers, leopards and
other wild animals. Human-animal conflict occurs both inside Protected Areas as well as
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outside Protected Areas. The intensity of the conflict is generally more in areas outside
Protected Area network than inside.
Recently the incident of human-animal conflict has increased considerably. The
increase is due to various reasons. Important among them are increase in wild animal
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population, fragmentation of habitats, non availability of food and water in the habitat due
to degradation, disturbance in the corridors due to developmental activities, change in
cropping pattern, increase in human populations etc. Various other reasons include
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adaptability of certain animals like leopard, monkey, nilgai, bear etc which allow them to live
successfully close to human habitation.
The human-animal conflict is an important part of wildlife management as the
co-operation of local population depends largely on winning their support by reducing loss
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to them by wild animals among many others.

GOI-UNDP SEA TURTLE PROJECT

A significant proportion of world‘s Olive Ridley Turtle population migrate every

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winter to Indian coastal waters for nesting mainly at eastern coast. With the objective of
conservation of olive ridley turtles and other endangered marine turtles. Ministry of
Environment & Forests initiated the Sea Turtle Conservation Project in collaboration of UNDP
in November, 1999 with Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun as the Implementing Agency.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.97

 The project is being implemented in 10 coastal States of the country with special emphasis in
State of Orissa. Total financial allocation for the project is Rs.1.29 crores.

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The project has helped in preparation of inventory map of breeding sites of Sea
Turtles, identification of nesting and breeding habitats along the shore line, and migratory
routes taken by Sea Turtles, development of guidelines to safeguard and minimise turtle
mortality, development of national and international cooperative and collaborative action for

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Sea Turtle Conservation, developing guideline plans for tourism in sea turtle areas and
developing infrastructure and human resources for Sea Turtle Conservation.
One of the important achievements have been demonstration of use of Satellite
Telemetry to locate the migratory route of Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and sensitizing the
fishermen and State Government for the use of Turtle Exclusive Devise (TED) in fishing

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trawlers to check turtle mortality in fishing net. GOI-UNDP Wildlife Protected Area
Management in Jaldapara Sanctuary, West Bengal Ministry also initiated another small
project in collaboration with UNDP entitled Wildlife Protected Area Management in
Jaldapara Sanctuary, West Bengal with the total financial outlay of Rs.86 lakhs.

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The objectives of the project are updating and implementing an integrated
management and ecodevelopment plans, enhancing capacity of State wildlife authorities to
integrate and implement management and ecodevelopmnt plan along with strengthening
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and supporting the conservation measures taken by States by involving people.
This programme has successfully implemented and has contributed in capacity
building of wildlife staff as well as training of community representatives including women. It
has also helped in preparation of micro-plans for 8 villages in the protected areas and
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initiating the same in other 20 villages. It has brought general awareness among the people
for the wildlife conservation and have sensitised them for the wildlife conservation.
Harmonious relationship between the wildlife staff and local people would ensure long term
conservation of biodiversity. Once successfully implemented, it could be replicated in other
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protected areas also.

INDO-RUSSIAN COOPERATION ON SIBERIAN CRANES

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Indo-Russian Cooperation Ministry has also signed a protocol with Russian

counterpart for conservation of migratory bird species between the two countries. It has
been agreed to develop joint projects of mutual interest on migration and nesting behaviour
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of Siberian Cranes and common cranes and also to exchange scientific and official
information on issues relating to wetland management, conservation of avi-fauna etc.

THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) unites 183 countries in partnership with
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international institutions, civil society organizations (CSOs), and the private sector to address
global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.
Today the GEF is the largest public funder of projects to improve the global environment. An

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.98

 independently operating financial organization, the GEF provides grants for projects related
to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and

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persistent organic pollutants.
Since 1991, the GEF has achieved a strong track record with developing countries
and countries with economies in transition, providing $12.5 billion in grants and leveraging
$58 billion in co-financing for over 3,690 projects[1] in over 165 countries. Through its Small

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Grants Programme (SGP), the GEF has also made more than 20,000 small grants directly to
civil society and community-based organizations, totaling $653.2 million.

The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following conventions:
 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

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 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
 Minamata Convention on Mercury

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The GEF, although not linked formally to the Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer (MP), supports implementation of the Protocol in countries
with economies in transition.
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The Instrument for the Establishment of the Restructured GEF is the document
that established the GEF after an initial pilot phase. It was accepted by the member countries
and adopted by the Implementing Agencies in 1994. The Instrument may be considered the
statutes and by-laws of the GEF, and contains provisions for the governance, participation,
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replenishment, and fiduciary and administrative operations of the GEF. It also lays out the
roles and responsibilities of different actors in the GEF.

LATEST INDIA-GEF UNDP PROJECTS:

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1. Mainstreaming coastal and marine biodiversity conservation into production

sectors in the East Godavari river estuarine ecosystem, Andhra Pradesh
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The East Godavari River Estuarine Ecosystem (EGREE) encompassing the Godavari
mangroves (321 km2) is the second largest area of mangroves along the east coast of India
(after Sundarbans). The area is rich in floral and faunal diversity, and generates significant
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ecological and economic benefits such as shoreline protection, sustaining livelihoods and
carbon sink services. There are 35 species of mangroves, of which 16 are true mangroves and
the rest are associates of mangrove species. This includes one nearly threatened (IUCN)
species (Ceriops decandra) and three rare species.
There are important nesting sites for migratory turtle species, notably the endangered
Olive Ridley turtle, the critically endangered Leatherback turtle and Green turtle. The area
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serves as spawning grounds and as a sanctuary for the growth and development of
numerous fin and shell fish. It is an Important Bird Area with a recorded population of 119
bird species, of which 50 are migratory. In recognition of its national and global biodiversity

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 significance, a part of the EGREE area is gazetted as Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (CWLS). In
addition to the biodiversity significance of the area, it is also of enormous economic

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significance. The last few decades have witnessed rapid economic changes and emergence
of large scale production activities in EGREE.
The Government of India and UNDP-GEF, in partnership with the Government of
Andhra Pradesh aims to mainstream biodiversity conservation into the production sectors of

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EGREE through: (1) Cross-sectoral planning in the EGREE, (2) Enhanced capacity of sector
institutions for implementing biodiversity-friendly sector plans, (3) Improved community
livelihoods and sustainable natural resource use. By project end, it is anticipated that
production activities in at least 80,000 ha of the EGREE introduce mainstreaming of
biodiversity conservation objectives, in turn improving the conservation prospects of several

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globally significant species, apart from contributing to the socio-economic wellbeing of the
region.
Under this project, EGREE Foundation was established under Andhra Pradesh Society
Registration Act 2001, which is a cross-sectoral platform to facilitate implementation of

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biodiversity conservation initiatives by involving the production sectors operating in the
EGREE; Research gap analysis has been conducted for the EGREE Region and 58 research
gaps identified. Action is being initiated to prioritise the research activities to be conducted
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under the project and with other research institutes. A Landscape based Biodiversity
Management Plan has also been prepared for Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, taking into
consideration the challenges from the production sectors especially in the peripheries of the
sanctuary. This landscape based management plan is the first of its kind in India.
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Regular training programmes are conducted with Coast Guards, Fisheries Department
and other production sectors on conservation of coastal and marine biodiversity. In addition,
a number of livelihood activities have been initiated with the local communities.
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2. Mainstreaming coastal and marine biodiversity conservation into production

sectors in Sindhudurg, Maharasthra
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The Sindhudurg Coastal and Marine Ecosystem (SCME), located on the west
coast of India in the state of Maharashtra is one of the 11 ecologically and economically
critical habitats identified along the Indian coast. Critical habitats include: rocky shore, sandy
shore, rocky island, estuaries, mud flats, marshy land, mangroves, coral reefs, and sargassum
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forests. The area has a rich repository of corals, with the recent discovery of a large coral area
in Angria Bank. Due to its high ecological importance, 29.12 sq. km of SCME was designated
as the Malvan Marine Sanctuary (MMS) in 1987 and is one of seven marine Protected Areas
in India. The SCME has enormous economic significance as well, being one of the major fish
landing centers, and as a rapidly emerging tourism destination. The primary drivers of
ecosystem degradation in the SCME include unsustainable fishing by trawlers, an expanding
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tourism sector, and pollution from fishing vessels and other maritime traffic.
The Government of India and UNDP-GEF, in partnership with the Government of
Maharashtra, aims to address the threats and concerns in the SCME through the following

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 outcomes: (1) Cross-sectoral planning framework that mainstreams biodiversity conservation;
(2) Enhanced capacity of sector institutions for implementing biodiversity-friendly fisheries

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management plan, ecotourism management plan and MMS management plan; and (3)
Sustainable community livelihoods and natural resource use.
Under the Project, a biodiversity inclusive Fisheries Plan for Sindhudurg Coast has
been drafted in consultation with the fishing communities, state fisheries department and

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other relevant stakeholders; a Sustainable Tourism Plan for the home-stays in SCME region is
currently under preparation; Mangrove Crab culture has been initiated with the local
communities; ‗System of Rice Intensification‘ has been initiated in six coastal villages leading
to substantial increase in income of local farmers; a comprehensive solid waste management
plan has been prepared for 185 villages in SCME; Sindhudurg Fort and Vijaydurg Fort, prime

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tourist spots in the region have been declared as ‗no plastic zones‘; an expedition to the
Angria Bank has been conducted to study the living marine resources and a documentary
has been prepared; women self-help groups have been trained in building rafts for
oyster/mussel culture.

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In addition, regular training programmes are conducted with representatives of
production sector, conservation sector as well as the livelihood sector on conservation of
coastal and marine biodiversity. As part of the diversification of livelihood programmes, local
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youth are trained on snorkeling and scuba diving.

3. India High Range Landscape Project - Developing an effective multiple-use

management framework for conserving biodiversity in the mountain landscapes of
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the High Ranges, the Western Ghats, India

High Range Mountain Landscape (HRML) in the Western Ghats mountains of

peninsular India is globally significant biodiversity region. It‘s key attributes are: a) high levels
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of endemism and biological diversity; b) World Heritage Site and Important Bird Area; c)
presence of globally threatened species of fauna and flora; d) part of one of the five viable
breeding centre of tiger in India; e) harbour the largest global population of Nilgiri tahr and
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a significant population of Grizzled Giant Squirrel (both threatened species); f) catchment of

three major river systems of peninsular India; g) strong eco-cultural affinities; and h) support
important economic sectors like cardamom, tea and tourism. There are eight Protected Areas
(PAs) in the region.
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At present, HRML is a complex mosaic of land uses where conservation,

economic production and livelihood requirements assume equal primacy and profoundly
influence each other. As a result, HRML has contradictory sectoral directives, multitudes of
actors and contrary aspirations. Cumulatively, these are contributing to injudicious use of
natural resources and eventual disruption of vital ecological processes. The rapidly altering
developmental context, demographic contours, resource use configurations and new and
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emerging challenges make the situation increasingly precarious for HRML‘s long term
ecological sustainability and livelihood security. The existing planning and policy framework,
as well as the institutional arrangements in HRML are inadequate for addressing biodiversity

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 conservation from a landscape perspective. The project aims to put in place collaborative
governance and know-how for multiple-use management of HRML.

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The project will engineer a paradigm shift from current sector based and
unsustainable practices to integrated multiple-use management of mountain landscapes to
deliver global environmental benefits. The project aims to achieve this through the following
Outcomes: a) Effective governance framework for multiple-use mountain landscape

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management in place; b) Multiple-use mountain landscape management is applied securing
the ecological integrity of HRML; and c) Strengthened capacities for community based
sustainable use and management of wild resources.

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (ENVIS)

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Realising the importance of Environmental Information, the Government of India,
in December, 1982, established an Environmental Information System (ENVIS) as a plan
programme as a comprehensive network in environmental information collection, collation,

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storage, retrieval and dissemination to varying users, which include decision-makers,
researchers, academicians, policy planners and research scientists, etc. ENVIS was conceived
as a distributed information network with the subject-specific centers to carry out the
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mandates and to provide the relevant and timely information to all concerned.

FAMOUS HINDU YATRAS

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1. Char Dham (four abodes/seats) Yatra: The Char Dham covers four pilgrimage places –
north, south, east and west - in India and was established by Adi Shankara.
1. Badrinath
2. Rameshwaram
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3. Puri
4. Dwarka
The Char Dham is often considered the most revered sites to be visited by
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Hindus in their lifetime. It also established the four corners of the country.
Badrinath is a holy town in the Garhwal Himalayas, on the banks of River
Alakananda in the state of Uttarakhand. Badri refers to a berry that grew abundantly in the
area (also a name for the Indian jujube tree), and Badrinath is "Lord of the badari tree". It is
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sacred to Vishnu: "There in Badrikashrama the Supreme Being, in his incarnation as the sages
Nara and Narayana, had been undergoing great penance since time immemorial for the
welfare of all living beings" (Bhagavata Purāna 3.4.22). Badrinath was established as a major
pilgrimage site by Adi Shankara. In the past, pilgrims used to walk hundreds of miles to visit
Badrinath temple. In recent years its popularity has increased significantly, with an estimated
600,000 pilgrims visiting the dham. Badrinath is a one day‘s journey from the main
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embarkation point. The temple and its surrounding village are accessible by road. The
pilgrimage period is between June and September.

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 Rameshwaram is a sacred site for all Indians. It is said that Lord Rama
worshipped Lord Shiva here after his victory over evil. This holy island is a place of pilgrimage

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and a symbol of cultural unity of our country. It is one of the 12 jyotirlinga sites. Several
sacred water bodies are located around the temple. The pilgrimage at Rameswaram begins
with a holy dip at the Agni Teertham followed by a bath at 22 other teerthams (wells)
situated within the temple and concludes at Kodi teertham at Danushkodi.

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Puri is the location of the temple of Lord Jagannath, dedicated to a form of
Vishnu, and is located on the eastern coast at Puri, Odisha. The name Jagannath comes from
the word Jagat nath, which means 'Lord of the Universe'. The wooden forms of Jagannatha,
Balabhadra and Subhadra – or Krishna, his brother Balaram and his sister Subhadra - are
worshiped in this temple. Every twelve years these wooden figures are ceremoniously

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replaced by using sacred neem trees that have to be carved as an exact replica. The temple is
an important pilgrimage destination, particularly for worshippers of Krishna and Vishnu, and
part of the Char dham pilgrimages that a Hindu is expected to make in one's lifetime. Nearly
all the great Hindu acharyas have visited this kshetra, and Adi Shankara established his

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matha here.
Dwarka is located in the western Indian state of Gujarat. The city derives its
name from the word "dvar" meaning door or gate in Sanskrit. It is located where the Gomti
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River merges into the Gulf of Kutch. The legendry city ofDwarka is the ancient kingdom and
home of Lord Krishna and was the first capital of Gujarat. It is one of the seven most ancient
religious cities in India and the original Dwarkadish Temple was built around 200 BCE.
However, due to damage and destruction by the sea, Dvaraka was submerged six times and
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modern Dwarka is the seventh city to be built in the area.

2. Chota Char Dham: This is a shorter circuit restricted to Uttarakhand state.

1. Yamunotri
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2. Gangotri
3. Badrinath
4. Kedarnath
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Yamunotri is the source of the River Yamuna and the seat of Goddess Yamuna,
situated in the Garhwal Himalaya in Uttarakhand. The actual source is a frozen lake of ice
called Champasar glacier located on the Kalind Mountain at a height of 4,421 m above sea
level, about 1 km away. The image of Goddess Yamuna is made of black marble. The temple
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of Yamuna, a divine mother like Ganga, was constructed by Maharaja Pratap Shah of Tehri
Garhwal. The temple opens every year on the auspicious day of Akshaya tritiya, which falls in
the April-May, and closes on Dipavali day, in October-November, with a brief ceremony.
Gangotri is situated in Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand state on the banks of
River Bhagirathi, on the Greater Himalayas, at a height of 3,100m. It is the source of River
Ganga (Ganges). The source of the holy river is Gaumukh in the Gangotri glacier, a 19 km
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trek from Gangotri. The river is called Bhagirathi at the source and becomes Ganga at
Devprayag, where it meets the Alakanand. It is believed that Goddess Ganga took the form

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 of a river to absolve the sins of King Bhagiratha's ancestors, following his severe penance to
liberate the souls of his ancestors and grant them salvation or moksha.

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Kedarnath: It is located in Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand. The most remote
of the Char Dham sites, Kedarnath is located in the Himalayas, about 3,583 m above sea
level, near River Mandakini. Named after King Kedar, the temple existed during the
Mahabharata period: the Pandavas did penance to Lord Shiva here. The temple opens on

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akshaya tritiya (April-May) and closes on bhai duj (October-November) due to heavy
snowfall during winter. There are several places of pilgrimage near Kedarnath such as
Rudraprayag, Gaurikund, Agastyamuni, Guptakashi, etc. Kedarnath suffered extensive
destruction in June 2013 from flash floods caused by torrential rains.

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3. Amarnath Yatra: The Amarnath Cave, situated in Jammu and Kashmir is dedicated to
Lord Shiva. Every year, inside the Amarnath cave, an ice Shiva Lingam forms, along with two
other ice formations, representing Ganesha and Mother Parvati. The main Shiva lingam
waxes and wanes with the phases of the moon, reaching its height in summer. The Amarnath

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yatra is held every year to pay homage to Lord Shiva and Mother Parvati. The temple is a
very popular yatra destination for Hindus. Over 600,000 people visit it during the season.
Devotees travel by foot from Srinagar or Pahalgam in a 5-day long journey.
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4. Kashi Yatra: It is the greatest of all the yatras: a dip in the Ganges. Saikatha pooja is first
done at Rameshwaram. The sand collected is immersed in the Holy Ganga at Triveni
Sangamam at Allahabad where the Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati meet. After Kashi
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Vishvanath darshan, Ganga water is collected to perform Ganga abhisheka to Lord
Ramanathaswamy at Rameshwaram, which is a Jyothirlinga. Pilgrims also visit Gaya to
perform Shraddha to their ancestors.
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5. Puri Rath Yatra: The Festival of the Chariot of Lord Jagannatha is held every year at Puri,
Orissa. The 10 day rath yatra commemorates Lord Jagannath‘s annual visit to Gundicha
Mata‘s temple, a short distance away. Thousands of pilgrims come to Puri during the festival
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with a desire to help pull the Lord‘s chariot with ropes. This is the only day when devotees
who are not allowed in the temple premises, such as non-Hindus and foreigners, can get a
glimpse of the deities.
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6. Deoghar Yatra: Deoghar means abode of the Gods and Goddesses. It is also known as
Baidyanath Dham or Baba Dham and is situated on the eastern side of Jharkhand. It is an
important Hindu pilgrimage centre as Baidyanath Temple, one of the twelve Lord Shiva
Jyothirlingams in India, is located here. The pilgrims carry the holy water of the Ganga from
Sultanganj and offer it to the Jyotirlingam of Lord Shiva at Deoghar. These pilgrims, called
Kanwariya, walk 109 KM to the shrine. The march of the Kanwariya takes place each year
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during the holy month of Shravan, the wet season. Shravani Mela is the most celebrated
festival in Deoghar Baidyanath Temple of Jharkhand. It lasts for 30 days.

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 7. Pandharpur Yatra: The Palkhi festival of Maharashtra is one of the most popular festivals
in India. The annual Pandharpur yatra to the famous Vithoba temple at Pandharpur is held

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every year during the month of June and July. Thousands of pilgrims come to Pandharpur
carrying palanquins (palkhis) with the images of the saints of Maharashtra – Sant Dyaneswar
from Alandi, Sant Tukaram from Dehu, Eknath from Paithan, and Nivruttinath from
Trimbakeshwar. These pilgrims are referred to as Warkaris. They worship Vithoba, a form of

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Vishnu.

8. Sabarimala: It is a Hindu pilgrimage centre located in the Western Ghat mountain ranges
of Pathanamthitta District, Perunad grama panchayat in Kerala. It is the largest annual
pilgrimage in the world. Sabarimala is believed to be the place where the Hindu God

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Ayyappan meditated after killing the powerful demoness Mahishi. Ayyappan's temple is
situated here amidst 18 hills. Sabarimala is linked to Hindu pilgrimage, predominantly for
men of all ages. The temple is open for worship only during the days of Mandalapooja,
Makaravilakku, Makara Sankranti and Vishu and the first six days of each Malayalam month.

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The Vedic period (or Vedic age) (1750–500 BC) was the period in Indian history
during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.

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During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern
India, bringing with them their specific religious traditions. The associated culture
(sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization) was initially a tribal, pastoral society centred
in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. It spread after 1200 BCE to the Ganges
Plain, as it was shaped by increasing settled agriculture, a hierarchy of four social classes,

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and the emergence of monarchical, state-level polities.

HISTORY

 The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium

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BCE. After the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended 1900 BC, groups of
Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into North-western India and started to inhabit the
northern Indus Valley.
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 The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-Iranians, which originated in the
Andronovo culture in the Bactria-Margiana era, in present northern Afghanistan.
 The Indo-Aryans split-off around 1800–1600 BC from the Iranians, where-after they were
defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians, who dominated the Central Eurasian
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steppe zone and "chased them to the extermities of Central Eurasia.

 One group were the Indo-Aryans who founded the Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria.
 The other group were the Vedic people, who were pursued by the Iranians "across the
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Near East to the Levant (the lands of the eastern Mediterranean littoral), across Iran into
India."

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1750–1000 BC)

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 These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who
already inhabited this region.
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 The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and
Dasyus. The
 Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or
obey the commandments of gods (avrata).
 Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile,
scornful or abusive.
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 Scholars connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe
that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo–Aryan immigrants who arrived into the
subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans.

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  Internecine military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also
described in the Rig Veda.

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 Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings which took place on the
banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi).
 The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a
confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha,

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Siva, Vishanin.
 Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their
western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati.
 The other tribes dwelt north–west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab. Division of the
waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war.

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 The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments
of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings.
 Purukutsa, the chief of Purus, was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the Purus
merged into a new tribe Kuru after the war.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000–500 BC)

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 After the 12th century BCE, as the Rig Veda had taken its final form, the Vedic society
transitioned from semi–nomadic life to settled agriculture.
 Vedic culture extended into the western Ganges Plain.
 The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick
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forest cover.
 After 1000 BC, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles
could be cleared with ease.
 This enabled the Vedic Aryans to settle at the western Gangetic plains. Many of the old
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tribes coalesced to form larger political units.

 The Vedic religion was further developed when the Indo-Aryans migrated into the
Ganges Plain after 1100 BC and became settled farmers, further syncretising with the
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native cultures of northern India.

 However, the development of the varna system, which created a hierarchy of priests,
warriors, and free peasants, ultimately led to the excluding of indigenous peoples by
labelling their occupations impure.
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 The Kuru Kingdom, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which
joined several tribes in a new unit.
 To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were
developed, which formed the now orthodox Srauta rituals.
 Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the king
Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the dominant
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political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India.

 The most famous of new religious sacrifices that arose in this period was the
Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to

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 roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The
kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to

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battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on
inter–state relations in this era.
 This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of Varna, the
division of Vedic society in Kshatriya, Brahmins, Vaishya and Shudra.

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 The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic Salva tribe, and the
political centre of Vedic culture shifted east, into the Panchala kingdom on the Ganges.
 Later, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a political centre farther to the East, in what is
today southern Nepal and northern Bihar state in India, reaching its prominence under
the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers

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such as Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni.

LATER PERIOD

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 By the sixth century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called
Mahajanapadas. The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe.
 The process of urbanization had begun in these kingdoms and commerce and travel,
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even over regions separated by large distances became easy.
 There were 16 Mahajanapadas at that were:
1. Anga: The kingdom of Anga is mentioned in the Atharva Veda and was located
roughly at the site of the present day Bihar and some parts of West Bengal. On the
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north was River Ganga and it was separated from the Magadha by River Champa.
Anga was one of the most flourishing cities and was an important center of trade and
commerce. It was regarded as one of the six principal cities of early India.
2. Assaka / Ashmaka: Assaka, also known as Ashmaka was a kingdom that was located
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in the south of India. During the time of Buddha, this tribe was located on the banks
of river Godavari. The capital city of Assaka was known as Potana. It was situated in
central India and extended till southern India. It is estimated that Assaka was situated
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roughly at the place where modern day Maharashtra is located.

3. Avanti: Avanti was a very important kingdom located in Western India and was
considered to be one of the four important monarchies during the time Buddhism
began in India. River Vetravati used to flow right through Avanti thus dividing it into
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north and south provinces. Avanti was located roughly at the place where the state of
Madhya Pradesh is located now. Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and
later became a part of Magadhan Empire.
4. Chedi / Cheti: There were two different settlements of the Chedis, also known as
Cheti. One was in the mountainous regions of Nepal while the other was located near
River Yamuna. The southern boundaries of Chedi went till the banks of River
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Narmada. The Chedis are mentioned in Rig Veda, which is regarded as the oldest
scripture. This means that Chedis were prevalent here since a long time.

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 5. Gandhara: The Gandharas established themselves since the Vedic Age on the banks
of River Kubha till the River Indus. With time, they crossed Indus and expanded their

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territory into Punjab. The Gandharas were very aggressive in nature and were masters
of the art of warfare. It is said that this kingdom was founded by the son of Aruddha
known as Gandhara.
6. Kamboja: Kamboja was said to have been located on either sides of the Hindukush.

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In early scriptures and literature, Kamboja is mentioned along with Gandhara, Darada
and the Bahlika quite a number of times. The Kambojas were supposed to have both
Indian and Iranian similarities.
7. Kasi: The Aryans who had settled around Varanasi were known as Kasis. The city
was flanked by the rivers Varuna and Asi from which the place derives its name. Kasi

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was the most powerful kingdom of the sixteen Janapadas before the rise of
Buddhism. During the rise of Buddha, it was converted into Kosala. This place is
mentioned as Kausika / Kausaka in the Matsya Purana.
8. Kosala: Kosala was located around 70 miles to the north west of present day

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Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh. It was flanked in the south by River Ganga, in the north
by the Himalayas and in the east by the River Gandak. The ruler was called king
Prasenjit who was succeeded by his son Vidudabha. During his son's reign, Kosala
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was combined with Magadha. The three chief cities of Kosala were Ayodhya, Saketa
and Sravasti.
9. Kuru: The origin of the Kuru clan can be traced to the Puru - Bharata family. Some of
them were settled in central India and some were living beyond the Himalayan
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ranges. It is said that the founder of Kururashtra in Kurukshetra was the son of
Samvarsana called Kuru. The Kurus were known for their profound wisdom and
sound health. The Kurus switched to republic form of government from monarchy
during 5th Century B.C.
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10. Machcha / Matsya: The kingdom of Matsya or Machcha is said to have comprised
the region of the present day Jaipur in Rajasthan along with Alwar and Bharatpur. The
founder of this kingdom was king Virata and the capital of this kingdom was named
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Viratanagara after him. The Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom as
there are evidences that show that this place was ruled by the king of Chedi.
11. Magadha: The Magadhas are referred to in the Atharva Veda. According to the
early scriptures, the Magadhas were not fully Brahmins. Thus, they were loathed at
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and were spoken of in contempt. Except for King Pramaganda, no other ruler is
mentioned in the Vedas. It is stated in the Mahabharata that Magadha came into the
limelight under the king Bimbisara and later under his son Ajatasatru. It was one of
the chief empires of India during those times. The kingdom of Magadha was situated
roughly where the present day Bihar is located.
12. Malla: Most of the scriptures of the Jains and Buddhists mention the Mallas. Their
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tribe was supposed to be quite powerful and they lived somewhere towards the
Eastern India. The Mallas had a republic form of society and their dominant territory
comprised of nine provinces. Two of these nine provinces (Pava and Kusinara)

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 gained much importance in due course of time when Buddha came over here and
took his last meal before breathing his last at Kusinara.

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13. Panchala: The Panchalas were located in the north of India and had their province to
the east of the Kurus. They were located between the Himalayan ranges and river
Ganga. One can say that it was located roughly at the place where the modern day
Uttar Pradesh is located. The Panchalas were originally monarchial in nature and later

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transformed to the republican form of government during the 5th Century B.C. They
are mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra as following the constitution of the king.
14. Surasena: The location of the Surasena was around the west side of river Yamuna
and had its capital city at Mathura. The king of Surasena, Avantiputra played a vital
role in promoting Buddhism in his kingdom. He was one of the chief disciples of

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Buddha and aimed at spreading his knowledge and wisdom all through his kingdom.
The capital city of Mathura was an important center for the worship of Lord Krishna.
With time, the kingdom of Surasena was annexed by Magadha Empire.
15. Vajji / Vriji: The Vajji or Vriji comprised of eight to nine allied races and this kingdom

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became an important center of cultural and political activities. It was essentially
located in northern India. Out of the nine races, the Licchhavis, the Vedehans, the
Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. The Licchhavis were an
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independent clan and their capital was called Vaishali. It was an important center of
Buddhism and the headquarters of the powerful republic of Vajjis. Buddha is
supposed to have visited Licchhavis on many occasions. As time passed, the kingdom
of Licchhavis was conquered by the king of Magadha, Ajatasatru.
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16. Vamsa / Vatsa: Considered to be an offshoot of the Kurus, the kingdom of Vatsa or
Vamsa was roughly situated at the location of modern day Allahabad in Uttar
Pradesh. The capital city was known as Kaushambi, which was a prosperous city. A
number of rich merchants dwelled here. It was an important gateway for goods and
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people coming from the North West and south. The ruler of Vatsa was known as
Udyana and he was a very powerful ruler. He became a follower of Buddha and
adopted Buddhism as the religion for his kingdom.
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THE 16 MAHAJANAPADAS
MAHAJANAPAD CAPITALS LOCATIONS
AS
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Gandhara Taxila Covering the region between Kabul and

Rawalpindi in North Western Province.
Kamboja Rajpur Covering the area around the Punch
area in Kashmir
Asmaka Potana Covering modern Paithan in
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Maharashtra; on the bank of River

Godavari
Vatsa Kaushambi Covering modern districts of Allahabad

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 and Mirzapur
Avanti Ujjain Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region

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of Madhya Pradesh.
Surasena Mathura Located in the Mathura region at the
junction of the Uttarapath &
Dakshinapath

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Chedi Shuktimati Covering the modern Budelkhand area
Maila Kushinara, Modern districts of Deoria, Basti,
Pawa Gorakhapur in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Later merged into Maghada Kingdom
Kurus Hastinapur/Ind Covering the modern Haryana and

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raprastha Delhi area to the west of River Yamuna
Matsya Virat Nagari Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur
and Jaipur in Rajasthan
Vajjis Vaishali Located to the north of the River Ganga

fa in Bihar. It was the seat of united

republic of eight smaller kingdoms of
which Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas
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were also members.
Anga Champa Covering the modern districts of
Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar. The
Kingdoms were later merged by
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Bindusara into Magadha.

Kashi Banaras Located in and around present day
Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.
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Kosala Shravasti Covering the present districts of

Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich, etc.
Magadga Girivraja/Rajgri Covering modern districts of Patna,
ha Gaya and parts of Shahabad.
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Panchala Ahichhatra (W. Present day Rohilkhand and part of

Panchala), Central Doab in Uttar Pradesh.
Kampilya (S.
Panchala)
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 m
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fa irs
 The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes.
 The grammar of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the
same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit.
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 The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the
beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks.
 Meanwhile, within India, the shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism)
challenged the authority and orthodoxy of Vedic scriptures and ritual.
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POLITICAL SET-UP

 Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms.
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 The chief of a tribe was called a Rajan. The autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the
tribal councils called sabha and samiti.
 The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe.
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 The rajan could not accede to the throne without their approval.
 Sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, Samiti was a meeting of all free
tribesmen.
 Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils.
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 Rajan had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers (sabhasad) and chiefs
of septs (gramani).
 The main responsibility of the rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several
functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys)
and spash (spies).
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 Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.
 In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had
a capital and a rudimentary administrative system.

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  To aid in governing these new states, the kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic
hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (Srauta rituals) to strengthen

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the emerging social hierarchy.
 The Rajan was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of Rashtra (polity).
 Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids,
and game of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king,

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became nominal.
 Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally
referred to as Samrat (supreme ruler).
 Rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the
productive resources.

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 The voluntary gift offering (bali) became compulsory tribute, however, there was no
organised system of taxation.
 Sabha and samiti are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with increasing power
of king, their influence declined.

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 By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as Monarchical
states (rajya), Oligarchical states (gana or sangha), and Tribal principalities had emerged
in India.
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ECONOMY

 Economy in the Rig Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralism and
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agriculture.
 There are references, in the Rig Veda, to leveling of field, seed processing, and storage of
grains in large jars. War booty was also a major source of wealth.
 Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings (bali) and priests
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(dana), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency.

 While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins.
 Metallurgy is not mentioned in the Rig Veda, but the word Ayas and instruments made
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from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned.

 One verse mentions purification of ayas. Some scholars believe that ayas refers to iron
and the words dham and karmara refer to iron–welders.
 However, philological evidence indicates that ayas in the Rigveda refers only to copper
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and bronze, while iron or syama ayas, literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the
post-Rigvedic Atharvaveda, and therefore the Early Vedic Period was a Bronze Age
culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an Iron Age culture.
 The transition of Vedic society from semi–nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later
Vedic age lead to an increase in trade and competition for resources.
 Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the Ganges valley during this period.
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 Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements (krishna–ayas

or shyama–ayas, literally black metal or dark metal) increased.

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  Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support
the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time.

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 New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology,
jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose.
 Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver.
 Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their

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wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices.
 Some scholars suggest that Panis were semitic traders, but the evidence for this is slim.
 Professions of warriors, priests, cattle–rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and
crafts of chariot–making, cart–making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of
bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of

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Rig Veda.
 Some of these might have needed full–time specialists. There are references to boats
and oceans. The book X of the Rig Veda refers to both eastern and western oceans.
 Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over

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lands and herds.
 Enslavement (dasa, dasi) in the course of war or as a result of non–payment of debt is
mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production–related
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activities.

SOCIETY
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 Rig Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of
socio–economic classes or castes was absent.
 However, political hierarchy was determined by rank, where Rajan stood at the top and
Dasi at the bottom.
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 The Vedic household was patriarchal and patrilineal.

 The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages—
monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the Rig Veda.
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 Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans.
 However, hymns attributable to female sages are few and female gods were not as
important as male ones.
 Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or
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disappeared.
 While the wife enjoyed a respectable position, she was subordinate to her husband.
 People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables.
 Meat eating is mentioned, however, cows are labelled aghnya (not to be killed).
 Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn.
 Soma and sura were popular drinks in the Rig Vedic society, of which soma was
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sanctified by religion.
 Flute (vana), lute (vina), harp, cymbals, and drums were the musical instruments played
and a heptatonic scale was used.

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  Dancing, dramas, chariot racing, and gambling were other popular pastimes.
 The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age, led to a distancing of the

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Rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy.
 The society was divided into four social groups— Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Shudras.
 The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the

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groups.
 The ‗Shatapatha Brahmana’ associates the:
 Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting
people;
 Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare;

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 Vaishya with material prosperity and production–related activities such as cattle
rearing and agriculture;
 Shudras with the service of the higher varnas.
 The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of the sacrificer.

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 Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative
power and Shudra with stability.
 The hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts.
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 Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of households
of the Rig Vedic era gave way to an idealized household which was headed by a
grihapati.
 The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised
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and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles.
 Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate
taboos around menstruating women.
 Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts.
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 Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn
grinders.
 Women warriors such as Vishphala, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned.
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 Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads.

RELIGION
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 The Vedic forms of belief are one of the precursors to modern Hinduism.
 Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras
are also considered to be Vedic.
 The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the
16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the purohitas.
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 The Rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets
and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda,
Śrauta means "what is heard").

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  The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (Yajna) which included the
chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of

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sacrificial mantras (Yajus).
 Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in
the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras.
 The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a

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three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saogatikarana) and charity
(dana).
 An essential element was the sacrificial fire - the divine Agni - into which oblations were
poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for
abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.

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 Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul and the peepul tree and cow
were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda.
 Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace
their root to the Vedas.

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 The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma
and some deities of social order such as Mitra–Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa,
further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi (the earth).
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 Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods
or sometimes the cow).
 Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as
all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with
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Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two.
 Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma
cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism.
 Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta.
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 Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute. Whereas, Ṛta is the
expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and
everything within it.
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 Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to
punishment.
 Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path
considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary
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view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the
forms of Ishvara and Brahman.
 These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics
(namely Gita of Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern
Hinduism.
 The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Srauta
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tradition.

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 LITERATURE

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The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti

I. SRUTI LITERATURE: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which
means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number – Rig Veda, Samaveda,

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Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda.
FOUR VEDAS
SAMVEDA
 Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda
 "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by

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a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original
value.
 Has only 75 fundamental hymns
1. Karnataka - Jaiminga


2. Gujarat - Kanthun
3. Maharashtra - Ranayaniya
Sung by Udgatri
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RIGVEDA
 The Rg-Veda is mainly a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families.
 Oldest of all Vedas.
 The hymns addressed to various Gods such as Agni, Indra etc are recited at the time
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of sacrificial rites and other rituals.
 The Rg-Veda contains 1028 hymns (sukta) which are divided into ten mandalas and
sometimes into astakas.
 Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028.
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 Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'.

 II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas
 I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas.
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 The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably
added later.
 Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'.
 Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri,
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Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma.

 The tenth mandala contains the famous Purushasukta that explains that the four
varnas (Castes) (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the
mouth, arms, belly and the legs of the Creator.
 The universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is in Rg-Veda.
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 There are five divisions of Rg-Veda namely, Sakala, Baskala, Asvalayana, Sankhayana
and Mandukya.
 The total mantras in Rg-Veda are 10,600.

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 YAJURVEDA
 Book of sacrifical prayers

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 Rituals of yajnas
 Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu"
 Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the
"Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of

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sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice.
 Has been compiled in "fourth path"
 Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda
 Prose text
ATHARVAVEDA

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 Mantras for magic spells
 Populate ritualistic system & superstitions
 Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community
 Collection of 711/731/760 hymns



Not included in 'Trai'
Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"

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18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works
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 Provides freedom from evils spirits.
 Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

 The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the
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fourth Veda was composed at some later date.
 The Rg-Veda, Samveda and Yajurveda are collectively known as Vedatrayi.
 Atharva Veda is considered a later addition.
 Bharatamuni's Natyasastra is considered to be the panchama Veda (fifth Veda).
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 The Rig-Veda is the oldest among all Vedas. It must have been compiled over several
centuries.
 Some of the earliest hymns are said to have been composed around 1500 BC. These were
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passed on from the teacher to the disciple, orally.

 The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-
1. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
2. Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
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3. The Sutra period.

 These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.

BRAHMANAS
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 The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas.

 They are written in prose and they elaborately describe the various sacrifices and rituals,
along with their mystic meanings.
 Each Veda has several Brahmanas.

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  The two Brahmanas attached to the Rg-Veda are Aitareya Brahmana and Kausitaki
Brahmana. These were composed by Hotri-priests or invoker (the priest who recites

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mantras of the Rg-veda at the sacrifices).
 The Sukla Yajurveda is appended with Satapatha Brahmana which recommends 'one
hundred sacred paths' (Satapatha). It is the most exhaustive and important of all the
Brahmanas.

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 The Gopatha Brahmana is appended to the Atharvaveda. These Brahmanas, in fact, are
the elaborate commentaries on the various hymns are Samhitas.

Vedas and their Brahmanas

1. Rigveda Aitereya and Kaushitaki

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2. Samaveda Tandya and Jaiminiya
3. Yajurveda Tattiriya and Satpatha
4. Atharvaveda Gopatha

ARANYAKAS


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The word Aranyaka means 'the forest' and these are called 'forest books' written mainly
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for the hermits and students living in the jungles.
 These are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas or their appendices.
 A strict code of secrecy was maintained over the Aranyakas as it was believed that the
contents would spell danger if taught to the uninitiated. And hence they were to be
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studied in the forest.
 They deal with mysticism and symbolism.
 They form the natural transition of the Upanishads.
 They offer the bridge between Karma marga (way of deeds) which was the sole concern
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of the Brahmanas and the jnana marga (way of knowledge) which the Upanishads
advocated.
 The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of
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universe.

UPANISHADA
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 The word Upanishad has been derived from the root Upani-sad that means 'to sit down
near someone'.
 It denotes a student sitting under the feet of his guru to learn. Eventually the word
began to be used for the secret knowledge imparted by the guru to his selected pupils.
 Today the word is associated with philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning.
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 Upanishads are also called Vedanta (the end of the Veda) firstly, because they denote
the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of
the Veda.
 Our nation's motto Satyameva jayate is taken from the Mundakopanishad.

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  In fact, the Upanishads are the culmination of ancient Indian philosophical ideas. The
whole of later philosophy of India is rooted in the Upanishads.

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 The philosophical principles of Sankara, Ramanuja, Ramakrishna Paramahans,
Aurobindo and others are derived from Upanishads and, by and large, all the
philosophical doctrines of subsequent and large, all the philosophical doctrines of
subsequent days have borrowed something or the other from them.

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 There are 108 Upanishads classified according to the Vedas, and were composed by
several learned saints between 800 BC and 500 BC.
 Some of the most renowned Upanishads are Aitareya, Kausitaki, Taittariya,
Brhadaranyaka, Chhandogya and Kena.
 All these are older than Buddha and Panini.

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 Among the later Upanishads mention may be made of Katha.
 Svetashvatara, Isa, Maitrayaniya etc., which lay stress on Samkhya and Yoga doctrines.
The language of these Upanishads is classical Sanskrit and not the Vedic Sanskrit.
 Like Aranyakas, the Upanishads also give less importance to ceremonies and sacrifices.

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 They discuss various theories on the creation of the Universe and define the doctrine
of Karma (action).
 Brahman (God) and atman (soul) are treated as identical. They profess the goal of life to
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be-to attain moksha (salvation) which is possible through meditation and self-control.

II. SMRITI LITERATURE: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire
body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the
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following overlapping subjects:-
a. VEDANGAS: Vedangas refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as
auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are first mentioned in the Mundaka
Upanishad as subjects for students of the Vedas. Later, they developed into
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independent disciplines, each with its own corpus of Sutras. The Vedangas are
conventionally divided into six heading namely:-
1. Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes,
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2. Jyotisha or astronomy,
3. Siksha or phonetics,
4. Chhanda or metre
5. Nirukta or etymology
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6. Vyakarana (Grammer)
 Traditionally, vyakarana and nirukta are common to all four vedas, whilst each veda
has its own shiksha, chandas, kalpa and jyotisha texts.

b. DARSANA: Similarly, there are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-
Darshana. These are: Nyaya, Vaishesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Purva and Uttara Mimansas.
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These are written in Sutra (aphorism) style, which are short, to the point and without
doubts. They all propagate the virtues of life. The Nyaya Darshana was written by
Gautama, Vaishesika Darshana by Kanada, Purvamimansa Darshana by Jaimini,

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 Sankhya by Kapila, Yoga by Patanjali and the Uttaramimansa Darshana by
Bhadarayana.

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c. ITIHASA: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and
Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
d. PURANAS: The Puranas are ancient Hindu texts eulogizing various deities, primarily
the divine Trimurti God in Hinduism through divine stories.

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 The Puranas are frequently classified according to the Trimurti (Trinity or the three
aspects of the divine). The Padma Purana classifies them in accordance with the three
gunas or qualities as Sattva (Truth and Purity), Rajas (Dimness and Passion) and Tamas
(Darkness and Ignorance).
 Puranas usually give prominence to a particular deity, employing an abundance of

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religious and philosophical concepts.
 They are usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another.
 Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the
superstitions. They are 18 in number. The Eighteen Puranas are:

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1. Brahma Purana
2. Vishnu Purana
3. Shiva Purana
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4. Padma Purana
5. Shrimad Bhagwat Purana
6. Agni Purana
7. Narad Purana
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8. Markandey Purana
9. Bhavishya Purana
10. Ling Purana
11. Varah Purana
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12. Vaman Purana

13. Brahm Vaivertya Purana
14. Shanda Purana
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15. Surya Purana

16. Matsya Purana
17. Garuda Purana
18. Brahmand Purana
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 e. UPAVEDA: Both the Vedangas and the Darshanas claim to have derived inspiration

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from the Vedas the explain the Vedic Philosophy. Still they are not included in the
umbrella of core Vedic literature.
 In the same manner, four Upavedas namely Dhanurveda (deals with the art of
warfare), the Gandharvaveda (deals with the music), Silpaveda (deals with are and

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architecture) and Ayurveda (deals with medicine) also do not form part of the Vedic
literature though they enjoy great sanctity.
 Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics,
archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts
and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.

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f. TANTRAS: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain
antinomian Buddhist scholars.
g. AGAMAS: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and
Shaktas.

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h. UPANGAS: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although
traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the
'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'
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III. EPICS: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The
Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
 Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident
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related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story
of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more
than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'.
The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work.
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It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to
before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas
suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have
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acquired its final shape by about AD 250.

 Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and
is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas.
The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict
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between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology,

theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy
tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is
the Bhagavad Gita.

The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, urbanized states as
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well as of shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged the
Vedic orthodoxy. Around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one
of the main constituents of the so-called "Hindu synthesis".

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 m
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ARCHITECTURE

 First dam in India: Kallanai Dam, one of the world's oldest, still in use; build across the
Kaveri river in Thanjavur District in the state of Tamil Nadu in South India. originally
constructed by the Chola king Karikala Cholan around the 2nd century AD
 First Stepwell still existing: Mata Bhavani's Stepwell, built in the 11th century in Gujarat

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 First temple constructed from a single rock, still standing: Kailasa temple, Ellora, built in
744 CE by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I
 First temple in Kalinga architecture still standing: Konark Sun Temple, built in 1255 AD
 First temple with many interconnected structures still standing: Brihadeeswarar Temple,


Tanjore, Tamil Nadu, built in 1002 AD

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First Islamic tomb in India: Sultan Ghari Sultan Ghari, built in 1231 CE for Prince Nasir ud,
eldest son of Iltumish
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 First true dome: Alai Darwaza, Qutb complex, Delhi, built in 1311 CE, by first Khilji Sultan
of Delhi, Ala-ud-din Khilji
 First true arch: Balban's tomb, Mehrauli Archeological Park, Delhi, built c. 1287 CE, by
Ghiyas ud din Balban of Mamluk dynasty
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 First garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent, also the first with Persian double-dome:
Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, built 1562–1571 CE
 First mosque in India: Cheraman Juma Masjid,Methala, Kodungallur, Kerala, built 629 A.D
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by Malik Bin Dinar

AWARDS AND TITLES

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 Mr. Universe: Monotosh Roy in 1951

 Miss World: Reita Faria in 1966; also the first Asian to win the title
 Miss Asia Pacific: Zeenat Aman in 1970
 International Teen Princess: Radha Bartake in 1974
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 Miss Teenage Intercontinental: Elizabeth Anita Reddi in 1978

 Miss World Amber: Mala Rai Singani in 1978
 World Miss University: Priyadarshini Pradhan in 1989
 Miss Universe: Sushmita Sen in 1994
 Miss India Worldwide: Karminder Kaur Virk in 1994
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 Miss Intercontinental: Lara Dutta in 1997

 Mr. International: Aryan Vaid in 2000
 Manhunt International: Rajeev Singh in 2001

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  Miss Tourism International: Candice Pinto in 2001
 Mrs. World: Aditi Gowitrikar in 2001

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 Miss Tourism Queen International: Zabina Abdul Rashid Khan in 2004
 Miss World Tourism: Sonal Chauhan in 2005.
 Best Model of the World: Siddharth Shukla in 2005
 Miss Tourism: Priyanka Shah in 2007

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 Miss Earth: Nicole Faria in 2010
 Miss Tourism Queen of the Year International: Urvashi Rautela in 2011
 Miss Asia Pacific World: Himangini Singh Yadu in 2012
 Mister United Nations: Rahul Vyas in 2013
 Miss Supranational: Asha Bhat in 2014

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 Miss Universal Peace and Humanity: Ruhi Singh in 2014
 Miss Tourism International (China version): Parul Bindal in 2014
 First Indian to win any literary award (the Newbery Medal) in the United States, in 1927
for Gay Neck, the Story of a Pigeon: Dhan Gopal Mukerji

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 Mr. World: Rohit Khandelwal; first Indian to win Mr. World
 Nirad C. Chaudhuri: first Indian to win a major non-fiction award, the Duff Cooper Prize in
the United Kingdom, in 1966 for The Continent of Circe
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 Man Booker Prize: Arundhati Roy for her novel The God of Small Things in 1997
 Bhaswati Bhattacharya was the first Indian to speak as orator at Harvard University, in the
commencement exercises in 1993.
 Bharat Ratna: Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, C. Rajagopalachari, and C. V. Raman in 1954
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 Padma Vibhushan: Satyendra Nath Bose, Nand Lal Bose, Zakir Hussain, Balasaheb
Gangadhar Kher, Jigme Dorji Wangchuk, V. K. Krishna Menon in 1954
 Param Vir Chakra: Major Somnath Sharma
 Commandeur of the Order of Arts and Letters: Mrinal Sen
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 Chevalier of the Order of Arts and Letters: Sivaji Ganesan

 Dadasaheb Phalke Award: Devika Rani in 1969
 Ashoka Chakra Award to a civilian: D.K. Jatar (posthumous) and M.C Dixit, captain and co-
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captain respectively, of the sabotaged plane Kashmir Princess, for "most conspicuous
bravery, daring and self-sacrifice"
 Magsaysay Award: Vinoba Bhave, 1958
 Stalin Peace Prize (now known as Lenin Peace Prize) in 1952: Saifuddin Kitchlew
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 Oscar for Lifetime Achievement: Satyajit Ray

 Nishan-e-Pakistan: Morarji Desai, 1990

NOBEL PRIZE

 1913: Literature: Rabindranath Tagore; also the first Asian to win the prize
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 1930: Physics: Sir C. V. Raman; first Asian and first non-white person to win Science nobel
prize.
 1979: Peace: Mother Teresa; Indian citizen of Albanian origin

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  1994: Economica: Amartya Sen: First Indian for Economics
 2014: Peace: Kailash Sathyarthi; first Indian-born recipient

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OSCAR

 1982: Bhanu Athaiya for Costume Design

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 1992: Satyajit Ray, Honorary Oscar
 2009: A. R. Rahman for Best Original Song, Best Original Score
 2009: Resul Pookutty for Sound Mixing
 2009: Gulzar for Best Original Song

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GOVERNMENT

 President of Indian Republic: Dr. Rajendra Prasad

 Prime Minister of Indian Republic: Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

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 Vice President of Indian Republic: Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
 Defence Minister of India: Baldev Singh
 Commander-in-Chief of Free India: Kodandera Madappa Cariappa
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 Indian Commander-in-Chief of Free India: General Kodandera Madappa Cariappa,1949
 Chief of Air Staff: Subroto Mukerjee
 Indian Chief of Staff Indian Army: Maharaj Shri Rajendrasinhji Jadeja
 Commander-in-Chief, IAF: Subroto Mukerjee
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 Chief of Naval Staff: Sir Charles Thomas Mark Pizey
 First Indian (pre-Independence) flying ace: Indra Lal Roy
 India's first military helicopter pilot: Air Commodore Sudhindra Kumar Majumdar
 Cosmonaut: Sqn Ldr Rakesh Sharma, 1984
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 Field Marshal: Sam Manekshaw (S.H.F Manekshaw), 1973

 First female Jawan in the Army: Sapper Shanti Tigga
 First Param Vir Chakra winner: Major Som Nath Sharma
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ECONOMY

 First power in India with Soviet Collaboration: Neyveli Lignite Corporation in 1962
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 First central PSU to be privatized: Modern Food Industries in January 2000

EXPLORATION

 Person to ride alone around the world on motorcycle: Bharadwaj Dayala

 Person to fly in a balloon and land in a parachute: Shibnath Majumdar
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 Person to reach the South Pole: Colonel Jatinder Kumar Bajaj

 Woman to scale Mount Everest: Bachendri Pal on 23 May 1984; the 5th woman in the
world to scale the peak

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  Person to reach Mount Everest without oxygen: Sherpa Anga Dorjee
 Woman to reach South Pole: Reena Kaushal Dharmshaktu

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 Person to reach the North Pole: Jagannathan Srinivasaraghavan on 23 April 1985.
 Person to have walked across Gobi desert: Sucheta Kadethankar
 Youngest person in the world to climb Everest: Malavath Purna on 25 May 2014 at the
age of 13

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FILM, TV AND ENTERTAINMENT

 1896: First film to be exhibited in India: on 7 July, with the Lumiere Brothers'
Cinematography, unveiling six silent short films at the Watson's Hotel in Bombay: Entry of

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Cinematographe, The Sea Bath, Arrival of a Train, A Demolition, Ladies & Soldiers on
Wheels and Leaving the Factory
 1902: Music record was recorded by Gauhar Jaan singing a khayal in Raag Jogiya,
recorded on 2 November, by Fred Gaisberg, assistant to Emile Berliner, the father of the

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gramophone record.
 1913: Silent film to be made in India: Raja Harishchandra, by Dadasaheb Phalke and
released on 3 May.
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 1913: Actress of Indian cinema: Durgabai Kamat in Mohini Bhasmasur, released in
November, second movie of Phalke
 1931: Sound film: Alam Ara directed by Ardeshir Irani
 1937: Government award for films: Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards
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 1937: Colour film: Kisan Kanya, directed by Moti B. Gidvani
 1946: Palme d'Or at 1946 Cannes Film Festival: Neecha Nagar, directed by Chetan Anand
 1954: National Film Award for cinema: Shyamchi Aai
 1955: Film to attract International critical attention: Pather Panchali
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 1957: Oscar nomination for Best Foreign Language Film: Mother India
 1959: Film to be banned: Neel Akasher Neechey, directed by Mrinal Sen
 1959: Cinemascope film: Kaagaz Ke Phool, directed by Gurudutt
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 1964: Guinness Book of World Records in the category "Fewest actors in a narrative film":
Yaadein directed and acted by Sunil Dutt
 1967: 70 mm film: Hindi film Around the World
 1969: Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipient: Devika Rani
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 1982: Oscar winner: Bhanu Athaiya for Best Costume Design for the film Gandhi
 1984: 3-D film: My Dear Kuttichathan, a Malayalam film, produced in 1984, dubbed in
Hindi as Chhota Chetan
 1984: Sponsored TV serial: Hum Log, started on 7 July, was also the first soap opera of
India, ran for 156 episodes
 1985: Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Order of Arts and Letters) – Director: Mrinal Sen
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 1987: First film to shoot underwater Kannada movie Ondu Muttina Kathe, was the first
Indian movie to be shot under water in Maldives
 1992: Oscar for Lifetime Achievement: Satyajit Ray

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  1992: Indian filmmaker to get Bharat Ratna: Satyajit Ray
 1995: Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Order of Arts and Letters) – Actor: Sivaji Ganesan

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 2004: Colorized film: Mughal-e-Azam in 2004 (the original black-and-white version was
released in 1960)
 2004: Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Order of Arts and Letters) – Actress: Sharmila Tagore
 2006: Film screened at the United Nations: Lage Raho Munna Bhai, on 10 November,

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directed by Rajkumar Hirani
 2008: Actor to enact most roles (10): Kamal Haasan in Dasavathaaram
 2009: Music director to win an Oscar and first double Oscar winner: A. R. Rahman for
Slumdog Millionaire
 2009: Actress to enact most roles (12): Priyanka Chopra in What's Your Raashee?

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GOVERNANCE IN MEN

 President of the Indian National Congress: Womesh Chandra Bannerjee, 1885

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 President of the Indian National Congress of independent India: Acharya Kripalani, until
November 1947
 President: Rajendra Prasad (1950–62)
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 The first Chief Election Commissioner: Sukumar Sen
 Industries and Supplies Minister: Shyama Prasad Mukherjee
 The first person to resign from the Central Cabinet: Shyama Prasad Mukherjee
 Vice-President: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
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 Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru (1947–64); India held its first constitutional elections in
1952 after which he was re-elected
 Deputy Prime Minister: Vallabhbhai Patel (1947–50)
 Law Minister of India: B. R. Ambedkar
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 Leader of Opposition: A. K. Gopalan

 Prime Minister to be voted out of office: Indira Gandhi (1977), when the Indian National
Congress lost to the Janata Party
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 Non-Congress government: Janata Party, with Morarji Desai as the Prime Minister (1977–
1980)
 Non-Congress State government with Majority by a single party: E. M. S. Namboodiripad
of CPI, Kerala 1957
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 Prime Minister to lead a minority government for a full term (five years): P. V. Narasimha
Rao, 21 June 1991 – 16 May 1996
 Person outside the Nehru-Gandhi family to serve as Prime Minister for a full term (five
years): P. V. Narasimha Rao, 21 June 1991 – 16 May 1996
 Non Congress Prime Minister to serve a full term: Atal Bihari Vajpayee
 Prime Minister from South India: P. V. Narasimha Rao, 1991, H.D.Deve Gowda
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 The first Viceroy of India: Lord Canning, 1858

 Governor-General of India: Warren Hastings, 1773
 Governor-General of Independent India: Lord Mountbatten, 1947

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.127

  Indian Governor-General of Indian Union: C Rajagopalachari, 1948
 Chief Justice of India: H. J. Kania (1947–51)

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 First Sikh Prime Minister: Manmohan Singh (2004–14)
 First Muslim President: Zakir Hussain (1967–69)
 First Sikh President: Giani Zail Singh
 Indian ICS Officer: Satyendranath Tagore, 1863

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 Speaker of Lok Sabha: G. V. Mavlankar (1952–56)
 Finance Minister of Independent India: R. K. Shanmukham Chetty (1947–49), for others
see First Nehru ministry
 Presentation of the first budget after India's Independence: R. K. Shanmukham Chetty on
26 November 1947

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 First Home Minister of India: Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel
 First Indian President to die in Office: Zakir Hussain, 3 May 1969
 First Chief Minister to die in Office: C. N. Annadurai, Tamil Nadu
 First Indian Prime Minister to resign from office: Morarji Desai, 1979

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 First Prime Minister born after India's independence: Narendra Modi, born 17 September
1950
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SCIENCE

 The first president of the inaugural session of the Indian Science Congress: Sir Ashutosh
Mukherjee in 1914
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 Hydroelectric plant: Sidrapong near Darjeeling. commissioned in 1897,
 Place to get electricity: Darjeeling in 1897, followed by Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1898
and Kolar Gold Fields in 1902.
 Man in space: Rakesh Sharma aboard Soyuz T-11, on 3 April 1984. He was the 138th man
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in space worldwide.
 Woman in space: Kalpana Chawla aboard Space Shuttle Columbia flight STS-87, on 19
November 1997. She was a naturalized United States citizen, and represented the US
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during the event.

 Test-tube baby: Durga Agarwal, born 1978
 Scientific Expedition to Antarctica: 1981
 Nuclear Reactor: Apsara, Mumbai, Maharashtra
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 First Genetically Modified Food Product in India: Bt. Egg plant Hybrid (Bt. – Bacilius
thuringiensis)
 Satellite: Aryabhata, launched on 19 April 1975
 Satellite dedicated exclusively for educational services: EDUSAT
 Successfully indigenous launch vehicle: SLV-3
 Prospective space tourist: Santhosh George Kulangara, proposed in 2009 aboard Virgin
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Galactic
 Cloned Animal: Bhass, sampura

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.128

  In 1850, the first experimental electric telegraph line was started between Kolkata and
Diamond Harbor. In 1851, it was opened for the use of the British East India Company

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 1854: Telegraph service opened to the Public
 First telephone exchange: On 28 January 1882, Major E. Baring, Member of the Governor
General of India's Council declared open the Telephone Exchanges in Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras. The exchange in Calcutta named the "Central Exchange", was opened at

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third floor of the building at 7, Council House Street, with a total of 93 subscribers. Later
that year, Bombay also witnessed the opening of a telephone exchange.
 1902 – First wireless telegraph station established between Sagar Islands and Sandheads.
 1907 – First central battery of telephones introduced in Kanpur.
 1913–1914 – First automatic exchange installed in Shimla.

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 1927 – Radio-telegraph system between the UK and India, with Imperial Wireless Chain
beam stations at Khadki and Daund. Inaugurated by Lord Irwin on 23 July by exchanging
greetings with King George V.
 1933 – Radiotelephone system inaugurated between the UK and India.

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 1953 – 12 channel carrier system introduced.
 1960 – First subscriber trunk dialing route commissioned between Lucknow and Kanpur.
 1975 – First PCM system commissioned between Mumbai City and Andheri telephone
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exchanges.
 1976 – First digital microwave junction introduced.
 1979 – First optical fibre system for local junction commissioned at Pune.
 1980 – First satellite earth station for domestic communications established at
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Secunderabad, telangana
 1983 – First analog Stored Program Control exchange for trunk lines commissioned at
Mumbai.
 1984 – First Underground Metro Railways System at Calcutta.
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 1984 – C-DOT established for indigenous development and production of digital

exchanges.
 1990 – First technology park in India, Technopark, Trivandrum was launched
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 1995 – First mobile telephone service started on non-commercial basis on 15 August

1995 in Delhi.
 2014 – First country to enter Mars' orbit on their first attempt with successful launch of
Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan)
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 2015– First 3D printed humanoid robot in India at A-SET Training & Research Institutes –
Manav (robot)

MEDICAL SCIENCE

 First graduate in medicine: Surjo Kumar Chakraborty

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 First rhinoplasty noted in the world/India: Over Ksatji, a British soldier by a Kumhar
Vaidya.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.129

  First physician in India and second in the world to perform the In vitro fertilization:
Subhash Mukhopadhyay.

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 First in India to receive a fellowship of the International Federation for Emergency
Medicine – Dr. K. Hari Prasad

SPORT

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 Indian to swim across the English Channel: Mihir Sen, 1958
 Woman to swim across the English Channel: Arati Saha, 1959
 Formula One driver: Narain Karthikeyan
 Formula One team: Force India F1

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 A1 GP race victory: Narain Karthikeyan, Zhuhai, China, 2007
 Person to equal world record in Archery: Limba Ram, 1992
 Person to walk across the Mongolian Gobi Desert: Sucheta Kadethankar who achieved
the feat in 51 days, 11 hours and 40 minutes in 2011

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 Ashish Kumar, first Indian to win a medal in both Asian games( 12 to 27 November
November 2010, Guangzhou(China)) and Commonwealth games (Delhi, India, from 3 to
14 October 2010). He won Bronze medal in both games.
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 Shiva Keshavan, first Indian to win two gold medals for India in winter sports at the Asia
Cup in Japan in 2011 and 2012; also a four-time Olympian and has set the new Asian
speed record on ice at 134.3 km/h and track record of 49.590 seconds
 Sushil Kumar is the first Indian to win back to back Olympic medals (Bronze and Silver in
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the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics respectively)
 Santhi Soundarajan: first World Peace Sports Festival Ambassador from India and first
Indian woman to win a medal at Asian Games
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OLYMPICS

 Olympic team medal: gold in field hockey, Amsterdam, beating the Netherlands in the
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finals
 Individual medal (in British India): Two silver medals by Norman Pritchard in 200 metres
and 200 metres hurdles at the 1900 Summer Olympics, Paris (This is disputed however.
The IOC claims he participated for India. The IAAF records him as a participant for Great
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Britain.)
 Individual medal: bronze by K. D. Jadhav for Wrestling at the 1952 Summer Olympics in
Helsinki
 Medal in Tennis: Leander Paes at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta
 Individual medal by a woman: bronze by Karnam Malleswari for weightlifting 54 kg class,
at the 2000 Summer Olympics Sydney
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 Individual gold medal: Abhinav Bindra in the 10 m Air Rifle event at the 2008 Summer
Olympics in Beijing.

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  Individual silver medal (Independent India): Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore in the Men's
Double Trap event at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens

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 Medal in boxing: Vijender Kumar in the Beijing Olympics 2008
 Medal in badminton: P.V. Sindhu, winning silver in the Rio Olympics 2016
 Medal in badminton: Saina Nehwal, winning bronze in the London Olympics 2012
 Medal in wrestling: Sushil Kumar, winning a bronze in the Beijing Olympics 2008 and a

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silver in the London Olympics 2012
 Medal in boxing: MC Mary Kom, winning bronze in the London Olympics 2012
 Medal in wrestling: Yogeshwar Dutt, winning a bronze in the London Olympics 2012
 First woman to win a silver medal: P. V. Sindhu in badminton at the 2016 Summer
Olympics

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 First woman to win a medal in Wrestling: Sakshi Malik winning a Bronze in the 2016
Summer Olympics

CHESS



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Chess Grandmaster: Male – Viswanathan Anand, 1988
Chess Women Grandmaster: Female – Bhagyashree Thipsay, 1986
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 Female – Koneru Humpy – 2002; also the youngest woman to become a grandmaster, at
15 years old. (Hou Yifan of China is the youngest woman to become a grandmaster, at 14
years and 6 months.)
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FOOTBALL

 First Indian footballer to play overseas: Mohammed Salim

 First Indian football goalkeeper to play overseas: Subrata Paul
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 First footballer to be named the Indian footballer of the century (20th century): Pradip
Kumar Banerjee
 First Indian as well as an Asian to be declared best captains in the world by English FA:
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Shailen Manna
 First Indian to manage a Bundesliga football club: Robin Dutt
 First Indian to be inducted in the AFC Hall of Fame: Baichung Bhutia
 First Indian to score the fastest goals (third fastest in the world): I. M. Vijayan
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TENNIS

 Grand Slam title: Mahesh Bhupathi (partnering with Japanese Rika Hiraki) in the mixed
doubles category of the 1997 French Open
 Woman to win a match in a Grand Slam event: Nirupama Vaidyanathan beat Italian
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Gloria Pizzichini in the first round of the 1998 Australian Open

 Woman to reach 4th round (highest as of 2009) of a Grand Slam singles event: Sania
Mirza in the singles category of the 2005 US Open

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  Woman to win a Grand Slam title: Sania Mirza (partnering with Mahesh Bhupathi) in the
mixed doubles category of the 2009 Australian Open

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 Grand Slam junior title: Ramanathan Krishnan in the singles category of the 1954
Wimbledon Championship
 Grand Slam junior title by a woman: Sania Mirza (partnering with Russian Alisa
Kleybanova) in the doubles category of the 2003 Wimbledon Championships

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 Yuki Bhambri became the first Indian to win the singles in the Junior Australian Open,
when he defeated the Greek Alexandros-Ferdinandos Georgoudas in the final 6–3, 6–1 in
the finals in 2009.
 Sania Mirza became the first Indian to reach No. 1 doubles WTA ranking.

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CRICKET

 First cricket club in India: Calcutta now Kolkata (1792) Calcutta cricket club
 First test match played in India: India vs England in Eden Gardens, Calcutta (result draw)

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(5–8 Jan 1934)
 First Indian captain and the third in history to have led his team to victory after being
enforced to follow on, against Steve Waugh's Australia in 2001–02: Sourav Ganguly
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 First cricket stadium: Eden Gardens in Kolkata
 First test victory: against England At Madras
 Cricket tournament: the Bombay Triangular (1905–1911) which later became the Bombay
Quadrangular (1912–1936)
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 First Indian captain to win more than 21 test matches as a captain: Mahendra Singh
Dhoni
 Test match: against England at Lord's, 25 June 1932
 Captain in tests: C. K. Nayudu for the 1932 tour of England.
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 ODI captain: Ajit Wadekar

 Cricketer to score a century in a test match: Lala Amarnath, 118 against England in
December 1933 at Bombay Gymkhana grounds.
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 First Indian to score the highest runs in a World Cup: Sourav Ganguly 183 runs vs Sri
Lanka in 1999 World Cup Cricket.
 Cricketer to score a double century in a test match: Polly Umrigar, 223 against New
Zealand at Hyderabad in 1955–56
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 Cricketer to score a triple century in a test match: Virender Sehwag, 309 against Pakistan
in Multan in 2004.
 Indian to score an ODI century: Kapil Dev, 175* against Zimbabwe in the 1983 Cricket
World Cup.
 Indian to score an ODI double century is Sachin Tendulkar, 200* against South Africa at
Gwalior, 24 February 2010 (he was the first in the World to achieve this feat).
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 Indian to score two ODI double centuries and the highest individual runs in ODI is Rohit
Sharma, 264 against Sri Lanka in 2014.
 Hat-trick in an ODI: Chetan Sharma against New Zealand in 1987.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.132

  Hat trick in test cricket: Harbhajan Singh against Australia in 2001 at Kolkata.
 First World Cup Runners up captain: Sourav Ganguly (2003)

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 World Cup: At the 1983 World Cup when India beat West Indies in the finals, under the
captaincy of Kapil Dev
 Batsman to complete 10,000 runs in Tests: Sunil Gavaskar (first in the world to achieve
this feat)

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 Batsman to complete 10,000 runs in ODIs: Sachin Tendulkar (first in the world to achieve
this feat)
 Winner of the first T20 World Cup: India (in 2007) against Pakistan
 Cricketer to score 100 centuries in Test and ODIs combined: Sachin Tendulkar (he was the
first in the World to achieve this feat)

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 First bowler to take all 10 wickets in an innings: Anil Kumble (against Pakistan)
 First batsman to score 50 centuries in Test cricket: Sachin Tendulkar
 First woman to score a double hundred in Test cricket: Mithali Raj (214* against New
Zealand at Wellington, 2004); first in the world to achieve this feat

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 First Indian to score a T20 century: Suresh Raina (India vs South Africa)
 Six sixes in an Over: Yuvraj Singh in a T20 match vs England
 First nation to win a World Cup Finale on its home ground: India (ICC 2011 Cricket World
Af
Cup) final held at Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai
 Fastest fifty in a T20I: 50 runs of 12 balls by Yuvraj Singh (vs England in the Inaugural
World T20 Championship held in South Africa, 2007)
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WOMEN

 First women's court in India: Malda, West Bengal

 Graduates: Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi Basu, 1883
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 The first woman honours graduate: Kamini Roy, 1886

 Head of an undergraduate academic institution: Chandramukhi Basu, 1888
 Honours graduate: Kamini Roy (1886)
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 Pilot a locomotive engine (train driver): Surekha Yadav

 Chairperson of State Bank of India: Arundhati Bhattacharya
 Court martialled: Anjali Gupta in 2005
 Lawyer: Cornelia Sorabjee (1892), also the first female graduate from Bombay University,
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and the first woman in the world to read law at Oxford

 Photojournalist: Homai Vyarawalla (1913)[9]
 Doctorate of Science: Asima Chatterjee (1944)
 Chief Justice of a High Court (Himachal Pradesh): Leila Seth, 1991
 Air Vice Marshal: Padmavathy Bandopadhyay
 Supreme Court judge: Justice M. Fathima Beevi
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 High Court Judge: Anna Chandy

 Woman President of the United Nations General Assembly: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, 1953
 Physician: Kadambini Ganguly, 1886

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.133

  Airline Pilot: Durba Banerjee
 Space: Kalpana Chawla aboard Space Shuttle Columbia flight STS-87, on 19 November

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1997. She was a naturalized United States citizen, and represented the US during the
event.
 Nobel Prize winner: Mother Teresa of calcutta in 1979 (Albanian born Indian citizen)
 To cross English Channel: Aarti Saha

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 Monarch of Delhi Sultanate: Razia Sultana (1205–1240) of Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi)
 Minister in a government: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur in the Ministry of Health
 Speaker of the Lok Sabha: Meira Kumar
 Asha Pande, first Indian woman to be the member of Legion of Honour
 Anjali Gopalan, first Tamil woman member of the royal French Legion of Honour.

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 Asian Games gold medal winner: Kamlijit Sandhu
 Climb Mount Everest: Bachendri Pal, 1984
 Chess Grandmaster: Koneru Humpy, 2002. She was also the youngest woman in the
world to become a grandmaster, at 15 years old.

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 To win 1st round match in a Grand Slam event: Nirupama Vaidyanathan beat Italian
Gloria Pizzichini in the first round of the 1998 Australian Open
 To reach 4th round (highest as of 2008) of a Grand Slam event: Sania Mirza in the Singles
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category of the 2005 US Open.
 Grand Slam junior title: Sania Mirza (partnering with Russian Alisa Kleybanova) in the
doubles category of the 2003 Wimbledon Championships.
 Paris Brest Paris Cycling Event: Divya Tate (44): August 2011
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 Pilot: Harita Kaur Deol.
 To Cross Gobi Desert: Sucheta Kadethankar (33): 2011
 Reach the final of an Olympic event: P. T. Usha
 IAS officer:Isha Basant Joshi
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 Youngest Ultramarathoner to run a 100 mile race (Himalayas)

 Magasasay Award: Kamladevi Chattopadhyay
 Bus driver at Delhi Transport Corporation: Sarita
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WOMEN IN GOVERNMENT

 Indian National Congress President: Annie Besant

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 Prime Minister: Indira Gandhi, 1966

 President: Pratibha Patil, 2007
 IPS Officer Kiran Bedi
 Cabinet Minister in India: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur
 Minister in India: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
 Chief Minister: Sucheta Kriplani Uttar Pradesh
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 Governor: Sarojini Naidu (Governor of Uttar Pradesh, 1947–49)

 Home Minister of a state: Sabitha Indra Reddy, Andhra Pradesh
 Speaker of the Lok Sabha: Meira Kumar

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.134

  Finance Minister of State Government in India: Dr Upinderjit Kaur, in Punjab Govt.
 President: Pratibha Patil (2007–2012)

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 Director General of Police: Kanchan Chaudhary Bhattacharya
 Railway Minister of India: Mamata Banerjee
 Fully blind IFS officer: Beno Zephine N L
 To join IFS, to be a diplomat, to become the ambassador/High commissioner (also sued

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the Indian government for gender bias): C. B. Muthamma.
 IPS officer, Assam: Yamin Hazarika
 IPS officer, Sikkim: Aparajita Rai
 IPS officer, Maharashtra: Meera borvankar

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STATES

First state to:

 achieve 100% primary education – Kerala 2016

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 become a fully organic state – Sikkim 2016
 unveil retail policy – Andhra Pradesh 2016
 complete 100% online electoral enrollment – Kerala
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 e-auction limestone blocks – Jharkhand 2016
 build first gender park – Kerala 2016
 become a 'complete digital state' – Kerala 2016
 World‘s Largest Community Kitchen (Golden Temple) -Amritsar
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PLACES

 First partition of Indian state: Bengal

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 First road which is a connected to a Wi-Fi zone: Rajarhat (connecting Rajarhat Main
Arterial Road to the airport to Sector V in the city of Kolkata with 10.5 km)
 District to achieve a 100% literacy rate: Ernakulam district, Kerala, 1990. Pothanicad in
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Ernakulam district is the first panchayath in India that achieved 100% literacy.
 City/town to achieve a 100% literacy rate: Kottayam, Kerala, 1989
 District to achieve a 100% literacy rate and lowest population growth rate:
Pathanamthitta district, Kerala
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 District to be polio-free: Pathanamthitta district, Kerala

 District to become tobacco-free: Kottayam district, Kerala, 27 September 2008
 District to become India's 'total electrified district': Palakkad, Kerala, 2011
 City to have an e-court: Ahmedabad, 8 February 2009
 City to ranked as the No.1 Indian city for ‗quality of life‘ – Chennai, Tamil Nadu
 India's first Wi-Fi city: Mumbai
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 TRANSPORT

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 First (Metro) rail to become zone of Indian Railways: Kolkata Metro as the (17Th Zonal
Headquarter) (30 December 2010)
 First and the only Indian (Metro) rail under Indian Railways: Kolkata Metro
 First passenger train: between Mumbai and Thane on 16 April 1853

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 First suburban railway line: Mumbai Suburban Railway in 1857
 First rapid transit (Metro) rail: Kolkata Metro in 1984
 First motorcar: in 1897, Mr Forster of Crompton Greaves
 First motorcar in regular use: Francis Spring, Chennai in 1901
 First Indians to own a motorcar: Jamshedji Tata and Rustom Cama, a Parsi Lawyer in

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1901.
 First competitive event: Delhi – Bombay trials in 1905 at the behest of Lord Curzon and
otor Union of Western India to test the suitability of the Automobile for Indian roads and
to facilitate interaction between the fledging Automobile Industry and prospective Indian

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clients.
 Oldest surviving and running cars in India: De Dion Bouton 1904, Rover 1905
 First woman to drive a car in India: Eshan Ulla Robet, RD Tata 1905
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 First woman to drive a railway train in India: Surekha Yadav
 First female auto-rickshaw driver – Shila Dawre; Pune, 1988
 First motor taxi: Mumbai, 1911
 First large scale import of motor cars: relatively large contingent of motorcars imported
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for the Delhi Darbar held in 1911 to mark the arrival of King George V.
 First registration scheme for motor vehicles in India: 1912
 Arrival of mass production technology makes the Automobile a practical means of
transport by the 1920s and most British officers had cars
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 First assembly of motor cars: General Motors sets up the first assembly unit to assemble
cars from imported parts in 1928. The National Series AB sedan is produced.
 First manufacture of motor cars: Hindustan Motors begins production of cars in 1942.
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Premier automobiles and Standard Motors setup. Technology stagnates as a result of

economic autarky as India is isolated from the rest of the world
 First act leading to liberalization of the Auto sector: Maruti 800 launched in 1983 and the
automotive industry is progressively liberalized
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 First fully indigenous passenger car developed in India: Tata Indica, launched in 1998
 First expressway: Mumbai - Pune Expressway in 2000,
 First major acquisition of a foreign company by an Indian company: Tata Motors acquires
Jaguar and Land Rover in 2007. Mahindra Automotive emerges as the top bidder for
SsangYong Motor Company in 2010.
 First aeroplane in India: Maharaja of Patiala, 1910
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 Domestic commercial aviation is born in India in 1911 when on 18 February, Henri Piquet,
flying a Humber biplane, carries mall from Allahabad to Naini Junction, some six miles
away.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.136

  1927: India's first airline, Imperial Airways, extends its Empire Routes to India, connecting
India with the outside world for the first time through an air network. A de Havilland

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Hercules flies the Cairo-Basra-Karachi-Jodhpur-Delhi route. It is also the first domestic
passenger flight to be operated in India. Passengers could be for the first time fly from
Karachi to Jodhpur and to Delhi on Imperial Airways.
 On 10 February 1929, J. R. D. Tata is awarded India's first pilot licence, Pilot Licence No.1

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by Federation Aeronotique International signed by Sir Victor Sasoon on behalf of the
Aero Club of India and Burma.
 1932: Urmila K Parikh becomes the first woman to get a pilot licence when she is given a
licence by the Aero Club of India and Burma.
 1932: J. R. D. Tata launches India's first scheduled airline, Tata Airlines, by piloting the first

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flight himself from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad on a single-engine Puss Moth with
a load of airmail.
 2009: India's first electric motorcycle

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LITERATURE AND MEDIA

 Newspaper: Hicky's Bengal Gazette started in 1780.

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 Hindi newspaper: Udant Martand on 30 May 1826; published and edited by Jugal Kishore
Shukla from Calcutta.
 Hindi monthly magazine: Saraswati on 1 January 1900, started by Chintamani Ghosh in
Allahabad
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 Exclusive Internet magazine: Bharat Samachar

OTHERS
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 The first Indian to cross English Channel: Mihir Sen

 First practicing barrister of Indian origin: Monomohun Ghose
 First Indian as well as an Asian to be called to the bar in England: Gnanendramohan
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Tagore
 First post office opened in India: Kolkata (1727)
 First telegraph message: on 5 November 1850, between Calcutta (now Kolkata) and
Diamond Harbour, a distance of about 50 km.
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 Wax statue of a living Indian: Mahatma Gandhi at Madame Tussaud's in 1939

 Miss India to participate in Miss Universe: Indrani Rahman in the Miss Universe 1952
Pageant at Long Beach, California
 India's first woman Merchant Navy Officer: Sonali Banerjee
 First woman teacher: Savitribai Phule
 First woman doctor: Kadambini Ganguly
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 First Indian World No. 1 women's tennis sportsperson (doubles): Sania Mirza
 First Indian No. 1 women's badminton player: Saina Nehwal

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.137

  The first record holder in the field of development of eco-innovation: Shripad Vaidya 13
June 2010; Vaidya is the first Nagpurian to get two Limca records within a year, as the

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first record holder in the field of development of eco-innovation.
 World's first hand written needle book: Madhushala
 Writer of world's first hand written needle book (Madhushala): Piyush Goel
 First disabled friendly bank ATM: Union Bank of India

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 m
The species known as Ramapithecus was found in the Siwalik foothills of
the northwestern Himalayas. This species believed to be the first in the line of hominids

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lived some 14 million years ago. Researches have found that a species resembling the
Australopithecus lived in India some 2 million years ago. Scientists have so far not been
able to account for an evolutionary gap of as much as 12 million years since the
appearance of Ramapithecus.

The people of India belong to different anthropological stocks. According to

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Dr. B. S. Guha, the population of India is derived from six main ethnic groups:

(1) Negritos: The Negritos or the brachycephalic (broad headed) from Africa were the
earliest people to inhabit India. They are survived in their original habitat in the Andaman

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and Nicobar Islands. The Jarewas, Onges, Sentelenese and Great Andamanis tribes are the
examples. Studies have indicated that the Onges tribes have been living in the Andamans for
the last 60,000 years. Some hill tribes like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans and Kurumbas are found
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only in patches among the hills of south India on the mainland.

(2) Pro-Australoids or Austrics: This group was the next to come to India after the
Negritos. They represent a race of people, with wavy hair plentifully distributed over their
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brown bodies, long heads with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, noses with low and
broad roots, thick jaws, large palates and teeth and small chins. Austrics tribes, which are
spread over the whole of India, Myanmar and the islands of South East Asia, are said to
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"form the bedrock of the people". The Austrics were the main builders of the Indus Valley
Civilisation. They cultivated rice and vegetables and made sugar from sugarcane. Their
language has survived in the Kol or Munda (Mundari) in Eastern and Central India.
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(3) Mongoloids: These people have features that are common to those of the people of
Mongolia, China and Tibet. These tribal groups are located in the Northeastern part of India
in states like Assam, Nagaland and Meghalya and also in Ladakh and Sikkim. Generally, they
are people of yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high cheekbones, sparse hair and medium
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height.

(4) Mediterranean or Dravidian: This group came to India from the Southwest Asia and
appears to be people of the same stock as the peoples of Asia Minor and Crete and the pre-
Hellenic Aegeans of Greece. They are reputed to have built up the city civilization of the
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Indus Valley, whose remains have been found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa and other Indus
cities. The Dravidians must have spread to the whole of India, supplanting Austrics and
Negritos alike. Dravidians comprise all the three sub-types, Paleo-Mediterranean, the true

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.139

 Mediterranean and Oriental Mediterranean. This group constitutes the bulk of the scheduled
castes in the North India. This group has a sub-type called Oriental group.

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(5) Western Brachycephals: These include the Alpinoids, Dinaries and Armenois. The
Coorgis and Parsis fall into this category.
(6) Nordics: Nordics or Indo-Aryans are the last immigrants into India. Nordic Aryans were a

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branch of Indo-Iranians, who had originally left their homes in Central Asia, some 5000 years
ago, and had settled in Mesopotamia for some centuries. The Aryans must have come into
India between 2000 and 1500 B.C. Their first home in India was western and northern Punjab,
from where they spread to the Valley of the Ganga and beyond. These tribes are now mainly
found in the Northwest and the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP). Many of these tribes

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belong to the "upper castes".

INDIAN TRIBES

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Abhor These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
Abujmaria Known variously as Abudjamadis, Abujmariya and Hill Maria,
these tribes are found in the geographically inaccessible areas of
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Abujhmar Mountains and Kutrumar Hills in the Bastar district of
Madhya Pradesh. They speak a Dravidian language called
Abujmaria. The Hill Maria tribes are considered as a sub-group of
the Gonds, who are historically the most important group of original
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Indian tribes.
Adivasika These are forest dwellers found mainly in Northern Kerala, near
Calicut.
These tribes inhabit the Banaskantha and Sabarkantha districts of
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Adivasi Girasia Gujarat and are believed to be the descendants of the Rajputs who
married Bhil women. The name "Girasia" refers to the Rajput and
other landholders living in the Gujarat and Rajasthan regions. Their
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language, also known as Adivasi Girasia, is an Indo-Aryan language

belonging to the Bhil subgroup.

Adiyan Also known as Eravas, these people are found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu
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and Karnataka.
Ahirs These people are the traditional dairymen caste of Uttar Pradesh.
Aka These tribes are found mainly in the Andaman Islands, Arunachal
Pradesh and also in parts of Assam. The Aka people are so named
for a black, sticky paint they use on their faces. They used to speak
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Aka (now an extinct language) on the Andaman Islands and Aka Lel,
a dialect of Nisi, in Assam. The Aka people in Assam celebrate the
Nechido Festival every year on the first day of November.

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 Alars Also known as Chathans or Chatans, these tribes are found in the
Kerala-Palghat region. They speak Alar and Malayalam.

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Amindivi : These tribes are found in Lakshadweep.
Amri Karib : Known by different names like Mikir, Manchati, Mikiri, Karbi,
these tribes are found in the Mikir and Rengma Hills of Assam. They
speak Amri, a dialect of Mikir.

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Anal These tribes are found in Manipur.
Angami: These tribes are found in Kohima, the capital of Nagaland.
Ao The Ao tribe is found in the Mokokchung District of Nagaland. The
main festivals of the Aos are Moatsu and Tsungremmong celebrated
during the first week of May and August, respectively.

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Apatani These tribes, also described as Apa, are found south of the Tibetan
border in the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.
Their language is also known as Apatani. These tribes are renowned
for their cultivation, especially the Terraced rice fields, which are

Arnatas
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located along the sides of the valleys.
Also known as Aranadan and Eranadans, these tribes are found in
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. They speak Aranatan and
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Malayalam.
Asurs These tribes are found in Bihar and West Bengal.
Awadhi Known by different names like Abadi, Abohi, Ambodhi, Baiswari,
Kojali and Kosali, these people are found in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh
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and parts of Uttar Pradesh. They speak in Awadhi, which is a dialect

of Hindi.
Badaga Also known as Badag, Badagu, Badugu and Vadagu, these tribes
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are found in the Nilgiri and Kunda Hills of Tamil Nadu. Their
language is also called Badaga. The name "Badaga", meaning
"northerner," was given to this group during the Middle Ages when
they migrated from the Mysore plains to the Nilgiri Hills in southern
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Tamil Nadu.
Bagri These tribes are found mainly in western India, in the states of
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh. They are an Indo-
Aryan people, and their language is also called Bagri.
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These tribes are now found in Kachi Koli in Pakistan and are known
Bajania by other names like Kachi Koli, Kuchikoli, Vaghri and Vagari. They
speak Bajania, a dialect of Koli.

Bakarwals These are the nomadic tribes of Kashmir

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Baiga Known by names like Baigai, Bega and Bhumia, these people are
found in Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and West
Bengal. Their language is also known as Baiga.

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 Banchharas These tribes are found in Madhya Pradesh.
Bangni The Bangni (also known as the Dafla or the Nishi) inhabit the hills of

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Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Their native language, Nisi, belongs
to the Tibeto-Burman language family.
Bangri These tribes are located mainly in the states of Haryana, Karnataka,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Delhi. Their language,

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Bangaru, is a member of the Indo-Aryan language family.
Banjaras Known by different names in different places like Lamani, Lambadi,
Bangala, Banjori, Banjuri, Gohar-Herkeri, Goola, Gurmarti, Kora,
Labhani Muka, Lambara, Lavani, Lemadi, Lumadale, Sugali,
Tanda, Vanjari, Waji, Gormati and Singali, these tribes are mainly

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concentrated in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kamataka, Orissa and
West Bengal. Their common language is Lamani.
Barda These tribes are found in Gujarat.
Bavacha
Barel
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These tribes are found in Gujarat.
The Barels are considered to be the sub-group of Bhils. They speak
Barel language.
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Bathudi The Bathudis live primarily in the districts of Mayurbhanj,
Kendujhargarh and Balasore in the state of Orissa. Most Bathudis are
bilingual, speaking their native language, Bathudi and Oriya.
Bauria The Baurias are also considered as a sub-group of Bhils. Their
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language is also known as Bauria.

Beda These tribes are found in Ladakh
Bedia These tribes are found in Madhya Pradesh
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Bettakurubas These tribes are found in Karnataka

Bhadrawahi These tribes are located predominantly in Jammu and Kashmir
Bhils The Bhils are considered as the third largest and most widely
distributed tribal groups in India. The name "Bhil" was probably
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derived from the word villu or billu, which in most Dravidian

languages is the word for "bow." The bow has long been a
characteristic weapon of the Bhil because the tribesmen always carry
their bows and arrows with them. The Bhil tribes inhabit some of the
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most remote and inaccessible areas of India. There are two divisions
of Bhils: the Central or "pure" Bhils, and the Eastern or Rajput Bhils.
The Central Bhils live in the mountain regions in the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. They are known as the
connecting link between the Gujaratis and the Rajasthanis and are
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one of the largest tribal communities of India. They speak Bhili,

which is an Indo-Aryan language. The Bhils are known to have
fought against the Mughals, Marathas and the British.

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 Bhilala The Bhilala are located in several states in western central Indian
but mainly in the districts of Dhar, Jhabua, and West Nimar of

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Madhya Pradesh. Their language, also called Bhilala, is a sub-group
of the Bhil language, which belongs to the Indo-Aryan linguistic
family. The Bhilala are considered as nobility among the Bhil, since
they are the direct descendants of the Rajput chiefs who took the

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daughters of the Bhil chieftains to be their wives.
Bhim These are the tribes found mainly in the eastern state of Tripura.
Bhinjwari The Binjhwaris or the Binjhals, live in Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Bihar and West Bengal. Although their native
language is Binjhwari, many of these people also speak

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Chhattisgarhi.
Bhotia : Known by names like Lahuli, Tinan, Lahauli, Rangloi and Gondla,
these tribes are found in Himalayan Mountain ranges of Himachal
Pradesh. They speak in Lahuli and Tinan.
Bhutia

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These are Buddhists tribes found in Assam, along the border with
Tibet and in Nepal. They are also known by the names Lhasa, Dalai,
Pohbetian and Tebilian. They speak Tibetan.
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Birhor These tribes are found in the Hazaribagh, Singbhum and Ranchi
districts of Bihar and parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa
and West Bengal.
Bison Horn These are a small tribal group located mainly in Gadchiroli district in
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Maria Maharashtra and also in parts of Madhya Pradesh. The designation
"Bison Horn Maria" is derived from a distinctive headdress worn at
marriage dances and adorned with the horns of now extinct wild
bison. Many scholars believe that the Bison Horn Maria is part of the
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Gond tribe, while others consider them to be an earlier indigenous

tribe assimilated by the Gonds.
Bombas These are the Nomads inhabiting the rugged hills of Kashmir.
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Boro (Bodo) These tribes are found in Assam.

Braj Bhakha These tribes are located mainly in the states of Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Their language, Braj Bhasha, is a
member of the Indo-Aryan language family.
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Bunde Soligas These tribes are found in Karnataka.

Chakmas Also known as Takam, these tribes are found in Assam, Meghalya,
Tripura, West Bengal and parts of Bangladesh. They speak Chakma
language.
Chamars These tribes are known by different names like Chamari, Chambhar
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Boli and Chambhari. These are found in the States of Madhya

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. Their language is known as
Chamari.

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 Chameali Pahari The Chameali Pahari tribes are primarily located in the states of
Uttar Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.

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Changs These tribes are found in the Tuensang District of Nagaland.
Chang-Pas These are the tribes found in the northern upland valleys of the
Indus River in Jammu & Kashmir. They speak in Tibetan dialect.
Charan These tribes are found in Gujarat.

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Chekhasang Chekhasang and Pouchry Tribes are found in the Phek District of
Nagaland. Chakhesang culture and customs are quite different from
the other Naga tribes. There are evidences of the existence of head-
hunting among the villagers in the ancient days.
Chenchus Known variously as Chenchucoolam, Chenchwar, Chenswar and

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Choncharu, these tribes are found primarily in the state of Andhra
Pradesh and also in parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Orissa. Their
native language (also called Chenchus) belongs to the Dravidian
language family. Many also speak Telugu.
Cheros

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These tribes, which claim to be the descendants of the Rajputs, are
found in Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and are
primarily concentrated in Palamau, Shahabad, Champaran, and other
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surrounding districts. The Chero speak a language that is also called
Chero.
Chettier Chettier is the Hindu fishermen caste of Tamil Nadu.
Chola Naickans Also known as Chola Naikar, these tribes are found mainly in the
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Nilambur jungle in Kerala. They speak Canarese, a dialect of

Kannada.
Dafla These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh.
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Damarias These tribes are found in Rajasthan.

Deori These tribes live along the Brahmaputra River and are primarily
located in the states of Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.
They speak a Tibeto-Burman language that is also called Deori. The
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Deori are one of the four divisions of the Chutiya people group and
are also related to the Eastern Bodo-Garo.
Dhodia The Dhodia are located in the extreme southeastern districts of
Gujarat, in the hilly regions south of the Tapi River and in Dadra &
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Nager Haveli. The Dhodia are the highest ranking tribe and the third
largest tribal group in Gujarat. They speak Dhodia, a Bhil language.
Dhurwa These tribes are forest dwellers found mainly in the Bastar district of
Madhya Pradesh and Koraput district of Orissa. They are
considered as a sub-group of the Gond, the largest tribal group in
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India. They speak Parji in three dialects.

Dimasa These are Proto-Austroloid tribes found in Meghalaya and Mizoram.
Dog-Pa Also known as Srin, Shrin and Brog-Pa, these tribes are found in

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 Jammu and Kashmir. Their language is known as Shrin.
Dogris These tribes are known by various names like Dogri-Kangri,

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Dhogaryali, Dogari, Dogri Jammu, Dogri Pahari, Tokkaru and
Dogri-Kangra. They are mainly concentrated in Jammu and Kashmir
between the Ravi and Chenab Rivers. Many Dogris also live in
Pakistan. The Dogris are a hardy people, divided into several castes

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and sects. Their language is known as Dogri Kangri. -
Dorli The Dorli, a sub-group of the Gonds, are concentrated in the Bastar
district of Madhya Pradesh. Some also live in parts of Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa. Their language is also called Dorli.
Dubla The Dubla live primarily in the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra,

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Karnataka, and Rajasthan. They speak Dubla, a Bhil language that
belongs to the Indo-Aryan linguistic family. The Dubla tribe contains
twenty sub-groups, of which the Talavias have the highest social
rank.
Eravallan
Gaddi

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These tribes are found in Kerala.
Known by names like Bharmauri Bhadi, Pahari Bharmauri, Panchi
Brahmauri Rajput, Gaddyal and Gadi, these tribes are found in
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parts of Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab. Their language is also known as Gaddi.
Galong These tribes, also known as Gallong, Gallo, Galo and Adi-Galo, live
in Assam, along the Tibet border area. Their language is also known
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as Galong.
Gamit These tribes are found in Karnataka.
Gamti This is one of the Bhil tribes that live mainly in the Surat and Broach
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districts of Gujarat, India. Among the Bhil, the word gamta means
"headman," possibly giving the Gamti a feeling of superiority over
other Bhil tribes. They speak Gamti, which is one of the Bhil
languages.
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Garhwali The Garhwali or the Central Pahari are a hardworking and often
isolated people who are primarily located in the states of Uttar
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
Garos The Garos or Achiks belong to the Bodo family of the Tibeto-
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Burman race and are found in Meghalaya. They are said to have
migrated from Tibet.
Gonds The Gonds comprise the largest tribal group in India. Historically,
the Gonds were the most important group of the original Indian
tribes. In the 1500's, several Gond dynasties were established and
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their rajas or kings ruled like Hindu princes. The Gonds were
conquered by the Muslim armies in 1592 but their tribes were not
disturbed by the changes in administration.

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 Gongte These tribes are found in Manipur.
Gosains These tribes are found in Madhya Pradesh.

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Gotte These tribes, also known as Podia Koya, are found in the jungles of
Madhya Pradesh. Their language is Podia Koya, which is a dialect of
Koya.
Gracias These tribes, known by different names like Garasia, Rajput Girasia,

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Dungri Grasia and Dhungri Bhili are found in Gujarat and
Rajasthan. Their language is known as Garasia.
Gujjars Known by names like Gujuri, Gujer, Gojri, Kashmir Gujari and
Rajasthani Gujuri, these are semi-nomadic tribal people found in
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar

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Pradesh and Rajasthan, besides parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Their language is known as Gujuri (also called Parimu and Hindki).
Some historians believe that the Gujjars were the inhabitants of
Georgia (Gurjia) a territory situated between the Black Sea and the

fa
Caspian Sea in the former Soviet Union. They left that area and
migrated through central Asia, Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan, crossed
the Khyber Pass and entered the Indian Sub-continent. Several
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settlements are named after them, e.g. Gujar (Central Asia), Juzrs
(Gurjara), Gujrabad, Gujru, Gujristan, Gujrabas, Gujdar-Kotta, Gujar-
Garh, Gujarkhan and Gujranwala in Iran and Afghanistan.
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Halam Halam or Malsum tribes are found in Tripura. They originally hailed
from one of the branches of Kukis.
Hanjis These tribes are found along the Jhelum River in the Kashmir valley.
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Harauti The Harautis are located mainly in the Kota area of Rajasthan and
also in parts of Madhya Pradesh.
Hilpulayan These tribes are found in Kerala.
Hmar These tribes are found in Mizoram.
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Ho
The word "ho" means man. These tribes, which are also known as
Lanka Kol and Bihar Ho, are found mainly in the Singbhum district
of Bihar and theMayurbhanj district of Orissa, besides parts of West
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Bengal, Bangladesh and Nepal. Their language is also called Ho.

These are classified as Caucasian.
Irula
In the Tamil, the name Irula means "people of darkness." These
tribes are known by different names like Eravallan, Erukala, Irava,
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Irular, Irular Mozhi, Iruliga, Iruligar, Korava, Yerukula and Kad

Chensu. They are mainly concentrated in Chingleput at the Nilgiri
foothills in Tamil Nadu. They are also found in parts of Andhra

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 Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Their
language, Irula, is related to Tamil and Kannada.

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Jarawa (Also known as the Onges) These tribes are found on the Rutland
Island and the South Andaman Island. They speak the Jarawa
language.
Jatapu
The Jatapu are mainly concentrated in the Srikakulam and

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Vishkapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh. Some communities are
also found in the states of Tamil Nadu and Orissa. Their original
language is called Jatapu but most of the Jatapu speakers have
adopted Telugu as their mother tongue.
Jats
Juangs

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These people form the dominant group in Haryana.
These tribes are found in the Banspal taluk of the Keonjhar district
of Orissa.
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Jaunsaris These tribes are found in Uttar Pradesh.
Kaikadi The Kaikadis are a small tribal group located mainly in Maharashtra
and Karnataka. Their language (also called Kaikadi) is a member of
the Dravidian language family.
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Kamar These are the scheduled tribes found primarily in the Raipur and
Rewa districts of Madhya Pradesh. Their native language is also
called Kamar.
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Karbi These tribes are found in Assam.

Kashtwari They are located mainly in Jammu and Kashmir. Their language is
known as Kishtwari.
Katakari They are located mainly in the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra.
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Their language is also known as Katkari.

Kathodia These tribes are found in Dadra & Nager Haveli.
Kattunaickans These tribes are found in Kerala.
Kawar The Kawars are primarily located in the states of Madhya Pradesh,
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Orissa and Maharashtra. Their language, Kawari, is an Indo-Aryan

language that is believed to be a dialect of Halbi.
Khambas These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh.
Khamtis
Known by various names like Kham-Tai, Hkamti, Khampti, Khamti
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Shan, Khantis and Tai Kam Ti, these tribes are found in Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Myanmar. Their language is
described as Khamti.

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 Khandeshi They are located mainly in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Their language is also known as Khandesi.

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Khasis These tribes are found in Khasi-Jaintia hills in Meghalaya, Manipur,
Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and parts of West
Bengal. They are also described by other names like Khasi Paharis,
Khuchia, Kassi, Khasa and Khashi. Their language is Khasi. Khasis

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follow the matrilineal system of lineage.
Khiamungans These tribes are found in the Tuensang District of Nagaland.
Khirwar The Khirwar, a sub-group of the Gonds, live in the Sarguja district at
the borders of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Some speak the
local Hindi dialect in addition to their own language, Khirwari.

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Khorkhas These tribes are found in Jammu and Kashmir.
Kipgen These tribes are found in Manipur.
Kiutze These tribes are located mostly near the Myanmar-Tibet border.
Their language is known as Rawang.
Koch

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These tribes live primarily in the states of Assam and Tripura. Their
language, Koch, belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family. In
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the sixteenth century, the Koch tribes had established a dynasty in
the Bihar region, but were driven from power by the Muslims and
the Ahoms. Today, they prefer the title Rajbansi, which means "men
of royal blood," because of their ruling ancestors.
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Kodagu The Kodagu (also known as the Coorg) live in the Kodagu (Coorg)
district of Karnataka. The word kodagu means "situated to the west,"
and their district, Coorg, stands in the ridges of the Western Ghat
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Mountains. They speak a Dravidian language that is also called

Kodagu.
Kadamukudy These tribes are found in Kadamukudy Island, near Kerala.
Kodavas The Kodavas are the people living in the Kodagu region of
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Karnataka, which lies in the Western Ghats.

Kokni Also known as Kukna, Kanara and Kokna, these tribes are found in
the Western Ghats in Maharashtra and in the Dang district of
Gujarat. Their language is known as Kukna.
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Kolam Known by the names like Kolamboli, Kulme and Kolmi, these tribes
are found mainly inhabit the hills and plains of Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra. They also live in the Yavatmal, Wardha and Nanded
districts of Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh. They speak a
Dravidian language called Kolami but can also speak Marathi,
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Telugu or Gondi. Around the twelfth century, the Kolam served as

priests for the Gonds, representing some of their important gods.
Koli These tribes are found in Dadra & Nager Haveli.

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 Konyaks These tribes are found in the Mon district of Nagaland. Konayaks
are adept artisans and skilled craftsmen. These tribes are ruled by

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hereditary chiefs known as Anghs. The most colourful festival of the
Konyaks is called Aoling Monyu and it is observed during the first
week of April every year.
Koras These tribes are found in Bihar.

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Korku Known variously as Bondeya, Bopchi, Korki, Kurku and Kuri, these
tribes are found in the southern Betul, Hoshangabad and East Nimar
districts of southern Madhya Pradesh and Amravati, Buldana and
Akola districts of northern Maharashtra. Their language is also
known as Korku.

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Korwa The Korwas are one of the scheduled tribes of Central India. They
live in the hills, valleys, and forests of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh. They speak a Munda language, also called Korwa,
which belongs to the Austro-Asiatic language family. There are two

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very distinct tribes among the Korwas: the Diharia (or Kisan), who
are farmers, and the Paharia (or Benwaria), who live in the hills.
These two tribes do not inter-marry.
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Kota Kota or Kotta are the tribes found in the Nilgiri Hills of Kotagiri, in
Tamil Nadu. Their language is also known as Kota.
Kotwali These tribes are found in Gujarat.
Koya The Koyas live in the forests, plains, and valleys on both sides of the
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Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Many also live in Madhya
Pradesh and Orissa. The language of these tribes is also called Koya
and is closely related to Gondi and has been strongly influenced by
Telugu.
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Kui Known by various names like Kuy, Kodi, Khond, Khondi, Khondo,
Kanda, Kodulu and Kuinga, these tribes are found in the Udayagiri
area of Orissa, and parts of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
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Tamil Nadu. They are a subgroup of a Dravidian tribe known as the

Kond, which literally means "mountaineers." They speak Kui, a
Dravidian language.
Kuki These tribes are found in the Kohima district of Nagaland and parts
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of Manipur and Assam.

Kulu Pahari Known by names like Kauli, Kulu Boli, Kulu Pahari, Kulu Pahari,
Kullui Pahar, Pahari Kullu, Phari Kulu, Kulvi, Kullui and Kulwali,
these tribes are found primarily in Himachal Pradesh. They speak
Kului and Hindi.
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Kumaoni These tribes are also known as Kumauni, Kumau, Kumawani,

Kumgoni, Kumman and Kunayaoni and are found in Assam, Bihar,
Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Nagaland.

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 Kurichiya These tribes are found in the forest areas near Calicut, Tellichery and
Waynad in Kerala where they were the earliest known inhabitants.

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They are also found in parts of Tamil Nadu. Their language is called
Kurichiya, although many also speak Malayalam. It is said that their
name comes from the word kuri, which is the sandalwood that they
put on their foreheads and chests.

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Kurumba These tribes are mainly concentrated in the Dharmapuri district of
Tamil Nadu and also found in parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. They are also known as Kuruba,
Kurumban, Kurumvari and Southern Kanares. The Kuruba are
considered closely related to the Pallavas of the eighth century. As

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the Pallava rule declined, the Kuruba's forefathers scattered over a
wide area of southern India and became culturally distinct. They
speak a Dravidian language that is called Kurumba or Southern
Kannada.
Labans

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Described variously as Banajaras, Lambadi, Gola, Wanji and
Singali, these tribes are found in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
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Orissa and West Bengal. They speak a language called Lamani.
Labbai These people are found in Tamil Nadu and claim to be the
descendants of Arab traders.
Ladakhi These tribes are found in Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir.
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Lahauli These tribes are found in Lahaul Valley of Himachal Pradesh.
Lalung The Lalung tribe lives in the states of Assam and Meghalaya. They
are divided into two main sub-divisions: those who live in the hills
and those who live on the plains. The two have developed
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distinctions due to differences in terrain and ecology. The Lalung

belong to a race known as the Bodo. According to legend, their
ancestors migrated from Tibet and followed the path of the
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Brahmaputra River south into the hills of Assam. Later, perhaps

during the mid-1600's they migrated to the plains.
Lambada These tribes are known by various names like Lambadi, Lavani,
Lemadi, Lumadale, Banjara, Bangala, Banjori, Banjuri, Gohar-
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Herkeri, Goola, Gurmarti, Kora, Gormati, Singali, Sugalis, Tanda,

Vanjara and Wanji. The Lambadas originated in Rajasthan but are
now concentrated in Andhra Pradesh. These are also found in
Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa and West Bengal. They speak
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Lamani and Telugu.

Lepcha Known by different names like Rong, Rongke, Rongpa and Nunpa,
the people of this tribe are found in Sikkim, Kalimpong district of

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 West Bengal, Nepal and Bhutan. Their language is known as Lepcha.
Lhoba These tribes, which are found mostly in Arunachal Pradesh, are part

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of the Lhoba tribe of China. Their language, Lhoba, is part of the
Sino-Tibetan language family.
Lohar These tribes are found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana and Punjab. They are

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known by various names such as Gade Lohar, Gaduliya Lohar,
Lohpitta Rajput Lohar, Bagri Lohar and Bhubaliya Lohar. Their
language is known as Gade Lohar.
Lothas Lothas are the tribes found in the Wokha district of Nagaland. They
are known for their colourful dances and songs particularly Shanta,

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Tokhu Emong and Pikhuchak.
Lushi The Lushi (Shenlung) tribes are found in Mizoram and claim Jewish
ancestry.
Madiga These people belong to Andhra Pradesh and are known by different

Malakaras
Tolangan.

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names like Gentoo, Tailangi, Telangire, Telgi, Tengu, Terangi and

The word "Malakkara" means "mighty people of the forests". These

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tribes, which are also known as Mala Muthas, are found in Kerala.
They speak Malamutha and Malayalam.
Malappanackers These are the tribes found in Kerala. They speak Malappanackan
and Malayalam.
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Malmis These tribes are found in Lakshadweep.

Malto Known as Malti, Maltu, Malpaharia and Rajmahalia, these tribes
are found in Rajmahal hills in Northeast Bihar and West Bengal.
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Their language is also called Malto.

Manipuri Jews This community sees itself as descendants of the Menashe Tribe
(which is considered as one of the 10 lost tribes of Jews). These
people have Chinese appearance and they claim that after their
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forefathers were exiled and enslaved by the Assyrians they somehow

escaped from slavery and moved initially to China and later to India.
Known as the "Children of Menmasseh," they live on the border of
India and Burma, and a majority of them are believed to be
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Messianic Jews (believers in Jesus Christ -- Yeshua). Their number is

estimated to be about 1.2 to 1.5 million. Israelis refer to this people
by the name Shinlung or Lushi.
Manjhi These tribes live mainly in the Gumla district of Bihar and parts of
West Bengal and Assam. Their primary language is Manjhi, but they
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also speak Sadri and Bihari.

Mappilla These are the Muslim tribes found in Kerala's northern coastal towns
(Moplas) and the Lakshadweep Islands off the Malabar Coast. The Laccadive

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 Mappilla are unique in that they have maintained a matrilineal
society (line of descent is traced through the women) in spite of

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their Islamic beliefs.
Maria The Maria or Muria are a sub-group of Gonds and live in the forests
and hills of central India. They live along the Indrawati River, which
flows through the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh. They are

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divided into two groups: the Maria and the Bison Horn Maria. The
two groups have very little contact with each other, except during
certain annual festivals.
Mauris These tribes are found in Jammu and Kashmir.
Mavchi The Mavchis are a sub-group of Bhils. Their language is also called

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Mavchi or Mawchi.
Mech The Mech are mainly found in the forests and hills of Darjeeling,
Jalpaiguri, and Coochbehar districts of West Bengal and also parts
of Assam. They are related to the Bodo and Kachari tribes and speak

Meithei

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Bodo, a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.
These tribes are also known as Mitei, Manipuris, Kathe, Kathi and
Ponna, and are found in Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Uttar
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Pradesh and West Bengal, besides Bangladesh and Myanmar. These
tribes are of Mongol origin and speak a Tibeto-Burman language
called Meithei.
Melacheris These tribes are found in Lakshadweep.
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Meos These are the rural tribes concentrated in the districts of Alwar and
Bharatpur in Rajasthan and in the Gurgaon district in Haryana. They
speak in Marwari (Rajasthani).
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Mikir These tribes, which are also known by the names Mikiri, Manchati
and Karbi, are found in the Mikir and Rengma Hills of Assam.
Their language is called Mikir.
Mina These tribes are found in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
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Minicoy These tribes are found in the Minicoy islands of Lakshadweep.

Mishing These tribes are found in the Majuli Island of Arunachal Pradesh.
They are also known as Miri. They speak Miri, a dialect of Adi.
Mishmi These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
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Mog These are the Buddhist tribes found in Tripura, who claim to have
originated from Arakan.
Mon These tribes are found in the Ladakh region.
Monpa Known by different names like Moinba, Monba, Mompa, Momba,
Menpa and Memba, these tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh
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and parts of Tibet. They speak a language called Moinba.

Mru The Mrus are primarily located in the region where the borders of
India, Bangladesh and Myanmar intersect. They are concentrated in

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 the Chittagong Hills in Bangladesh, Arakan Yoma district of
Myanmar and in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal. The native

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language of these tribes is also called Mru.
These tribes are also known by different names like Mundari,
Mundas Mandari, Munari, Horo, Mondari and Colh. These are known as
Adivasis in Orissa. They are found mainly in southern and western

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parts of the Ranchi district of Bihar and also in the states of Assam,
Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tripura and West
Bengal and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, besides Nepal and
Bangladesh. Their language is called Mundari. Mundas are the most
ancient among the tribes of Bihar.

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Nahari They are located mainly in the Raipur, Bilaspur, and Sambalpur
districts of Madhya Pradesh, as well as parts of Orissa.
Naikda These tribes are found in Dadra & Nager Haveli and Daman & Diu.
Neethakani These tribes are found mainly in the Neelwai vilage of Andhra

Nicobarese
Pradesh.

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These are the people of Mongoloid stock found on the Car Nicobar
Island. These tribes are also known as Car and Pu.
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Nihal These tribes are found in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and are
also known as Nihali, Nahal, Nahali and Kalto.
Nimadi These tribes are located mainly in the states of Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.
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Nishi These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh.

Nocte These are the tribes found in Nagaland and are known by other
names like Borduria, Jaipuria, Paniduria, Mohongia and
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Namsangia.
Noniya Caste The Noniyas are the traditional earth-workers of Uttar Pradesh.

Ojhas These tribes are found in Madhya Pradesh.

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Onges These tribes are found on the Southern Andaman Islands, Little
Andaman Island and the three small islands to the northeast. They
are also known as Jarawas and speak the Jarawa language.
Oraon (Kurukh) These tribes are found in Bihar and Orissa.
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Oriya These tribes are found mainly in Orissa and parts of Bihar, West
Bengal, Assam and Andhra Pradesh. They are also known as Odri,
Odrum, Ouya, Orissa, Uriya, Utkali, Vadiy and Yudhia.
Padhar These tribes are found in Gujarat.
Paharis These tribes are found along the foothills of the Himalayas, mainly in
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Himachal Pradesh.
Pangwalis These tribes are found in Himachal Pradesh.

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 Panika These tribes live primarily in the Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh
and are divided into two broad groups: the Kabirpanthi and the

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Sakta.
Paniyan These tribes are found in Kerala and Tamil Nadu and are also known
as Pania and Panyah.
Parhiya These are mainly found on the hilltop forests of Bihar.

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Pardhi These tribes are known by different names as Bahelia, Chita Pardhi,
Lango Pardhi, Paidia, Paradi, Paria, Phans Pardhi, Takankar and
Takia. These tribes are found in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat and Maharashtra. Their language is also described as
Pardhi.

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Pauri Bhuiya These tribes, who are also known Bhuiya, Bhuinhar, Bhuinya,
Bhuiyali, Bhumia, Bhungiyas and Bhuyan Oriya, are located in
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal.
Pawi
Phoms
Poouch fa
These tribes are found in Mizoram.
These tribes are found in the Tuensang district of Nagaland.
These tribes are found in Jammu & Kashmir. They speak Poochi,
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Urdu and Dogri languages.
Pramalai Kallar These tribes are found in Tamil Nadu.
Porja
The Porja (or Konda-Dora) tribes are located in the states of Andhra
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Pradesh, Assam, and Orissa. They speak a Dravidian language called

Konda-Dora, (konda meaning "hill" and dora meaning "leader").
This name was given to them because of their descent from the
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great Kondh tribe. The Porja are well established as two groups: the
Pedda Kondalu and Chinna Kondalu. The Pedda Kondalu have
retained most aspects of their traditional culture, however, the
Chinna Kondalu group has been heavily influenced by the Telugu.
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Purig-Pa These are people of Tibetan origin found in the Kargil district of
Jammu & Kashmir. The people prefer to be culturally and
linguistically identified with Tibet, although religiously with Islam.
Rabari These are semi-nomadic people of Rajasthan.
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Rabha These tribes are found in Assam.

Raji These tribes are found in Uttar Pradesh. Their language is also
known as Raji.
Ralte These tribes are found in Mizoram.
Reddy These people are found mainly in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
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They are also known by other names like Mukha-Rora, Deddi-Dora

and Conta-Reddi.

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 Rengma
These tribes are found in Tseminyu in the Kohima district of

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Nagaland. The Rengmas celebrate the popular festival of Ngada
every year in November.
Riang
The Riangs are primarily located in the Deotamura ranges of eastern

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and central Tripura. Some tribes also live in Assam. These are
considered as the second largest tribe of Tripura and the first
inhabitants there. They speak a Baric language that is also called
Riang.
Saharia

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The Saharia or Sor live primarily in the state of Madhya Pradesh.
They are also found in the hills of the Ganjam district of southern
Orissa, as well as in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu,
West Bengal and Assam. They speak a Munda language that

Sangtams
Santhals
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belongs to the Austro-Asiatic language family.
These tribes are found in the Tuensang District of Nagaland.
Af
These tribes are found in Bihar, Orissa, Tripura, West Bengal and
Assam, besides Bangladesh and Nepal. They are also known by other
names like Hor, Har, Satar, Santhali, Sandal, Sangtal, Sentali,
Samtali and Santhial. They speak Santhali. They are considered as
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the largest tribe in India. The basis of Santhal religion is the belief
that they are totally surrounded by bongas or spirits and frequently
are visited by deceased ancestors.
Saurashtras Saurashtrians are mostly silk weavers and silk thread merchants,
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originated in the Saurashtra region (present day Gujarat, and parts

of Maharashtra) in Northern India and later settled in Madurai and
spread to Trichy, Salem, Kumbakonam and other surrounding areas
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of Tamil Nadu few centuries ago. Their native language, also known
as Sourashtra, is a pre-Gujarati language, which shows many archaic
features of Gujarati and at the same time shows influence of other
Aryan languages like Konkani and Marathi and of Dravidian Telugu
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and Tamil.
Sema Semas are considered to be the martial tribe among the Nagas.
These tribes are concentrated in the Zunheboto district of Nagaland.
Tuluni is one of the most important festivals observed by the Sema
tribe in the second week of July every year.
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Sentenelese These are the tribes found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Sherdukpen These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh.

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 Sherpa The Sherpa are a Himalayan people living primarily in eastern Nepal.
A few of them, however, live in the mountains of the bordering

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Indian state of Sikkim and in the larger hill towns of the state of
West Bengal. The Sherpa language is a dialect of Tibetan, thus it is a
part of the Tibeto-Burman language family.
Shin These people are found in the Dras Valley and Gurais area in

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Kishenganga Valley in northern Kashmir. They speak in an Indo-
Aryan language called Shina.
Shompens These tribes live on the Great Nicobar Island. Their language is also
(Shom Peng) described as Shom Peng.
Siddis These tribes are found in Goa.

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Singpho These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh.
Solung These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh.
Sondwari These are the tribes found mainly in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Sourastras Described by various names such as Saurashtra, Saurashtri and

Subernabaniks fa
Patnuli, these tribes are found in parts of Tamil Nadu. Their spoken
language is described as Saurashtra.
They represent the rich merchant classes of West Bengal. The
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Subernabanik women are famous for their beauty. According to
legends, the Subernabaniks originated in the princely kingdom of
Oudh, near Bengal, during the reign of King Adisura about 1000 AD.
Tadvi Bhil They live in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Rajasthan. Their
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language, known as Dhanka, belongs to the Bhil subgroup of the

Indo-Aryan linguistic family. The name Tadvi literally means "one
who taps the palm tree" and is used to refer to all forest tribes.
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Tagin This tribe is found in Assam. They speak a language, which is also
called Tagin. Some also speak Dafla or Nisi as a trade language.
Tangsa These are the tribes found in Nagaland and in Myanmar. They are
known by various names like Rangpan, Tasey and Chem Chang.
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Their language is Naga and Tangsa.

Tharu These tribes are found in the northwest of Bihar and speak Tharu, a
dialect of Bhojpuri.
Toda These are the hill tribes of Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu) who are very
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indigenous to this area. These people, who are also known as Todi
or Tuda, claim to be the direct descendants of the Aryans.
According to some researchers, this tribe has links with the Sumerian
people of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization. Their language is
also known as Toda. Today, almost 3000 Todas live in the Blue
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Mountains.
Totos These tribes are found in West Bengal.

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 Tripuris (Tipera) These tribes are primarily concentrated in the plains of Tripura and
are indigenous to this area. They are the largest tribe in the state,

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and their land once extended over much of Bengal, Assam and
northern Myanmar.
Tulu These are fair-skinned people who are found mainly in Mangalore
and South Kannara districts of Karnataka. They speak a Dravidian

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language, also called Tulu, which lacks a script.
Ullada These tribes are found in Kerala.
Urali These tribes are found in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. These are also
known by the names Oorazhi and Urli and speak the Urali
language.

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Usipi The Usipis are located predominantly in Assam and Tripura. Their
language, Usipi (also known as Kok Barok), is part of the Sino-
Tibetan language family. The Usipis are commonly characterized as
Garo.
Varli
Wagdi
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These tribes are found in Dadra & Nager Haveli and Daman & Diu.
The Wagdis are considered as a sub-group of Bhils. The Wagdi
language, also called Wagdi, belongs to the Bhil branch of the Indo-
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Aryan language family.
Wancho Known by different names like Naga Wancho, Banpara Naga and
Joboka, these tribes are found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and
Nagaland. They speak Naga and Wancho languages.
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Wars These tribes primarily inhabit the districts East of Meghalaya. They
belong to the Proto-Austroloid Mon-Khmer race.
Wattal These tribes are found in Jammu & Kashmir.
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Yanadi The Yanadi are dark skinned short-stature people found mainly in
the Nellore and Chittoor districts of Andhra Pradesh. They speak
Yanadi, which belongs to the Telugu language family. They are
divided into two groups: the Manchi Yanadi, which belongs to the
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small superior class and the Challa Yanadi. The two groups seldom
inter-marry.
Yeravas These tribes are found in Karnataka.
Yerukala The Yerukala live primarily in the Godivari district of Andhra Pradesh
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and parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. They speak Sankara-Yerukala, a

Southern Dravidian language that is distinctly related to Tamil. Many
of the Yerukala also speak Telugu. These tribes are also known by
the names Yarukula, Yerukla, Erukala and Koraya.
Yimchungers These tribes are found in the Tuensang District of Nagaland.
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Zakhring These tribes are found in Arunachal Pradesh.

Zanskaris These are the Buddhist tribes, ethnically similar to Tibetans, found in
the Zanskar Mountains in the Leh-Ladakh and Kargil-Purik areas of

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 Jammu and Kashmir. They speak Zanskari, a language related to
Tibetan.

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Zemi Naga The Zemi Nagas or Zeliang are the tribes found in the Upper Barak
Valley of Assam and parts of Manipur and Nagaland. They speak
Naga and Zeme (Zoliang) languages.

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fa irs
Af
nt
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ur
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 m
Western Ghats (also known as Sahyadri, meaning The Benevolent Mountains) is a
mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located

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entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight "hottest hot-
spots" of biological diversity in the world. It is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of
India. The range runs north to south along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, and
separates the plateau from a narrow coastal plain, called Konkan, along the Arabian Sea. A
total of thirty-nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve
forests were designated as world heritage sites - twenty in Kerala, ten in Karnataka, five in

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Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra.
The range starts near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, south of the Tapti
river, and runs approximately 1,600 km (990 mi) through the states of Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu ending at Kanyakumari, at the southern tip of India. These

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hills cover 160,000 km2 (62,000 sq mi) and form the catchment area for complex riverine
drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India. The Western Ghats block southwest
monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m
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(3,900 ft).
The area is one of the world's ten "Hottest biodiversity hotspots" and has over
7,402 species of flowering plants, 1,814 species of non-flowering plants, 139 mammal
species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species, 6,000 insects species and 290 freshwater
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fish species; it is likely that many undiscovered species live in the Western Ghats. At least 325
globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats.
The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan
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Plateau. Geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the
supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates
that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke
away from Madagascar. After the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared
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as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found
in the hills reaching a thickness of 3 km (2 mi). Other rock types found are charnockites,
granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of
crystalline limestone, iron ore, dolerites and anorthosites. Residual laterite and bauxite ores
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are also found in the southern hills.

The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north, stretching from
Gujarat to Tamil Nadu. It traverses south past the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and
Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka
sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills
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and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds,
and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The dense
forests also contribute to the precipitation of the area by acting as a substrate for
condensation of moist rising orographic winds from the sea, and releasing much of the

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 moisture back into the air via transpiration, allowing it to later condense and fall again as
rain.

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The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and
the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara and the
southern portion is called Malabar. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is
known as Desh, while the eastern foothills of the central Karnataka state is known as

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Malenadu. The range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats
meets the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris in northwestern Tamil Nadu. Nilgiris connects Biligiriranga
Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. South of the Palghat
Gap are the Anamala Hills, located in western Tamil Nadu and Kerala with smaller ranges
further south, including the Cardamom Hills, then Aryankavu pass, Aralvaimozhi pass near

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Kanyakumari. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi (2,695 metres (8,842 ft)), the
highest peak in Western Ghats.
Following is a list of peaks in the Western Ghats:
Rank Name Elevation Location

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1 Anamudi 2,695 m (8,842 ft) Eravikulam National Park, Kerala
2 Mannamala 2,659 m (8,724 ft) Idukki, Kerala
3 Meesapulimala 2,640 m (8,660 ft) Idukki, Kerala
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4 Doddabetta 2,637 m (8,652 ft) Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu
5 Kolaribetta 2,629 m (8,625 ft) Mukurthi National Park, Tamil Nadu
6 Mukurthi 2,554 m (8,379 ft) Mukurthi National Park, Tamil Nadu
7 Vandaravu 2,553 m (8,376 ft) Palani Hills, Tamil Nadu
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8 Kattumala 2,552 m (8,373 ft) Eravikulam National Park, Kerala

9 Devimala 2,523 m (8,278 ft) Devikulam, Kerala
10 Kumarikkal Mala 2,522 m (8,274 ft) Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
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11 Eravimala 2,401 m (7,877 ft) Idukki ,Kerala

12 Anginda peak 2,383 m (7,818 ft) Silent Valley National Park, Kerala
13 Nandala Mala 2,372 m (7,782 ft) Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
14 Vavul Mala 2,339 m (7,674 ft) Vellarimala, Kerala
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15 Sispara 2,206 m (7,238 ft) Silent Valley National Park, Kerala

16 Chokramudi 2,200 m (7,200 ft) Munnar, Kerala
17 Kottakombu Mala 2,144 m (7,034 ft) Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary,Kerala
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18 Kodaikanal 2,133 m (6,998 ft) Dindigul, Tamil Nadu

19 Chembra Peak 2,100 m (6,900 ft) Wayanad, Kerala
20 Elivai Mala 2,088 m (6,850 ft) Palakkad, Kerala
21 Banasura Peak 2,073 m (6,801 ft) Wayanad, Kerala
22 Kottamala 2,019 m (6,624 ft) Periyar National Park, Kerala
23 Mullayanagiri 1,930 m (6,330 ft) Chikmagalur, Karnataka
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24 Devarmala 1,923 m (6,309 ft) Achenkovil, Kerala

25 Baba Budangiri 1,895 m (6,217 ft) Chikmagalur, Karnataka
26 Kudremukh 1,894 m (6,214 ft) Chikmagalur, Karnataka

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 27 Agasthyamala 1,868 m (6,129 ft) Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
28 Biligiriranga Hills 1,800 m (5,900 ft) Chamarajanagar, Karnataka

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29 Velliangiri Mountains 1,778 m (5,833 ft) Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
30 Tadiandamol 1,748 m (5,735 ft) Kodagu, Karnataka
31 Kumara Parvata 1,712 m (5,617 ft) Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary,
Karnataka

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32 Merthi Gudda 1,676 m (5,499 ft) Hornadu, Karnataka
33 Malleswaran 1,664 m (5,459 ft) Agali Hills, Kerala
34 Kalsubai 1,648 m (5,407 ft) Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
35 Kote betta 1,620 m (5,310 ft) Kodagu, Karnataka
36 Brahmagiri 1,608 m (5,276 ft) Kodagu, Karnataka

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37 Padagiri 1,585 m (5,200 ft) Nelliampathy, Kerala
38 Salher 1,567 m (5,141 ft) Nashik, Maharashtra
39 Madikeri 1,525 m (5,003 ft) Kodagu, Karnataka
40 Pulamala 1,505 m (4,938 ft) Thekkady, Kerala
41 Dhodap
42 Himavad
Gopalaswamy Betta fa
1,472 m (4,829 ft) Nashik, Maharashtra
1,450 m (4,760 ft) Bandipur National Park, Karnataka
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43 Karimala Gopuram 1,438 m (4,718 ft) Parambikulam Wildlife
Sanctuary ,Kerala
44 Taramati 1,431 m (4,695 ft) Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
45 Torna 1,405 m (4,610 ft) Pune, Maharashtra
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46 Purandar 1,387 m (4,551 ft) Pune, Maharashtra

47 Paithalmala 1,372 m (4,501 ft) Kannur, Kerala
48 Kodachadri 1,343 m (4,406 ft) Shimoga, Karnataka
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49 Rajgad 1,318 m (4,324 ft) Pune, Maharashtra

50 Sinhagad 1,312 m (4,304 ft) Pune, Maharashtra
52 Ratangad 1,297 m (4,255 ft) Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
53 Brahmagiri Hill 1,295 m (4,249 ft) Trimbakeshwar , Maharashtra
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54 Anjaneri 1,284 m (4,213 ft) Nasik , Maharashtra

55 Saptashrungi 1,264 m (4,147 ft) Nasik, Maharashtra
56 Sabarimala 1,260 m (4,130 ft) Pathanamthitta, Kerala
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57 Meenuliyan Para 1,220 m (4,000 ft) Idukki , Kerala

58 Illickal rock 1,220 m (4,000 ft) Kottayam , Kerala
59 Sonsogor 1,166 m (3,825 ft) Sattari, Goa
60 Vagamon 1,100 m (3,600 ft) Vagamon, Kerala
61 Ponmudi 1,100 m (3,600 ft) Thiruvanathapuram , Kerala
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62 Pratapgad 1,080 m (3,540 ft) Satara, Maharashtra

63 Ranipuram 1,000 m (3,300 ft) Kasaragod, Kerala
64 Ambukuthi Mala 1,000 m (3,300 ft) Wayanad, Kerala

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 65 Saputara 990 m (3,250 ft) Dang, Gujarat
66 Nedumpara Peak 900 m (3,000 ft) Kollam, Kerala

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67 Wilson Hills 890 m (2,920 ft) Dharampur ,Gujarat
68 Marunthuvazh Malai 830 m (2,720 ft) Kanyakumari , Tamil Nadu
69 Raigad 820 m (2,690 ft) Raigad ,Maharashtra
70 Mangattu Kumban 635 m (2,083 ft) Thrissur , Kerala

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71 Vagheri Hills 560 m (1,840 ft) Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary, Goa
72 Kodikuthi Mala 522 m (1,713 ft) Malappuram , Kerala

WATER BODIES

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The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the
perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats include
Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani and Tungabhadra. Majority of streams draining the
Western Ghats join these rivers and carry large volume of water during the monsoon

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months. These rivers flow to the east due to the gradient of the land and drain out into the
Bay of Bengal. Major tributaries include Kali, Bhadra, Bhavani, Bhima, Malaprabha,
Ghataprabha, Hemavathi and Kabini. Periyar, Bharathappuzha, Netravati, Sharavathi,
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Mandovi and Zuari rivers flow westwards towards the Western Ghats, draining into the
Arabian Sea and are fast-moving, owing to the steeper gradient.
The rivers have been dammed for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes with
major reservoirs spread across the states. The reservoirs are important for their commercial
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and sport fisheries of rainbow trout, mahseer and common carp. There are about 50 major
dams along the length of the Western Ghats. Most notable of these projects are the Koyna in
Maharashtra, Linganmakki and Sivasamudram in Karnataka, Mettur and Pykara in Tamil
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Nadu, Parambikulam and Idukki in Kerala.

During the monsoon season, numerous streams fed by incessant rain drain off
the mountain sides leading to numerous waterfalls. Major waterfalls include Dudhsagar,
Unchalli, Sathodi, Magod, Hogenakkal, Jog, Kunchikal, Sivasamudram , Meenmutty
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Falls[disambiguation needed], Athirappilly Falls. Talakaveri is the source of the river Kaveri
and the Kuduremukha range is the source of the Tungabhadra. Western Ghats have several
man-made lakes and reservoirs with major lakes at Ooty (34 hectares (84 acres)) in Nilgiris,
Kodaikanal (26 hectares (64 acres)) and Berijam in Palani Hills, Pookode lake, Devikulam (6
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hectares (15 acres)) and Letchmi (2 hectares (4.9 acres)) in Kerala.

CLIMATE
Climate in the Western Ghats varies with altitudinal gradation and distance from
the equator. The climate is humid and tropical in the lower reaches tempered by the
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proximity to the sea. Elevations of 1,500 m (4,921 ft) and above in the north and 2,000 m
(6,562 ft) and above in the south have a more temperate climate. Average annual
temperature is around 15 °C (59 °F). In some parts frost is common, and temperatures touch
the freezing point during the winter months. Mean temperature range from 20 °C (68 °F) in

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 the south to 24 °C (75 °F) in the north. It has also been observed that the coldest periods in
the South Western Ghats coincide with the wettest.

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During the monsoon season between June and September, the unbroken
Western Ghats chain acts as a barrier to the moisture laden clouds. The heavy, eastward-
moving rain-bearing clouds are forced to rise and in the process deposit most of their rain
on the windward side. Rainfall in this region averages 300 centimetres (120 in) to 400

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centimetres (160 in) with localised extremes touching 900 centimetres (350 in). The eastern
region of the Western Ghats which lie in the rain shadow, receive far less rainfall of about
100 centimetres (39 in) resulting in an average rainfall of 250 centimetres (98 in) across
regions. The total amount of rain does not depend on the spread of the area with areas in
northern Maharashtra receiving heavy rainfall followed by long dry spells, while regions

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closer to the equator receive less annual rainfall and have rain spells lasting several months
in a year.

ECO-REGIONS

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The Western Ghats are home to four tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf
forest ecoregions – the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, North Western Ghats
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montane rain forests, South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, and South Western
Ghats montane rain forests. The northern portion of the range is generally drier than the
southern portion, and at lower elevations makes up the North Western Ghats moist
deciduous forests ecoregion, with mostly deciduous forests made up predominantly of teak.
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Above 1,000 meters elevation are the cooler and wetter North Western Ghats montane rain
forests, whose evergreen forests are characterised by trees of family Lauraceae.
The evergreen forests in Wayanad mark the transition zone between the
northern and southern ecologic regions of the Western Ghats. The southern ecologic regions
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are generally wetter and more species-rich. At lower elevations are the South Western Ghats
moist deciduous forests, with Cullenia the characteristic tree genus, accompanied by teak,
dipterocarps, and other trees. The moist forests transition to the drier South Deccan Plateau
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dry deciduous forests, which lie in its rain shadow to the east. Above 1,000 meters are the
South Western Ghats montane rain forests, also cooler and wetter than the surrounding
lowland forests, and dominated by evergreen trees, although some montane grasslands and
stunted forests can be found at the highest elevations. The South Western Ghats montane
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rain forests are the most species-rich ecologic region in peninsular India; eighty percent of
the flowering plant species of the entire Western Ghats range are found in this ecologic
region.

BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION
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Historically the Western Ghats were well-covered in dense forests that provided
wild foods and natural habitats for native tribal people. Its inaccessibility made it difficult for
people from the plains to cultivate the land and build settlements. After the arrival of the

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 British in the area, large swathes of territory were cleared for agricultural plantations and
timber. The forest in the Western Ghats has been severely fragmented due to human

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activities, especially clear felling for tea, coffee, and teak plantations during 1860 to 1950.
Species that are rare, endemic and habitat specialists are more adversely affected and tend
to be lost faster than other species. Complex and species rich habitats like the tropical
rainforest are much more adversely affected than other habitats.

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The area is ecologically sensitive to development and was declared an ecological
hotspot in 1988 through the efforts of ecologist Norman Myers. The area covers five percent
of India's land with 27% of all species of higher plants in India (4,000 of 15,000 species) are
found here and 1,800 of these are endemic to the region. The range is home to at least 84
amphibian species, 16 bird species, seven mammals, and 1,600 flowering plants which are

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not found elsewhere in the world. The Government of India established many protected
areas including 2 biosphere reserves, 13 National parks to restrict human access, several
wildlife sanctuaries to protect specific endangered species and many Reserve Forests, which
are all managed by the forest departments of their respective state to preserve some of the

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ecoregions still undeveloped. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve comprising 5,500 square
kilometres (2,100 sq mi) of the evergreen forests of Nagarahole and deciduous forests of
Bandipur in Karnataka, adjoining regions of Wayanad-Mukurthi in Kerala and Mudumalai
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National Park-Sathyamangalam in Tamil Nadu forms the largest contiguous protected area
in the Western Ghats. Silent Valley in Kerala is among the last tracts of virgin tropical
evergreen forest in India.
In August 2011, the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) designated the
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entire Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) and assigned three levels of
Ecological Sensitivity to its different regions. The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel,
headed by ecologist Madhav Gadgil, was a committee appointed by the Union Ministry of
Environment and Forests to assess the biodiversity and environmental issues of the Western
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Ghats. Gadgil Committee and its successor Kasturirangan Committee recommended

suggestions to protect the Western Ghats. Gadgil report was criticized as being too
environment-friendly and Kasturirangan report was labelled as being anti-environmental.
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In 2006, India applied to the UNESCO MAB for the Western Ghats to be listed as
a protected World Heritage Site. In 2012, the following places are declared as World Heritage
Sites:
 Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and  Karian Shola National Park
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National Park  Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary

 Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve  Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary
 Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary  Silent Valley National Park
 Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary  New Amarambalam Reserved Forest
 Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary  Mukurthi National Park
 Periyar Tiger Reserve  Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary
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 Srivilliputtur Wildlife Sanctuary  Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

 Eravikulam National Park  Talakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary
 Grass Hills National Park  Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary

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  Kudremukh National Park
 Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary

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 Kaas Plateau
 Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
 Chandoli National Park
 Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary

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 Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary
 Pambadum Shola National Park
 Anamudi Shola National Park
 Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary
 Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary

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 Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary
 Mathikettan Shola National Park
 Kurinjimala Sanctuary
 Karimpuzha National Park

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 FAUNA IN WESTERN GHATS

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The Western Ghats are home to thousands of animal species including at least 325 globally
threatened species.
 Mammals: There are at least 139 mammal species. Of the 16 endemic mammals, 13 are
threatened and amongst the 32 threatened species include the critically endangered

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Malabar large-spotted civet, the endangered lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Bengal
tiger and Indian elephants, the vulnerable Indian leopard, Nilgiri langur and gaur.
 These hill ranges serve as important wildlife corridors and forms an important part of
Project Elephant and Project Tiger reserves. The largest population of tigers outside the
Sundarbans is in the Western Ghats where there are seven populations with an estimated

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population size of 336 to 487 individuals occupying 21,435 km2 (8,276 sq mi) forest in
three major landscape units spread across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The
Western Ghats eco-region has the largest Indian elephant population in the wild with an
estimated 11,000 individuals across eight distinct populations. The endemic Nilgiri tahr

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which was on the brink of extinction has recovered and has an estimated 3,122
individuals in the wild. The Critically Endangered endemic Malabar large-spotted civet is
estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, with no sub-population greater
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than 50 individuals. About 3500 lion-tailed macaques live scattered over several areas in
the Western Ghats.
 Reptiles: The major population of snake family Uropeltidae of the reptile class is
restricted to the region. The region has significant population of vulnerable Mugger
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crocodiles.
 Amphibians: The amphibians of the Western Ghats are diverse and unique, with more
than 80% of the 179 amphibian species being endemic to the rainforests of the
mountains. The endangered purple frog was discovered in 2003. Four new species of
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frogs belonging to the genera Rhacophorus, Polypedates, Philautus and Bufo were
described from the Western Ghats in 2005. The region is also home to many caecilian
species.
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 Fish: 288 freshwater fish species are listed for the Western Ghats, including 35 also
known from brackish or marine water. Several new species have been described from the
region since then (e.g., Dario urops and S. sharavathiensis). There are 118 endemic
species, including 12 genera entirely restricted to the Western Ghats (Betadevario,
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Dayella, Horabagrus, Horalabiosa, Hypselobarbus, Indoreonectes, Lepidopygopsis,

Longischistura, Mesonoemacheilus, Parapsilorhynchus, Rohtee and Travancoria).
 There is a higher fish richness in the southern part of the Western Ghats than in the
northern, and the highest is in the Chalakudy River, which alone holds 98 species. Other
rivers with high species numbers include the Periyar, Bharatapuzha, Pamba and Chaliyar,
as well as upstream tributaries of the Kaveri, Pambar, Bhavani and Krishna rivers. The
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most species rich families are the Cyprinids (72 species), hillstream loaches (34 species;
including stone loaches, now regarded a separate family), Bagrid catfishes (19 species)
and Sisorid catfishes (12 species). The region is home to several brilliantly colored

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.166

 ornamental fishes like Denison's (or red line torpedo) barb, several species of Dawkinsia
barbs, zebra loach, Horabagrus catfish, dwarf pufferfish and dwarf Malabar pufferfish. The

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rivers are also home to Osteobrama bakeri, and larger species such as the Malabar
snakehead and Malabar mahseer. A few are adapted to an underground life, including
some Monopterus swampeels, and the catfish Horaglanis and Kryptoglanis.
 According to the IUCN, 97 freshwater fish species from the Western Ghats were

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considered threatened in 2011, including 12 critically endangered, 54 endangered and 31
vulnerable. All but one (Tor khudree) of these are endemic to the Western Ghats. An
additional 26 species from the region are considered data deficient (their status is
unclear at present). The primary threats are from habitat loss, but also from
overexploitation and introduced species.

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 Birds: There are at least 508 bird species. Most of Karnataka's five hundred species of
birds are from the Western Ghats region. There are at least 16 species of birds endemic
to the Western Ghats including the endangered rufous-breasted laughingthrush, the
vulnerable Nilgiri wood-pigeon, white-bellied shortwing and broad-tailed grassbird, the

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near threatened grey-breasted laughingthrush, black-and-rufous flycatcher, Nilgiri
flycatcher, and Nilgiri pipit, and the least concern Malabar (blue-winged) parakeet,
Malabar grey hornbill, white-bellied treepie, grey-headed bulbul, rufous babbler, Wynaad
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laughingthrush, white-bellied blue-flycatcher and the crimson-backed sunbird.
 Insects: There are roughly 6,000 insect species. Of 334 Western Ghats butterfly species,
316 species have been reported from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Western Ghats is
home to 174 species of odonates (107 dragonflies and 67 damselflies), including 69
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endemics. Most of the endemic odonate are closely associated with rivers and streams,
while the non-endemics typically are generalists. There are several species of leeches
found all along the Western Ghats.
 Molluscs: Seasonal rainfall patterns of the Western Ghats necessitate a period of
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dormancy for its land snails, resulting in their high abundance and diversity including at
least 258 species of gastropods from 57 genera and 24 families. A total of 77 species of
freshwater molluscs (52 gastropods and 25 bivalves) have been recorded from the
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Western Ghats, but the actual number is likely higher. This include 28 endemics. Among
the threatened freshwater molluscs are the mussels Pseudomulleria dalyi, which is a
Gondwanan relict, and the snail Cremnoconchus, which is restricted to the spray zone of
waterfalls. According to the IUCN, 4 species of freshwater molluscs are considered
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endangered and 3 are vulnerable. An additional 19 species are considered data deficient.
 Flora: Of the 7,402 species of flowering plants occurring in the Western Ghats, 5,588
species are native or indigenous and 376 are exotics naturalised and 1,438 species are
cultivated or planted as ornamentals. Among the indigenous species, 2,253 species are
endemic to India and of them, 1,273 species are exclusively confined to the Western
Ghats. Apart from 593 confirmed subspecies and varieties; 66 species, 5 subspecies and
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14 varieties of doubtful occurrence are also reported and therefore amounting 8,080 taxa
of flowering plants.

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REGULATING ACT OF 1773

 The Regulating act of 1773 permitted the Company to retain its former possessions and

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power in India but the management was brought under control by the British
Government.
 Election for Directors: The directors of the company were elected for four years.
Onefourth of them retire for every year and the retiring Directors were not entitled to be
elected again.

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 In order to assert parliament‘s control over the company, the directors were required to
place regularly all their correspondence, regarding civil military affairs with the Indian
authorities, before the secretary of the state in England. All correspondence regarding
to revenues in India was required to be placed before the Treasury in England.

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 The Act limited Company dividends to 6% until it repaid a GB £1.5 Million loan and
restricted the Court of Directors to four-year terms.
 It prohibited the servants of company from engaging in any private trade or accepting
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presents or bribes from the natives to curb corruption.
 First Governor General of India: The Act elevated Governor of Bengal, Warren
Hastings to Governor-General of Bengal and subsumed the presidencies of Madras and
Bombay under Bengal‘s control. Now, no other presidency could give orders for
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commencing hostilities with the Indian Princes, declare a war or negotiate a treaty. Now,
the Governor General of India and his council of 4 members got a legal status. Their
term of office was five years and the king was empowered to dethrone them even earlier
recommendation of the court of directors.
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[Commonly we call Warren Hastings as First Governor General of India. But the official
title of Warren Hastings was the Governor of the Presidency of Fort William. This
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office became Governor General of India in 1833 from the times of Lord William
Bentinck and in 1858, when India was taken over by England; it remained Viceroy and
Governor-General of India till 1947]
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 Council of Four: The Act named four additional men (as explained in previous
paragraph) to serve with the Governor-General on the Supreme Council of Bengal: Lt-
Gen John Clavering, George Monson, Richard Barwell, and Philip Francis. Barwell was
the only one with previous experience in India. These councillors were commonly known
as the ―Council of Four―.
The governor general in council was given all the power to govern the company‘s
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
territorial acquisition in India, to administer the revenue of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and to
supervise and control the general civil and military government of the Presidency. The
presidencies of Bombay and Madras were placed under the control and superintendence

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.168

 of the Governor General in Council while exercising their power to make war and
peace. The Governor General and the Council were to keep the court of directors fully

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informed of all their activities affecting the interests of the company and they were also
to work in entire obedience to the orders and instructions of the court of directors.
 India’s First Supreme Court: A supreme court was established at Fort William at
Calcutta. British judges were to be sent to India to administer the British legal system

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that was used there. This Supreme Court consisted a Chief Justice and three other
regular judges or Puisne Judges, being barristers of not less than five years standing and
to be appointed by His Majesty. Sir Elijah Imphey was the first Chief Justice. The
Supreme Court was the supreme judiciary over all British subjects including the provinces
of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

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THE PITT’S INDIA ACT (1784)

 Pitt the Younger became the youngest Prime Minister of England in 1783 at the age of

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24. Pitt was an outstanding administrator who worked for efficiency and reform, bringing
in a new generation of outstanding administrators.
 The East India Company Act 1784, also known as Pitt’s India Act, was an Act of the
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Parliament of Great Britain intended to address the shortcomings of the Regulating Act
of 1773 by bringing the East India Company‘s rule in India under the control of the British
Government.
 British Government enacted the Regulating Act in 1773 to control the activities of the
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Company. The Act set up a system whereby it supervised (regulated) the work of the
Company but did not take power for itself.
 The Act had proven to be a failure within a few years and the British government
decided to take a more active role in the affairs of the Company.
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 Pitt‘s India Act established the system of dual control of India by the government of
Great Britain and the British East India Company. These changes continued till 1858.
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MAIN PROVISIONS OF THE 1784 ACT:

 With the Pitts India Act of 1784, East India Company‘s political functions were
differentiated from its commercial activities.
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 In political matters, the company which was till now working as somewhat sovereign was
made directly subordinate to the British government.
 To enable this, a Board of Commissioners was created, which was called Board of
Control.
 6 people viz. the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Secretary of State, and four Privy
Councillors, nominated by the King were the members of this Board of Control.
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 The Secretary of the State was entitled as the President of the Board of Control. This
Board of control was empowered to control all matters of civil or military government or
revenues.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.169

  The board was given full access to the company’s records. It had the powers to send
Governors to India and full authority to alter them.

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RESULT OF CREATION OF BOARD OF CONTROL:

 The Pitts India Act 1734 actually provided for a joint government of the company and

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British crown in India. So now, the fate of India People would decide the company and
the British Government (indirectly).
 The Company was to be represented by the Court of Directors and the Crown was
represented by the Board of Control.
 There was a secret committee of the 3 directors, which had to transmit the orders of the

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Board to India. This Secret Committee was to work as a link between the Board of control
and the Court of Directors.
 The Board of control had no independent executive power. It had no patronage. Its
power was veiled. It had access to all the Company‘s papers and its approval was

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necessary for all dispatches that were not purely commercial, and in case of emergency
the Board could send its own draft to the Secret Committee of the Directors to be signed
and sent out in its name.
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IMPACT ON GOVERNOR GENERAL-IN COUNCIL:

 The Governor General‘s council was now reduced to 3 members, one of whom was to
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be the commander-in-chief of the King‘s army in India. The governor-general, a crown
appointee, was authorised to veto the majority decisions.
 The Governor General was given the right of casting vote, in case the members
present in a meeting of the council shall any time be equally divided in opinion.
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 The Governors of Presidencies of Bombay and Madras were deprived of their

independent powers and Calcutta was given greater powers in matters of war, revenue,
and diplomacy, thus Calcutta becoming in effect, the capital of Company possessions in
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India.
 The Governor General Council was now under indirect control of the British Government
through the Board of Control.
 By a supplementary act passed in 1786 Lord Cornwallis was appointed as the second
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governor-general of Bengal, and he then became the effective ruler of British India under
the authority of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors.
 Act of 1786: Governor General given the power to over – ride the council and was made
Commander – in – Chief also.
 Disclosing of Property: All civil and military officers of the East India Company were
ordered to provide the Court of Directors a full inventory of their property in India and in
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Britain within two months of their joining their posts. Severe punishment was provisioned
for corrupt officials.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.170

  The constitution set up by Pitt‘s India Act did not undergo any major changes until the
end of the company‘s rule in India in 1858.

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 The act was deemed a failure. This was because; very soon it became apparent that the
boundaries between government control and the company‘s powers were nebulous and
highly subjective. The act was a naive one, it divided the responsibility between the Board
of Control, Court of Directors and the Governor General in Council but again , no

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boundaries could be fixed as they matter was subjective and not objective.

CHARTER ACT OF 1793

 The East India Company Act 1793, or Charter Act of 1793, was an Act of the

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Parliament of Great Britain which renewed the charter issued to the British East India
Company (EIC), and continued the Company‘s rule in India.
 In contrast with legislation concerning British India proposed in the preceding two
decades, the 1793 Act ―passed with minimal trouble‖.

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 The Act made only fairly minimal changes to either the system of government in India
or British oversight of the Company‘s activities.
 Company‘s trade monopoly was continued for a further 20 years. The Company‘s charter
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was next renewed by the Charter Act of 1813.

PROVISIONS OF THE ACT:

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 The Act recognized the Company’s political functions and clearly established that the
―acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and
not in its own right‖.
 The company was allowed to increase its dividend to 10%.
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 Salaries for the staff and paid members of the Board of Control were also now charged
to the Company.
 A provision in the Charter act of 1793 was made that the company, after paying the
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necessary expenses, interest, dividend, salaries, etc from the Indian Revenues will pay 5
Lakh British pounds annually out of the surplus revenue to the British Government.
 The Governor-General was granted extensive powers over the subordinate presidencies.
 Governor General was empowered to disregard the majority in the Council in special
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circumstances. Thus more powers were entrusted in him. The Governor General and
respective governors of the other presidencies could now override the respective
councils, and the commander in chief was not now the member of Governor General‘s
council, unless he was specially appointed to be a member by the Court of Directors.
 Royal approval was mandated for the appointment of the Governor-General, the
governors, and the Commander-in-Chief.
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 Senior officials were forbidden from leaving India without permission. If a high official
departed from India without permission, it was to be treated as resignation.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.171

  The EIC was empowered to grant licences to both individuals and Company employees
to trade in India (known as the ―privilege‖ or ―country‖ trade), which paved the way for

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shipments of opium to China.
 This act reorganized the courts and redefined their jurisdictions. The revenue
administration was divorced from the judiciary functions and this led to disappearing of
the Maal Adalats.

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CHARTER ACT OF 1813

 Napoleon Bonaparte had put in place the Berlin decree of 1806 & Milan Decree of
1807 forbade the import of British goods into European countries allied with or

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dependent upon France, and installed the Continental System in Europe.
 These circumstances posed hardships to British traders, and they demanded entry to the
ports of Asia and dissolve the monopoly of the East India Company. But the East India
Company clamored that its political authority and commercial privileges cannot be

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separated. The controversy was later resolved by allowing all the British merchants to
trade with India under a strict license system.
 The East India Company Act 1813, also known as the Charter Act of 1813, was an Act of
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the Parliament of the United Kingdom which renewed the charter issued to the British
East India Company, and continued the Company’s rule in India.
 Company‘s trade monopoly was continued for a further 20 years. The Company‘s charter
was next renewed by the Charter Act of 1833.
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PROVISIONS OF THE ACT:

 The Act expressly asserted the Crown’s sovereignty over British India. The charter act of
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1813, for the first time explicitly defined the constitutional position of the British
territories in India.
 This act regulated the company‘s territorial revenues and commercial profits. The
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company debt was to be reduced and dividend was fixed @10.5% per annum.
 This act also empowered the local governments to impose taxes on the persons
subject to the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
 The Company‘s commercial monopoly was ended, except for the tea trade and the
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trade with China. Reflecting the growth of British power in India,

 This act also made provisions to grant permission to the persons who wished to go to
India for promoting moral and religious improvements. (Christian Missionaries)
 The power of the provincial governments and courts in India over European British
subjects was also strengthened.
 Financial provision was made to encourage a revival in Indian literature and for the
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promotion of science.
 There was also a provision that Company should invest Rs. 1 Lakh every year on the
education of Indians.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.172

 THE CHARTER ACT OF 1833

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 The Saint Helena Act 1833 or Government of India Act 1833 or Charter Act of 1833
is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and it gave another lease of life to the
Company for next 20 years.
 The 20 years renewal of the charter in 1813 ran out in 1833. This was the time for the

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government to do a careful assessment of the functioning of the company in India. The
charter was renewed for another 20 years, but the company was asked to close its
commercial business.
 Thus, this time the charter was renewed on the condition that Company should abandon
its trade entirely, alike with India and China, and permit Europeans to settle freely in

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India.

PROVISIONS OF THE ACT:

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 Charter Act of 1833 ended the activities of the British East India Company as a
commercial body and became a purely administrative body. In particular, the
company lost its monopoly in China and also the trade of tea which it enjoyed with
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Charter act of 1813.
 It redesignated the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of India.
Thus with Charter Act of 1833, Lord William Bentinck became the ―First Governor
General of British India‖.
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 The Governor-General in council was given the power to control, superintend and
direct the civil and military affairs of the Company. Central government was to have
complete control over raising of revenues and expenditure. i.e. All financial and
administrative powers were centralized in the hands of Governor General-in-Council.
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 The number of the members of the Governor General‘s council was again fixed to 4,
which had been reduced by the Pitt’s India act to 3. However, certain limits were
imposed on the functioning of the 4th member.
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 The 4th member was NOT entitled to act as a member of the council except for
legislative purposes.
 First fourth person to be appointed as the member of the Council was Lord Macaulay.
 The Charter Act of 1833 provided for splitting the Presidency of Bengal, into two
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presidencies which were to be known as, Presidency of Fort William and Presidency of
Agra. But this provision never came into effect, and was suspended later.
 It deprived the Governors of Bombay and Madras of their legislative powers. The
Governor-General was given exclusive legislative powers for the whole of British India.
 Governor-General-in-Council could repeal, amend or alter any laws or regulations
including all persons (whether British or native or foreigners), all places and things in
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every part of British territory in India, for all servants of the company, and articles of war.
 However, the Court of Directors acting under the Board of control could veto any laws
made by the Governor-General-in-Council.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.173

  The Charter Act of 1833 is considered to be an attempt to codify all the Indian Laws.
The British parliament as a supreme body retained the right to legislate for the British

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territories in India and repeal the acts.
 The Act of 1833 provided that all laws made in India were to be laid before the British
Parliament and were to be known as Acts.
 In a step towards codifying the laws, the Governor-General-in-Council was directed

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under the Charter act of 1833, to set up an Indian law Commission.
 First Indian Law Commission: The first law commission was set up by the Charter act of
1833 and Lord Macaulay was its most important member and Chairman. The objectives
of the law commission was to inquire into the Jurisdiction, powers and rules of the courts
of justice police establishments, existing forms of judicial procedure, nature and

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operation of all kinds of laws. It was directed that the law Commission shall submit its
report to the Governor General-in-council and this report was to be placed in the
British parliament.
 The Section 87 of the Charter Act of 1833, declared that merit was to be the basis for

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employment in Government Services and the religion, birth place, and race of the
candidates were not to be considered in employment.
 This policy was not seen in any other previous acts. So the Charter act of 1833 was the
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first act which provisioned to freely admit the natives of India to share an
administration in the country.
 It attempted to introduce a system of open competitions for the selection of civil
servants. However this provision was negated after opposition from the Court of
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Directors who continued to hold the privilege of appointing Company officials.
 This act also directed the Governor General-in-Council to adopt measures to mitigate
the state of slavery, persisting in India.
 The Governor General-in-Council was also directed to pay attention to laws of
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marriage, rights and authorities of the heads of the families, while drafting any laws.
 The number of British residents was increasing in India.
 The charter act of 1833 laid down regulation of establishment of Christian
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establishments in India and the number of Bishops was made 3.

 The debts of the Company were taken over by the Indian government which agreed to
pay its shareholders a 10.5% dividend on their capital out of the Indian revenues for the
next 40 years. This added to the burden of India and proved to be an important
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component of drain of wealth.

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BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.174

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The Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India, officially known as
The Constitution (Forty-second amendment) Act, 1976, was enacted during the Emergency
(25 June 1975 – 21 March 1977) by the Indian National Congress government headed by
Indira Gandhi. Most provisions of the amendment came into effect on 3 January 1977, others
were enforced from 1 February and Section 27 came into force on 1 April 1977.

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The 42nd Amendment is regarded as the most controversial constitutional
amendment in Indian history. It attempted to reduce the power of the Supreme Court and
High Courts to pronounce upon the constitutional validity of laws. It laid down the
Fundamental Duties of Indian citizens to the nation. This amendment brought about the

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most widespread changes to the Constitution in its history, and is sometimes called a "mini-
Constitution" or the "Constitution of Indira".
Almost all parts of the Constitution, including the Preamble and amending
clause, were changed by the 42nd Amendment, and some new articles and sections were
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inserted. The amendment's fifty-nine clauses stripped the Supreme Court of many of its
powers and moved the political system toward parliamentary sovereignty. It curtailed
democratic rights in the country, and gave sweeping powers to the Prime Minister's Office.
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The amendment gave Parliament unrestrained power to amend any parts of the
Constitution, without judicial review. It transferred more power from the state governments
to the central government, eroding India's federal structure.
The 42nd Amendment also amended the Preamble and changed the description
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of India from "sovereign democratic republic" to a "sovereign, socialist secular democratic

republic", and also changed the words "unity of the nation" to "unity and integrity of the
nation".
The Emergency era had been widely unpopular, and the 42nd Amendment was
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the most controversial issue. The clampdown on civil liberties and widespread abuse of
human rights by police angered the public. The Janata Party which had promised to "restore
the Constitution to the condition it was in before the Emergency", won the 1977 general
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elections. The Janata government then brought about the 43rd and 44th Amendments in
1977 and 1978 respectively, to restore the pre-1976 position to some extent. However, the
Janata Party was not able to fully achieve its objectives.
On 31 July 1980, in its judgement on Minerva Mills v. Union of India, the
Supreme Court declared unconstitutional two provisions of the 42nd Amendment which
prevent any constitutional amendment from being "called in question in any Court on any
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ground" and accord precedence to the Directive Principles of State Policy over the
Fundamental Rights of individuals respectively. Then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi set up a

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.175

 committee in 1976 under the Chairmanship of then Minister of External Affairs Swaran Singh
"to study the question of amendment of the Constitution in the light of experience".

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The bill for the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976 was
introduced in the Lok Sabha on 1 September 1976, as the Constitution (Forty-fourth
Amendment) Bill, 1976 (Bill No. 91 of 1976). It was introduced by H. R. Gokhale, then Minister
of Law, Justice and Company Affairs. It sought to amend the Preamble and articles 31, 31C,

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39, 55, 74, 77, 81, 82, 83, 100, 102, 103, 105, 118, 145, 150, 166, 170, 172, 189, 191, 192, 194,
208, 217, 225, 226, 227, 228, 311, 312, 330, 352, 353, 356, 357, 358, 359, 366, 368 and 371F
and the Seventh Schedule. It also sought to substitute articles 103, 150, 192 and 226; and
insert new Parts IVA and XIVA and new articles 31D, 32A, 39A, 43A, 48A, 131A, 139A, 144A,
226A, 228A and 257A in the Constitution.

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In a speech in the Lok Sabha on 27 October 1976, Gandhi claimed that the
amendment "is responsive to the aspirations of the people, and reflects the realities of the
present time and the future".
The bill was debated by the Lok Sabha from 25 to 30 October and November 1

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and 2. Clauses 2 to 14, 6 to 16, 18 to 20, 22 to 28, 31 to 33, 35 to 41, 43 to 50 and 56 to 59
were adopted in their original form. The remaining clauses were all amended in the Lok
Sabha before being passed. Clause 1 of the bill was adopted by the Lok Sabha on 1
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November and amended to replace the name "Forty-fourth" with "Forty-second", and a
similar amendment was made on 28 October to Clause 5 which sought to introduce a new
article 31D to the Constitution. Amendments to all the other clauses were adopted on 1
November and the bill was passed by the Lok Sabha on 2 November 1976.
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It was then debated by the Rajya Sabha on 4, 5, 8, 9, 10 and 11 November. All
amendments made by the Lok Sabha were adopted by the Rajya Sabha on 10 November,
and the bill was passed on 11 November 1976. The bill, after ratification by the States,
received assent from then President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed on 18 December 1976, and was
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notified in The Gazette of India on the same date.

Sections 2 to 5, 7 to 17, 20, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36, 43 to 53, 55, 56, 57 and 59 of the
42nd amendment came into force from 3 January 1977. Sections 6, 23 to 26, 37 to 42, 54 and
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58 went into effect from 1 February 1977 and Section 27 from 1 April 1977.
The Act was passed in accordance with the provisions of Article 368 of the
Constitution, and was ratified by more than half of the State Legislatures, as required under
Clause (2) of the said article. State Legislatures that ratified the amendment are listed below:
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Andhra Pradesh Orissa Did not ratify:

Assam Punjab Gujarat
Bihar Rajasthan Jammu and Kashmir
Haryana Sikkim Kerala
Himachal Pradesh Tripura Meghalaya
Karnataka Uttar Pradesh Nagaland
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Madhya Pradesh West Bengal Tamil Nadu

Maharashtra
Manipur

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.176

 The amendment removed election disputes from the purview of the courts. The
amendment's opponents described it as a "convenient camouflage". Second, the

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amendment transferred more power from the state governments to the central government,
eroding India's federal structure. The third purpose of the amendment was to give
Parliament unrestrained power to amend any parts of the Constitution, without judicial
review. The fourth purpose was to make any law passed in pursuance of a Directive Principle

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immune from scrutiny by the Supreme Court. Supporters of the measure said this would
"make it difficult for the court to upset parliament's policy in regard to many matters".

CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES
Almost all parts of the Constitution, including the Preamble and amending

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clause, were changed by the 42nd Amendment, and some new articles and sections were
inserted. Some of these changes are described below.
The Parliament was given unrestrained power to amend any parts of the
Constitution, without judicial review. This essentially invalidated the Supreme Court's ruling

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in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala in 1973. The amendment to article 368, prevented
any constitutional amendment from being "called in question in any Court on any ground". It
also declared that there would be no limitation whatever on the constituent power of
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Parliament to amend the Constitution. The 42nd Amendment also restricted the power of
the courts to issue stay orders or injunctions. The 42nd Amendment revoked the courts'
power to determine what constituted an office of profit. A new article 228A was inserted in
the Constitution which would give High Courts the authority to "determine all questions as
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to the constitutional validity of any State law". The amendment's fifty-nine clauses stripped
the Supreme Court of many of its powers and moved the political system toward
parliamentary sovereignty. The 43rd and 44th Amendments reversed these changes.
Article 74 was amended and it was explicitly stipulated that "the President shall
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act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers". Governors of states were not
included in this article. The interval at which a proclamation of Emergency under Article 356
required approval from Parliament was extended from six months to one year. Article 357
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was amended so as to ensure that laws made for a State, while it was under Article 356
emergency, would not cease immediately after the expiry of the emergency, but would
instead continue to be in effect until the law was changed by the State Legislature. Articles
358 and 359 were amended, to allow suspension of Fundamental Rights, and suspension of
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enforcement of any of the rights conferred by the Constitution during an Emergency.

The 42nd Amendment added new Directive Principles, viz Article 39A, Article 43A
and Article 48A. The 42nd Amendment gave primacy to the Directive Principles, by stating
that "no law implementing any of the Directive Principles could be declared unconstitutional
on the grounds that it violated any of the Fundamental Rights". The Amendment
simultaneously stated that laws prohibiting "antinational activities" or the formation of
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"antinational associations" could not be invalidated because they infringed on any of the
Fundamental Rights. The 43rd and 44th Amendments repealed the 42nd Amendment's
provision that Directive Principles take precedence over Fundamental Rights, and also curbed

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.177

 Parliament's power to legislate against "antinational activities". The 42nd Amendment also
added a new section to the Article on "Fundamental Duties" in the Constitution. The new

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section required citizens "to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood
among all the people of India, transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional
diversities."
The 42nd Amendment granted power to the President, in consultation with the

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Election Commission, to disqualify members of State Legislatures. Prior to the Amendment,
this power was power vested in the Governor of the State. Article 105 was amended so as to
grant each House of Parliament, its members and committees the right to "evolve" their
"powers, privileges and immunities", "from time to time". Article 194 was amended to grant
the same rights as Clause 21 to State Legislatures, its members and committees. Two new

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clauses 4A and 26A were inserted into article 366 of the Constitution, which defined the
meaning of the terms "Central Law" and "State Law" by inserting two new clauses 4A and
26A into article 366 of the Constitution.
The 42nd Amendment froze any delimitation of constituencies for elections to

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Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies until after the 2001 Census of India, by amending
article 170 (relating to composition of Legislative Assemblies). The total number of seats in
the Lok Sabha and the Assemblies remained the same until the 91st Amendment, passed in
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2003, extended the freeze up to 2026. The number of seats reserved for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies was also
frozen. The amendment extended the term of Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies
members from five to six years, by amending article 172 (relating to MLAs) and Clause(2) of
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Article 83 (for MPs). The 44th Amendment repealed this change, shortening the term of the
aforementioned assemblies back to the original 5 years.

AMENDMENT OF THE PREAMBLE

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The 42nd Amendment changed the description of India from a "sovereign

democratic republic" to a "sovereign, socialist secular democratic republic", and also
changed the words "unity of the nation" to "unity and integrity of the nation".
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LEGAL CHALLENGES OF THE AMENDMENT

The constitutionality of sections 4 and 55 of the 42nd Amendment were
challenged in Minerva Mills v. Union of India, when Charan Singh was caretaker Prime
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Minister. Section 4 of the 42nd Amendment, had amended Article 31C of the Constitution to
accord precedence to the Directive Principles of State Policy articulated in Part IV of the
Constitution over the Fundamental Rights of individuals articulated in Part III. Section 55
prevented any constitutional amendment from being "called in question in any Court on any
ground". It also declared that there would be no limitation whatever on the power of
Parliament to amend the Constitution. After the Indian general election, 1980, the Supreme
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Court declared sections 4 and 55 of the 42nd amendment as unconstitutional. It further

endorsed and evolved the basic structure doctrine of the Constitution.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.178

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The Constitution (52nd Amendment) Act, 1985, amended Art. 101,102,190, and
191 of the Constitution regarding vacation of seats and disqualification from membership

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of Parliament and the State Legislatures, and added a new Schedule (Tenth Schedule) to
the Constitution setting out certain provisions as to disqualification on grounds of
defection.

The Tenth Schedule inter alia provides that:

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1. An elected member of Parliament or a State Legislatures, who has been elected as a
candidate set up by a political party, and a nominated member of Parliament or a State
Legislature who is a member of a political party at the time he takes his seat would be
disqualified on the ground of defection if he voluntarily relinquishes his membership of
such political party or votes or abstains from voting in the House contrary to any
direction of such party;

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2. An independent member of Parliament or a State Legislature will be disqualified if he
joins any political party after his election;
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3. A nominated member of Parliament or a State Legislature who is not a member of a
political party at the time of his nomination and who has not become a member of any
political party before the expiry of six months from the date on which he takes his seat
shall be disqualified if he joins any political party after the expiry of the said period of six
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months;
4. No disqualification would be incurred where a member claims that he belongs to a
group representing a faction arising from a split in a party or merger of a party in
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another, provided that in the event of a split the group consists of not less than one-third
of the members of the legislature party and in case of a merger of not less than two-third
of the members of the legislature party and in case of a merger of not less than two-
thirds of the members of the legislature party concerned;
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5. No disqualification is incurred by a person who has been elected to the office to the
Speaker or the Deputy Speaker of the House of the People or of the Legislative Assembly
of a State or to the office of the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States or the
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Chairman, the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State; if he severe his
connection with his political party;
6. The question as to whether a member of a House of Parliament or State Legislature has
become subject to disqualification will be determined by the Chairman or the Speaker of
the respective House, where the question is with reference to the Chairman or the
Speaker himself, it will be decided by a member of the concerned House elected by it on
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that behalf;

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.179

 7. The Chairman or the Speaker of a House has been empowered to make rules for giving
effect to the provisions of the Schedule. The rules are required to be laid before the

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House and are subject to modifications/disapproval by the House;
8. All proceedings in relation to any question as to disqualification of a member of a House
under the Schedule will be deemed to be proceedings in Parliament within the meaning
of Art. 122 or, as the case may be, proceedings in the Legislature of a State within the

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meaning of Article 212; and
9. Notwithstanding anything in the Constitution, no Court will have any jurisdiction in
respect of any matter connected with the disqualification of a member of a House.

Paragraph 7 of the Tenth Schedule which bars the jurisdiction of the courts was

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held ultra vires of the Constitution by the High Court of Punjab and Harayana, and an appeal
against this order was preferred by the government in the Supreme Court. The Supreme
Court (Kohoto Holloian v. Zacchulliu & Others, 1991) found that there were legal infirmities
in the passage of the Anti-defection law inasmuch as the Constitution Amendment Bill had

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not been rectified by there requisite number of State Assemblies before being presented for
the President's assent. Also, the Speaker's functions under the Tenth Schedule called for a
judicial determination of issues under the law.
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The process of determining the question of disqualification could not be
considered part of the proceedings of the House and, as such, was not amenable to judicial
review. The Supreme Court struck down Paragraph 7 of the Schedule barring the jurdiction
of the Courts and declared that while operating under the Anti-defection law, the Speaker
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was in the position of a tribunal, and therefore, his decisions like those of all tribunals were
subject to judicial review.

DISQUALIFICATION ON GROUND OF DEFECTION

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Provisions of the Constitution.—The Tenth Schedule to the Constitution, popularly known as

the Anti-Defection Law, introduced by the Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act, 1985
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as amended by the Constitution (Ninety-First Amendment) Act, 2003 lays down the
conditions regarding disqualification on ground of defection. The main provisions of the
Tenth Schedule are summarised below:—
1. An elected member of Parliament or a State Legislature, who has been elected as a
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candidate set up by a political party and a nominated member of Parliament or a State

Legislature who is a member of political party at the time she/he takes her/his seat would
be disqualified on the ground of defection if she/he voluntarily relinquishes her/ his
membership of such political party or votes or abstains from voting in the House
contrary to any direction of such party.
2. An independent member of Parliament or a State Legislature will also be disqualified if
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she/he joins any political party after her/his election.

3. A nominated member of Parliament or a State Legislature who is not a member of a
political party at the time of her/ his nomination and who has not become a member of

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.180

 any political party before the expiry of six months from the date on which she/he takes
her/his seat shall be disqualified if she/he joins any political party after the expiry of the

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said period of six months.
4. Provisions have been made with respect to mergers of political parties. No
disqualification would be incurred when a legislature party decides to merge with
another party and such decision is supported by not less than two-thirds of its members.

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5. Special provision has been made to enable a person who has been elected to the office
of the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker of the House of People or of the Legislative
Assembly of a State or to the office of the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States or
the Chairman or the Deputy Chairman of Legislative Council of a State, to sever her/ his
connections with her/his political party without incurring disqualification.

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6. The question as to whether a member of a House of Parliament or State Legislature has
become subject to disqualification will be determined by the presiding officer of the
House; where the question is with reference to the Presiding Officer herself/himself it will
be decided by a member of the House elected by the House on that behalf.

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7. The Chairman or the Speaker of a House has been empowered to make rules for giving
effect to the provisions of the Tenth Schedule. The rules shall be laid before the House
and shall be subject to modifications/disapproval by the House.
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8. Without prejudice to the provisions of Article 105 or as the case may be, Article 194 or
any other power they may have under the Constitution, the Chairman or the Speaker of a
House has been empowered to direct that any wilful contravention by any person of the
rules made under paragraph 8 of the Tenth Schedule may be dealt with in the same
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manner as a breach of privilege of the House.

Article 361B of the Constitution inter-alia provides:—

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―A member of a House belonging to any political party who is disqualified for

being a member of the House under paragraph 2 of the Tenth Schedule shall also be
disqualified to hold any remunerative political post for duration of the period commencing
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from the date of her/his disqualification till the date on which the term of her/his office as
such member would expire or till the date on which she/he contests an election to a House
and is declared elected, whichever is earlier.‖
The expression ―remunerative political post‖ means any office under the
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Government of India or the Government of a State where the salary or remuneration for such
office is paid out of the public revenue of the Government of India or the Government of the
State, as the case may be; or, under a body, whether incorporated or not, which is wholly or
partially owned by the Government of India or the Government of a State and the salary or
remuneration for such office is paid by such body, except where such salary or remuneration
paid is compensatory in nature.
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BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.181

 RULES:

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The Members of Lok Sabha (Disqualification on Ground of Defection) Rules,
1985, as framed by the Speaker under para 8 of the Tenth Schedule, were laid on the Table
of the House on 16th December, 1985 and came into force w.e.f. 18th March, 1986. The
Rules cast a responsibility on the leaders of Legislature Parties in the House to furnish to the

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Speaker within 30 days after the first sitting of the House or within 30 days after the
formation of such legislature party as the case may be, a statement containing the names of
members of such legislature party, with other particulars regarding such members as in
Form-I, and the names and designations of the members of such party who have been
authorised by it for communicating with the Speaker for purposes of these rules, a copy of

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the rules and regulations/ constitution of the political party concerned and where such
legislature party has a separate set of rules and regulations/constitution, also a copy of such
rules and regulations/constitution.The leader of the legislature party is also required to
inform the Speaker about the changes that take place in the strength of the party or in its

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rules, regulations, constitution etc. Where a member belonging to any political party votes or
abstains from voting in the House contrary to any direction issued by such political party or
by any person or authority authorized by it in this behalf without obtaining, in either case,
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the prior permission of such political party, person or authority, the Leader of the Legislature
Party concerned or where such member is the Leader, or as the case may be, the sole
member of such legislature party, such member, is required as soon as may be after expiry of
fifteen days of such voting or abstention, and in any case within thirty days from the date of
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such voting or abstention, inform the Speaker whether such voting or abstention has or has
not been condoned by such political party, person or authority. (Form-II has been set out for
the purpose).
The Rules also provide that every member who takes her/his seat in the House
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should before making and subscribing an oath or affirmation and taking her/his seat in the
House, deposit with the Secretary-General, her/his election certificate or as the case may be,
a certified copy of the notification nominating her/him as a member and also furnish to the
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Secretary-General a statement giving details of her/his party affiliation as on the date of

election/nomination in Form-III set out for the purpose. In the Form-III the members also
undertake to intimate the Speaker, Lok Sabha in the event of any change in the information
furnished by them in Form-III.
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The Rules further provide that no reference of any question whether a member
has become subject to disqualification shall be made except by a petition in relation to such
member made in accordance with the provisions of the Members of Lok Sabha
(Disqualification on Ground of Defection) Rules, 1985.
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BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.182

 PROVISIONS FOR MAKING A PETITION UNDER THE RULES ARE AS FOLLOWS:—

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(1) A petition in relation to a member may be made in writing to the Speaker by any other
member# provided that a petition in relation to the Speaker shall be addressed to the
Secretary-General.
(2) Before making any petition in relation to any member, the petitioner shall satisfy

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herself/himself that there are reasonable grounds for believing that a question has arisen
as to whether such member has become subject to disqualification under the Tenth
Schedule.
(3) Every petition—
 shall contain a concise statement of the material facts on which the petitioner relies;

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and
 shall be accompanied by copies of the documentary evidence, if any, on which the
petitioner relies and where the petitioner relies on any information furnished to
her/him by any person, a statement containing the names and addresses of such

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persons and the gist of such information as furnished by each such person.
(4) Every petition shall be signed by the petitioner and verified in the manner laid down in
the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (5 of 1908), for the verification of pleadings.
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(5) Every annexure to the petition shall also be signed by the petitioner and verified in the
same manner as the petition.

The Supreme Court of India in its judgement dated 17 January, 2013 in Civil Appeal No. 469
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of 2013 titled Speaker, Orissa Legislative Assembly Vs. Utkal Keshari Parida held that ―....we
are not inclined to accept the contention that a member of a Legislative Assembly can alone
file the petition .... Therefore, we hold that the disqualification petitions filed by the
petitioner, who is the President of NCP, are maintainable under Rule 6 of the Rules.‖
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(President of NCP was not a member of Orissa Legislative Assembly.)

POWERS, PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES OF MEMBERS OF LEGISLATURES

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The relevant provision of the Constitution relating to powers, privileges and immunities of
the members of Parliament and State Legislatures is incorporated under Article 105 & Article
194 respectively. These Articles provide that:
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1. Subject to the provisions of the Constitution and to the rules and standing orders
regulating the procedure of the Legislatures, there shall be freedom of speech in the
Legislature of the Union and of every State.
2. No member of any Legislature shall be liable to any proceedings in any court in respect
of anything said or any vote given by him in the Legislature or any committee thereof,
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and no person shall be so liable in respect of the publication by or under the authority of
a House of such a Legislature of any report, paper, votes or proceedings.
3. In other respects, the powers, privileges and immunities of a House of any Legislature,
and of the members and committees of a House of such Legislature, shall be such as may

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.183

 from time to time be defined by that Legislature by law, and until so defined, shall be
those of that House and of its members and committees immediately before the coming

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into force of section 26 of the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) act, 1978.

It must be noted that although the Constitution (Forty-fourth amendment) Act,

1978 omitted reference to the British House of Commons for the purpose of determining the

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powers and privileges of Houses of Parliament in India, in the absence of enactment of any
law defining them, these privileges, in effect, remained the same as those of the British
House of Commons at the commencement of the Constitution.

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NITI Aayog, or the National Institution for Transforming India is a Government of
India policy think-tank established by the Narendra Modi government to replace the

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Planning Commission. The stated aim for NITI Aayog's creation is to foster involvement and
participation in the economic policy-making process by the State Governments of India.

The Union Government of India announced the formation of NITI Aayog on 1

January 2015, and the first meeting was held on 8 February 2015. The Prime Minister serves

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as the Ex-officio chairman.

BACKGROUND:

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On May 29, 2014, the Independent Evaluation Office submitted an assessment
report to Prime Minister Modi with the recommendation to replace the Planning
Commission with a "control commission". On August 13, 2014, the Union Cabinet scrapped
the Planning Commission, to be replaced with a diluted version of the National Development
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and Reform Commission (NDRC) of India.
On January 1, 2015 a Cabinet resolution was passed to replace the Planning
Commission with the newly formed NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India).
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The first meeting of NITI Aayog was chaired by Narendra Modi on February 8, 2015.
Finance Minister Arun Jaitley made the following observation on the necessity of
creating NITI Aayog, "The 65-year-old Planning Commission had become a redundant
organisation. It was relevant in a command economy structure, but not any longer. India is a
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diversified country and its states are in various phases of economic development along with
their own strengths and weaknesses. In this context, a ‗one size fits all‘ approach to economic
planning is obsolete. It cannot make India competitive in today‘s global economy."
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MEMBERS

The NITI Aayog comprises the following:

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1. Prime Minister of India as the Chairperson

2. A Governing Council composed of Chief Ministers of all the States and Union territories
with Legislatures and lieutenant governors of other Union Territories.
3. Regional Councils composed of Chief Ministers of States and Lt. Governors of Union
Territories in the region to address specific issues and contingencies impacting more
than one state or a region.
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4. Full-time organizational framework composed of a Vice-Chairperson, three full-time

members, two part-time members (from leading universities, research organizations and
other relevant institutions in an ex-officio capacity), four ex-officio members of the Union

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.185

 Council of Ministers, a Chief Executive Officer (with the rank of Secretary to the
Government of India) who looks after administration, and a secretariat.

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5. Experts and specialists in various fields.

With Prime Minister Narendra Modi as the Chairperson, the committee consists of

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1. Vice Chairperson: Arvind Panagariya
2. Ex-Officio Members: Rajnath Singh, Arun Jaitley, Suresh Prabhu and Radha Mohan Singh
3. Special Invitees: Nitin Gadkari, Smriti Zubin Irani and Thawar Chand Gehlot
4. Full-time Members: Bibek Debroy (Economist), V. K. Saraswat (former DRDO Chief) and
Ramesh Chand (Agriculture Expert)

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5. Chief Executive Officer: Amitabh Kant
6. Governing Council: All Chief Ministers and Lieutenant Governors of States and Union
Territories

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FUNCTIONS

1. To evolve a shared vision of national development priorities sectors and strategies with
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the active involvement of States in the light of national objectives:
 To foster cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives and
mechanisms with the States on a continuous basis, recognizing that strong States
make a strong nation
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 To develop mechanisms to formulate credible plans at the village level and aggregate
these progressively at higher levels of government
 To ensure, on areas that are specifically referred to it, that the interests of national
security are incorporated in economic strategy and policy
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 To pay special attention to the sections of our society that may be at risk of not
benefiting adequately from economic progress
 To design strategic and long term policy and programme frameworks and initiatives,
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and monitor their progress and their efficacy. The lessons learnt through monitoring
and feedback will be used for making innovative improvements, including necessary
mid-course corrections
 To provide advice and encourage partnerships between key stakeholders and
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national and international like-minded Think tanks, as well as educational and policy
research institutions.
 To create a knowledge, innovation and entrepreneurial support system through a
collaborative community of national and international experts, practitioners and other
partners.
 To offer a platform for resolution of inter-sectoral and inter- departmental issues in
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order to accelerate the implementation of the development agenda.

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.186

  To maintain a state-of-the-art Resource Centre, be a repository of research on good
governance and best practices in sustainable and equitable development as well as

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help their dissemination to stake-holders
 To actively monitor and evaluate the implementation of programmes and initiatives,
including the identification of the needed resources so as to strengthen the
probability of success and scope of delivery

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 To focus on technology upgradation and capacity building for implementation of
programmes and initiatives
 To undertake other activities as may be necessary in order to further the execution of
the national development agenda, and the objectives mentioned above
2. National Institute of Labour Economics Research and Development (NILERD).

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3. The NITI Aayog is the successor in interest to the Planning Commission.

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The revolt of 1857 was though a regional manifestation yet the causes and the
events that instigated the revolt were surely having a Pan-Indian characteristic. In fact,

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the revolt of 1857 was the outburst of people's feelings against, social, economic and
political exploitation and hence participants from almost every field i.e. social, economical
(represented by peasants) and political (deposed rulers) participated in the revolt.
Prior to this revolt also, the resentment of the Indians were expressed in both
violent mutinies as well as peaceful protests. The mutiny at Vellore (1806), at Barrackpore

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(1824), at Ferozpur (1842), mutiny of the 7th Bengal cavalry, mutiny of 22nd N.I. in 1849,
Revolt of the Santhals (1855-56), Kol uprising (1831-32) etc. were among the high degree
of protests by the people that culminated in the revolt of 1857.

CAUSES OF REVOLT

POLITICAL CAUSES:
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 The English Company's policy of 'effective control' and gradual extinction of the Indian
Native States was facilitated by the subsidiary alliance system that culminated with the
'Doctrine of Lapse' of Dalhousie. While the Punjab, Pegu, Sikkim had been annexed by
the 'Right of Conquest', Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, Udaipur, Sambhalpur, Baghat and Jaitpur
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were annexed by Dalhousie's doctrine of lapse policy. The pretext of 'good governance'
was adopted for the annexation of Awadh.
 Moreover, the announcement of the Lord Canning, that the successors of Faqir-ud-Din
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would have to leave and renounce regal title and ancestral Mughal Palace (Lal Quila) had
grievously hurted the Muslim sentiments who thought that the English wanted to destroy
the house of Timur.
 The 'absentee sovereignty ship' of the British rule in India also worked against the British
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that disbanded the Pindaries, Thugs and irregular soldiers forming the bulk of native
armies that transformed as rebels in the revolt of 1857.

ADMINISTRATIVE AND ECONOMIC CAUSES:

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 The annexation of Indian states deprived the native aristocracy of power and position.
The new administrative set-up tended to reserve all high posts, civil and military to the
Europeans. The chances of promotion to the Indians appointed to these services were
few.
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 Moreover, the administrative machinery of the English Company was inefficient and
insufficient. The land revenue policy was equally unpopular. Many Taluqdars, the
hereditary landlords, were deprived of their position and gains. Large estates were

BestCurrentAffairs.com PAGE NO.188

 confiscated and sold by public auction. The Inam Commission, appointed in 1852 in
Bombay, alone confiscated as many as 20,000 estates. The Taluqdars of Awadh were the

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hardest hit.
 Peasants were forced to leave their agricultural land due to rise in revenue, the
handicrafts and industry workers were forced to earn livelihood through beggary. The
economic policies worked against the traditional Indian handicrafts and industry. The

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ruined Indian industry and trade increased the pressure on agriculture and land which
lopsided development in turn resulted in the pauperization of the country in general.

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CAUSES:

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 The English were infected with a spirit of racialism. They described the Hindus as
barbarian with hardly any trace of culture or civilization, while Muslims were dubbed as
bigots, cruel and faithless.
 The Religious Disability Act of 1850 modified Hindu customs; a change of religion did not

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debar a son from inheriting the property of his father. The rumour was that the English
were conspiring to convert the Indians to Christianity. Sepoys were promised promotions
if they accepted the 'true faith'.
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 Idolatry was renounced and Hindus were dubbed as ignorant and superstitious. The
activities of Chris- tian priests and efforts of Dalhousie and Betheme to- wards women
education made Indians feel that through education the British were going to conquer
their civilization and so these education offices were styled on 'Saitani Daftars'. Moreover,
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the abolition of Sati, child marriage etc. were seen as an intrusion into the age-old
tradition of the land.

MILITARY CAUSES:
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 The ratio of Indians in the British army was much higher than the Europeans. This
disproportion took a more serious turn because of the shortage of good officers in the
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army; most of them were employed on administrative posts in the newly annexed states
and the frontiers.
 Indian portion of the English army consisted mostly of Brahmans and Rajputs. Moreover,
most of them came from Awadh and Bihar, hence the political and social developments
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of the region equally affected them. The extension of British dominion in India adversely
affected the service conditions of the army. They were required to serve in areas far away
from their homes without any extra payment or Bhatta and it was this reason that led to
the refusal of Bengal regiment in 1844 to move to Sindh.
 In 1856, Canning passed the General Service Enlistment Act which feared that all future
recruits for the Bengal Army would have to give an undertaking to serve anywhere as
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desired by the government.

 Also, the the Post Office Act of 1854, withdrew the privilege of free postage so long
enjoyed by the Sepoys. Moreover, the disaster of the British Army in Crimean War

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 favoured the idea of a revolt which was triggered with the introduction of greased
cartridge of the newly replaced Enfield rifle. The greased cartridge contained the fat of

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pig and cow prepared at wool rich arsenal. This was considered by the Sepoys as a
deliberate move to defame their religion.

SPREAD OF THE REVOLT

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 On 29th March, 1857, the Brahmin sepoy, Mangal Pandey of Barrackpore refused to use
the greased cartridge and fired at his adjutant. The 34 Native Infantry was disbanded and
sepoys guilty of rebellion were punished. In May 1857, 85 sepoys of 3rd cavalry at
Meerut rebelled but were imprisoned. Their fellow Sepoys broke out an open rebellion

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on 10th May and shot their officer and headed towards Delhi. General Hewitt, the
commanding officer at Meerut found himself helpless to stem the rising tide. On 12 May
1857, the rebels seized Delhi and overcame Lieutenant Willoughby, the incharge of the
Delhi. Bahadur Shah- II was proclaimed the Emperor of India. Very soon the rebellion

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spread throughout Northern and Central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Bareilly,
Banaras, Jhansi, parts of Bihar and other places. Unfortunately, a majority of Indian rulers
remained loyal to the British and the educated Indians and merchants' class kept
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themselves aloof from the rebels. Revolt was confined to North India only.

CENTRES OF THE REVOLT

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 Delhi: A rebellion was led by Bakht Khan. In September 1857, Delhi was recaptured by
the English under John Nicholson. The emperor was arrested and his two sons and
grandsons were publicly shot by Lieutenant Hudson himself.
 Kanpur: Nana Saheb was the leader at Kanpur. General Huge Wheeler surrendered on
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June 27. Nana Saheb was joined by Tantia Tope. Sir Campbell occupied Kanpur on
December 6th. Tantia Tope escaped and joined Rani of Jhansi.
 Lucknow: Rebellion was led by Begum Hazrat Mahal and Ahmaddullah. Henry Lawrence
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and other Europeans at the British residency were killed by the rebels. The early attempts
of Havelock and Outram to recover Lucknow met with no success. It was finally rescued
by Colin Campbell in March 1858.
 Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai led the revolt who was defeated by Huge Rose and she fled to
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Gwalior and captured it. She was supported by Tantia Tope. Gwalior was recaptured by
the English in June 1858 and the Rani of Jhansi died on 17th June 1958. Tantia Tope
escaped southward. In April, one of the Sindhia's feudatories captured him and handed
to the English who hanged him.
 Bareilly: Khan Bahadur Khan proclaimed himself the Nawab Nazim of Bareilly, however,
the rebellion was crushed by Colin Campbell in May 1858 and Bareilly was recaptured.
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 Arah: Kunwar Singh and his brother Amar Singh led the rebellion. They were defeated by
William Taylor and Vincent Ayar. Kunwar Singh was killed on 8th May, 1858.
 Faizabad: Maulavi Ahmeddullah led the rebellion but was defeated by the English.

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  Allahabad & Banaras: The rebellion at Banaras and adjoining areas was mercilessly
suppressed by Colonel Neill who put to death all rebels suspected and even disorderly

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boys.

IMPACT OF THE REVOLT

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 The revolt of 1857 made it clear that the techniques of administering India must change
in order to fully achieve the colonial goal. Hence, there were major changes in the
policies of the rulers in almost every field-political, economical, social, religious and
military.
 Following were the impact of the revolt of 1857 on Indian polity and society:

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 By the Government of India Act 1858, the control of Indian administration was
transferred to the Crown from the Company. Though the Crown had considerable
influence over Company's policies through the Board of Control from 1784, the Act of
1858 ended the dualism of control and made the Crown directly responsible to Indian

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affairs. A Secretary of State of India was appointed who was to be assisted by an advisory
council of 5 members, out of which 8 members were to be nominated by the Crown. In
India, the same sort of Governor- General and the same military and civil services
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continued as before. No new policy was inaugurated; rather a continuation of the
Company's policies was reiterated.
 The policy of extension of territorial possession ended and it was promised "to respect
the rights, dignity and honour of Native Princes as their own". As these Native Princes
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acted as 'break waters', to preserve them became of a cardinal principle of British policy.
General amnesty was granted to all the offenders, except those involved in killing of
English and Europeans. Taluqdars of Awadh were confirmed in their estates subject to
the promise of loyalty and future good behaviour.
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 The 1858 proclamation assured the free & impartial admission to offices under Crown
without any discrimination of race or creed, provided the Indians qualified for them by
their education, ability & integrity. This was manifested in the Indian Civil Service Act of
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1861, which provided for an annual competitive examination to be held in London.

 Indian-British army was thoroughly reorganised and built on the policy of division and
counterpoise. The Army Amalgamation Scheme of 1861 transferred the Company's
European troops to the service of the Crown. 'Linked-Battalion Scheme' was started in
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the army. All big posts in the army and artillery departments were reserved for the
Europeans. The ratio of Indian and European soldiers in the army was increased in the
favour of the latter. The policy of counterpoise of a native against native was followed.
 It was increasingly realised that one basic cause for the revolt of 1857 was the lack of
contact between the ruler and the ruled. It was believed that this would at least acquaint
the rulers with the sentiments and feelings of the Indian and those provide an
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opportunity for evidence of misunderstandings. The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was a
humble beginning in that way.

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  The English attitude towards the religious and social aspects of India changed. They now
tried to follow a policy of non-interference in the religoius and social sphere of Indians

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which had caused resentment among them.
 The unity of Hindus and Muslims during the revolt was thought problematic to the
smooth working of British policies, hence the policy of 'divide and rule' was applied.
Muslims were now considered as 'friends' of the English while the Hindus were

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denounced.
 Racial bitterness was aggravated. The entire structure of the Indian government was
remodeled on the philosophy of white man's burden and civilizing role of English in India
was applied.
 The era of territorial aggrandizement gave place to the era of economic exploitation.

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THE SEPOY MUTINESS

 1764: A battalion of Munro's army at the battlefield of Buxar deserted to Mir Kasim.

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 1806: Mutiny at Vellore in protest against interference in the social and religious
practices of the sepoys.The sepoy unfurled the flag of the ruler of Mysore.
 1824: 47th Native infantry unit mutinied when ordered to proceed to Burma without
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adequate overseas allowance.
 1825: The Grenadeir Company in Assam mutinied.
 1838: An Indian regiment at Sholapur mutinied for non payment of full batta.
 1844: 34 N.I. and 64th regiment joined by some others refused to proceed to Sindh
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without old pecuniary benefits.
 1849-50: There was mutinious spirit in the company's army during occupation in the
Punjab. The regiment at Govindgarh mutinied in 1850.
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FAILURE OF THE REVOLT

 The revolt of 1857 was regional in character and poorly organized. India south of the
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Narmada remained unaffected. Sindh and Rajasthan remained quiet and Nepal's help
proved of great avail in suppressing the revolt.
 This revolt was mainly feudal in character carrying with it some nationalistic elements.
The feudal elements of Awadh, Rohilkhand and some other parts of northern India led
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the rebellion, other feudal princes like the Rajas of Patiala, Gwalior etc. helped in its
suppression. These Indian princess were amply rewarded after the suppression of the
rebellion.
 The revolt was organised poorly. The leader of the rebellion though undoubtely brave,
lacked experience, organizing ability and concerted operations. There was no planning
and almost all factions acted their own strategy. Surprise attacks and guerilla tactics
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could not get them their lost independence against the much organised European based
English army.

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  The military resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels.
Though a year earlier, the British army was busy in Crimean War and fought on other

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fronts in the World, but by 1857-58 most of the wars were won by the British. The Indian
soldiers had very few guns and muskets and mostly fought with swords and spears. On
the other hand, the English army was equipped with the latest weapons of war like the
Enfield rifle. Also, the new mode of communication like telegraph and railways played a

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major part in favour of the English.
 The rebels had no common ideal. Bahadur Shah-II was declared the Emperor at Delhi,
Nana Saheb was proclaimed as Peshwa at Kanpur and Gwalior. Hindu- Muslim
differences lay dormant against the common enemy, but were not dead. The peasants
and the inferior castes, apart from the educated class and traders, had no active

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sympathies with the rebels.

OTHER FACTS:

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 The revolt was basically anti-imperialist and both the sepoys and the civilians wanted to
throw out the imperial rulers.
 In 1856 the government decided to replace the old fashioned musket 'Brown Bess' by the
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'Enfield rifle'. The training of the new weapon was to be imparted at Dum Dum, Ambala
and Sialkot.
 On March 29, 1857 the sepoys at Barrackpore refused to use the greased cartridge and
one Brahmin sepoy, Mangal Pandey, attacked and fired at the adjutant.
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 On 10th May, 1857, the sepoys of the 3rd cavalry at Meerut also refused to use the
greased cartridge and broke out in open rebellion. They were immediately joined by the
11th and 20th Native infantries.
 On May 12, 1857, Delhi was seized and Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II was proclaimed
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the emperor of India. The real command was in the hands of Bakht Khan who had led the
revolt at Bareilly and brought the troops to Delhi.
 In Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, who proclaimed himself the Peshwa. He was
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assisted by Tantia Tope. The Rebels defeated General Windham outside Kanpur.
Azimullah Khan also led at Kanpur.
 In Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal and Ahmadullah led the revolt. Hazrat Mahal
proclaimed Brijis Kadr as the nawab of Awadh against the wishes of the British. Henery
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Lawrence, the British resident was killed.

 In Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai assumed the leadership of the mutiny.
 In Bareilly Khan Bahadur proclaimed himself as the Nawab and revolted there.
 In Arrah Kunwar Singh led the revolt.
 In Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah led the revolt.
 Delhi was suppressed by Colonel Nicholson and Hudson.
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 Kanpur was suppressed by Campbell.

 Lucknow was suppressed by Campbell.
 Jhansi was suppressed by Hugh Rose.

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  Allahabad and Benaras were suppressed by Colonel Neil.
 Arrah was supressed by William Taylor and Vincent Eyre.

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 Bahadur Shah was arrested and deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862.
 Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal.
 The revolt was poorly organised, restricted in its scope and there was no unity among its
leaders. There was no impact of rebellion beyond Narmada. Even in north Rajasthan,

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Punjab and Sind remained quiet.
 The Indian princes such as Scindhia of Gwalior, Nizam of Hyderabad, Gulab Singh of
Kashmir, prince of Rajasthan remained loyal to the British.
 The Indian intelligentsia class remained aloof.
 The control of the Indian administration was transferred from the East India Company to

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the crown by the government of India Act, 1858.
 The Indian Civil Services Act was passed which provided for an annual competitive
examination to be held in London for recruitment to the covenanted civil services.
 The Army amalgamation scheme of 1861 transferred the company's european troops to

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the service of crown.
 The general formula followed was that in Bengal presidency, the proportion between the
European and Indian troops should be 1:2 while for Bombay and Madras presidency it
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should be 1:3.
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