International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180

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A new thermomechanical model of cutting applied to turning operations.

Part I. Theory
A. Molinari, A. Moufki*
Laboratoire de Physique et Mécanique des Matériaux, UMR CNRS No. 7554, ISGMP, Université de Metz, Ile du Saulcy, 57045 Metz, France
Received 19 April 2004; accepted 22 July 2004
Available online 11 September 2004

Abstract
In this paper, an analytical approach is used to model the thermomechanical process of chip formation in a turning operation. In order to
study the effects of the cutting edge geometry, it is important to analyse its global and local effects such as the chip flow direction, the cutting
forces and the temperature distribution at the rake face. To take into account the real cutting edge geometry, the engaged part in cutting of the
rounded nose is decomposed into a set of cutting edge elements. Thus each elementary chip produced by a straight cutting edge element, is
obtained from an oblique cutting process. The fact that the local chip flow is imposed by the global chip movement is accounted for by
considering appropriate interactions between adjacent chip elements. Consequently, a modified version of the oblique cutting model of
Moufki et al. [Int. J. Mech. Sci. 42 (2000) 1205; Int. J. Mach. Tools Manufact. 44 (9) (2004) 971] is developed and applied to each cutting
edge element in order to obtain the cutting forces and the temperature distributions along the rake face. The material characteristics such as
strain rate sensitivity, strain hardening and thermal softening, the thermomechanical coupling and the inertia effects are taken into account in
the modelling. The model can be used to predict the cutting forces, the global chip flow direction, the surface contact between chip and tool
and the temperature distribution at the rake face which affects strongly the tool wear. Part II of this work consists in a parametric study where
the effects of cutting conditions, cutting edge geometry, and friction at the tool–chip interface are investigated. The tendencies predicted by
the model are also compared qualitatively with the experimental trends founded in the literature.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Machining; Bar turning; Cutting edge geometry; Thermoviscoplastic behavior; Dynamic friction; Tool heating; Chip flow direction; Cutting forces

1. Introduction selection, cutting speeds and feed rates. This leads to

solutions which are often sub-optimal. In order to optimize
In industry, high speed machining is frequently used to manufacturing performance, the interactions between cut-
remove unwanted material from a workpiece and obtain ting conditions, tool, workpiece and the phenomena
desired geometrical dimensions and surface finish. How- governing the chip formation process have to be understood
ever, it is not obvious how to select the cutting conditions through experimental studies, modelling and simulation.
which may result in high productivity rates and small The analysis of metal cutting is usually restricted to a simple
workpiece surface error since competitive use of the case corresponding to cutting with a straight cutting edge
machining option requires high speed machining and high whereas in industrial machining processes, the tool presents
metal removal rates. Main factors that limit process a complex geometry.
optimization in machining are the tool wear and a In turning processes, the cutting tool has normally two
phenomenon called chatter which is a dynamic instability edges: the main or side cutting edge and the secondary or
limiting material removal rates, causing poor surface finish end cutting edge. These two cutting edges are linked by a
and damage of the tool and workpiece. Empirical methods rounded nose which improves the finish surface and the tool
are often used to determine process parameters such as tool wear characteristics. In general, the statement of cutting
conditions do not account of the fact that the end cutting
* Corresponding author. edge is engaged. When the depth of cut and the feed are of
E-mail address: moufki@lpmm.univ-metz.fr (A. Moufki). the same order of value, the effect of the rounded nose is
0890-6955/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.07.004
 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180 167

important. In the tool rake face, the chip flow direction account in the equivalent cutting edge method, namely the
affects the chip curl, the chip breakage and the chip control. chip load and the value of the mean friction coefficient at
In order to obtain an optimal geometry of the cutting tool, the tool–chip interface (see part II of this work). It is obvious
it is important to analyse the effect of tool geometry on the that this method is not appropriate for tool designers and
chip formation process. Indeed, the global chip flow tool wear study.
direction and the local information such as the temperature In the present work, the engaged part in cutting of the
distribution at the tool–chip interface and the forces acting rounded nose is decomposed into a set of cutting edge
on the rake face depend on the cutting edge geometry. To elements. Each elementary chip is obtained from an oblique
describe these effects, it is worth developing a realistic cutting process defined by the local cutting angles (incli-
model of chip formation for turning operations such as bar nation angle and normal rake angle) and the local chip load
turning or contour turning. From such modelling one can (the area of the undeformed chip section machined by a
expect to be able to control tool wear by optimizing the cutting edge element). Each elementary chip has a tendency
cutting edge geometry. Note that currently this optimization to flow in the direction governed by the local cutting edge
has been investigated only by experimental means [1–3]. geometry. However, from the observation of the process of
To take into account the effects of the main cutting edge chip formation, the material appears to flow in a single
and of nose radius, a single equivalent cutting edge has been direction. Thus interactions between adjacent chip elements
introduced in many models. The simplest one was developed must be taken into account so as to enforce the local chip flow
by Colwell [4] and consists in drawing a line between the two to follow the global chip movement. Consequently, a
extreme points of contact between the tool and the work- modified version of the oblique cutting model of Moufki et
piece; the chip flow direction is then supposed to be normal to al. [16,17] is developed and applied to each cutting edge
this line. More complicated models have been developed by element in order to obtain the cutting forces and the
Hu et al. [5], Young et al. [6,7], Wang and Mathew [8], temperature distributions along the rake face. Material
Arsecularatne et al. [9–11] and Wang [12]. Concerning these characteristics such as strain rate sensitivity, strain hardening
authors, the chip is considered as a set of independent and thermal softening, thermomechanical coupling and
elementary chips with an infinitesimal width. Along the inertia effects are taken into account in the modelling.
cutting edge, the elementary friction force magnitude and its Part I of this work is organized as follows. First, the
direction vary from one element to the other. In the discretization of the tool cutting edge and the local geometry
orthogonal cutting case (where the inclination angle and of each cutting edge element are presented. Secondly, the
the normal rake angle of the tool are equal to zero) the chip thermomechanical modelling of oblique cutting, with an
flow direction is supposed to coincide with the direction of imposed chip flow velocity (due to the global chip
the resultant of the elementary friction forces. The equivalent movement), is applied to an elementary chip. Finally, the
cutting edge is assumed to be a line perpendicular to the interaction between the set of the elementary chips is
direction of this resultant friction force. In this approach, the detailed and the resolution algorithm for the use of the
use of the equivalent cutting edge assumes implicitly the fact model is presented.
that the chip flows into a single direction. However, this is in Part II of the work consists in a parametric study where
contradiction with the forgoing hypothesis considering the the effects of cutting speed, depth of cut, feed, nose radius,
chip as formed by the contribution of elementary indepen- cutting angles and friction conditions at the tool–chip
dent elements each of them having a different flow direction interface are investigated.
governed by the cutting edge geometry. When the cutting
angles are different from zero, the effects on the chip flow 2. The bar turning geometry and the cutting edge
direction of the nose radius and the cutting angles are discretization
considered as decoupled. Consequently, the equivalent
cutting edge is first calculated by assuming orthogonal In this paragraph, the discretization of the engaged part
cutting conditions and projected onto the rake face. Finally, of the rounded nose is presented. The local cutting
the Stabler’s rule [13] is applied to this equivalent cutting conditions corresponding to each cutting edge element,
edge to obtain the chip flow direction whereas the Oxley’s namely the local cutting angles (inclination angle and
model of orthogonal cutting [14] is used to calculate the normal rake angle) and the local area of the undeformed
cutting forces corresponding to oblique cutting with this chip section, are also determined.
fictive tool. Colwell’s approch has been also used by In a turning operation, the tool geometry can be defined by
Parakkal et al. [15] for turning with grooved tools. using the system of five fundamental planes based on ISO
The preceding models, based on the equivalent cutting recommendations: Pr, Pf, P0s ; Ps0 and P0n ; Fig. 1. The reference
edge concept, provide an acceptable global information on plane Pr is normal to the direction of cutting velocity V, the
the resultant cutting force but they fail to predict local working plane Pf is parallel to the feed direction and
information such as the temperature distribution along the perpendicular to Pr, the tool cutting edge plane P0s and the end
cutting edge. This is due to the fact that the cutting forces cutting edge plane Ps0 contain, respectively, the main cutting
depend mainly on two parameters which are taken into edge and the secondary cutting edge and are also
168 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180

Fig. 1. Tool geometry in turning operation—Pr, Pf, P0s ; P0n ; Ps ; are the fundamental planes based on ISO recommendations. V, l0s and a0n represent, respectively,
the cutting velocity, the inclination angle and the normal rake angle. The cutting forces are given by P1, P2 and P3.

perpendicular to Pr. The last plane P0n is the normal plane considered as a single element associated to jZ0. Fig. 3
perpendicular to the main cutting edge. The side cutting edge gives an example of discretization, with NZ2, which
angle kr and the end cutting edge angle kr0 which are measured corresponds to the projection on the reference plane of the
in the reference plane Pr represent, respectively, the angles discretized cutting edge when the tool rake face is not
made by P0s with Pf and Ps0 with Pf. The inclination angle l0s contained in Pr-plane (oblique cutting operation). The
which is measured in the plane P0s is the one between the main relation between the discretization in the rake face and its
cutting edge and the reference plane Pr. The normal rake projection on Pr-plane, is treated in Appendix A.
angle a0n ; measured in the plane P0n ; is the angle between the Consistently with the definition of P0s ; the plane Pjs is
tool rake face and the reference plane Pr. defined as containing the jth cutting edge element and being
Although this work is limited to bar turning, the present orthogonal to Pr, see Fig. 4. The planePjn is normal to the jth
approach can be applied to other cutting processes such as cutting edge element. The angle between the planes P0s and Pjs ;
contour turning and face milling. As far as bar turning is measured in the plane Pr, is denoted as xjr ; see Fig. 4. As shown
concerned, the cutting conditions are given by the cutting in Figs. 3 and 4, the cutting edge element j can be defined, in
speed VZkVk, the cutting angles l0s ; a0n ; the feed f, the nose the reference plane Pr, by the parameters Dj, wjr ; bj, xjr and dj
radius r, the depth of cut d and the angles kr and kr0 ; Figs. 1 8
> j Dj
and 2. The feed f is supposed to be small ðf % 2r sin kr0 Þ; so > DjZ N ; wr Z2r sin 2
j
>
>
>

that the secondary cutting edge is not engaged. <
f
In the reference plane Pr, the engaged rounded nose can bj Zcos K1
KjCðjK1ÞDj for1%j%N
>
> 2r
be divided in two parts defined, respectively, by the angles >
>
>
: xj Zb K p Ck C Dj ; d Zwj sinðk Kxj Þ
j, and pK2 cosK1(f/2r), see Fig. 2, with: r j r j r r r
2 2
8
 (2)
>
> f
< cos
K1
K p=2 C kr if dR rð1 K cos kr Þ
jZ
2r 
 where bj, wjr and dj represent, respectively, the angular
>
> f r Kd position, the width of cut and the depth of cut corresponding to
: cosK1 K sinK1 if d% rð1 K cos kr Þ
2r r the cutting edge element j.
(1) Using Eq. (2) and Fig. 4, we get:
8 0 NC1
The first part, corresponding to the angle j, is subdivided >
< xr Z0; xr Zkr
into N cutting edge elements characterized by the

> j f Dj p
incremental angle DjZj/N and by the index j such as : xr Z cos K1
Kj Cð2j K1Þ K Ckr 1%j%N
1%j%N. The second part is considered as a single element 2r 2 2
with index jZNC1. The main cutting edge is also (3)
 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180 169

Fig. 2. Engaged part of the rounded nose in the reference plane Pr for two cases: (a) d% rð1K cos kr Þ and (b) dR rð1K cos kr Þ:

Note that for the main cutting edge (jZ0) and for the By considering Eqs. (2) and (4) and after some
element jZNC1 we have algebraic manipulation the following expressions are
( 0 obtained
wr Z ðd Krð1 Kcos kr ÞÞ=sin kr if dRrð1Kcos kr Þ
(4) 8
d0 Zw0r sin kr ; wNC1
r Zf > A0 Z f ðr cos kr C d K rÞ if dR rð1 K cos kr Þ
>
>
>
<
with w0r Z0 if d%r(1Kcos kr). Dj
In Fig. 3, the chip load Aj associated to the jth cutting > Aj Z 2rf sin sinðkr K xjr Þ 1% j% N
>
> 2
edge element is defined as the area of the undeformed chip >
: pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
section: ANC1 Z r 2 ½p=2 K cosK1 ðf =ð2rÞÞ K 0:5f r 2 K f 2 =4
8 (6)
< fdj
> 0%j%N
Aj Z r 2 


 
> f f with A0Z0 if d%r(1Kcos kr).
: pK2cosK1 Ksin 2cosK1 jZN C1
2 2r 2r The relationship (5) can be used to determine the chip
(5) load A corresponding to the bar turning operation as
170 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180

Fig. 3. Subdivision of the engaged part of the tool and the chip load of each element. The rounded nose is divided into NC1 cutting edge elements (NZ2 in the
figure), the main cutting edge (jZ0) is associated to a single element.

follows: cutting edge and the cutting edge element j measured in the
rake face. Accordingly, we have x0c Z 0: Therefore, xjr
X
N C1 X
N
corresponds to the projection of xjc in the reference plane Pr,
AZ Aj Z f dj C ANC1 (7)
jZ0 jZ0
see Fig. 4 and Appendix A, with
cos l0s tan xjr
From Fig. 3, it appears that tan xjc Z (11)
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos a0n K tan xjr sin a0n sin l0s
XN
f2
dj Z d K r C r 2 K Noting that for jZNC1, xrNC1 Z kr ; Eq. (11) is valid for
jZ0
4 0!kr!p/2.
Then, by using Eq. (6) we get:

 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 p f f f2 3. Thermomechanical model of bar turning
AZr K cosK1
C r 2 K C f ðd K rÞ (8)
2 2r 2 4
3.1. Fundamental hypothesis of the proposed model
The inclination angle ljs and the normal rake angle ajn ; for
the cutting edge element j, are measured, respectively, in Pjs As exposed previously, the engaged part of the rounded
and Pjn : For the main cutting edge (jZ0), the cutting angles nose is divided into a set of NC1 cutting edge elements. Due
are given by l0s and a0n : The angles ljs and ajn ; for 1%j%NC to the cutting edge orientation with respect to the main
1, are determined from the following relationships (demon- cutting edge, (index jZ0), the cutting angles vary along the
strated in Appendix A) nose radius (except for l0s Z a0n Z 0; where the rake face is
8 included in the reference plane Pr and normal to the cutting
j j 0 j 0 0
>
< sin ls Z cos xc sin ls K sin xc sin an cos ls
> velocity direction). Then, for the jth cutting edge element
cos ljs Z cos xjr ðcos xjc cos l0s C sin xjc sin a0n sin l0s Þ 1%j%NC1, the inclination angle ljs and the normal rake
>
>
:
Csin xjr sin xjc cos a0n angle ajn are determined in terms of the cutting angles ðl0s ; a0n Þ
(relative to the main cutting edge) and the cutting edge
(9) geometry characterized by the angles xjr ; and xjc Eqs. (9)–(11).
8
>
> j sin l0s K cos xjc sin ljs
>
< sin an Z
sin xjc cos ljs (10)
>
>
> j cos l0s K cos xjr ½cos xjc cos ljs C tan ljs ðcos xjc sin ljs K sin l0s Þ
: cos an Z
sin xjr sin xjc
where xjr is the angle between the planes P0s and Pjs measured The model is based on the following considerations
in the reference plane and xjc is the angle between the main concerning the kinematics of chip flow in bar turning
 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180 171

Fig. 4. (a) Subdivision of the engaged part of the tool. The rounded nose is divided into NC1 cutting edge elements (NZ2 in the figure), the main cutting edge
is associated to a single element. (b) An illustration of the cutting edge discretization in the rake face and its projection in the reference plane Pr.

operation. First, it can be supposed that the cutting velocity and the chip flow direction in the rake face, see Fig. 4b,
V is uniform along the cutting edge, because the depth of cut can be defined by the unit vector zjfl Z zfl Z Vc =kVc k: Note
d is small in general with respect to the bar radius. The most that the global chip velocity Vc is entirely defined by the
important hypothesis in our model is to assume that the chip length kVck and the global chip flow angle h0c which is
flows along the rake face with a uniform velocity Vc ; in measured in the tool rake face and corresponds to the
agreement with experimental observation. The process of angle between the direction zfl of the global movement
chip formation is assumed to occur in the primary shear of the chip and the normal to the main cutting edge
zones along each elementary cutting edge. (jZ0), see Fig. 4b.
Therefore, for each chip element, associated to the cutting The global chip flow angle h0c and the chip velocity
edge element j, the chip velocity Vjc is given by length kVck will be determined, respectively, from
the global chip equilibrium and the minimisation of the
Vjc Z Vc 0% j% N C 1 (12) specific cutting energy.
172 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180

Fig. 5. Local oblique machining associated to the cutting edge element j. The inclination angle, the normal rake angle and the chip flow angle are, respectively,
given by: ljs ; ajn and hjc : V and Vc represent the cutting speed and the chip velocity.

Denoting by hjc the angle between the direction zfl and value of chip velocity Vjc Z Vc : This is equivalent to
the normal to the jth cutting edge element, Figs. 4b and 5, imposing the local chip flow angle hjc (via h0c ; Eq. (13)) and
we have the norm of chip velocity kVjc kZ kVc k:

hjc Z h0c K xjc 0% j% N C 1 (13)

3.2. Primary shear zone relative to the jth chip element:
with xjc ; given by Eq. (11), being the angle (measured in the definition of the shearing direction and modelling
rake face) between the main cutting edge (jZ0) and the jth of the thermomechanical material flow
cutting edge element. Note that since all the chip elements
have the same flow direction zfl, the angle h0c corresponds To study the cutting process relative to the jth cutting
also to the local chip flow angle of the main cutting edge edge element, the thermomechanical model of oblique
hjZ0 0 jZ0
c Z hc K xc Z hc :
0 cutting of Moufki et al. [16,17], is used by taking into
During the chip formation process, all elementary chips account the fact that the jth chip element is constrained by
must flow in the same direction zfl. Consequently, the jth the neighbouring chips, while the original model has been
chip element, see Fig. 4b, is constrained by the neighbouring developed for the case where the chip flow is free of lateral
chip elements; the equilibrium of the elementary forces constrains.
exerted on it can be expressed as Geometrical parameters associated to oblique machining
along the cutting edge element j are illustrated in Fig. 5. The
Rjtool=chip C Rjworkpiece=chip C RjjK1 C RjjC1 Z 0 (14) cutting conditions are given by: V, ljs ajn and Aj (the area of
undeformed chip section), see Section 2.
where RjjK1 and RjjC1 are the resultant of the elementary The jth chip element is assumed to be formed in a
forces exerted, respectively, by the chip elements jK1 and primary shear zone where the material sustains simple
jC1 on the jth chip element. As a first approximation, the shearing in addition to a convective flow. The
forces RjjK1 and RjjC1 are considered to be perpendicular to thermomechanical model of oblique cutting [16,17] is
the flow direction, and the following expression can be used to calculate the elementary shear force exerted
written by the jth primary shear zone on the chip element j,
RjjK1 C RjjC1 Z Rjn yfl (15) the temperature distribution along the rake face
and the contact length between chip and tool. This
where yfl is the unit vector normal in the rake face to the model assumes a temperature dependent friction law.
flow direction zfl, Fig. 4b. Indeed a large increase of the temperature is observed
The formation process of the jth chip element is locally on the rake face, due to the severe sliding conditions at
the result of an oblique cutting operation with the imposed the tool–chip interface. This increase of temperature is
 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180 173

thought to be a key-parameter controlling the friction with

law in spite of the complexity of phenomena governing !
this friction law in machining. tan hjc sin fjn K tan ljs cosðfjn K ajn Þ
The primary shear zone is assumed to be a thin band of hjsh Z tanK1
(18)
cos ajn
constant thickness h. In the plane Pjn normal to the jth cutting
edge element, the primary shear zone is characterized by the
angle fjn called normal shear angle, see Fig. 5. Plastic and where (xj, yj, zj) is the orthonormal basis associated to
deformation is supposed to be limited to this band where the the primary shear band of the jth chip element, Fig. 5.
chip is formed. The complex material flow near the tool edge Note that the shear direction xsh is the same for all the
and the secondary shear zone, due to friction at the tool–chip chip elements since Vjc Z Vc : Note also that the unit
interface, have not been taken into consideration. To model vector yj is collinear to the cutting element j.
the material flow within the primary shear zone, a one- The normal shear angle fjn is related to the chip velocity
dimensional approach is used. The analysis is limited to by taking into account the incompressibility condition in the
stationary flow (no time dependence). Therefore, all the primary shear zone
variables introduced to describe the material flow through the
1
band, depend only on the coordinate zj along the normal to tan fjn Z (19)
V cos ljs
this band (one-dimensional formulation). In addition, the Vc cos hjc cos ajn
K tan ajn
shearing in the band is supposed to be adiabatic. This
assumption is reasonable when the cutting speeds are large where VZkVk, VcZkVck. The normal shear angle fjn is
enough. completely determined by considering the condition
Strain rates larger than 104 sK1 can be attained in the sin fjn R 0 which is deduced from the kinematics of
primary shear zone, even for conventional cutting velocities. oblique cutting.
In this zone, the deformations are large and the temperature The constitutive law (16) and the equations of motion
may be of the order of 300–500 8C. Therefore, to develop a and of heat (assuming adiabatic conditions), can be written
cutting model, the thermomechanical behaviour of the as [18,19]
workpiece material has to be identified at conditions close
to those of machining. In the proposed work, the workpiece tj Z rðV cos ljs sin fjn Þ2 gj C tj0 (20)
material is supposed to be isotropic, rigid and viscoplastic,
and described by a Johnson–Cook law:

b ðgj Þ2

n 
 
 qj Z qw C rðV cos ljs sin fjn Þ2 C tj0 gj (21)
rc 2
1 g g_ qKTr n
tZ pffiffiffi B1 CB2 pffiffiffi 1Cmln 1K
3 3 g_ 0 Tm KTr 8
pffiffiffi 
>
> j j j tj 3 1
(16) >
< _
g j
Z _
g ðg ; t 0 Þ Z _
g 0 exp K
mg1 ðgj Þg2 ðqj Þ m
The variables t, g, g; _ and q represent, respectively, the >
> pffiffiffi h  j n i
>
: g1 ðgj Þ Z ½B1 C B2 ðgj = 3Þn  g2 ðqj Þ Z 1 K q KTr
shear stress, the shear strain, the shear strain rate and the TmKTr
absolute temperature. The material characteristics are (22)
defined by the strain hardening exponent n, the strain rate
sensitivity m, the thermal softening coefficient n, the where r, c and b represent, respectively, the material density,
constants B1, B2, g_ 0 ; the reference temperatures Tr and the the heat capacity and the fraction of the plastic work
melting temperature Tm. converted into heat (Taylor–Quinney coefficient). qw is
In the primary shear zone, the material response is the absolute temperature of the workpiece. tj0 is the shear
supposed to follow the J2-flow theory. Consequently, it stress at the entry of the primary shear zone. In addition, the
can be demonstrated that the shearing direction, charac- material derivative of the shear strain gj gives:
terized by the unit vector xsh, is constant in the shear band
(i.e. xsh is independent of the coordinate zj along the dgj g_ j ðgj ; tj0 Þ
Z (23)
normal zj to the primary shear zone corresponding to dzj V cos ljs sin fjn
the jth chip element)
Since the plastic deformation is supposed to be limited to
Vc K V
xsh ¼ ¼ Kðxj cos hjsh þ yj sin hjsh Þ (17) the primary shear zone, two boundary conditions are
jjVc K Vjj obtained for the deformation gj:
8
>
> gj ðzj Z 0Þ Z 0 at the entry of the shear band
<
> j j cos ajn (24)
: g ðzj Z hÞ Z gh Z
> at the outflow of the shear band
sin fjn cos hjsh cosðfjn K ajn Þ
174 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180

Using the conditions (24), integration of Eq. (23) over the Aj

band width leads to: Ajsh Z (29)
cos ljs sin fjn
ð gj
h V cos ljs sin fjn j
dg K h Z 0 (25) where the chip load Aj is given by Eq. (6).
0 g_ j ðgj ; tj0 Þ From Eq. (26), we can determine Rjn (defined by Eq. (15)
as the resultant of the reactions exerted on the chip element j
Eq. (25) is a non-linear equation which has to be solved to
by the adjacent chip elements jK1 and jC1), kRjtool=chip k
calculate tj0 : j
and Nsh :

j cos hjsh tan lj sin hjc C sin hjsh ðcosðfjn K ajn Þ K tan lj cos hjc sinðfjn K ajn ÞÞ
Rjn Z Fsh (30)
cosðfjn K ajn Þcos hjc K tan lj sinðfjn K ajn Þ

kRjtool=chip k
j
KFsh cos hjsh K Rjn sin hjc sinðfjn K ajn Þ
3.3. Equilibrium of the jth chip element: calculation of Z
cos lj ðcosðfjn K ajn Þ K tan lj cos hjc sinðfjn K ajn ÞÞ
acting forces
(31)
Equilibrium of the forces exerted on the jth chip element j
(starting at the exit of the primary shear zone) is expressed Nsh Z kRjtool=chip kcos lj ðsinðfjn Kajn Þ
in the orthonormal basis (xj, yj, zj) associated to the primary Ctan lj cos hjc cosðfjn Kajn ÞÞ KRjn sin hjc cosðfjn Kajn Þ
shear band, Fig. 5
(32)
8 j
>
> kR kcos lj ðcosðfjn K ajn Þ K tan lj cos hjc sinðfjn K ajn ÞÞ C Fsh
j
cos hjsh C Rjn sin hjc sinðfjn K ajn Þ Z 0
> tool=chip
>
<
kRjtool=chip ksin lj sinhjc K Fsh
j
sin hjsh C Rjn cos hjc Z 0 (26)
>
>
>
>
: j
kRtool=chip kcos lj ðsinðfjn K ajn Þ C tan lj cos hjc cosðfjn K ajn ÞÞ K Nsh
j
K Rjn sin hjc cosðfjn K ajn Þ Z 0

j j
where the elementary forces Fsh ; Nsh represent, 3.4. Global chip equilibrium, chip flow direction
respectively, the shear and the normal forces applied and cutting forces
on the jth chip element at the exit of the primary shear
band ðRjworkpiece=chip Z Fsh
j j
xsh C Nsh zj Þ: The angle lj is the To determine the global chip flow direction characterized
mean friction angle at the tool rake face in contact by h0c as shown by Eq. (13) and Fig. 4b, global chip
j
with the elementary chip j. The shearing force Fsh is equilibrium is considered (see Fig. 5 for definition of xsh
given by and zj):

j X
NC1
Fsh Z Ktjh Ajsh (27) j
ðFsh j
xsh C Nsh zj C Rjtool=chip Þ Z 0 (33)
jZ0
tjh is the shear stress at the outflow of the primary
From equilibrium of the forces exerted on the jth chip
shear band given by Eq. (20), where gjh is substituted
element, we have:
to gj:
j j
Fsh xsh C Nsh zj C Rjtool=chip C Rjn yfl Z 0 (34)
tjh Z rðV cos ljs sin fjn Þ2 gjh C tj0 (28)
PNC1 j
The area Ajsh of the primary shear zone, which Combining Eqs. (33) and (34), the relationship jZ0 Rn
corresponds to a distorted parallelogram having one side Z0 is obtained. From this equation the chip flow angle h0c
parallel to the cutting edge element j and containing the can be calculated, when Eq. (30) is used together with
hjc Z h0c K xjc :
!
X
N C1 j j j j j j j j j
j cos hsh tan l sin hc C sin hsh ðcosðfn K an Þ K tan l cos hc sinðfn K an ÞÞ
j
Fsh Z0 (35)
jZ0 cosðfjn K ajn Þcos hjc K tan lj sinðfjn K ajn Þ

Note that hjsh ; fjn and Fsh

j
depend on h0c and are given,
shear direction xsh, is determined from the equality respectively, by Eqs. (18), (19) and (27). It is reminded that
between the flux across the undeformed chip area Aj the angle xjc characterizes the tool cutting edge geometry,
and through the primary shear zone see Appendix A.
 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180 175

The cutting forces P1, P2 and P3 represent,

P respectively, edge, measured along the chip flow direction zflZVc/kVck
j
the projections of the resultant force NC1 jZ0 Rchip=tool on the which is the same for each chip element j, see Figs. 4b–5.
cutting direction xr, negative feed direction zr and the radial The equilibrium of the forces exerted on the jth chip
direction yr, see Fig. 1 element and of their moments about the cutting edge, is used
to determine, respectively, the pressure pj0 and the tool–chip
X
N
contact length ljc :
C1
P1 Z kRjtool=chip kcos lj ðcos a0n cos l0s
jZ0 j
z C2 Nsh 1 Aj
j
C tan l ðsin h0c sin l0s C cos h0c sin a0n cos l0s ÞÞ (36) ljc Z (41)
2 kRtool=chip kcos lj cos hjc sin fjn wjr
j

X
N C1
kRjtool=chip kcos lj cos ljs
P2 Z kRjtool=chip kcos lj ðcosðkr Þðcos a0n sin l0s C G tan lj Þ pj0 Z ðz C 1Þ (42)
jZ0 wjr ljc cos hjc
C sinðkr ÞðKsin a0n C tan lj cos h0c cos a0n ÞÞ ð37Þ Note that from Eqs (2), (4) and (5) we have:
8
>
> f sinðkr K xjr Þ 0% j% N
X
N C1
Aj < sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P3 Z kRjtool=chip kcos lj ðsinðkr Þðcos a0n sin l0s C G tan lj Þ Z 

jZ0 wjr >
> r2 p f 1 f2
: K cosK1 K r2 K j Z N C1
K cosðkr ÞðKsin a0n C tan lj cos h0c cos a0n ÞÞ ð38Þ f 2 2r 2 4
(43)
with GZ ðKsin h0c cos l0s C cos h0c sin a0n sin l0s Þ
At the tool–chip interface, the temperature distribution
j
Tint ðzf Þ for the chip element j and the mean value T jint
j
3.5. Friction conditions, contact length and temperature (average of Tint ðzf Þ with respect to zf) are determined in
distribution at the tool–chip interface Moufki et al. [20]
pffiffiffiffiffi z 
At the interface between the tool rake face and the jth j m j pj0 Vc 1 X 2
Tint ðzf Þ Z pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi
chip element, an important heating is produced by the large pkrc ðljc Þz iZ0 2i C 1
values of pressure and sliding velocity. The friction !
condition at the tool rake face is surely affected by this !Czi ðljc K zf ÞzKi zfðð2iC1Þ=2Þ C qjh ð44Þ
heating. In Moufki et al. [20], a Coulomb friction law, with a
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi X "
mean friction coefficient m j Z tan lj dependent on the mean m j pj0 z
2
temperature T jint at the interface, has been introduced T jint Z pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi Vc l cj
Ci
pkrc 2i C 1 z
!q ! iZ0
!#
 jint
T X
zKi
j
m j Z m j ðT int Þ Z m 0 1 K (39) 2
Tm ! ðK1Þ s s
CzKi C qjh ð45Þ
sZ0
2ði C sÞ C 3
Tm is the melting temperature of the workpiece material. with
The coefficients m 0 and q can be identified from exper- z!
imental data obtained in orthogonal cutting. Czi Z ; zf 2½0; ljc 
ðz K iÞ!i!
To calculate the temperature distribution within the jth
chip element beyond the primary shear zone, the approach k represents the thermal conductivity of the workpiece
of Moufki et al. [20] is used. Chip heating is due to the material and qjh is the absolute temperature at the outflow
viscoplastic deformation in the primary shear band and to of the primary shear band (for the chip element j) given by
the contact with friction at the tool–chip interface. Eq. (21):
Experimental studies show that the pressure distribution, !
j 2
exerted by the chip on the tool rake face, is not uniform, the j j b j j 2 ðgh Þ j j
qh Zq ðzj ZhÞZqw C rðV cos ls sin fn Þ Ct0 gh
pressure decreases when moving away from the cutting rc 2
edge [21–24]. To consider this fact, the following pressure (46)
distribution pj(zf) is chosen
Furthermore, it has been shown in Ref. [20] that zZ2 is


j zf z an acceptable approximation of z, which will be used in the
pj ðzf Þ Z p0 1 K j (40) rest of the paper. Since m depends on T jint ; the relationship
lc
(45) is an implicit equation in terms of T jint : Note that the
where ljc is the tool–chip contact length and pj0 represents the effects of the model’s input parameters such as the thickness
pressure exerted by the jth chip element on the tool tip. The of the primary shear zone, the exponent z characterizing the
coordinate zf designates the distance from the tool cutting pressure distribution at the tool–chip interface and the chip
176 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180
P
velocity kVck, via the normal shear angle fjn ; have been the resultant of the cutting force P1 Z NC1 j
jZ0 P1 ; Eq. (36)).
investigated in Ref. [17] for oblique cutting with straight The Newton–Raphson scheme is used in these calculations.
cutting edge. For each jth chip element, and for given values of Vc and
h0c ; the algorithm to simulate chip element formation is the
following:

4. The working of the present model hjc Z h0c K xjc (47.1)

1
To use the present model, the thermomechanical tan fjn Z (47.2)
V cos ljs
response of the workpiece material has to be identified Vc cos hjc cos ajn
K tan ajn
through the constitutive law (16). In the same way, the
parameters of the friction law (39) have to be determined Aj
from orthogonal cutting experiments. Ajsh Z (47.3)
cos ljs sin fjn
In order to facilitate the use of this model, a summary is
!
now presented. The cutting conditions are: the cutting speed
tan hjc sin fjn K tan ljs cosðfjn K ajn Þ
V, the feed f, the depth d of cut and the tool geometry (given hjsh Z tan K1

by the inclination angle l0s ; the normal rake angle a0n cos ajn
corresponding to the main cutting edge, the main cutting (47.4)
edge angle kr, the secondary cutting edge angle kr0 and the
nose radius r, Figs. 1 and 2). cos ajn
gjh Z (47.5)
To analyse the effect of the cutting edge geometry, the sin fjn cos hjsh cosðfjn K ajn Þ
engaged rounded nose is discretized into straight cutting edge
elements referenced with the index j, see Section 2. In the ð gj
h V cos ljs sin fjn j
reference plane and in the tool rake face, the orientations of the tj0 is calculated such as dg K h Z 0
0 g_ j ðgj ; tj0 Þ
element j with respect to the main cutting edge (jZ0) are
given, respectively, by the angles xjr and xjc , Eqs. (3) and (11), (47.6)
Fig. 4. For each jth cutting edge element, the area of
undeformed chip section Aj is given by Eq. (6), Fig. 3. The tjh Z rðV cos ljs sin fjn Þ2 gjh C tj0 (47.7)
cutting angles ljs and ajn (Fig. 5), are calculated from the !
relationships (9) and (10) in terms of l0s ; a0n ; xjr and xjc : As it b ðgjh Þ2
qjh Z qw C rðV cos ljs sin fjn Þ2 C tj0 gjh (47.8)
may be observed during a bar turning operation, the chip rc 2
when formed flows in a single direction as a rigid bloc.
Consequently, it can be considered that the chip velocity Vc is j
Fsh Z Ktjh Ajsh (47.9)
the same for each elementary chip. The direction and
the length of Vc are given, respectively, by the angle h0c The quadrature in Eq. (47.6) is made by using the Gauss
and Vc : The angle h0c ; is measured in the tool rake face, and method, and tj0 is calculated following a Newton–Raphson
represents the angle between the normal to the main cutting scheme. The strain rate g_ j ðgj ; tj0 Þ given by the constitutive
edge and the chip flow direction. law (22), is actually function of gj and tj0 when using
For the cutting conditions specified above, the simulation Eqs. (20) and (21).
of bar turning process is initiated by appropriate estimates At the tool–chip interface, the mean friction coefficient m j
of Vc ðVc;initial Z V=ðsin a0n C a0n =tan is dependent on the mean temperature T jint : This temperature
 cos PfÞ with fZ p=4C
NC1 j

0 0 0
0:5ðan K tan m 0 ÞÞ and hc hc;initial Z jZ0
K1
ðls C xjc ÞAj =A : is determined implicitly with Eq. (47.16) by accounting for
In the next step, we use the algorithm, given by Eqs. (47.1)– Eqs. (47.10)–(47.14) (see Section 3.3) as follows. Let us
(47.19), to calculate for each chip element j the forces Rjn consider that at the ith iteration T jint has been estimated. From
and Pj1 ðPj1 Z V$Rjchip=tool =kVkÞ which represent, respect- this estimation we can calculate the mean friction angle lj
ively, the interaction with neighbouring chips and the with Eq. (47.10). Then Rjn ; ljc and pj0 can be determined with
elementary cutting force. For a given value of Vc, the global Eqs. (47.11)–(47.14). A new estimation of T jint is obtained
chip flow angle h0c is determined so as to satisfy the from Eq. (47.16). Once the estimation of T jint is good enough,
P globalj the calculation of T jint is stopped
chip equilibrium characterized by the relationship NC1 jZ0 Rn
Z0; Eq. (35). Then Vc is calculated in order to minimise the !q !
T jint
specific cutting energy (this is equivalent to minimizing m j Z m 0 1 K with lj Z tanK1 m j (47.10)
Tm

j cos hjsh tan lj sin hjc C sin hjsh ðcosðfjn K ajn Þ K tan lj cos hjc sinðfjn K ajn ÞÞ
Rjn Z Fsh (47.11)
cosðfjn K ajn Þcos hjc K tan lj sinðfjn K ajn Þ
 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180 177

z C 2 cos hjsh Fsh

j
ðsinðfjn K ajn Þ C tan lj cosðfjn K ajn Þcos hjc Þ C Rjn sin hjc Aj
ljc Z (47.12)
2 sin fjn cos hjc ðcos hjsh Fsh
j
C Rjn sin hjc sinðfjn K ajn ÞÞ wjr
with
8 The force exerted by the tool on the jth chip element is
>
> f sinðkr K xjr Þ 0% j% N
>
< given by:
Aj sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z 

wjr >
> r2 p f 1 f2 kRjtool=chip k
>
: K cosK1 K r2 K j Z N C1
f 2 2r 2 4 j
KFsh coshjsh K Rjn sin hjc sinðfjn K ajn Þ
(47.13) Z
cos lj ðcosðfjn K ajn Þ K tan lj cos hjc sinðfjn K ajn ÞÞ

2
j (47.18)
2tjh cos hjsh C FRjn sin hjc sinðfjn K ajn Þ
pj0 Z
sh z C1 The elementary cutting force Pj1 ; relative to the jth
DEN z C2 cutting edge element, is deduced from Eq. (36):
(47.14)
Pj1 Z kRjtool=chip kcos lj ðcos a0n cos l0s C tan lj ðsin h0c sin l0s
with
C cos h0c sin a0n cos l0s ÞÞ ð47:19Þ
DENZ½ð1Kðtanlj coshjc Þ2 Þsinð2ðfjn Kajn ÞÞ

coshjsh
C2tanlj coshjc cosð2ðfjn Kajn ÞÞ 5. Conclusion
2
Rjn In this work, a new thermomechanical modelling of
C j sinhjc ðcosðfjn Kajn ÞKtanlj coshjc sinðfjn Kajn ÞÞ cutting with a complex cutting edge is presented. The
Fsh
present approach is able to give the local information along
the cutting edge, such as the temperature distribution.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
m j pj0 Currently the literature’s models are mainly based on the
T jint Z pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi Vc ljc equivalent cutting edge concept (the real cutting edge is
pkrc
" !# replaced by a fictive straight line) combined with the
X z
2 X
zKi
2 Merchant’s approach, the Oxley’s model or the mechanistic
! i
Cz s s
ðK1Þ CzKi Cqjh method. These models can be used to determine the cutting
iZ0
2iC1 sZ0
2ðiCsÞC3
forces, but cannot be helpful for obtaining local quantities
(47.15) such as temperature fields. This information is of import-
where ance since tool wear is strongly influenced by the
temperature level. Optimization of cutting edge geometry
z! is a possible outcome of the present analysis.
Czi Z
ðzKiÞ!i!

For zZ2, the expression Appendix A

!
X
z
2 X
zKi
2 As presented in paragraph 2, in the present approach the
Czi ðK1Þs CzKi
s
2iC1 2ðiCsÞC3 tool cutting edge is discretized into NC2 cutting edge
iZ0 sZ0
elements referenced by the index j, with 0%j%NC1.
is equal to 4/7 and Eq. (47.15) becomes: The main cutting edge corresponds to jZ0, see Fig. 3.
This appendix concerns the determination of the cutting
j j qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
4 p m j ðT int Þ angles ljs and ajn (inclination angle and normal cutting
T jint Z 0pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi Vc ljc Cqjh (47.16)
7 pkrc angle corresponding to the jth cutting edge element) in
j terms of the cutting edge geometry which is characte-
The temperature distribution Tint ðzf Þ at the rake face is rized by the angle xjc ; measured in the tool rake
given by face, between the cutting edge elements jZ0 and
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1%j%NC1, see Fig. 4.
j 2 m j pj0 zf Vc 2 In a turning operation, the tool geometry is mainly
Tint ðzf ÞZ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð8zf C15ðljc Þ2 K20ljc zf ÞCqjh
15ðljc Þ2 pkrc defined by using the fundamental planes Pr, P0s and P0n ; see
(47.17) paragraph 2 and Fig. 1. The reference plane Pr is normal the
cutting velocity VZVxr and parallel to the feed direction
with zfl2[0,lc]. zr; yr (corresponding to the radial direction) is contained in
178 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180

the plane Pr; (xr, yr, zr) is an orthonormal basis, see Fig. 1. basis
The planes P0s and P0n are relative to the main cutting edge. 8 9 2 38 9
> xr > 1 0 0 > xr >
P0s is perpendicular to the reference plane Pr and contains >
> >
>
< = 6 7>< > =
the main cutting edge which is normal to P0n : As for the j 6 j
ys ¼ 6 0 cos xr sin xr 7 y0s j 7
main cutting edge, the planes Pjs and Pjn are introduced >
>
>
>
> 4 5>
: 0>
> >
for each jth cutting edge element. Pjs is normal to Pr and : j> ; j j
;
zs 0 Ksin xr cos xr zs
contains the cutting edge element j (Fig. 4), which is 8 j9 2 38 9
>
> xn > > cos ljs sin ljs 0 > > xr > >
normal to Pjn : >
< = 6 > < >
7> =
In the tool rake face, yjn is the unit vector along the j 6 7 j
yn ¼ 6 Ksin ls cos ls 0 7 ys
j j
jth cutting edge element and is contained in the plane >
> >
> 4 5>
> >
>
: j>
> ; : j>
> ;
Pjs : The projection of yjn on the reference plane Pr is z 0 0 1 z s
8 s9 2 3 8 j9 (A6)
oriented by the unit vector yjs as shown in Fig. 4. To > xc > cos ajn 0 Ksin ajn >
>
> > > xn > >
calculate the angles xjc ; ljs and ajn ; a set of frames is < > = 6 7>< > =
j 6 0 7 j
introduced. yn ¼ 6 1 0 7 yn
>
> >
> 4 5>> >
>
The intersection between Pjs and Pr is oriented by the unit : j>
> ; j j : j>
> ;
vector yjs ; see Fig. 4. The frame ðxr ; yjs ; zjs Þ is further defined zc sin an 0 cos an zs
8 9 2 38 9
by zjs Z xr !yjs : >
> xc > > 1 0 0 > xc >
< >
> = 6 < >
7> =
The angle xjr is defined as j 6 j j 7
yn ¼ 6 0 cos xc sin xc 7 y0n
>
> > 4 5> >
xjr Z ðy0s ; yjs Þ (A1) > j>
: >
; j j
: 0>
> ;
zc 0 Ksin xc cos xc zc
xjr is the angle between the planes P0s and Pjs measured in the with x0r Z x0c Z 0:
reference plane Pr, see Fig. 4. We want now to determine the angle xjc in terms of xjr ; l0s
The unit vector yjn ; along the jth cutting edge element, is and a0n : The unit vector yjn of the jth cutting edge element, is
characterized in Pjs by the angle ljs ; Fig. 5: expressed in the basis ðxr ; y0s ; z0s Þ (Figs. 4 and 5) by using
Eq. (A6):
ljs Z ðyjs ; yjn Þ (A2)
yjn Z cos xjc y0n C sin xjc z0c (A7)
ljs defines the inclination relative to the cutting edge 8 0
element j. >
> z Z cos a0n z0s C sin a0n x0n
< c
The basis ðxjn ; yjn ; zjs Þ is obtained from ðxr ; yjs ; zjs Þ by a x0n Z cos l0s xr C sin l0s y0s (A8)
rotation of angle ljs around zjs : The normal plane Pjn contains >
>
: 0
the unit vectors xjn and zjs ; Fig. 5. Note that: yn Z Ksin l0s xr C cos l0s y0s
By substituting Eq. (A8) into Eq. (A7), we get:
ðxr ; xjn Þ Z ðyjs ; yjn Þ Z ljs (A3)
yjn Z ðKcos xjc sin l0s C sin xjc sin a0n cos l0s Þxr
Finally, the jth cutting edge element is associated to
C ðcos xjc cos l0s C sin xjc sin a0n sin l0s Þy0s
the frame ðxc ; yjn ; zjc Þ such as xc is normal to the rake
face: C sin xjc cos a0n z0s (A9)

ðzjs ; zjc Þ Z ðxjn ; xc Þ Z ajn (A4) Let us remind that yjs is the unit vector along the
projection of yjn (unit vector of the jth cutting edge
ajn is the normal rake angle measured in the normal element) on the reference plane Pr ðPr hðz0s ; y0s Þ; Fig. 4).
plane Pjn ; see Fig. 5. Therefore:
In the rake face, the angle between the main cutting yjn K ðyjn $xr Þxr
edge (jZ0) and the jth cutting edge element is given yjs Z (A10)
kyjn K ðyjn $xr Þxr k
by xjc :
From the cutting edge geometry defined by xjr Z
xjc Z ðy0n ; yjn Þ (A5) ðy0s ; yjs Þ
in Pr plane (Fig. 4), we have:
yjs Z cos xjr y0s C sin xjr z0s (A11)
An illustration of the angle xjc is presented in
Fig. 4b. The angle xjr ; which represents the projection The angle xjc
is determined by using Eqs. (A9)–(A11).
of xjc in the reference plane Pr, is determined in Then, after some algebraic manipulation we get:
Section 2 (Eq. (3)), see also Fig. 4.
cos l0s tan xjr
Before calculating xjc ; the following set of equations tan xjc Z (A12)
summarizes the transformations between orthonormal cos a0n K tan xjr sin a0n sin l0s
 A. Molinari, A. Moufki / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 166–180 179

The angle xjc is calculated from Eq. (A12) by Then for 1%j%NC1 (such as xjr s0 and xjc s0), the
j j
considering that sin xr sin xc R 0; as shown by comparing normal rake angle ajn is calculated from Eq. (A20) by
Eq. (A10) with Eq. (A11). considering Eqs. (A17) and (A18):
8 j j
>
> j sin l0s K cos xc sin ls
>
> sin an Z
< sin xjc cos ljs
%  & (A20)
>
> cos l0s K cos xjr cos xjc cos ljs C tan ljs cos xjc sin ljs K sin l0s
>
> j
: cos an Z
sin xjr sin xjc
The projections of yjn onto the unit vectors xr and yjs are
given by using Eq. (A6):
References
( j
yn $xr Z Ksin ljs
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yjn $yjs Z cos ljs machining of Inconel 718 with ceramic tools, Ann. CIRP 42 (1993)
103–106.
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8 ture of ceramic tools in high speed machining of difficult-to-cut
>
> sin ljs Z cos xjc sin l0s K sin xjc sin a0n cos l0s materials, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manufact. 36 (5) (1996) 611–634.
>
< [3] M. Rahman, W.K.H. Seah, T.T. Teo, The machinability of Inconel
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>
> [4] L.V. Colwell, Predicting the angle of chip flow for single-point cutting
>
:
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>
> z Z cos ajn zjs C sin ajn xjn
> c
>
[10] J.A. Arsecularatne, R.F. Fowle, P. Mathew, Nose radius oblique tool:
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>
>
>
> [11] J.A. Arsecularatne, R.F. Fowle, P. Mathew, Prediction of chip flow
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