C1 IntroductionANDShear Strength

Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering (CON4342)

Introduction & Shear Strength
Learning Outcomes
On completion of the module, students are expected to be able to:
1. evaluate the shear strength parameters and determine the shear strength of soil;
2. determine the lateral earth pressure and thrust developed in soil;
3. acquire the knowledge of stability analysis of soil slope;
4. understand and evaluate the compressibility of soil using one dimensional
consolidation theory;
5. determine the immediate and consolidation settlement of foundations;
6. determine the ultimate and allowable bearing capacity of shallow and deep
foundations.
Introduction
Geotechnical and foundation engineering is the branch of civil engineering

concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses principles of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions and materials;
determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these materials;
evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits; assess risks posed by
site conditions; design earthworks and foundations; and monitor site conditions,
earthwork and foundation construction. Foundations built for above-ground structures
include shallow and deep foundations. Geological data and samples are collected
from ground investigation and the soils parameters are determined in the laboratory.
There are also practical guides and code of practices developed to be used in this field.
1‐1

Ground Investigation: Collect data & determine the ground model
Determine the soil properties
• Cohesive •/ cohesiveless / non-cohesive / Granular
For comparison
Strength: c’, ’ ; unconsolidated undrained test -cu
Deformation : Immediate settlement vs consolidation settlement
Normal/Over-consolidation
Permeability
Negative skin friction
1‐2

Practical Guides in Geotechnology and foundation designs
Geotechnical Manual for Slope

Geoguide 1 - Guide to Retaining Wall Design
Geoguide 2 - Guide to Site Investigation
Geoguide 3 - Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions
Geoguide 5 - Guide to Slope Maintenance
Geoguide 7 - Guide to Soil Nail
TGN – Technical Guidance Notes
Works Bureau Technical Circulars
GeoSpec’s
Code of Practice – Foundation 2004
Examples:
Major topics
There are 7 chapters with major contents listed below:
Chapter 1- Introduction & Shear Strength
•Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
•shear strength of sands and clays
•laboratory determination of shear strength
Chapter 2 -Lateral Earth Pressure

•development of earth pressures: active, at-rest and passive pressures
•Rankine’s and Coulomb’s theory of earth pressure.
1‐3

Chapter 3 -Slope Stability
•factor of safety
•Infinite slopes
•Finite slopes
•method of slices
•application of computer software in slope stability analysis
Chapter 4 -Consolidation
•consolidation processes: primary and secondary
•one-dimensional consolidation theory
•laboratory determination of consolidation properties
Chapter 5 – Settlements of Foundation

•immediate and consolidation settlement
Chapter 6 –Shallow Foundations

•design considerations and principles
•definition, types and behaviour of shallow foundations
•ultimate bearing capacity, net and allowable bearing capacity
Chapter 7 – Deep Foundations
•classification of piles
•design considerations and principles
•point bearing capacity and frictional resistance of pile
•considerations for single pile and pile group
Laboratory Tests
compressibility of soil -consolidation test
shear strength of soil -direct shear test
Learning Activity 1
- Review of basic soil mechanics
1‐4

Notable researchers/leaders in Soil Mechanics
Useful Links
(these links may be obsolete in time)
http://www.dur.ac.uk/~des0www4/cal/
http://www.sbe.napier.ac.uk/esm/contents.html
http://www.up.ac.za/academic/civil/divisions/geotechnical/pgcourses/sgm781/menu.h
tml
http://environment.uwe.ac.uk/geocal/SLOPES/SLOPES. HTM#SLOPES
http://www.wise-uranium.org/csst.html
https://ivle.nus.edu.sg/Lms/public/course_studentview_public.aspx?CourseID=1b3cb
4f3-5979-4901-ab3a¬7b6ed7a0c977
http://www.geoengineer.org/learnbyhy-soil.html
http://www.civil.usyd.edu.au/courses/civl2410/
http://www.civil.usyd.edu.au/courses/civl3411/
1‐5

SHEAR STRENGTH
(ELE)
Learning Outcome
 Evaluate the shear strength parameters and determine the shear strength of soil;
Key Content
 Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
 laboratory determination of shear strength
 shear strength of sands and clays
Reference: Das, B. M. (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering.
1‐6

Sections
1. Introduction
2. Shear Strength Test
- Direct shear test
- Triaxial Test
Mohr’s Circle of stress diagram
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope
- Vane shear test
3. Shear strength of sand
4. Shear strength of clay
1‐7

1. Introduction
 What is strength of soil?

Take the example of a failure surface of a slope, the mass of soil under stress is like
the failure surface of a slipped slope as shown below.
Figure 1
The grains of soil at the failure surface are under shear stresses. The strength of the
soil to resist the shear failure is composed of frictional strength and
cohesive strength. The frictional strength is illustrated below.
Figure 2
1‐8

Friction
Take the block of wood as shown for example. Force acting vertically is the
normal load and force pulling it along the bench horizontally is the shearing
load.
 Plotting the shearing loads necessary to cause sliding (failure) due to

various vertical (normal) loads can result in a graph as in (Figure 3a). It shows
the shearing failure against normal loads (vertical) with a constant value of .
Figure 3 (a)
 = the friction angle
tan  = coefficient of friction
1‐9

Criterion of Slip in a Simple Friction Experiment
Similarly, the shear failure in masses of sand and gravel is like shear failure
because the result of slippage of one layer of grains over another. In the case
of a soil, the friction can be simply measured using a Direct Shear Test, Figure
3(b).
Figure 3 (b)
1‐10

2. Shear Strength Tests
The shear strength of a soil can be determined by a number of field and laboratory
tests. It is important that representative samples of the insitu soil are used in the test.
The commonly used methods for determining shear strengths are:
Direct Shear Test

Triaxial Test
Vane Shear Test
2.1 Direct Shear Test
 The soil specimen is confined in a metal box of square cross-section split
horizontally at mid-height.
 Porous plates are placed below and on top of the specimen to allow free drainage.
If the specimen is dry, solid metal plates may be used.
 A vertical force (N) is applied to the specimen through a loading plate and shear
stress is gradually applied on a horizontal plane by causing the two halves of the
box to move relative to each other.
 The shear force (T) being measured together with the corresponding shear
displacement (l) and change in thickness (h).
1‐11

Figure 4 (GEOspec3)
 A number of specimens are tested, each under a different vertical force. The value
of shear stress at failure is plotted against the normal stress for each test. The shear
strength parameters are then obtained from the best line fitting the plotted points
1‐12

The advantages of the test are its simplicity and, in the case of sands, the ease of
specimen preparation.
However, the test suffers from the following disadvantages:

 Drainage conditions cannot be controlled,
 Pore water pressure cannot be measured, therefore only total stress can be
determined
 Shear stress on the failure plane is not uniform,
 The area under shear and vertical loads does not remain constant throughout the
test.
1‐13

Learning Activity 1 (Exercise)(Capper et al)

Learning Outcome: evaluate the shear strength parameters.
Shear-box tests in which the soil was allowed to consolidate fully under the
influence of both the normal and the shear loads:
Normal stress (kN/m2) 62 123 185

Shear stress at failure [kN/m2) 73 99 128
Determine the shear strength properties of the soil which can be deduced from
these results.
(c = 42; =24.5)
Students to plot the Normal and shear stresses below as an exercise
1‐14

2.2 Triaxial Test
Principle and Procedure
 Consolidation takes place under equal increments of total stress normal to the end
and circumferential surfaces of the specimen.
 This all-around pressure is taken to be the minor principal stress ('3 ).
 The sum of this all-around pressure and the applied axial stress is the major
principal stress ('1 ).

 The applied axial stress is thus referred to as the principal stress difference ('1 -
'3 ), also known as the deviator stress.
Figure 5 (Geospec3)
1‐15

Presentation of stresses in soil using Mohr’s Circle
 The state of stresses acting on an element of soil can be plotted on a shear stress
versus normal effective stress diagram using the Mohr circle of stress method
(Figure 6).
 A graphical representation of the stresses on a sample subject to an all-round
(confining) effective stress, '3 and an additional axial stress, ( ‘1 - '3), to give
the resultant axial stress of 'v
(ELE)
Mohr circle of stress diagram for effective stresses

Figure 6
1‐16

Shear failure in a soil takes place under the following conditions of effective stress:
suitable values of ‘1 and '3; combined with
the maximum stress ratio for  /'
2.2.1 The Mohr Circle of Stress Diagram (revision)
Review of Mohr’s Circle of two-dimensional stress state.
Mohr's circle is a two-dimensional graphical representation of the state of stress at a

point.
The y-axis (n) and the x-axis (n) of each point on the circle are the normal stress
and shear stress components, respectively, acting on a particular cut plane.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohr's_circle
http://www.ah-engr.com/som/8_transformation/text_8-3.htm
Figure 7
1‐17

2.2.2 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope
Shear failure in a soil takes place under the following conditions of effective stress:
 suitable values of '1 and '3; combined with
 the maximum stress ratio for  /'
Other mohr circles can be drawn with other values of '1 and '3 . The common
tangent to the corresponding Mohr circles is the locus of failure points or the failure
envelope as shown in Figure 8.
Tangent (failure envelope) to Mohr’s circles for

several failure values of  ‘1 and '3
Figure 8
1‐18

(a) In Terms of Total Stress
The Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria, in its simplest form, can be stated as :
f =c+ f tan  (1)
Where f = shear strength

f = normal stress
c = apparent cohesion
 = angle of shearing resistance or angle of internal friction
(b) In Terms of Effective Normal Stress

'1 = '1 - u
'3 = '3 - u
f = c’ + ’f tan ' (2)
Where c' and ' are the shear strength parameters and 'f is the normal
stress in
terms of effective stress. The failure criterion as expressed in Equation 2 is
illustrated by the failure envelope in Figure 9.
1‐19

Stress conditions at failure
Figure 9
(c) In Terms of Effective Major (‘1 )and Minor ( ‘3) Principal Stresses
The shear strength of soil can also be expressed in terms of major and minor principle
stresses, ’1 and ’3 at failure.
(1 - sin ) (1 - sin )
 3,   1,  2c
,
(3a)
(1  sin ) (1  sin )
 3,   1, tan 2 (45   / 2)  2c , (45   / 2) (3b)
 = (/2 + 45o) (4)
1‐20

(d) In Terms of q'-p' Plot
Alternative representation of stress conditions

Figure 10
1/2 ('1 - ' 3 ) = a’ + 1/2 ('1 + '3 )tan' (5)
Where a' and ’ are the modified shear strength parameters. The parameters c' and '
are then given by:
' = sin-1 (tan ') (6)
c' = a'/cos  (7)
1‐21

 In calculating the principal stress difference, account must be taken of the fact that
the average cross-sectional area (A) of the specimen does not remain constant
throughout the test.
V
1
Vo
A  Ao
l (8)
1
lo
where A0 = original cross-sectional area of the

specimen
V/Vo = volumetric strain
l /l0 = axial strain
 Dissipation of excess pore water pressure takes place due to drainage through the
porous disc at the bottom (or top) of the specimen.
 The drainage connection leads to an external burette, enabling the volume of water
expelled from the specimen to be measured. The datum for excess pore water
pressure is therefore atmospheric pressure.
 For the case of testing under back pressure, the back pressure is the datum for
excess pore water pressure. The objective of applying a back pressure is to ensure
full saturation of the specimen or to simulate insitu pore water pressure conditions.
1‐22

Learning Activity 2 (worked examples) (Capper et al 1980)

Learning Outcome: To plot and analyse the results of a shear strength test
The results shown in Table below were obtained at failure in a series of triaxial tests
on specimens of a saturated clay initially 38 mm in diameter by 76 mm long.
Determine the values of the shear strength parameters with respect to (a) total stress,
(b) effective stress. (Cu = 85; u =0; c’ =20; =26o)
Type of test All-round Axial load Axial Volume
pressure deformation change
(kN/m2) (N) (mm) (ml)
(a) Undrained 200 222 9.83 -
400 215 10.06 -
600 226 10.28 -
(b) Drained 200 467 10.81 6.6
400 848 12.26 8.2
600 1265 14.17 9.5
Solution:
lo = 76 mm; Ao = 1135 mm2; Vo = 86 x 103 mm3
3 l/lo V/Vo Area 1 - 3 1

(kN/m2) (mm2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
(a) Undrained 200 0.129 - 1304 170 370
400 0.132 - 1309 164 564
600 0.135 - 1312 172 772
(b) drained 200 0.142 0.077 1222 382 582

400 0.161 0.095 1225 691 1091
600 0.186 0.110 1240 1020 1620
1‐23

Student to plot the Mohr circles below as an exercise
1‐24

Types of Triaxial Test
 Unconsolidated - Undrained (UU)

 Consolidated Undrained (CU)
 Consolidated Drained (CD)
A special case of the triaxial test is the unconfined compression test in which axial
stress is applied to a specimen under zero (atmospheric) all-round pressure.
Figure 11 (ELE)
The three principal types of triaxial tests are as follows:

 Unconsolidated - Undrained (UU). The specimen is subjected to a specified
all-round pressure and then the principal stress difference is applied immediately
with no drainage being permitted at any stage of the test.
1‐25

 Consolidated Undrained (CU). Drainage of the specimen is permitted under a
specified all-round pressure until consolidation is complete, the principal stress

difference is then applied with no drainage being permitted. Pore water pressure
measurements may be made during the undrained part of the test.
 Consolidated Drained (CD). Drainage of the specimen is permitted under a
specified all round pressure until consolidation is complete. With drainage still
being permitted, the principal stress difference is then applied at a rate slow
enough to ensure that the excess pore water pressure is maintained at zero
(drained condition).
 Shear strength parameters determined by means of the above test procedures are
relevant only in situations where the field drainage conditions correspond to the
test conditions.
 The shear strength of a soil under undrained conditions is different from that under
drained conditions.
The vital consideration in practice is the rate at which the changes in total stress (due
to construction operation) are applied in relation to the rate of dissipation of excess
pore water pressure, which in turn is related to the permeability of the soil.
1‐26

Learning Activity 3 (Example)( Capper et al 1980)

Learning Outcome : evaluate the shear strength parameters and determine the shear
strength of soil
The following results were obtained from tests on a saturated clay soil:
Undrained triaxial tests:
Cell pressure 3 (kN/m2) 100 170 240
Principal stress difference at failure,
 1- 3 (kN/m2) 136 142 134
(cu = 68; =0)
3 1 1/2 (1 - 3) 1/2 (’1 + ’3)
100 236 68 118
170 312 71 241
240 374 67 307
Students to plot the Mohr circles below as an exercise
1‐27

Learning Activity 4 (example)(Capper et al 1980)
Outcome Learning: evaluate the shear strength parameters and determine the shear
strength of soil
The results shown in the following table were obtained at failure in a series of
consolidated-undrained tests, with pore water pressure measurement, on
specimens of a saturated clay. Determine the values of the effective stress
parameters c' and  '. (c’ = 16; =29o)
Repeat using the q’ - p’ plot. (a’ = 13; =26o)
All-round pressure Principal stress difference Pore water pressure
(kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
150 192 80
300 341 154
450 504 222
Note: Principal stress difference or also known as Deviator stress

Solution:
3 1 ’1 ’3 1/2 (1 - 3) 1/2 (’1 + ’3)

150 342 70 262 96 166
300 641 146 487 170 316
450 954 228 732 252 480
1‐28

Students to plot the Mohr circles below as an exercise
1‐29

2.3 Vane Shear Test
 The vane shear test is for the insitu determination of the undrained strength of
intact, fully saturated clays.
 It is very suitable for soft clays. Generally the test is only used in clays having
undrained strengths less than 100 kN/m2 .
 The test may not give reliable results if the clay contains sand or silt laminations.
 The equipment consists of a stainless steel vane of four thin rectangular blades,
carried on the end of a high tensile steel rod (Figure 12).
 Torque is applied gradually to the upper end of the rod until the clay fails in shear
due to rotation of the vane. The undrained shear strength (cu) is calculated from the
expression:
 d 2h d 3 
T   cu   
 2 6 
Where T = torque at failure

d = overall vane width
h = vane length
Figure 12
1‐30

Learning Activity 5 (exercise)
Learning Outcome : Understand and apply the shear strength of soil.
Discussion:
 Explain three principal types of triaxial tests and their major difference.
 Advantages & disadvantages of Direct Shear test
 Advantages & disadvantages of Vane Shear tests
 Define terms: deviator stress; all-round pressure, principal stress difference
1‐31

3. Shear Strength of Sands
Dense sand
 There will be a considerable degree of interlocking between particles. Before
complete shear failure, this interlocking must be overcome in addition to the
frictional resistance at the point of contact.
 After a peak stress is reached at a low value of shear displacement (Figure 13a),
the degree of interlocking decreases and the shear stress necessary to continue
shear displacement is correspondingly reduced. The decrease in the degree of
interlocking produces an increase in the volume of the specimen during shear..
Loose sand
 In the case of loose sand there is no initial particle interlocking to be overcome.
The gradual increase in shear stress is accompanied by a decrease in the volume of
the specimen.
Direct shear test for dense and loose sand

Figure 13
1‐32

4. Shear Strength of Saturated Clays
4.1 Undrained Strength of Clays
Unconsolidated-undrained (UU) triaxial test
 The effective stresses in the specimen remain unchanged after the application of
the all-round pressure. This is due to the fact that any increase in all-round pressure
results in an equal increase in pore water pressure for a fully saturated soil under
undrained conditions.
 The results are of a number of UU tests expressed in terms of total stress as shown
in figure 14. The failure envelope in this case is horizontal, i.e. u = 0 and the shear
strength is given by  = cu.
 It should be noted that if the values of pore water pressure at failure were measured,
only one effective stress circle would be obtained.
Unconsolidated Undrained Test results

Figure 14
1‐33

Consolidated-undrained (CU)
 The consolidated-undrained (CU) triaxiai test enables the undrained strength of the
clay to be determined after the void ratio has been changed from the initial value
by consolidation.
 For normally consolidated clays, the relationship between  and '3 is linear,
passing through the origin.
4.2 Strength of Clays In Terms of Effective Stress

 The strength of a clay in terms of effective stress can be determined by means of
either the consolidated-undrained (CU) triaxial test with pore water pressure
measurement during the undrained part of the test, or the drained triaxial test.
 A number of tests, each performed at a different value of all-round pressure,

enables the failure envelope to be drawn and the shear strength parameters c' and 
' determined as illustrated in Figure 15.
In terms of Effective Stress
Figure 15
 For a normally-consolidated clay the value of c' is zero, whereas for an

over-consolidated clay c' has a value usually greater than zero.
1‐34

 The parameters c' and ' can also be obtained by means of consolidated drained
(CD) triaxial tests, the rate of strain must be slow enough to ensure full dissipation
of excess pore water pressure at any time during the application of the principal
stress difference.
4.3 Residual Strength

 After the peak shear strength in terms of effective stress has been reached, most
clays show a decrease in strength with increasing strain until an ultimate or

residual strength is reached at a large strain.
 This decrease in strength is considered to be due to the increase in water content
accompanying volume increase during shear and to a reorientation of plate-like

clay particles parallel to the failure plane. A typical stress-deformation curve is
shown in Figure 16.
Residual Strength
Figure 16
1‐35

Learning Activity 6 (Capper et al ) (exercise)

strength of soil
The following table lists out the results of a direct shear box test on a soil.
Normal stress, Peak shear stress, Residual shear stress, 　r

(kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
150 105 45
250 163 73
350 220 100
(i) Plot p vs n and determine the peak angle of internal friction p and the cohesion
intercept cp of the soil.
(ii) Plot r vs n and determine the residual angle of internal friction r and the
cohesion intercept cr of the soil.
Student to plot the normal and shear stresses below as an exercise
1‐36

Learning Activity 7 (exercise)
Learning Outcome : understand and interpret the shear strength parameters
Discussion
 Explain the difference in behaviour between a dense and a loose sand.
 Explain why, at the same normal stress, the shear strength of a sandy soil is higher
at a dense state than it is at a loose state.

 Describe the behaviour of saturated clay under various type of test.
Learning Activity 8 (exercises)

strength of soil
 A cohesive soil has an angle of shearing resistance of  = 15° and a cohesion of

c=30kN/m2. If a specimen of this soil is subjected to a undrained triaxial test,
find the value of the lateral pressure in the cell for failure to occur at a total axial
stress (1) of 200 kN/m2.
(3 = 71)
Learning Activity 9
Class discussion:
Give practical examples of application of UU, CU and CD tests
1‐37

Disclaimer- the author has tried his best to indicate all references but there is no
guarantee that all materials cited can be included.
Further References
1. Das, B. M. (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. 6th Edition. Cengage
Learning.
2. Craig, R. F. (2004). Soil Mechanics. 7th Ed, E & FN Spon.
3. Capper, P.L., Cassie, W.F. and Geddes, J.D. (1980). Problems in Engineering Soil,
E & FN Spon.
4. Whitlow,R.(2000) Basic Soil Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall.
6. Barnes, G.E. (2000) Soil Mechanics Principles and Practices, MacMilan.
7. Berry, P.L. & Reid, D.(1987) An Introduction to Soil Mechanics, McGraw-Hill
Book Company
8. Budhu, M. (2000), Soil mechanics & Foundations, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons
9. Smith G.N. (1990), Elements of Soil Mechanics, 6th Ed, BSP Professional Books.
10. M.J. Smith (1990), Soil Mechanics. Longman, Scientific and Technical.
11. Sutton, B.H.C (1993). Solving Problems in Soil Mechanics, 2nd Ed, Longman.
12. ELE International. Catalogue in Laboratory Testing.
13. http://www.geocities.ws/dominic_trani
1‐38

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Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering (CON4342)

Geotechnical and foundation engineering is the branch of civil engineering

Determine the soil properties

• Cohesive •/ cohesiveless / non-cohesive / Granular

Geotechnical Manual for Slope

Chapter 2 -Lateral Earth Pressure

Chapter 5 – Settlements of Foundation

Chapter 6 –Shallow Foundations

Reference: Das, B. M. (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering.

 What is strength of soil?

soil to resist the shear failure is composed of frictional strength and

cohesive strength. The frictional strength is illustrated below.

 Plotting the shearing loads necessary to cause sliding (failure) due to

 = the friction angle

tan  = coefficient of friction

Criterion of Slip in a Simple Friction Experiment

2. Shear Strength Tests

Direct Shear Test

2.1 Direct Shear Test

 The soil specimen is confined in a metal box of square cross-section split

If the specimen is dry, solid metal plates may be used.

displacement (l) and change in thickness (h).

However, the test suffers from the following disadvantages:

Learning Activity 1 (Exercise)(Capper et al)

Normal stress (kN/m2) 62 123 185

Students to plot the Normal and shear stresses below as an exercise

Principle and Procedure

principal stress ('1 ).

'3 ), also known as the deviator stress.

Mohr circle of stress diagram for effective stresses

2.2.1 The Mohr Circle of Stress Diagram (revision)

Review of Mohr’s Circle of two-dimensional stress state.

Mohr's circle is a two-dimensional graphical representation of the state of stress at a

2.2.2 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope

Tangent (failure envelope) to Mohr’s circles for

f =c+ f tan  (1)

Where f = shear strength

(b) In Terms of Effective Normal Stress

f = c’ + ’f tan ' (2)

Stress conditions at failure

 3,   1, tan 2 (45   / 2)  2c , (45   / 2) (3b)

 = (/2 + 45o) (4)

(d) In Terms of q'-p' Plot

Alternative representation of stress conditions

1/2 ('1 - ' 3 ) = a’ + 1/2 ('1 + '3 )tan' (5)

where A0 = original cross-sectional area of the

porous disc at the bottom (or top) of the specimen.

Learning Activity 2 (worked examples) (Capper et al 1980)

3 l/lo V/Vo Area 1 - 3 1

(b) drained 200 0.142 0.077 1222 382 582

Student to plot the Mohr circles below as an exercise

 Unconsolidated - Undrained (UU)

The three principal types of triaxial tests are as follows:

 Consolidated Undrained (CU). Drainage of the specimen is permitted under a

specified all-round pressure until consolidation is complete, the principal stress

 Consolidated Drained (CD). Drainage of the specimen is permitted under a

Learning Activity 3 (Example)( Capper et al 1980)

Students to plot the Mohr circles below as an exercise

Note: Principal stress difference or also known as Deviator stress

3 1 ’1 ’3 1/2 (1 - 3) 1/2 (’1 + ’3)

Normal stress, Peak shear stress, Residual shear stress, 　r