“Vasile Alecsandri” National College, Bacau

The British Empire

and The United States of
America during the
World Wars

Coordinating Teacher: Nona Dulhac Student’s name: Cucu Daniel

XII-th C

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Table of Contents
I. Foreword……………...…………………………………page 3
II. “The Powder keg” explodes………………………...
………………………..page 4
III. “President calls for war declaration”…….……………page 6
IV. The war ends...…………………………………………..page 7
V. Interwar Period………………………………………...page 8
V.1 Great Britain – Irish Unrest …………....…………page 8
V.2 The United States – The Great Depression & Neutrality
………………………………………………..………….page10
VI. Another war in Europe ………….…………………..
…………………………...page 12
VII. “A date which will live in infamy” …………...……....page 14
VIII. “You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade…”

…...……………………………………………………………page 17

IX. Bibliography ….………………………………………..page 20

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I. Foreword
The First and Second World War were some of the biggest tragedies that
occurred during our history. Being the first big conflicts that happened after a long
period of peace, specifically the Napoleonic Wars, which ended in 1815, they
shaped the world scene in a way nothing until then ever did. Empires which were
thought of as eternal or indestructible shattered over the night, many of the most
prestigious royal families of Europe were dethroned and exiled from their old
domains, and the amount of states existing in Europe multiplied exponentially. But
even out of such tragedies, technological and social breakthroughs can appear, with
beneficial outcomes on the long term of humanity’s existence.
Firstly, I wanted to research the topic at hand, due to the importance of the
two states at hand in the politics of the day, and the impact their presence had upon
the rest of the world, starting in the beginning of the XXth century, and going up
even to our days. On one hand, the British lost their position of dominance over the
world, their place being taken by a New World power, known as the United States.
World War 1 showed to the world the miserable state in which the British were, in
comparison to their former colony, the US, which asserted their new position as a
dominant entity in the new order of the twentieth century.
Secondly, the inventions and discoveries made by the scientists of those
nations created a strong foundation in multiple domains, ranging from the medical
field of expertise, up to military and civil engineering. Taking the Second World
War as an example, the discovery of nuclear technology wouldn’t have even
existed if not for the American people. Even though the first nuclear generators
and weapons weren’t created for a good cause, but used in mass destruction, the
importance of nuclear energy today is incontestably present.
Therefore, due to the two reasons given and briefly explained above, I consider that
a research on this topic is important, if not even necessary, in order to understand why we
have many of today’s technology and gadgets.

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II. “The Powder keg” explodes

The assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir
in Sarajevo, Franz Ferdinand, by the Serbian student
Gavrilo Princip has led to a massive mobilization from
every European nation. As an answer to the
assassination, the Austro-Hungarian forces mobilized
and attacked Serbia, swiftly conquering them. This
aggression has led to an entrance of Russia in the war,
on the side of Serbia. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany
ordered mass mobilization of the German forces, due
to an alliance with the Austrians, and attacked France
through Belgium. In order to counteract a potential
British invasion, Wilhelm ordered the implementation
of “Unrestricted Submarine Warfare”, with which he
intended to block out any ship with aid for the Entente
to enter Britain or its allies.
As a response to the violation of Belgian
neutrality, the British Empire joined the war alongside France, Serbia and Russia. Popular
support for the conflict was enormous, people of all ages being conscripted in the so called
“Pal’s Battalions” and sent to France. The arms race that
occurred prior to the beginning of the war drove inevitably to a
future conflict. People, especially the youth, saw war as a
glamorous thing, their vision still being in a Napoleonic
environment, with compact masses of perfectly fit and dressed
men, marching for their crown and country. The reality was
different, as the first months of the war showed some of the
highest mortality rates of the whole conflict, as a result of the
combination of old tactics and modern weaponry.
A s m e n w e r e s e
started taking the workplaces which were left vacant by men,
who went off to fight all over the world, after the entrance of
the Ottoman Empire, on the side of the Central Powers (which
were, at the time, Germany and Austria-Hungary).
A f t e r t h e w a r
president Woodrow Wilson's antipathies against Germany.
Early in the war, the United States started to favor the British and their allies. President Wilson

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aimed to broker a peace and sent his top aide, Colonel House, on repeated missions to the two
sides, but each remained so confident of victory that they ignored peace proposals.

When a German submarine

sank the British liner Lusitania on 7
May 1915, carrying several US
citizens aboard, Wilson demanded an
end to German attacks on passenger
ships and warned that the US would
not tolerate unrestricted submarine
warfare in violation of international
law and of human rights. Wilson's
Secretary of State, William Jennings
Bryan, resigned, believing that the
President's protests against the
German use of U-boat attacks
conflicted with America's official
commitment to neutrality. On the
other hand, Wilson came under
pressure from war hawks led by
former president Theodore
Roosevelt, who denounced German
acts as "piracy", and from British
delegations under Cecil Spring Rice
and Sir Edward Grey.
U.S. Public opinion reacted with outrage to the suspected German sabotage of
Black Tom in Jersey City, New Jersey on 30 July 1916, and to the Kingsland
explosion on 11 January 1917 in present-day Lyndhurst, New Jersey. From that
moment, people of German nationality became more and more harassed, and
ultimately, racism started appearing towards the Germans living in the U.S.
Crucially, by the spring of 1917 President Wilson's official commitment to
neutrality had finally unraveled. Wilson realized he needed to enter the war in
order to shape the peace and implement his vision for a League of Nations at the
Paris Peace Conference.

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III.
In January 1917, Germany resumed
unrestricted submarine warfare. The
German Foreign minister, Arthur
Zimmermann invited revolution-torn
Mexico to join the war as Germany's ally
against the United States in the
Zimmermann Telegram. In return, the
Germans would send Mexico money and
help it recover the territories of Texas,
New Mexico and Arizona that Mexico
lost during the Mexican–American War
70 years earlier. British intelligence intercepted the telegram and passed the
information on to Washington. Wilson released the Zimmerman note to the public
and Americans saw it as a casus belli—a cause for war.
At first, Wilson tried to maintain neutrality while fighting off the submarines by
arming American merchant ships with guns powerful enough to sink German
submarines on the surface (but useless when the U-boats were under water). After
submarines sank seven US merchant ships, Wilson finally went to Congress calling
for a declaration of war on Germany, which Congress voted on April 6, 1917.
As a result of the Russian February Revolution in 1917, the Tsar abdicated and was replaced by a
Russian Provisional Government. This helped overcome Wilson's reluctance to having the US
fight alongside a country ruled by an absolutist monarch. Pleased by the Provisional
Government's pro-war stance, the US accorded the new government diplomatic recognition on
March 9, 1917. Although the United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, it did not
initially declare war on the other Central Powers, a that Woodrow Wilson described as an
"embarrassing obstacle" in his State of the Union speech. Congress declared war on the Austro-
Hungarian Empire on December 7, 1917, but never made declarations of war against the other
Central Powers, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire or the various co-belligerents allied with the
Central Powers. Thus, the United States remained uninvolved in the military campaigns in
central and eastern Europe, the Middle East, the Caucasus, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa,
Asia and the Pacific.

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IV. The war ends

As the Germans signed the armistice on November 11th, 1918, peace came back on
European soil. After 4 years of fighting, the warring nations decided on signing a peace treaty.
France, Italy, Japan, Romania, Serbia, the British Empire and the United States were the states
that won the war and enforced their demands on the defeated nations, which were as following:
Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey (the successors of the Ottoman Empire, which
collapsed after multiple Arab revolts in Mesopotamia, Palestine and even in Asia Minor). The
Russians were amidst a bloody communist revolution, and the Government led by Lenin was not
recognized as legitimate.
World war 1 officially ended on June 28 th, 1919, after the signing of the Treaty of
Versailles. On that day, the representants of the Entente, dominated by the Great powers,
Georges Clemenceau for
France, president
Woodrow Wilson for
the United States, and
David Lloyd George, on
the behalf of the King of
Britain, decided on the
terms which were to be
enforced on Germany
and the other defeated
states. While
Clemenceau wanted a
harsh punishment for
Germany, both Wilson
and Lloyd George
wanted for a milder
solution, in order to
make sure that Germany was not destroyed and maintain it strong enough to trade. This was well
observed by the 13 points proposed by the American President and the founding of the League of
Nations, which aimed to maintain world peace, by solving any diplomatic issues without the
need of another armed conflict. Despite all the efforts, The League of Nations was formed, but
the US refused to join.
Throughout the Interwar Period, both Britain and the US sought to maintain what was
established in 1919 through the Treaty, and became close trade partners, the Americans sending
Financial aids throughout Europe in order to repair the damaged economies of the continent.

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V. Interwar Period
V.1 Great Britain – Irish Unrest
The 1920s are known for their periods of revolts, protests and massive
unemployment.
An armed insurrection by Irish republicans, known as “the Easter Rising”
took place in Dublin during Easter of 1916.
Having not been organized, the short revolt
was swiftly suppressed by the British
Army. As a response, the Government
issued a harsh repression, consisting of
multiple arrests and the execution by firing
squad of the leaders. The catholic Irish
underwent a dramatic change of mood,
shifting from asking for more autonomy to
a strong desire for vengeance and
independence. In 1917 Lloyd George called
the 1917–18 Irish Convention in an attempt
to settle the outstanding Home Rule for
Ireland issue. It had little support. The
upsurge in republican sympathies in
Ireland following the Easter Rising coupled
with Lloyd George's disastrous attempt to
extend conscription to Ireland in April 1918 led to the wipeout of the old Irish
Home Rule Party at the December 1918 election. They had supported the British
war effort and were now displaced by Sinn Féin, which had mobilized grass-roots
opposition to helping the British rule. Sinn Féin MPs did not take up their seats in
the British Parliament, instead setting up their own new parliament in Dublin, and
immediately declared an Irish Republic.
British policy was confused and contradictory, as the cabinet could not
decide on war or peace, sending in enough force to commit atrocities that angered
Catholics in Ireland and America, and Liberals in Britain, but not enough to

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suppress the rebels outside the cities. Lloyd George waxed hot and cold,
denouncing murderers one day, but eventually negotiating with them. He sent in
40,000 soldiers as well as newly formed para-military units -- the "Black and Tans"
and the Auxiliaries -- to reinforce the professional police (the Royal Irish
Constabulary). British firepower prevailed in the cities forcing the Irish Republican
Army (IRA) (the paramilitary force of Sinn Féin) into hiding. However the IRA
controlled much of the countryside and set up an alternative local government.[13]
The British units were poorly coordinated while Michael Collins designed a highly
effective organization for the IRA that used informers to destroy the British
intelligence system by assassinating its leadership.[14] Although it was called
"Irish War of Independence" historians generally agree that it was quite unlike the
later Irish Civil War that was fought in 1922–23 between the forces of Collins and
Éamon de Valera. The 1919–21 clash "was no war in any conventional sense of the
term, but a highly
contingent, very small-scale
and low-intensity conflict in
which assassination was as
important as ambush or
fixed battle.”
Lloyd George finally
solved the crisis with the
Government of Ireland, by
partitioning Southern and
Northern Ireland in May
1921. Sinn Féin won control
of the south and agreed to
the Anglo-Irish Treaty in December 1921 with Irish leaders. Collins took power
when de Valera refused to sign and led a breakaway faction. Nevertheless, disputes
sputtered for decades regarding the exact relationship to the monarchy, a trade war
in the 1930s, and British use of naval ports. The Irish Free State cut many of its ties
to Britain in 1937. As the Republic of Ireland, it was one of a handful of neutrals in
Europe in the Second World War. The Irish state cut many of its ties to the United
Kingdom in 1937, and the newly formed Republic of Ireland was one of the few
nations which remained neutral during the second World War, not having any
interests in serving any of the two sides.

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V.2 The United States – The Great Depression &

Neutrality

In the beginning of the 1920, the US enjoyed a period of economical

development, its lands not being damaged by the war that destroyed all of Europe.
Thus, American economy was the leading one in the world, being capable of
offering aid to the
ravaged countries,
which sought to
repair their
economies.
The Great
Depression started
after the Stock
Market crash of
1929, but the crash
itself wasn’t the
main reason. The
1920 featured large scale domestic consumption of new consumer products, but
much of it was fueled by credit, which wasn’t stable enough to sustain. The
agricultural sector suffered throughout the decade, due to the fast mechanization of
farms, that resulted in farmers getting in debt. The combination of low prices and
overproduction has led to many of agricultural producers not obtaining enough
money to function.
The residential construction and cars industries slowed dramatically over
time, leading to a rise in prices. As David Kennedy put it, “By 1929, Commercial
bankers were in the unusual position of loaning more money for stock market and
real estate investments than for commercial ventures.”
Massive unemployment, a crash in Stocks, industry and in the agricultural
sector have led to a period of strong economic instability and hardship, which
continued throughout the middle interwar period. Most economists have tried to

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explain why the stock market crashed in the late 1920s, but the reason is still
debated. What is known, is that a wave of bank failures began in early 1930 in
Louisville, but then spread to Indiana, Illinois, Missouri and eventually Arkansas
and North Carolina. As people rushed to get their savings out, banks couldn’t keep
up with the demand, and started taking loans, which is one factor that ruined the
American economy. Bank Accounts freezing meant that there were less and less
money was in circulation, which inevitably led to deflation. This has most
probably led to companies cutting down on the workers needed, in order to lower
the costs further. As time has passed, a large number of companies went bankrupt
and couldn’t produce the goods and services that kept the business open. This

economic crashed could have been stopped if the Federal Reserve infused money
into the economy, in order to combat the deflationary cycle.
Throughout the Interwar Period, despite the economic crash that occurred,
the United States maintained its position as the strongest Great Power. American
foreign policy aimed to maintain the country out of any conflict that would occur.

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VI. Another war in Europe

As September 1st, 1939 started, with the German invasion of Poland, another
chain of alliances began to roll: on the 3rd of September, France and Britain entered
the war in order to support the Polish against the Wehrmacht, but didn’t made any
combat operations in order to stop the German advance. As part of a German-
Soviet non-aggression pact signed on August 23rd, Hitler occupied Western Poland,
while the eastern part was taken by
Stalin. In 1940, the German Army
entered the Netherlands, Belgium and
Luxembourg, rendering the French
fortifications in Alsace-Lorraine
useless (the Maginot Line).
Throughout this swift attack, the
Germans did not receive any
resistance, except from the British
Expeditionary Force in France
(B.E.F), conquering the countries in a
relatively short amount of time.
The only country that opposed
Germany at that moment remained
Britain. Shortly after France fell,
Hitler tried entering the British
Archipelago by air, but was firmly
stopped by the Royal Air Force. In a
speech during that period, Prime
Minister Winston Churchill held one
of the strongest speeches, which
briefly summed up the British
resistance:

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“ I have, myself, full

confidence that if all do
their duty, if nothing is
neglected, and if the
best arrangements are
made, as they are being
made, we shall prove
ourselves once again
able to defend our
Island home, to ride out
the storm of war, and
to outlive the menace of
tyranny, if necessary
for years, if necessary
alone. At any rate, that
is what we are going to
try to do. That is the
resolve of His Majesty’s
Government-every man
of them. That is the will
of Parliament and the nation. The British Empire and the French
Republic, linked together in their cause and in their need, will
defend to the death their native soil, aiding each other like good
comrades to the utmost of their strength. Even though large tracts
of Europe and many old and famous States have fallen or may fall
into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi
rule, we shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end, we shall
fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight
with growing confidence and growing strength in the air! We shall
defend our Island, whatever the cost may be; we shall fight on the
beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the

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fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; WE SHALL

NEVER SURRENDER!”
Despite the dire situation in the main islands, the British Army managed to
push back the Axis forces, especially in Africa, where generals like Bernard
“Monty” Montgomery showed their prowess in the face of German skilled
leadership. His abilities were shown
especially during the battles of El
Alamein, in Egypt, where he finally
obtained one of the decisive battles of
the African theatre.
During the entire war, British
troops were mostly supplied by the
Americans, their equipment becoming
more and more incapable of
withstanding the state of the war.

VII. “A date which will live in infamy”

The year 1941 saw the entrance of the United States in the war against the
Axis. It all started on December 7th, with a Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, a
military outpost in the Hawaii Islands. The attack was under the pretext of an
American steel embargo on Japan. The next day, president Th. Roosevelt held a
speech in front of the Congress, describing the position of the American people
prior to the attack and formally declaring war firstly on Japan:

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“Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—

the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately
attacked by naval and air
forces of the Empire of Japan.
The United States was at peace
with that nation, and, at the
solicitation of Japan, was still
in conversation with its
government and its emperor
looking toward the
maintenance of peace in the
Pacific. Indeed, one hour after
Japanese air squadrons had commenced bombing in the American
island of Oahu, the Japanese ambassador to the United States and
his colleague delivered to our secretary of state a formal reply to a
recent American message. While this reply stated that it seemed
useless to continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained
no threat or hint of war or armed attack.
It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from Japan makes it
obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many days or even
weeks ago. During the intervening time the Japanese government
has deliberately sought to deceive the United States by false
statements and expressions of hope for continued peace.”
The declaration of war was followed by an entrance in the
Coalition of the United Nations, also known as The Allied Forces,
continuing the fight against the Axis on all theatres of war. By taking
this decision, Roosevelt sought to strengthen the British-American
relations further, by helping their allies and maintaining the balance of
power in the world. American support for entering the war was strong,
especially after the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor, which woke the
American national spirit up.

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The first years of American

involvement in the war saw them fighting
mainly in the Pacific theatre, against the
Japanese expansion, helping the Australian
and New Zealand Army Corps (A.N.Z.A.C),
beginning a series of operations which
became known as “the island hopping”. Also,
American regiments were sent to the African
theatre in order to serve in “operation Torch”,
where they helped in the defense of different
locations, such as El Alamein, Tobruk and
others, alongside regiments of soldiers of
French, Polish, Yugoslav, or even Greek
nationalities, all hoping to free their countries
from foreign occupation. The same operation
has led to the Allied occupation of Africa,
thus eliminating the Axis threat in the region.

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VIII. “You are about to embark upon the

Great Crusade…”
T h e 6
th
of

June 1944 marks the beginning of operation Overlord, in which the

Allies managed to gain a foothold in Europe by landing in Normandy.
"Overlord" was the name assigned to the establishment of a large-
scale lodgment on the Continent. The first phase, the amphibious
invasion and establishment of a secure foothold, was code-named
Operation Neptune. To gain the required air superiority needed to ensure
a successful invasion, the Allies launched a bombing campaign
(codenamed Operation Pointblank) to target German aircraft-production,
fuel supplies, and airfields. Under the Transport Plan, communications
infrastructure and road and rail links were bombed to cut off the north of
France and to make it more difficult to bring up reinforcements. These
attacks were widespread so as to avoid revealing the exact location of
the invasion. Elaborate deceptions were planned to prevent the Germans
from determining the timing and location of the invasion.

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Prior to the battle, generals such as Dwight Eisenhower offered

another unforgettable speech to the troops, saying that their mission was
of Divine rank:
"Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Forces:
You are about to embark upon
the Great Crusade, toward which
we have striven these many
months. The eyes of the world
are upon you. The hopes and
prayers of liberty-loving people
everywhere march with you. In
company with our brave Allies
and brothers-in-arms on other
Fronts you will bring about the
destruction of the German war
machine, the elimination of
tyranny over oppressed peoples
of Europe, and security for
ourselves in a free world.
Your task will not be an easy one.
Your enemy is well trained, well equipped and battle-hardened. He
will fight savagely.
But this is the year 1944. Much has happened since the triumphs of
1940-41. The United Nations have inflicted upon the Germans great
defeats, in open battle, man-to-man. Our air offensive has seriously
reduced their strength in the air and their capacity to wage war on
the ground. Our Home Fronts have given us an overwhelming
superiority in weapons and munitions of war and placed at our
disposal great reserves of trained fighting men. The tide has turned.
The free men of the world are marching together to victory.”

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The context in which Operation Overlord was started was a

favorable one, as German advances in the Soviet Union halted, or even
regressed in some sectors, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini could
barely maintain power within
the state due to the partisan
movements, and the Japanese
were on the retreat as well. The
side change of the Romanian
Army, on August 23rd, 1944
shortened the war further, thus
reducing the Axis power and
stability further. By the time the
Allied Forces liberated most of
France, the German Army was
already losing ground on all
fronts.

By the end of the Second

World War, Americans and
British became more and more
closely bonded, this
culminating with the formation
of the United Nations (U.N.)
and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (N.A.T.O). Thus, the British
Empire and the United States maintained their positions as world
powers, which continued to influence the smaller nations in different
ways. The end of the Second World War brought with it the rise of
another World Power, the USSR, which, in turn, led to the start of the
Cold War, between Democracies and totalitarians.

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IX. Bibliography

 www.wikipedia.org – Used information

 www.youtube.com : “The Great War” and “Crash Course” channels – Used

information

 British Pathé – Images

 www.britannica.com – Used information

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