MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’
Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Kompally), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State,
India

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DIGITAL NOTES of MACHINE TOOLS

For
B.Tech – III YEAR – I

Prepared by
Mr. D M LAL
 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology(MRCET), Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Unit-1
Metal Cutting

Meaning of Metal Cutting:

Metal cutting is “the process of removing unwanted material in the form of chips, from a

block of metal, using cutting tool”. A person who specializes in machining is called a

machinist. A room, building or company where machining is done is called a Machine

Shop.

The basic elements involved in this process are:

(i) A block of metal (work piece)(ii) Cutting Tool(iii) Machine Tool.

(iv) Cutting Fluid. (v) Cutting speed (Primary Motion).(vi) Feed (Secondary Motion).

(vii) Chips(viii) Work holding and Fixturing.

(ix) Force and Energy Dissipated, and(x) Surface Finish.

The essential conditions for successful metal cutting are:

(a) Relative motion between work and cutting tool.(b) Tool material must be harder

than work material.(c) Work and tool must be rigidly held by jig and fixtures.(d) Sharp

Cutting edge of cutting tool.

(e) Primary Motion (Cutting Speed)(f) Secondary Motion (Cutting Feed) Almost all the

products produced by metal removal process, either directly or indirectly.

The major disadvantages of the process are loss of material in the form of chips.

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology(MRCET), Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Introduction

In the metal-working industry work pieces of different shapes and dimensions and of different
materials are produced. These working processes fall into two major groups:

1. Metal Forming: It is the process of converting a given shape of work piece into a required
shape and dimensions of job without change in the mass or composition of the material of
the work piece. This category includes operations like forging, drawing, spinning, rolling etc.

2. Metal Cutting: It is the process of producing a job by removing of unwanted materials from a
given work piece, in the form of chips. This process is most important since almost all the
products get their final shape and size by removal of the material, either directly or
indirectly. Some of the metal cutting operations are turning, boring, milling, shaping,
planning, broaching etc.

The principles of metal cutting (or machining) to achieve the following objectives of efficient
and economical machining practice:
  Quick metal removal
  Good surface finish
  Economy in tool cost
  Less power consumption
  Economy in the cost of replacement and re-sharpening of the tools
 Minimum idle time of machine tools.

The Mechanics of Chip Formation: The basic elements of machining operations are workpiece,
tool, and chip and the process can be schematically represented as shown below.

A wedge –shaped tool is made to move relative to the work-piece. As the tool makes contact
with the metal, it exerts pressure on it resulting in the compression of metal near the tool tip.
This induces shear-type deformation within the metal, and it starts moving upward along the top
face of the tool. As the tool advances, the material ahead of it sheared continuously along with
a plane called shear plane.

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology(MRCET), Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Methods of machining: Basically there are two methods of metal cutting, depending on the
arrangement of the cutting edge with respect to the direction of relative work-tool motion.

1. Orthogonal cutting, and

2. Oblique cutting

Comparison between these two cutting methods are illustrated below:

Orthogonal cutting or two dimensional cutting: The cutting edge of the tool is arranged
perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector, V. The analysis of this is relatively simple, hence widely
used for theoretical and experimental work. The features of this method are summarized below:

1. The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of tool feed or work feed

2. The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge of the tool
3. The angle of inclination of the cutting edge of the tool with the normal to the velocity v
is zero
4. The chip flow angle i.e. the angle between the direction of chip flow and the normal to the
cutting edge of the tool, measured in the plane of the tool face is zero

5. The cutting edge is longer than the width of the cut

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Oblique cutting or three dimensional cutting: The cutting edge of the tool is arranged at
some angle to the cutting velocity vector, V.

The features of this method are summarized below:

1. The cutting edge of the tool always remains inclined at an acute angle to the direction
of tool feed or work feed
2. The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle with the normal to the cutting edge of the
tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
3. The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at angle ‘i’ with the normal to the direction of work
feed or tool feed., i.e V
4. Three mutually perpendicular components of cutting forces act at the cutting edge of
the tool.
5. The cutting edge may not be longer than the width of the cut.

It is to be noted that in most of the metal cutting carried out in workshops is through oblique
cutting method, but all our further discussions on metal cutting will be in the context of
orthogonal cutting because of its simplicity.

Classification of cutting tools:

1. Single point tools - The single point cutting tool has only one cutting point or edge, and
a shank. These tools used for turning, boring, shaping or planning operations. These
tools used on lathe, boring and shaper machines.
2. Multi-point tools – The cutting tools with more than one cutting edge such as milling cutters,
drills, broaches, grinding wheels etc., These tools for the sake of analysis, be considered as
consisting of number of single point cutting tools, each forming a cutting edge.

The cutting tools also can be classified according to the motion as:
a. Linear motion tools – turning, boring, broaching, planning, shaping tools etc.

b. Rotary motion tools – milling cutters, grinding wheels etc

c. Linear and rotary tools – drills, honing, boring heads etc

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Elements of the single point cutting tool: A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened
cutting part and the shank and main parts or elements which are:

Important terms used in single point cutting tools:

  Shank: It is the main body of the tool.

  Face: The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
  Nose: It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect
 Heel: It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.

 Base: it is the bearing surface of the tool on which it is held in a tool holder or clamped
directly in a tool post.

 Nose Radius: If the cutting tip or nose of a single point tool carries a sharp cutting point, the
cutting tip would be weak and highly stressed during the operation and may fail or lose its
cutting ability soon and produces marks on the machined surface. In order to prevent these
harmful effects the nose is provided with a radius, called nose radius. It enables greater
strength of the cutting tip a prolonged tool life and a superior surface finish on the work
piece. as the radius increases the higher speeds can be used. But, if is too large, it may
lead to chatter.

Priciple angles in single point cutting tools:

 Rake Angle: It is the angle between the face of the tool and a plane parallel to its base. If this
inclination is towards the shank, it is known as back rake or top rake. When it is measured
towards the side of the tool, it is called the side rake. The rake angle can positive or negative

Rake angles guides the chips away from the cutting edge

Reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently helps to
 increase the tool life and reduce the power consumption
 It improves surface finish
Increased rake angle will reduce the strength of the cutting edge.

The tools used for cutting hard metals are given smaller rake angles whereas those
used for softer metals contain larger rakes.

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

 Positive rake :

Positive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression, the forces , and the
friction, yielding a thinner ,less deformed and cooler chip

But increased rake angle reduces the strength of the tool section and heat
conduction capacity

Some areas of cutting where positive rake may prove more effective are , when cutting
tough, alloyed materials that tend to work harden, such as certain stainless steel, when
cutting soft or gummy material or when low rigidity of workpiece, tooling , machine tool,
or fixture allows chatter to occur.

 Negative rake:

To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heat conductivity , zero or
negative rake angles employed on carbide, ceramic, polycrystalline diamond, and poly
crystalline cubic boron nitride cutting tools.

These materials tend to be brittle but their ability to hold their superior hardness at
high temperature results in their selection for high speed and continuous machining
operation.

Negative rakes increases tool forces but it is necessary to provide added support to the
cutting edge. This is particularly important in making intermittent cuts and in absorbing
the impact during the initial engagement of the tool and work.

Negative rakes are recommended on tool which does not possess good
toughness ( low transverse rupture strength)

Negative rake causes high compression, tool forces and friction, resulting in highly
deformed , hot chip.

 The rake angle for a tool depends on the following factors

Type of the material being cut: A harder material like cast iron may be machined by
smaller rake angle than that required by soft material like mild steel or aluminum.

Type of tool material. Tool material like cemented carbide permits turning at high
speed. At high speeds rake angle has little influence on cutting pressure. Under such
condition the rake angle can minimum or even negative rake angle is provided to
increase the tool strength.

Depth of cut: In rough turning, high depth of cut is given to remove the maximum
amount of the material. This means that the tool has to withstand severe cutting
pressure. So the rake angle should be decreased to increase the lip angle that
provides the strength of the cutting edge.

Rigidity of tool holder and machine: an importantly supported tool on old or worn out
machine cannot take up high cutting pressure. So while machining under above
condition, the tool used should have larger rake angle.

 Lip angle: The angle between the face and the flank of the tool is known as lip angle. It also
called as angle of keenness of the tool. Strength of the cutting edge or point of the tool is
directly effected by this angle. Larger lip angle stronger will be the cutting edge and vice
versa. Since the the clearance angle will be constant, this angle varies inversely as the rake
angle.

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

 Clearance angle: it is the angle between one of these surfaces and a plane normal to the
base of the tool. When the surface considered for this purpose is in front of the tool, the
angle formed is called front clearance and when the surface below the side cutting edge is
considered the angle formed is known as side clearance angle. The purpose of providing the
clearance angles is to allow the tool to cut freely without rubbing against the surface of the
job.

 Relief angle: it is the angle formed between the flank of the tool and a
perpendicular line drawn from the cutting point to the base of the tool.

 Cutting angle: the total cutting angle of the tool is the angle formed between the tool face
and a line through the point, which is a tangent to the machined surface of the work piece at
that point.

 Cutting Edge: It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the
work piece. The cutting edge consists of the side cutting edge (major cutting edge) and
cutting edge (minor cutting edge) and the nose.

 Side cutting edge angle: The following are the advantages of increasing this angle, 

It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the cutting force is distributed on a
wider surface It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of feed and
permits greater cutting speed. 

It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge. The side cutting edge angle of
the tool has practically no effect on the value of cutting force or power consumed for a
given depth of cut and feed. Large side cutting edge angles are lightly to cause the tool
to chatter.

 End cutting edge angle: The function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing
front cutting edge of the tool from rubbing against the work.

A large end cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool. It
varies from 8 to 15 degrees.

Left-hand and right-hand cutting tools: A single point cutting tool may be either right or left hand
cutting tool depending in the direction of the feed.

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B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Designation of cutting tools: By Designation or nomenclature of a cutting tool meant the

designation of the shape of the cutting part of the tool. Below are widely used:

1. American Standards Association System (ASA) or American National Standards Institute

(ANSI)
2. Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

ASA System: In the ASA system, the angles of tool face, i.e. its slope, are defined in two orthogonal
planes, one parallel to and other perpendicular to, the axis of the cutting tool, both planes being
perpendicular to the base of the tool. For simple turning operation, the system is illustrated in the
below fig.

Different planes in ASA system:

1. Reference plane (π): This is the horizontal base plane of the cutting tool
2. Longitudinal plane (π): It is a plane perpendicular to the base plane and parallel to the direction of the
longitudinal feed (S)

3. Transverse plane (π): It is a plane perpendicular to the base plane as well as the
longitudinal plane and in the direction of transverse feed (cross feed or depth of cut, t)

The axes X , Y, Z are in the direction of longitudinal feed, cross feed and cutting velocity
(vector) respectively

The main geometrical features and angles of single point tools in ASA system:

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Cutting angles:
 Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA), ∅ = It is the angle between side edge and the side of the
 tool shank.
 End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA), ∅ = It is the angle between the end cutting edge and
a line normal to the shank.

Rake angles:
 Side Rake Angle (SRA), ∝ = It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the
base of the tool measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and side cutting edge. This
angle s negative if the slope is towards the cutting edge and is positive if the slope is away
from the cutting edge.
 Back Rake Angle (BRA), ∝ = It is the angle between the face of the tool and a
line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side
cutting edge. This angle is positive if the side edge slopes downwards from the point
towards the shank and negative if the slope of the side cutting edge is reverse.

Clearance angles:
 Side Relief Angle (SRA), β = this is the angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and
measured at right angle to the side flank.
 End Relief Angle (ERA), β = It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool,
and is measured at right angle to the end flank.

Nose Angle, : It provides strengthening of the tool nose and better surface finish. ∝ ∝ β

β∅∅

In ASA system of tool angle, the angles are specified independently of the position of the cutting
edge. Therefore, doesn’t give any indication of the behaviour of the tool in practice. Therefore, in
actual cutting operation, we should include the side edge (principle cutting edge) in the scheme of
reference planes. Such is known as Orthogonal Rake System (ORS).

The main geometrical features and angles of single point tools in ORS system:

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B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

The Planes of reference and the co-ordinate axes used for expressing the tool angles in
ORS:

 Planes:π = Reference plane perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector, V

 π = Cutting plane; plane perpendicular to π and taken along the principal cutting edge
π= Orthogonal plane; plane perpendicular to both π and π and the axes.
And the axes;
X = along the line of intersection of π and π
 Y = along the line of intersection of π and π
Z = along the velocity vector, i.e., normal to both X and Y axes.
Tool geometry in Orthogonal Rake System (ORS): The tool angles in this system are illustrated
below:

∅ = principle cutting edge angle or primary cutting edge angle or major cutting edge angle or simply

approach angle

∅= Auxiliary cutting angle or auxiliary cutting angle or minor cutting edge angle or secondary cutting

 edge angle
 λ = angle of inclination or inclination angle
∝ = Orthogonal rake angle
= side relief angle
 = wedge angle
∝ = side rake angle

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B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

γ = end relief angle


β = side wedge angle
R = Nose radius of the tool tip in mm
According to ORS System, the tool signature: λ - ∝ - - - ∅- ∅- R

Work and tool must be rigidly held by jig and fixtures.

Sharp Cutting edge of cutting tool.

Primary Motion (Cutting Speed).

Secondary Motion (Cutting Feed).

Almost all the products produced by metal removal process, either directly or indirectly.
The major disadvantages of the process are loss of material in the form of chips .

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Chip Formation: The fig shows the orthogonal cutting operation in a shaping operation in which the
work piece remains stationery and the tool advances in to the work piece towards left.

The metal gets compressed very severely, causing shear stress. This stress is maximum
along the plane is called shear plane. If the material of the work piece is ductile, the material
flows plastically along the shear plane, forming chip, which flows upwards along the face of
the tool.
The complete plastic deformation of the metal does not take place entirely along the shear
plane only.
It actually occurs over a definite area PQRS
The metal structure starts getting elongated along the line PQ below the shear plane and
continuous above the shear plane and continues up to the line RS where its deformation
is completed.
The complete area PQRS is known as shear zone
The shape of the shear zone is a wedge shape with its thicker portion near the tool and
the thinner one opposite to it.
This shape of shear zone is one of the reasons to curl the chip
The produced chip is very hot and it safe disposal is very necessary

Types of chips: Irrespective of cutting conditions, the chips produced may belong to one of the
three types:

1. Discontinuous Chips
2. Continuous Chips
3. Continuous Chips with built-up-edge (BUE)

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Discontinuous Chips: These types chips are usually produced when cutting brittle materials like grey
cast iron, bronze and hard brass. These chips are also produced when cutting more ductile materials
under the following conditions:

  Large chip thickness

  Low cutting speed
  Small rake angle of the tool
 Cutting with use of cutting fluid

Continuous Chips: These types of chips produced when, machining more ductile materials. Due to
large plastic deformations possible with ductile materials, longer continuous chips are produced.
These following conditions also help in the production of continuous chips:

  Small chip thickness

  High cutting speed
 Large rake angle of the cutting tool

 Reducing the friction of the chip along the tool face, by: o
imparting high surface finish to the tool face

o use of tool material with low co-efficient of friction o use
of a good cutting fluid

Continuous Chips with built-up-edge (BUE): When machining ductile materials ductile materials,
conditions of high local temperature and extreme pressure on the cutting zone and also high friction
in the tool-chip interface, may cause the work material to adhere or weld to the cutting edge of the
tool forming the build-up-edge. Successive layers of work material are then added to the build-up-
edge. When this edge becomes larger and unstable, it breaks up and part of it is carried up the face
of the tool along with the chip while the remaining is left over the surface being machined, which
contributes to the roughness of the surface. Low cutting speed contributes to the formation of built-
up-edge.

Adverse effects of built-up edge formation:

a) Rough surface finish on the work piece
b) Fluctuating cutting force, causing vibrations in cutting tool
c) Chances of carrying away some material from the tool by the built-up-surface, producing
crater on the tool face causing tool wear.

The following precautions could avoid the Built-up-edge:

a) The coefficient of friction at the chip-tool interface should be minimized by polishing
the tool face and adequate supply of coolant during the operation
b) By keeping large rake angles
c) High cutting speeds and low feeds should be employed because at high speeds the
strength of the weld becomes low. Similarly, at high temperatures also the strength of the
weld becomes low.

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Cutting Ratio (or) Chip Thickness Ratio:

Where,
AB – Shear Plane
∝= Rake Angle
∅ = Shear Angle

t = Chip thickness
t = undeformed chip thickness
=
r = Degree of chip reduction or chip reduction coefficient ( r is

usually will be higher or equal to 1)

= Chip thickness ratio = =

"
From ∆ ABC, t = AB Sin∅
t = AB Cos( −∝)
%& '(( *∝) '(( *∝)
r= = = ------- (1)
%& +, +,
'( '(∝. +, +,∝
r= = Cot∅ Cos∝+Sin∝
+,
'(∝

∴ Tan∅ = * +,∝ --------- (2)

'(∝

Or ∴ Tan∅ = * +,∝ where r = Chip thickness ratio =

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B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Chip control and Chip breakers:

The chips produced during machining, especially while employing higher speeds in machining of
high tensile strength materials need to be effectively controlled. As the higher speeds causing to
higher temperatures resulting in chips will be continuous, of blue colour and take the shape of
coil.

Adverse effect of coiled chips on machining:

 Effects the tool life by spoiling the cutting edge, creating crater and rising the
 temperature.
  Lead to poor surface finish on the work piece.
 If the chip gets curled around the rotating workpiece or tool, it may be hazardous to the
 machine operator
 If large and continuous coil is allowed, it may engage entire machine and even the
 workpiece, its quite dangerous
 Very large coils offer a lot of difficulty in their removal

Chip breakers: Chip breaker is used to break the produced chips into small pieces. The work
hardening of the chip makes the work of the chip breakers easy

The common methods used for chip breaking are:

1. By control of tool geometry: By grinding proper back rake and side rake
according the speeds and feeds
2. By obstruction method: by interposing a metallic obstruction in the path of the coil

The Commonly used chip breaker types are illustrated below:

1. Groove type – it consists of a groove on the face of the tool, behind the cutting edge,
leaving a small land near the tip as shown in fig (a)
2. Step type – it consists of a step on the face of the tool, adjacent to the cutting edge as
shown in fig (b)
3. Secondary rake type – it consists of a secondary rake on the tool, together with a small step
as shown in fig (c)
4. Clamp type – This type chip breakers are very common with carbide tipped tools. The chip
breaker is a thin and small plate which is either brazed or held mechanically on the tool face
as shown in fig (d)

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Velocity Relationship:

'(∝
--------------
∴ 12 = V '((∅ *∝) (1)

From mass continuity, V t = V3 t

245 +,

V3 = V 678( * ) -------- (2) 9 Substituting = '(( * )B

Or V3 = V --------- (3)

It can be referred from the principle of kinematics that the relative velocity of the two bodies (Tool
and chip) is equal to the vector difference between their velocities relative to the reference body
(workpiece)

So, V = V + V3 -------- (4)

From the constancy of volume removal,
" % EF
r= = " =% = EF = GH
where, A and A are uncut chip area and chip area respectively

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 Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
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Force relationship in Orthogonal cutting:

The relationships among the cutting forces were established by Merchant with the following
assumptions
1. The cutting velocity always remains constant
2. Cutting edge of the tool remains sharp throughout the cutting
3. There is no side ways of flow of the chip
4. Only continuous chip is produced
5. There is no built-up edge
6. No consideration is made of the inertia force of the chip
7. The behaviour of the chip is like that of a free body which is in the state of stable equilibrium
under the action of two resultant forces which are equal, opposite and collinear.

However, there were a number of flaws and practical difficulties in these assumptions and that is
why they were modified later.

F = Metal resistance to shear in chip formation, acting along the shear plane, or Shear Force

F, = Backing up force exerted by the workpiece on the chip, acting normal to the shear plane.

F = μN = Frictional resistance of the tool acting against the chip flow, acting along the

tool face. μ being the coefficient of friction between the tool face and the chip.
N= force exerted by the tool on the chip, acting normal to the tool face.

These forces are vectorially represented in the diagram. The F and F, can be easily
represented by their resultant R and forces F and N van be represented by R. For equilibrium,
R and R should be equal, act opposite to each other and should be
collinear. i.e.,
NNNNO
M =
NO P +
OQ

and NO = NNNO
M Q2
+ NNNNO
QR

= NNO + NNO
or, NO Q
= NNNNO
Q S T

M M

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B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

For the convenience of in studying further relationship, the two triangles of forces of the free body
diagram have been combined together in the below diagram, called Merchants circle diagram.

Merchant’s Circle Diagram: It is useful to determine the relation between the various forces and
angles.
In the diagram two force triangles have been combined and R and R
together have been replaced by R.
The force R can be resolved into two components F and F
F and F can be determined by force dynamometers
The rake angle ∝ can be measured from the tool, and forces F and N can then be
determined
The shear angle ∅ can be obtained from it’s relationship with chip reduction

Knowing, F, F, ∝ and ∅ all other component forces can be calculated with the help of
geometry with reference to the below figure.

F = AQ + QB
= AQ +DC
F F ------------- (1)

N = QD = PQ - PD
F F -------------- (2)
N = Cos∝ - Sin∝

On Shear Plane,
F = AH – HK
= AH - PE

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B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

F( = F Cos∅ - F Sin∅ ------------------ (3)

F, = CK = CE + EK
= CE + PH
Sin∅ ---------------
F, = F Cos∅ + F - (4)

And, F = AC cos(τ - ∝)
Or, F = R cos(τ - ∝)
Also, F( = R cos(∅ + τ - ∝)
Now, g '((i * ∝) '((i * ∝)
gh = '((∅ .i * ∝) = '((∅ .i * ∝)
∴ F F '((i * ∝)
= ( .
'((∅ .i * ∝)

From eqns. (1) and (2),

g g +,∝ . gk '(∝
j = g '(∝ * gk +,∝ =μ

Dividing the numerator and denominator by Cos ∝

g gk . g m,∝
j = g * gk m,∝ =μ

Also from right angled ∆g" ABC,

j = tanτ = μ ------------ (5)

Where μ = Kinetic coefficient of friction between the upward sliding chip and tool face
And, τ = angle of friction
*
Or, τ = tan μ

* g
= tan j
o

Further, %o = tan PAC

By substituting the values of CP, AP and angle PAC, we get
gk
p ∝ 6
= tan ( - ) ------------( )
g

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B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Procedure to construct Merchants Force Circle Diagram (using

drafting techniques / instruments):

Experimental values:
1. Cutting force component parallel to cutting velocity. F C =
2. Cutting force component perpendicular to cutting velocity, F t =
3. Rake angle, ∝ =
4. t = Chip thickness =
5. t = un-deformed chip thickness =
1. Set up x-y axis labelled with forces, and the origin in the centre of the page.
The scale should be enough to include both the measured forces. The
cutting force (Fc) is drawn horizontally, and the tangential force (F t) is
drawn vertically. (These forces will all be in the lower left hand quadrant)
(Note: square graph paper and equal x & y scales are essential)
2. Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
3. Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses vector R. If done correctly, the heads and
tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this circle.
4. Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant, taking care to draw the correct rake
angle (a) from the vertical axis.
5. Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the same rake angle) through the circle.
This now gives the friction vector (F).
6. A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector (F), to the head of the resultant
vector (R). This gives the normal vector (N). Also add a friction angle (t)
between vectors R and N. As a side note recall that any vector can be broken down
into components. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F + N.
7. We next use the chip thickness, compared to the cut depth to find the shear force. To do this, the
chip is drawn on before and after cut. Before drawing, select some
magnification factor (e.g., 200 times) to multiply both values by. Draw a feed thickness line
(t1) parallel to the horizontal axis. Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool
cutting face.

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8. Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the intersection of the two chip lines,
stopping at the circle. The result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure the
shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
9. Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs to the head of R.
10. Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances (forces) and angles.

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Forces on a single point tool in turning: it is a case of oblique cutting in which three component
forces act simultaneously on the tool point, as shown in fig:

The components are

1. F = the cutting force, acting in vertical plane and is tangential to the work surface. Also
called as tangential feed force or tangential force
2. F = The feed force or thrust force acting in horizontal plane parallel to the axis of the work. Also
called as axial feed force
3. F = The radial force, also acting in the horizontal plane but along a radius of the workpiece.,
i.e., along the axis of the tool. Also called as radial feed force

Out of these three component forces, F is the largest and F is the smallest. It has been found
out that the value of F for turning varies between 0.3F and 0.6F and that of F between 0.2F
and 0.4F

In case of orthogonal cutting, only two component forces come into play since the value of F
is zero in that case.
Therefore, in the case of turning operation, the components F, F and F can be easily be
determined with the help of suitable force dynamometers. Their resultant R can be computed
from the eqn:

t t t
For Oblique cutting operation, R = rsF + F + F u For

t t
Orthogonal cutting operation, R = rsF + F u

F = R Cos(∅ + p − v)
F = R Cos(p − v) w

As per merchants formula, 2∅+τ-∝ = t = 90

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Stress in shear plane:

Let A = Area of chip before removal
A( = Area of the shear plane
F( = Shearing Force
t
S = Shear stress on shear plane in kgf/mm

gx
S=% x

But A =
%
+,∅
+,∅
= F2
∴ S % We know F = F Cos∅ - F Sin∅
+,∅ (g '(∅ * gk +,∅ )
∴ S=
%
Work done and Power required in cutting:

Total work done in shear:

W = cutting force x cutting speed
= F 16 kgfm

The work done in shear:

W = Shearing force x velocity of the chip relative to the cutting tool = F 12 kgfm

The work done in friction:

W 3= Friction force x frictional velocity
= F3 1z kgfm
The total work done in cutting, W = W + W 3

HP Required in cutting:
{' | }', +, ~+,• €+,~
=
•‚

gƒ „ƒ
= •‚ HP where F is in kgs

V is in mm/min
ƒ „ƒ

= KWg
•‚ E .…†

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B.Tech. M.E. III-1 - Machine Tool – Unit 1

Principle elements of Metal Machining: The principle elements of metal machining are

1. Cutting speed
2. Feed
3. Depth of cut

Cutting speed: The speed can be defined as the relative surface speed between the tool and the
job. It is expressed in meters per minute (mpm). It is thus the amount of length that will pass the
cutting edge of the tool per unit time.

Feed: it may be defined as the relatively small movement per cycle of the cutting tool, relative to
the work piece in a direction which is usually perpendicular to the cutting speed direction. It is
expressed in mm (millimetres) per revolution or mm per stroke.

Depth of cut: The depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in one cut.
The depth of the cut is always perpendicular to the direction of the feed motion.

Selection of cutting speed: The selection of cutting speed will depend upon the following factors.

1. Work Material: Hard and strong materials require a lower cutting speed, where as soft and
ductile materials require higher cutting speeds.
2. Cutting tool material: Special cutting tool materials, for example m cemented carbides,
ceramics, and Stellite and HSS will cut at much higher cutting speeds than alloy or
carbon steel tools.
3. The depth of cut and Feed: A light finishing cut with a fine feed may be run at a higher
speed than heavy roughing cut.
4. Desired cutting tool life: The tool life is a direct function of cutting temperatures which
increases with increase in cutting speed. Thus as the cutting speed is increased, cutting
tool life is decreased.
5. Rigidity and condition of the machine and tool and rigidity of the work: An old, loose
machine working with poorly supported tool, can’t be worked at higher cutting speeds
when compared with good machine with rigid tool on well supported job.

Selection of feed: The selection of Feed will depend on the following factors:

1. Surface finish of the job: A coarse feed will give wider and deeper machining marks,
where as a finer feed gives better finish. A blunt tool will give a better finish than a
sharp tool for the same feed.
2. Power available, condition of the machine, and its drive: The product of the speed,
feed and depth of cut gives the amount of metal being removed and

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hence, the power is necessary. A course feed on a poor or badly driven machine is
harmful both for the machine and the tool.
3. Type of cut: As a general rule, courser feed is used for roughing and finer feed for finishing.

4. Tool Life: The cutting temperature increases with increase of feed, resulting in
decreased in tool life.

Tool Wear and Life: During any machining process the tool is subjected to three distinct factors:
forces, temperature and sliding action due to relative motion of between tool and work piece. Due to
these factors, the cutting tool will start giving unsatisfactory performance after some time. That
could be loss of dimensional accuracy, increased surface roughness, and increased power
requirements etc. The tool wear may be classified as follows:

Flank Wear and crater wear are shown in fig. Flank wear is attributed usually to the following
reasons:

1. Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the work piece

2. Shearing of the micro welds between tool and work-material
3. Abrasion by fragments of built-up-edge blowing against the clearance face of the tool.

Crater Wear usually occurs due to:

1. Severe abrasion between chip and tool face.

2. High temperatures in the tool-chip interface reaching the melting temperature of the tool
resulting in increased rate of wear.

The reasons for Nose Wear:

1. Tool material too brittle

2. Excessive static or shock loading of the tool
3. Weak design of the tool, such as high positive rake angle

Tool Life: The total cutting time accumulated before tool failure occurs, is termed as tool life. The
two most commonly used criteria for measuring the tool life are:

1. Total destruction of the tool when it ceases to cut

2. A fixed size of wear land on the tool flank.

Factors affecting tool life: Tool life is primarily affected by a high temperature in thin surface layers
subject to wear. The variables affecting cutting temperatures will also affect tool life. These
variables:

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1. Cutting speed
2. Feed and depth of cut
3. Tool geometry
4. Tool material
5. Work material
6. Nature of cutting
7. Rigidity of the machine
8. Use of cutting fluids

1. Effect of cutting speed on tool life: The tool wear, hence tool life depends on many factors.
The greatest variation of tool life is with the cutting speed and tool temperature which is
closely related to cutting speed.

Taylor’s tool life equation: Taylor derived the simple equation as VT, = C where, n is called,
Taylor’s tool life exponent. The values of both ‘n’ and ‘c’ depend mainly upon the tool-work
materials and the cutting environment (cutting fluid application).

Taylor derived the simple equation as VTn = C where, n is called, Taylor’s tool life exponent.
The values of both ‘n’ and ‘C’ depend mainly upon the tool-work materials and the cutting
environment (cutting fluid application).

2. Effect of Feed and depth of cut on tool life: The tool life also depends to great extent on the
depth of cut, d and feed rate per revolution f. Assuming logarithmic variation of C and cut d,
the equation can be written as

VTn.dm = C

Considering Feed rate also, the general equation can be

VTn.dm.f x = C

3. Effect of Tool Geometry on tool life: many geometrical parameters (tool angles) of a
cutting tool influence its performance and life. Some examples of them are:
a) Rake angle
b) Clearance angles or Relief angles
c) Cutting edge angles
d) Nose radius

4. Effect of Tool material on tool life: The main characteristics of a good tool material
are its hot hardness, wear resistance, impact resistance, abrasion resistance, heat
conductivity, strength etc.

5. Effect of work material on toll life:

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a) the microstructure of work material plays a significant role because it directly

effects the hardness of the material
b) Adverse effects on tool life are also experienced in machining of pure metals
because of their tendency to stick to the tool face.

6. Effect of work material on toll life: Tool life is also effected by the nature of cutting i.e.
whether it is continuous or intermittent.

7. Rigidity of the machine tool and work: both machine tool and work hould remain rigid during
the machining process. If not , vibrations will take place and then the cutting tool will be
subjected to intermittent cutting. This will result in impacting tool life.

8. Use of cutting fluid: cutting fluids are used in machining work for cooling the tool and work,
reducing friction, improving surface finish, helping in breaking the chips and washing them
away etc. These factors help in improving tool life.

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Cutting Fluids: Any metal cutting operation lot of heat is generated due to plastic deformation of
metal, friction at the rake face of the tool between the tool and the chip and also the friction
between the work piece and the flank of the tool. This increases the temperature both of the work
piece and the tool point, resulting in decrease in hardness and hence tool life. The machined
surface also be rough and the possibility of built-up-edge (BUE) increases. So, the use of cutting
fluid during a machining process is very essential. Its application at the workpiece-tool interface
produces the following effects:

1. Friction at the workpiece-tool interface is reduced due to lubrication action.

2. Heat is reduced due to cooling action at the interface
3. The chips will be flushed away from the cutting zone
4. Reduces friction and wear, which improve the tool life and quality of the work piece

5. Reduces the force and energy consumption

6. Protects the newly machined surface from environmental corrosion
7. Prevents surface welding of points at high pressure, thus , controlling formation of BUE

8. Facilitates chip breaking in certain materials

Requirements of a cutting Fluid:

1. Good lubrication property

2. Hi heat absorbing capacity
3. High flash point
4. It should not damage or react with the materials of machine tool parts
5. It should not stain or leave residues on the workpiece surface
6. It should not emit toxic vapours
7. It should not get oxidised or decomposed when left in air.

Types of cutting fluids: There are two main types of cutting fluids:

1. Those which are mixed with water, such as, soluble oils and soaps. The concentrate
consists of a base mineral oil and emulsifiers to help produce a stable emulsion. They are
used in a diluted form (usual concentration = 3 to 10%) and provide good lubrication and
heat transfer performance. They are widely used in industry and are the least expensive
among all cutting fluids.

2. Those which are not mixed with water, called cutting oils, which can be pure oil or a mixture
of two or more oils. They are composed of a base mineral or petroleum oil and often contain
polar lubricants such as fats, vegetable oils as well as extreme pressure additives such as
Chlorine, Sulphur and Phosphorus. They provide the best lubrication and the poorest cooling
characteristics among cutting fluids.

Application of cutting fluid: The cutting fluid may be applied to the cutting tool in the following
ways:

1. By hand , using a brush

2. By means of drip tank attached to the machine body
3. By means of a pump

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Machinability: The term machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can be cut permitting
the removal of the material with a satisfactory finish at low cost. Materials with good machinability
require little power to cut, can be cut quickly, easily obtain a good finish, and do not wear the
tooling much.

A qualitative measure of machinability of a material can be as:

1. The ease with which it could be machined

2. The life of the tool before tool failure or re-sharpening
3. The quality of the machined surface, and
4. The power consumption per unit volume of material removed.

The machinability rating or index of different materials is taken relative to the index which is
standardized. The machinability index of free cutting steel is arbitrarily fixed at 100 percent.

For other materials, the index is as below:

Machinability Index,
~+,• (€} '3 m +m" 3' t+,( ''" "+3
%= x 100
~+,• (€} '3 3 ~+,• (" 3' t+,(

Cutting Tool Materials: Cutting Tool materials constitute a special group of materials because they
have to with stand extreme process conditions specific for cutting. They must have the following
properties depending on the machining conditions:

1. High hardness at elevated temperatures to resist abrasive ear

2. High deformation resistance to prevent the cutting edge from plastic deformation under high
stress and temperature arising during chip formation
3. Wear and abrasion resistance, so that the tool retains its shape and cutting efficiency
for a reasonably long time before it is re-conditioned or replaced.
4. High thermal conductivity to reduce temperatures
5. High thermal shock resistance
6. Lower coefficient of thermal expansion
7. Lower chemical and mechanical affinity for the work-material and it should be easy to
form, grind, and sharpen to the desired tool geometry.
8. Impact toughness, so that the fine cutting edge of the tool doesn’t break or chip, when the
tool is subjected to shock

Various cutting tool materials can be grouped as follows:

1. Plain Carbon Tool Steels: The properties of the material will depend on the
percentage of carbon content. Low carbon steels are tough and shock resistant,
whereas high carbon steels are abrasion resistant. Unstable, very inexpensive,
extremely sensitive to heat. Mostly obsolete in today's commercial machining,
although it is still commonly found in non-intensive applications such as hobbyist or
MRO machining, where economy-grade drill bits, taps and dies, hacksaw blades, and
reamers are still usually made of it (because of its affordability). Hardness up to about
HRC 65. Sharp cutting edges possible.

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2. High speed steel (HSS): This material is basically high carbon steel, to which the
various alloying element (Tungsten W, Molybdenum Mo, Chromium Cr, Vanadium V,
and Cobalt Co) have been added in larger amounts as compared to alloy steels to
improve hardness, toughness, and wear resistance properties. Retains hardness at
moderate temperatures. The most common cutting tool material used today. Used
extensively on drill bits and taps. Hardness up to about HRC 67. Sharp cutting edges
possible.
3. Castcobalt alloys: Stable. Expensive. Somewhat fragile. Despite its stability it doesn't
allow for high machining speed due to low hardness. Not used much. Hardness up to
about HRC 65. Sharp cutting edges possible.
4. Cemented carbide: Stable. Moderately expensive. The most common material used in
the industry today. It is offered in several "grades" containing different proportions of
tungsten carbide and binder (usually cobalt). High resistance to abrasion. High solubility
in iron requires the additions
of tantalum carbide and niobium carbide for steel usage. Its main use is in turning tool
bits although it is very common in milling cutters and saw blades. Hardness up to about
HRC 90. Sharp edges generally not recommended.
5. Ceramics: Stable. Moderately inexpensive. Chemically inert and extremely resistant to
heat, ceramics are usually desirable in high speed applications. However, they lack
impact toughness, so, vibration and chatter are fatal to these tools. The most common
ceramic materials are based on alumina (aluminium oxide), silicon nitride and silicon
carbide. Used almost exclusively on turning tool bits. Hardness up to about HRC 93.
Sharp cutting edges and positive rake angles are to be avoided.
6. Cermets: Stable. Moderately expensive. Ceramets are combinations of ceramics and
metals, bonded together in same manner in which P/M (Powder-Metallurgy) parts are
produced. For cutting materials, the usual combination is AL2O3, plus metal additions
(W, Mo, Boron, Ti Etc) in an amount up to 10%. It provides higher abrasion resistance
compared to tungsten carbide at the expense of some toughness. It is far more
chemically inert than it too. Extremely high resistance to abrasion. Used primarily on
turning tool bits although research is being carried on producing other cutting tools.
Hardness up to about HRC 93. Sharp edges generally not recommended.
7. Cubic boron nitride (CBN): Stable. Expensive. Being the second hardest substance
known, it is also the second most fragile. This material consists of atoms of nitrogen and
boron, produced by high pressure and high temperature processing. It offers extremely
high resistance to abrasion at the expense of much toughness. CBN being chemically
inert, is used a substitute for diamond for machining of steel. Other applications are as
grinding wheel on HHS Tools, for machining high temperature alloys, Titanium,
Stainless Steel, Stellites and Chilled CI. Sharp edges generally not recommended.

8. Diamond: Stable. Very Expensive. The hardest substance known to date. Superior
resistance to abrasion but also high chemical affinity to iron which results in being
unsuitable for steel machining. Diamond tools are generally

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