Theory of

Metal Cutting
M Prithvi Raj
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering
ANITS
Material removal processes
MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

Traditional Advanced

Cutting Finishing

Circular Other/Prismatic Bonded Loose

Shape Shape Abrasive Abrasive

• Turning • Milling
• Grinding
• Drilling • Planning • Lapping
• Honing
• Boring • Shaping • Polishing
• Coated Abrasive
• Gear Cutting
• Broaching
 Basic elements of Machining
Machine tool: Relative Motion between workpiece & cutting edge of tool.

Workpiece

Cutting Tool Machine Tool Product

Machining
Conditions

Inefficient but most important manufacturing process

 Cutting parameters
Cutting Speed
• Cutting speed is total length of chip per unit time with reference to the tool.

• Cutting speed of a cutting tool can be defined as the rate at which its cutting edge passes over
the surface of the workpiece.

• It is expressed in meters per minute (mpm)

• In turning it is given by

Cutting velocity Vc= rω = r. (2 π N)/1000 = π D N/1000 m/min

D = dia. of workpiece in mm,

N = rpm of spindle in rpm

Feed: The feed is the distance the tool advances into or along the workpiece each
time the tool point passes a certain position in its travel over the surface.

• In case of turning feed is the distance that the tool advances in one revolution of
the workpiece

• Feed f is usually expressed in mm/rev

• Feed in mm/min = feed in mm/rev X N

Depth of cut: The depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in one
cut. The depth of the cut is always perpendicular to the direction of the feed
motion.

Depth of cut ‘d’ is always expressed in mm = (d1-d2)/2 for turning

Types of Cutting
• Orthogonal Cutting
• Oblique cutting
 Orthogonal Cutting Vs Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting
The cutting edge of the tool remains perpendicular to The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an acute
the direction of tool feed or work feed. angle to the direction of tool feed or work feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to the The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle with
cutting edge of the tool. the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The angle is
known as the chip flow angle.
Here only two components of forces are acting: Cutting Here three components of forces are acting: Cutting
Force and Thrust Force. So the metal cutting may be Force, Radial force, and Thrust Force or feed force. So the
considered as a two-dimensional cutting metal cutting may be considered as a three-dimensional
cutting.
The chip flow angle i.e. the angle between the direction The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at angle ‘i’ with
of chip flow and the normal to the cutting edge of the the normal to the direction of work feed or tool feed.
tool, measured in the plane of the tool face is zero
The cutting edge is larger than the cutting width. Cutting edge may or may not be larger than cutting
width.

Short tool life Longer tool life

Elements/Nomenclature of Single point tool
Shank, Face, Flank, Base, Heel, Nose Radius
 Elements/Nomenclature of Single point tool
• Rack Angle
• Lip Angle
• Clearance Angle
• Relief Angle
• Cutting Angle
 Tool Signature
American Standards Association (A.S.A)
• ∝𝑦 = Top rack / Back Rack angle
• ∝𝑥 = Side rack angle
• 𝛽𝑦 = End relief / Clearance angle
• 𝛽𝑥 = Side relief/Clearance angle
• ∅𝑒 = End cutting edge angle
• ∅𝑠 = Side cutting edge angle
• θ = Nose angle
• R = nose radius

∝𝒚 , ∝𝒙 , 𝜷𝒚 , 𝜷𝒙 , ∅𝒆 , ∅𝒔 , R
Eg: 8,10,6,6,6,10,2 signature in A.S.A
 Orthogonal Rack system (O.R.S)
• ∅𝑜 = Plane approach angle (or) principal cutting edge angle (or) Major cutting edge angle (or) simple
approach angle
• ∅1 = Auxiliary cutting edge angle (or) auxiliary
cutting angle (or) Minor cutting edge (or)
secondary cutting-edge angle
• λ= Angle of inclination (or) Inclination angle
• α = Orthogonal rake angle
• γ = orthogonal clearance angle
• 𝛾1 = Auxiliary orthogonal clearance angle
• β = Wedge angle
• δ = Cutting angle
λ , ∝, 𝜸, 𝜸𝟏 , ∅𝟏 , ∅𝟎 , R
• ∝1 = Side rake angle
• 𝛽1 = Side wedge angle
 Normal Rack System (N.R.S)

• λ= Angle of inclination (or) Inclination angle

• α𝑛 = Normal rake angle
• γ𝑛 = Normal clearance angle
• γ′𝑛 = Auxiliary normal clearance angle
• ∅𝑜 = Plane approach angle (or) principal cutting edge angle (or) Major cutting edge angle (or)
simple approach angle
• ∅1 = Auxiliary cutting edge angle (or) auxiliary cutting angle (or) Minor cutting edge (or)
• R = nose radius

λ , α𝒏 , 𝜸𝒏 , 𝜸′𝒏 , ∅𝟏 , ∅𝟎 , R
 Mechanism of
chip formation

The tool will cut or shear off the metal,

provided by;
• The tool is harder than the work
metal
• The tool is properly shaped so that
its edge can be effective in cutting
the metal.
• Provided there is movement of tool relative to the material or vice versa, so as to make cutting action
possible.
 Types of Chips

Continuous chip results in:

• Good surface finish
• High tool life
• Low power consumptions
Discontinuous chip results in:
• Easy disposal
• Good surface finish
Adverse effects of built-up edge formation:

• Rough surface finish on the workpiece

• Fluctuating cutting force, causing vibrations in the cutting tool

• Chances of carrying away some material from the tool by the built-up surface, producing a crater
on the tool face causing tool wear.

Precautions to avoid Built-up-edge

• The coefficient of friction at the chip-tool interface should be minimized by polishing the tool face
and providing an adequate coolant during the operation

• By keeping large rake angles

• High cutting speeds and low feeds should be employed because at high speeds, the strength of
the weld becomes low. Similarly, at high temperatures, the weld’s strength becomes low.
 Favorable conditions for chip formation
Continuous Chips: Discontinuous chips: Continuous chips with built-up
edges
• Sharp cutting edges • Brittle Material
• High friction between Tool
• Low feed rate • Low cutting speed
& chip
• Large rake angle • Small rake angle
• Ductile material
• Ductile work material
• Particles of chip adhere to
• High cutting speed
the rake face of the tool
• Low friction at Chip-Tool interface near cutting edge
Adverse effect of continuous chips
• Effects the tool life by spoiling the cutting edge, creating crater and rising
the temperature.

• Lead to poor surface finish on the work piece.

• If the chip gets curled around the rotating workpiece or tool, it may be
hazardous to the machine operator

• If large and continuous coil is allowed, it may engage entire machine and
even the workpiece, its quite dangerous

• Very large coils offer a lot of difficulty in their removal

 Chip breakers
• The chip breaker break the produced chips into small pieces.

• The work hardening of the chip makes the work of the chip breakers easy.

• When strict chip control is

desired, some chip breaker has
to be employed.
Types:
• Groove type
• Step type
• Secondary Rake type
• Clamp type
Refer notes for the following topics
• Shear angle calculation
• Velocity relationship
• Force Relationships
• Merchant’s Circle diagram
• Stress and strains in chip
• Work done and power calculations
• Example Problems
Factors affecting the selection of cutting speed
• Work Material: Hard and strong materials require a lower cutting speed, whereas soft and ductile
materials require higher cutting speeds.

• Cutting tool material: Special cutting tool materials, for example, cemented carbides, ceramics,
Stellite, and HSS, will cut at much higher cutting speeds than alloy or carbon steel tools.

• The depth of cut and Feed: A light finishing cut with a fine feed may be run at a higher speed than
heavy roughing cut.

• Desired cutting tool life: The tool life is a direct function of cutting temperatures which increases with
increased cutting speed. Thus, as the cutting speed is increased, cutting tool life is decreased.

• Rigidity and condition of the machine and tool and rigidity of the work: An old, loose machine
working with a poorly supported tool, can’t be worked at higher cutting speeds when compared with a
good machine with a rigid tool on a well-supported job.
Factors affecting the selection of feed
• Surface finish of the job: A coarse feed will give wider and deeper machining marks,
whereas a finer feed gives a better finish. A blunt tool will give a better finish than a
sharp tool for the same feed.

• Power available, condition of the machine, and its drive: The product of the speed, feed
and depth of cut gives the amount of metal being removed, and hence, the power is
necessary. A course feed on a poorly or badly driven machine harms the machine and
the tool.

• Type of cut: As a general rule, courser feed is used for roughing and finer feed for
finishing.

• Tool Life: The cutting temperature increases with the increase of feed, resulting in
decreased in tool life
Material Removal Rate (MRR) is defined as the volume of material removed
in unit time.
• Volume of material removed = L1 x w x t1
L1 x w x t1
• Material removal rate =
𝑡

= Vc x w x t1
Material removal rate = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut
Specific Cutting energy is defined as the total energy consumed per unit
volume of material removed
𝐹𝑐 𝑥 𝑉𝑐 𝐹𝑐
uf = =
𝑉𝑐 𝑥 𝑤 𝑥 𝑡1 𝑤 𝑥 𝑡1
 Source of Heat in Metal Cutting
• Around shear Zone – Primary Deformation Zone

• Tool-Chip interface – Secondary Deformation Zone

• Tool-Work interface

% distribution of total heat

Workpiece-15%

Tool-15%
Chip-70%
 Effects of the high cutting temperature
• Rapid tool wear, which reduces tool life

• Plastic deformation of the cutting edges if the tool material is not hot-hard and
hot-strong thermal flaking and fracturing of the cutting edges due to thermal
shocks

• Built-up-edge formation

• Dimensional inaccuracy of the job due to thermal distortion and expansion-

contraction during and after machining

• Surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion, burning.

• Induction of tensile residual stresses and micro cracks at the surface / subsurface
Tool Failure
Adverse effects of tool failure
• Extremely poor surface finish on the workpiece
• Higher consumption of power
• Work dimensions are not being produced as specified.
• Overheating of cutting tool
• Appearance of a burnishing band on the workpiece

Modes of tool failure

• Thermal cracking and softening
• Mechanical chipping
• Gradual wear
 Thermal Cracking
• Heat generated during the process of metal cutting, the tool tip and the area closer to the cutting
edge becomes very hot.

• If hot hardness limit of tool material is crossed, the material starts deforming plastically at the tip
and adjacent to the cutting edge under the action of cutting pressure and the high temperature.

• Factors responsible for creating such conditions of tool failure are

• High cutting speed
• High feed rate
• Excessive depth of cut
• Smaller nose radius
• choice of the wrong tool material.
 Mechanical chipping
A cutting tool gets broken due to the following factors:

• Large cutting force.

• By developing fatigue cracks under chatter conditions.

• Weak tool materials.

• High temperature and high stress

• In this also, failure duration is repeatable

• Therefore, it is also considered as an abnormal failure of

tool
 Gradual wear
• When a tool is used for some time, it is
found to have lost some weight or mass,
implying that it has lost some material from
it due to wear.
The following two types of wears are
generally found to occur in cutting tools.
1. Crater wear
2. Flank wear
Crater wear
• The principle region where wear takes place in a cutting tool is its face, at a small
distance from it's cutting edge.
• This type of wear generally takes place while machining ductile materials like
steel & steel alloys, in which continuous chip is produced
• The resultant feature of this type of wear of a crater at the tool chip interface
• This type of wear, or the formation of crater on the tool face is due to the
pressure of the hot chip sliding up the face of the tool
• The metal from the tool face is supposed to be transferred to the sliding chip by
means of the diffusion process
Flank wear
• It occurs due to abrasion between the tool flank & the work piece and excessive heat
generated as a result of the same

• The abrasion action is aided by the hard micro constituents of the cut material provide a
lot of abrasive material readily

• The entire area subjected to flank wear is known as wear land.

• This type of wear mainly occurs on the tool nose, front & side relief faces.

• The magnitude of this wear mainly depends on the relative hardness of the work piece
and tool materials at the time of cutting operation.

• When the tool is subjected to this type of wear ,the work piece loses its dimensional
accuracy, energy consumption is increased and the surface finish is poor.
 Flank wear
• Primary stage – Rapid wear due to
very high stress at the tool point
exists for a small duration.

• Secondary stage – uniformity exists

for a long duration in this stage.

• Ternary stage – wear rate increases

rapidly and results in total failure of
the tool.
Tool Life
There are three common ways of expressing Tool Life :

• As Time Period in minutes between two successive grindings.

• In terms of the Number of Components machined between two successive grindings.

This mode is commonly used when the tool operates continuously, as in case of
Automatic Machines.

𝑵𝒇𝒂 𝑪𝒃𝟏 = 𝑪

• In terms of the Volume of Material removed between two successive grindings. This
mode of expression is commonly used when the tool is primarily used for heavy stock
removal.

Tool Life (TL) = volume of material removed per minute x T

= Vc x f x t1 x T mm3
Factors affecting life of Cutting tool:
• Cutting speed
• Feed and depth of cut
• Tool geometry
• Tool material
• Work material
• Nature of cutting
• Rigidity of machine tool and work
• Use of cutting fluids
 Effect of cutting speed on tool life
• Maximum effect on tool is of cutting speed.
• The tool life varies inversely as the cutting speed. i.e., the
higher the cutting speed cutting speed the smaller is the tool
life.
• Taylor’s empirical Equation
V𝑻𝒏 = C
• Where T = tool life; usually in min
• V =cutting velocity, m/min
• C = constant (machining constant, numerically equal to the
cutting speed in m/min that gives the tool life of one minute)
• n=constant, called tool life index depends on tool material,
cutting conditions
Values of C and n
Two curves having same slope (n)
• B makes higher intercept on the axis.
• ‘C’ for B is higher than for A
Feed and depth of cut
• An increase in the feed rate and depth of cut has a similar effect, i.e. reduction in tool
life, as is experienced by the tool when cutting speed is increased.

Modified Taylor’s empirical Equation

257
𝑉= 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑇 0.19 𝑥 𝑓 0.36 𝑥 𝑡 0.80

Where, V = cutting speed in m/min

T = Tool life in min

f = Feed rate in mm/min

t = Depth of cut in mm

𝐶
For a given tool life 𝑉 = (C, a, b are constant)
𝑓𝑎 𝑥 𝑡 𝑏
Tool Geometry
• Many geometrical parameters (tool angles) of a cutting tool influence its performance and life.

• Some examples of them are:

• Rake angle (optimal rake angle -5° to +10°)

• Clearance angles or Relief angles (optimal clearance angle 5° to 8°)

• Cutting edge angles(optimal cutting edge angle 5° to 8°)

• Nose radius

Tool material
• The main characteristics of a good tool material are its hot hardness, wear resistance, impact
resistance, abrasion resistance, heat conductivity, strength etc.
Effect of work material on tool life
• The microstructure of work material plays a significant role because it directly effects the
hardness of the material

• Adverse effects on tool life are also experienced in machining of pure metals because of their
tendency to stick to the tool face.

Nature of cutting
Rigidity of the machine tool and work
Use of cutting fluid
Measurement of tip tool
interface temperature Tool-work thermocouple

• There are number of ways to

measure the tip tool interface
temperature
• Tool-work thermocouple
• Radiation pyrometer
• Embedded thermocouples
• Temperature sensitive paints