1947–1949 Palestine war

The 1947–1949 Palestine war,[a] known in Israel

1947–1949 Palestine war
as the War of Independence (Hebrew: ‫מלחמת‬
‫העצמאות‬, Milkhemet Ha'Atzma'ut) and in Arabic Part of the Arab–Israeli conflict
as The Nakba (lit. Catastrophe, Arabic: ‫اﻟﻨﻜﺒﺔ‬,
al-Nakba),[12][13][14] was fought in the territory
of Palestine under the British Mandate. It is the
first war of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the
broader Arab–Israeli conflict. During this war,
the British Empire withdrew from Mandate
Palestine, which had been a province (eyalet) of
the Ottoman Empire before British occupation in
1917. The war culminated in the establishment of Arab fighters near a burnt armoured
the State of Israel by the Jews, and saw the Haganah supply truck, near Jerusalem
complete demographic transformation of
Date 30 November 1947 – 20 July 1949
Palestine, with the displacement of around
(1 year, 7 months, 2 weeks and
700,000 Palestinian Arabs and the complete
6 days)
destruction of their villages, towns and cities.[15]
The Palestinian Arabs ended up stateless, Location Former Mandatory Palestine, Sinai
displaced either to the Palestinian territories Peninsula, southern Lebanon
captured by Egypt and Jordan or to the Result
Israeli victory
surrounding Arab states; many of them, as well as
their descendants, remain stateless and in refugee Jordanian marginal victory[5][6]
camps. The territory that was under British Palestinian Arab defeat
administration before the war was divided Egyptian defeat
between the State of Israel, which captured about Arab League strategic failure
78% of it, the Kingdom of Jordan (then known as
1948 Palestinian exodus and
Transjordan), which captured and later annexed
Jewish exodus from Arab and
the area that became the West Bank, and Egypt,
Muslim countries
which captured the Gaza Strip, a coastal territory
on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, in which Territorial 1949 Armistice Agreements:
it established the All-Palestine Government. changes
Establishment of the State of Israel
The war had two main phases. The first phase is beyond the borders proposed by
the 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine. the Partition Plan
It began on 30 November 1947,[16] a day after the Establishment of All-Palestine
United Nations voted to divide the territory of Government in the Gaza Strip
Palestine into Jewish and Arab sovereign states, under Egyptian patronage
and an international Jerusalem (UN Resolution
Jordanian rule of West Bank and
181). The Jewish leadership accepted the plan,
East Jerusalem
but the Palestinian Arab leaders, as well as the
Syrian foothold North and South of
Arab states, unanimously opposed it and conflict
Sea of Galilee
soon began.[17] This phase of the war is described
by historians as the "civil", "ethnic" or Belligerents
"intercommunal" war, as it was fought mainly
Before 26 May 1948 ALA
between Jewish and Palestinian Arab militias,
Yishuv Army of the Holy War
supported by the Arab Liberation Army and the
Paramilitary groups: al-Najjada
surrounding Arab states. Characterised by
guerrilla warfare and terrorism, it escalated at the
Haganah Holy War Army
end of March 1948 when the Jews went on the
(before 15 May 1948)
offensive, and concluded with their defeating the
Palmach Egypt
Palestinians in major campaigns and battles,
establishing clear frontlines. During this period Hish Transjordan
the British still maintained a declining rule over Him Iraq
Palestine and occasionally intervened in the Syria
violence.[18][19] Irgun Lebanon
(after 15 May 1948)
Lehi
The British Empire scheduled its withdrawal and
Allied Bedouin
abandonment of all claims to Palestine for 14 Foreign volunteers:
tribes[1][2]
May 1948. On that date, when the last remaining Yemen[3]
British troops and personnel were on departure at Morocco[3]
After 26 May 1948:
the city of Haifa, the Jewish leadership in Saudi Arabia[3]
Israel
Palestine declared the establishment of the State Sudan[3]
Israel Defense
of Israel. This declaration was followed by the Pakistan[4]
Forces
immediate invasion of Palestine by the
surrounding Arab armies and expeditionary Minorities Unit
forces in order to prevent the establishment of
Israel and to aid the Palestinian Arabs, who were Foreign volunteers:
on the losing side at that point, with a large Mahal
portion of their population already fleeing or
Commanders and leaders
being forced out by the Jewish militias. The
invasion marked the beginning of the second David Ben-Gurion John Bagot Glubb
phase of the war, the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The Chaim Weizmann Habis al-Majali
Egyptians advanced on the southern coastal strip Yigael Yadin Abd al-Qadir al-
and were halted near Ashdod; the Jordanian Arab Yaakov Dori Husayni †
Legion and Iraqi forces captured the central David Shaltiel Hasan Salama †
highlands of Palestine. Syria and Lebanon fought Moshe Dayan Fawzi Al-Qawuqji
several skirmishes with the Israeli forces in the Yisrael Galili Haj Amin Al-Husseini
north. The Jewish militias, organised into the Yigal Allon King Farouk I
Israel Defense Forces, managed to halt the Arab Yitzhak Rabin Ahmad Ali al-Mwawi
forces. The following months saw fierce fighting Moshe Carmel Muhammad Naguib
between the IDF and the Arab armies, which Abdul Rahman
were being slowly pushed back. The Jordanian Hassan Azzam
and Iraqi armies managed to maintain control Strength
over most of the central highlands of Palestine Israel: c. 10,000 initially, Arabs: c. 2,000 initially,
and capture East Jerusalem, including the Old rising to 115,000 by rising to 70,000, of which:
City. Egypt's occupation zone was limited to the March 1949 Egypt: 10,000 initially,
Gaza Strip and a small pocket surrounded by rising to 20,000
Israeli forces at Al-Faluja. In October and Iraq: 3,000 initially, rising
December 1948, Israeli forces crossed into to 15,000–18,000
Lebanese territory and pushed into Egypt's Sinai Syria: 2,500–5,000
Peninsula, encircling the Egyptian forces near Transjordan: 8,000 –
Gaza City. The last military activity happened in 12,000
March 1949, when Israeli forces captured the Lebanon: 1,000[7]
Negev desert and reached the Red Sea. In 1949, Saudi Arabia: 800–1,200
Israel signed separate armistices with Egypt on Arab Liberation Army:
24 February, Lebanon on 23 March, Transjordan 3,500–6,000
on 3 April, and Syria on 20 July. During this Casualties and losses
period the flight and expulsion of the Palestinian
6,080 killed (about 4,074 Between +5,000[8] and
Arabs continued.
troops and 2,000 20,000 (inc civilians)[9]
In the three years following the war, about civilians)[8] among which 4,000
700,000 Jews immigrated to Israel from Europe soldiers for Egypt, Jordan
and Arab lands, with one third of them having left and Syria[10]
or been expelled from their countries of residence
in the Middle East.[20][21][22] These refugees were absorbed into Israel in the One Million
Plan.[23][24][25][26]

Contents
Background
Jewish immigration to Palestine
World War I
The Arab states
The 1947 UN Partition Plan
1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine
Plan Dalet and second stage
Course of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War
Arab Invasion
First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948
Second phase: 8–18 July 1948
18 July 1948 to 10 March 1949
Aftermath
Armistice lines
Casualties
Demographic consequences
Historiography
In popular culture
See also
Notes
Citations
Further reading
Background
The 1948 War was the outcome of more than 60 years of friction between Jews and Arabs who inhabited
the land between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The land is called "Eretz Yisrael" or "Land
of Israel" by the Jews, and "Falastin" or "Palestine" by the Arabs. It is the birthplace of the Jewish people
and their religion. The land switched between many foreign powers from east, west and south, who
occupied the Jewish homeland. One of these was the Roman Empire, which crushed a Jewish revolt
during the second century and sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the worldwide Jewish diaspora. The
Romans changed the land's name from Judaea to Palaestina, meaning "land of the Philistines", a nation
that occupied the southern shore of the land in ancient times. The name stuck among non-Jews and
became common usage.

After the Romans came the Byzantines, Early Arab Caliphates, Crusaders, Muslim Mamluks and the
Ottoman Empire. There was always a small Jewish presence in the land. By 1881, the land, which was
divided between Ottoman provinces of Nablus, Acre and the independent province of Jerusalem, was
ruled directly from the Ottoman capital. It had a population of about 450,000 Arabic speakers, 90% of
them Muslim and the rest Christian and Druze. Some 80% of the Arabs lived in 700 to 800 villages and
the rest in a dozen towns. There were 25,000 Jews, who constituted the "Old Yishuv" (yishuv means
"settlement" but refers to the Jewish inhabitants of the land of Israel). Most of them lived in Jerusalem
and were ultra-Orthodox and poor. They had no nationalistic views.[27]

Jewish immigration to Palestine

Zionism formed in Europe as the national movement of the Jewish people. It sought to reestablish Jewish
statehood in the ancient homeland. The first wave of Zionist immigration, dubbed the First Aliyah, lasted
from 1882 to 1903. Some 30,000 Jews, mostly from the Russian Empire, reached Ottoman Palestine.
They were driven both by the Zionist idea and by the wave of Antisemitism in Europe, especially in the
Russian Empire, which came in the form of brutal pogroms. They wanted to establish Jewish agricultural
settlements and a Jewish majority in the land that would allow them to gain statehood. The land on which
they settled was acquired by cash. They settled mostly the sparsely populated lowlands, which were
swampy and subjected to Bedouin robbers.[28]

The Arab inhabitants of Ottoman Palestine who saw the Zionist Jews settle next to them had no national
affiliation. They saw themselves as subjects of the Ottoman Empire, members of the Islamic community
and as Arabs, geographically, linguistically and culturally. Their strongest affiliation was their clan,
family, village or tribe. There was no Arab or Palestinian Arab nationalist movement. In the first two
decades of Zionist immigration, most of the opposition came from the wealthy landowners and noblemen
who feared they would have to fight the Jews for the land in the future.[29]

By 1914 the Jewish population of Ottoman Palestine was between 60,000 and 85,000, two-thirds of them
members of the Zionist movement, mostly living in 40 new settlements. They encountered very little
violence in the form of feuds and conflict over land and resources with their Arab neighbours or criminal
activity. Between 1909 and 1914 this changed, as Arabs killed 12 Jewish settlement guards and Arab
nationalism and opposition to the Zionist enterprise increased. In 1911, Arabs attempted to thwart the
establishment of a Jewish settlement in the Jezreel Valley, and the dispute resulted in the death of one
Arab man and a Jewish guard. The Arabs called the Jews the "new Crusaders", and anti-Zionist rhetoric
flourished.[30] Tensions between Arabs and Jews led to violent disturbances on several occasions, notably
in 1920, 1921, 1929 and 1936–1939.
World War I
During the war, Palestine served as the frontline between the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire in
Egypt. The war briefly halted Jewish-Arab friction. The British invaded the land in 1915 and 1916 after
two unsuccessful Ottoman attacks on Sinai. They were assisted by the Arab tribes in Hejaz, led by the
Hashemites, and promised them sovereignty over the Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire. Palestine was
omitted from the promise, first planned to be a joint British-French domain, and after the Balfour
Declaration in November 1917, a "national home for the Jewish people". The decision to support
Zionism was driven by Zionist lobbying, led by Chaim Weizmann. Many of the British officials who
supported the decisions supported Zionism for religious and humanitarian reasons. They also believed
that a British-backed state would help defend the Suez Canal.[31]

The Arab states

Following World War II, the surrounding Arab states were emerging from mandatory rule. Transjordan,
under the Hashemite ruler Abdullah I, gained independence from Britain in 1946 and was called Jordan
in 1949, but remained under heavy British influence. Egypt gained nominal independence in 1922, but
Britain continued to exert a strong influence on it until the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 limited
Britain's presence to a garrison of troops on the Suez Canal until 1945. Lebanon became an independent
state in 1943, but French troops did not withdraw until 1946, the same year Syria won its independence
from France.

In 1945, at British prompting, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Transjordan, and Yemen
formed the Arab League to coordinate policy among the Arab states. Iraq and Transjordan coordinated
closely, signing a mutual defence treaty, while Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia feared that Transjordan
would annex part or all of Palestine and use it as a stepping stone to attack or undermine Syria, Lebanon,
and the Hijaz.[32]

The 1947 UN Partition Plan

On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General
Assembly adopted a resolution "recommending to the United
Kingdom, as the mandatory Power for Palestine, and to all
other Members of the United Nations the adoption and
implementation, with regard to the future government of
Palestine, of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union", UN
General Assembly Resolution 181(II).[33] This was an
attempt to resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning
Fawzi al-Qawuqji's (3rd from the right) in Palestine into "Independent Arab and Jewish States and the
1936.
Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem". Each
state would comprise three major sections; the Arab state
would also have an enclave at Jaffa in order to have a port on the Mediterranean.

With about 32% of the population, the Jews were allocated 56% of the territory. It contained 499,000
Jews and 438,000 Arabs and most of it was in the Negev desert.[34] The Palestinian Arabs were allocated
42% of the land, which had a population of 818,000 Palestinian Arabs and 10,000 Jews. In consideration
of its religious significance, the Jerusalem area, including Bethlehem, with 100,000 Jews and an equal
number of Palestinian Arabs, was to become a Corpus Separatum, to be administered by the UN.[35] The
residents in the UN-administered territory were given the right to choose to be citizens of either of the
new states.[36]

The Jewish leadership accepted the partition plan as "the indispensable minimum,"[37] glad to gain
international recognition but sorry that they did not receive more.[38] The representatives of the
Palestinian Arabs and the Arab League firmly opposed the UN action and rejected its authority in the
matter, arguing that the partition plan was unfair to the Arabs because of the population balance at that
time.[39] The Arabs rejected the partition, not because it was supposedly unfair, but because their leaders
rejected any form of partition.[40][41] They held "that the rule of Palestine should revert to its inhabitants,
in accordance with the provisions of [...] the Charter of the United Nations."[42] According to Article 73b
of the Charter, the UN should develop self-government of the peoples in a territory under its
administration. In the immediate aftermath of the UN's approval of the partition plan, explosions of joy in
the Jewish community were counterbalanced by discontent in the Arab community. Soon after, violence
broke out and became more prevalent. Murders, reprisals, and counter-reprisals came fast upon each
other, resulting in dozens killed on both sides. The sanguinary impasse persisted as no force intervened to
put a stop to the escalating violence.

1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine

The first phase of the war took place from the United Nations General
Assembly vote for the Partition Plan for Palestine on 29 November 1947 until
the termination of the British Mandate and Israeli proclamation of statehood
on 14 May 1948.[43] During this period the Jewish and Arab communities of
British Mandate clashed, while the British organised their withdrawal and
intervened only occasionally. In the first two months of the Civil War, around
1,000 people were killed and 2,000 injured,[44] and by the end of March, the
figure had risen to 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded.[45] These figures
correspond to an average of more than 100 deaths and 200 casualties per week
in a population of 2,000,000.

From January onwards, operations became increasingly militarised. A number

of Arab Liberation Army regiments infiltrated Palestine, each active in a
Proposed separation of variety of distinct sectors around the coastal towns. They consolidated their
Palestine. presence in Galilee and Samaria.[46] The Army of the Holy War, under Abd
al-Qadir al-Husayni's command, came from Egypt with several hundred men.
Having recruited a few thousand volunteers, al-Husayni organised the
blockade of the 100,000 Jewish residents of Jerusalem.[47]

To counter this, the Yishuv authorities tried to supply the city with convoys of up to 100 armoured
vehicles, but the operation became more and more impractical as the number of casualties in the relief
convoys surged. By March, al-Husayni's tactic had paid off. Almost all of Haganah's armoured vehicles
had been destroyed, the blockade was in full operation, and hundreds of Haganah members who had tried
to bring supplies into the city were killed.[48] The situation for those in the Jewish settlements in the
highly isolated Negev and North of Galilee was more critical.
This caused the US to withdraw its support for the Partition plan,
and the Arab League began to believe that the Palestinian Arabs,
reinforced by the Arab Liberation Army, could end the partition. The
British decided on 7 February 1948 to support Transjordan's
annexation of the Arab part of Palestine.[49]

While the Jewish population was ordered to hold their ground

everywhere at all costs,[50] the Arab population was disrupted by
general conditions of insecurity. Up to 100,000 Arabs from the urban
upper and middle classes in Haifa, Jaffa and Jerusalem, or Jewish-
dominated areas, evacuated abroad or to Arab centres to the east.[51]

David Ben-Gurion ordered Yigal Yadin to plan for the announced

intervention of the Arab states. The result of his analysis was Plan
Dalet, which was put in place at the start of April.
Aftermath of the car bomb attack
on the Ben Yehuda St., which
Plan Dalet and second stage killed 53 and injured many more.

The adoption of Plan Dalet

marked the war's second phase, in which Haganah took the offensive.

The first operation, Nachshon, was directed at lifting the blockade on

Jerusalem.[52] In the last week of March, 136 supply trucks had tried
to reach Jerusalem; only 41 had made it. The Arab attacks on
An Arab roadblock, at the main
communications and roads had intensified. The convoys' failure and
road to Jerusalem. the loss of Jewish armoured vehicles had shaken the Yishuv leaders'
confidence.

1,500 men from Haganah's Givati brigade and Palmach's Harel brigade conducted sorties to free up the
route to the city between 5 April and 20 April. The operation was successful, and two months' worth of
foodstuffs were trucked into Jerusalem for distribution to the Jewish population.[53] The operation's
success was aided by al-Husayni's death in combat.

During this time, and independently of Haganah or Plan Dalet, irregular troops from Irgun and Lehi
formations massacred 107 Arabs at Deir Yassin. The event was publicly deplored and criticised by the
principal Jewish authorities and had a deep effect on the Arab population's morale. At the same time, the
first large-scale operation of the Arab Liberation Army ended in a debacle, as they were roundly defeated
at Mishmar HaEmek.[54] Their Druze allies left them through defection.[55]

Within the framework of creating Jewish territorial continuity according to Plan Dalet, the forces of
Haganah, Palmach and Irgun intended to conquer mixed zones of population. Tiberias, Haifa, Safed,
Beisan, and Jaffa were taken before the end of the Mandate, with Acre falling shortly after. More than
250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled these locales.[56]

The British had essentially withdrawn their troops. The situation pushed the neighbouring Arab states to
intervene, but their preparation was not completed, and they could not assemble sufficient forces to turn
the tide of the war. The majority of Palestinian Arab hopes lay with the Arab Legion of Transjordan's
monarch, King Abdullah I. He did not intend to create a Palestinian Arab-run state, as he hoped to annex
much of Mandatory Palestine. Playing both sides, he was in contact with the Jewish authorities and the
Arab League.

Preparing for Arab intervention from neighbouring states, Haganah

successfully launched Operations Yiftah[57] and Ben-'Ami[58] to secure
the Jewish settlements of Galilee, and Operation Kilshon. This created an
Israeli-controlled front around Jerusalem. The inconclusive meeting
between Golda Meir and Abdullah I, followed by the Kfar Etzion
massacre on 13 May by the Arab Legion, led to predictions that the battle
for Jerusalem would be merciless.

Course of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War

Arab Invasion
On 14 May 1948, the day before the
expiration of the British Mandate, Israel in June 1948.
David Ben-Gurion declared the
establishment of a Jewish state in
Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel.[59] Both superpower
leaders, U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Soviet leader Joseph
Stalin, immediately recognised the new state, while the Arab League
refused to accept the UN partition plan, proclaimed the right of self-
determination for the Arabs across the whole of Palestine, and
Palestinian irregulars of the Holy maintained that the absence of legal authority made it necessary to
War Army, approaching al-Qastal
intervene to protect Arab lives and property.[60]
village near Jerusalem to take it
back from Palmach.
Over the next few days, contingents of four of the seven countries of
the Arab League at that time, Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan, and Syria,
invaded the former British Mandate of Palestine and fought the Israelis. They were supported by the
Arab Liberation Army and corps of volunteers from Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Yemen. The Arab armies
launched a simultaneous offensive on all fronts: Egyptian forces invaded from the south, Jordanian and
Iraqi forces from the east, and Syrian forces invaded from the north. Cooperation among the various
Arab armies was poor.

First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948

The UN declared a truce on 29 May, which began on 11 June and
lasted 28 days. The ceasefire was overseen by UN mediator Folke
Bernadotte and a team of UN Observers, army officers from
Belgium, United States, Sweden and France.[61] Bernadotte was
voted in by the General Assembly to "assure the safety of the holy
places, to safeguard the well being of the population, and to promote
'a peaceful adjustment of the future situation of Palestine'".[62] He
spoke of "peace by Christmas" but saw that the Arab world had Volunteers evacuating a wounded
man during Egyptian
continued to reject the existence of a Jewish state, whatever its
bombardment of Tel Aviv.
borders.[63]
An arms embargo was declared with the intention that neither side would make gains from the truce.
Neither side respected the truce; both found ways around the restrictions. Both the Israelis and the Arabs
used this time to improve their positions, a direct violation of the terms of the ceasefire.

"The Arabs violated the truce by reinforcing their lines with fresh units (including six companies of
Sudanese regulars,[63] Saudi battalion [64] and contingents from Yemen, Morocco [65]) and by preventing
supplies from reaching isolated Israeli settlements; occasionally, they opened fire along the lines".[66]
The Israeli Defense Forces violated the truce by acquiring weapons from Czechoslovakia, improving
training of forces, and reorganising the army. Yitzhak Rabin, an IDF commander who became Israel's
fifth prime minister, said, "[w]ithout the arms from Czechoslovakia... it is very doubtful whether we
would have been able to conduct the war".[67] As well as violating the arms and personnel embargo, both
sides sent fresh units to the front.[66] Israel's army increased its manpower from approximately 30,000 or
35,000 men to almost 65,000 during the truce and its arms supply to "more than twenty-five thousand
rifles, five thousand machine guns, and more than fifty million bullets".[66]

As the truce began, a British officer stationed in Haifa said the

four-week-long truce "would certainly be exploited by the Jews
to continue military training and reorganization while the Arabs
would waste [them] feuding over the future divisions of the
spoils".[66] On 7 July, the day before the truce expired, Egyptian
forces under General Muhammad Naguib renewed the war by
attacking Negba.[68]

Air dropping supplies to besieged

Yehiam, 1948. Second phase: 8–18 July 1948
Israeli forces launched a simultaneous offensive on all three
fronts: Dani, Dekel, and Kedem. The fighting was dominated by
large-scale Israeli offensives and a defensive Arab posture, and continued for ten days until the UN
Security Council issued the Second Truce on 18 July.[66]

Israeli Operation Danny resulted in the exodus from Lydda and Ramle of 60,000 Palestinian residents.
According to Benny Morris, in Ben-Gurion's view, Ramlah and Lydda constituted a special danger
because their proximity might encourage cooperation between the Egyptian army, which had started its
attack on Kibbutz Negbah, and the Arab Legion, which had taken the Lydda police station. Widespread
looting took place during these operations, and about 100,000 Palestinians became refugees.[69] In
Operation Dekel, Nazareth was captured on 16 July. In Operation Brosh, Israel tried and failed to drive
the Syrian army out of northeastern Galilee. By the time the second truce took effect at 19:00 18 July,
Israel had taken the lower Galilee from Haifa Bay to the Sea of Galilee.

18 July 1948 to 10 March 1949

At 19:00 on 18 July, the second truce of the conflict went into effect after intense diplomatic efforts by
the UN. On 16 September, a new partition for Palestine was proposed, but was rejected by both sides.
 Palmach Infantry go Israeli soldiers IDF forces near Beit Israeli bombardment
into action during attack Sasa during Natif (near Hebron) of the Iraq
the fight for Operation Hiram, after it was Suwaydan fort, held
Beersheba, 21 October occupied, October by the Egyptian
October army, on 9
November

Palmach soldiers
are instructed before
Operation Yoav

During the truce, the Egyptians regularly blocked with fire the
passage of supply convoys to the beleaguered northern Negev
settlements, contrary to the truce terms. On 15 October, they
attacked another supply convoy, and the already planned
Operation Yoav was launched.[70] Its goal was to drive a wedge
between the Egyptian forces along the coast and the Beersheba-
Hebron-Jerusalem road, and to open the road to the encircled
Negev settlements. Yoav was headed by Southern Front
commander Yigal Allon. The operation was a success, shattering
the Egyptian army ranks and forcing Egyptian forces to retreat
from the northern Negev, Beersheba and Ashdod. Meanwhile, on
An Otter armoured car captured by 19 October, Operation Ha-Har commenced operations in the
the Haganah from the ALA in 1948.
Jerusalem Corridor.

On 22 October, the third truce went into effect.[71]

Before dawn on 22 October, in defiance of the UN Security Council ceasefire order, ALA units stormed
the IDF hilltop position of Sheikh Abd, overlooking Kibbutz Manara. The kibbutz was now besieged.
Ben-Gurion initially rejected Moshe Carmel’s demand to launch a major counteroffensive. He was wary
of antagonising the United Nations on the heels of its ceasefire order. During 24–25 October, ALA troops
regularly sniped at Manara and traffic along the main road. In contacts with UN observers, Fawzi al-
Qawuqji demanded that Israel evacuate neighbouring Kibbutz Yiftah and thin out its forces in Manara.
The IDF demanded the ALA's withdrawal from the captured positions and, after a “no” from al-Qawuqji,
informed the UN that it felt free to do as it pleased.[72] On 24 October, the IDF launched Operation
Hiram and captured the entire upper Galilee, originally attributed to the Arab state by the Partition Plan.
It drove the ALA back to Lebanon. At the end of the month, Israel had captured the whole Galilee and
had advanced 5 miles (8.0 km) into Lebanon to the Litani River.

On 22 December, large IDF forces started Operation Horev. Its objective was to encircle the Egyptian
Army in the Gaza Strip and force the Egyptians to end the war. The operation was a decisive Israeli
victory, and Israeli raids into the Nitzana area and the Sinai Peninsula forced the Egyptian army into the
Gaza Strip, where it was surrounded. Israeli forces withdrew from Sinai and Gaza under international
pressure and after the British threatened to intervene against Israel. The Egyptian government announced
on 6 January 1949 that it was willing to enter armistice negotiations. Allon persuaded Ben-Gurion to
continue as planned, but Ben-Gurion told him: "Do you know the value of peace talks with Egypt? After
all, that is our great dream!"[73] He was sure that Transjordan and the other Arab states would follow suit.
On 7 January 1949, a truce was achieved.

On 5 March, Israel launched Operation Uvda; by 10 March, the Israelis reached Umm Rashrash (where
Eilat was built later) and took it without a battle. The Negev Brigade and Golani Brigade took part in the
operation. They raised a hand-made flag ("The Ink Flag") and claimed Umm Rashrash for Israel.

Aftermath

Armistice lines
In 1949, Israel signed separate armistices with Egypt on 24 February,
Lebanon on 23 March, Transjordan on 3 April, and Syria on 20 July. The
armistice lines saw Israel holding about 78% of mandate Palestine (as it
stood after the independence of Transjordan in 1946), 22% more than the
UN Partition Plan had allocated. These ceasefire lines were known
afterwards as the "Green Line". The Gaza Strip and the West Bank were
occupied by Egypt and Transjordan, respectively. The United Nations Truce
Supervision Organization and Mixed Armistice Commissions were set up to
monitor ceasefires, supervise the armistice agreements, to prevent isolated
incidents from escalating, and assist other UN peacekeeping operations in
the region.

Casualties
Israel lost 6,373 of its people, about 1% of its population in the war. About
4,000 were soldiers and the rest were civilians. The exact number of Arab
losses is unknown but is estimated at between 4,000 for Egypt (2,000), Israel after 1949
Jordan and Syria (1,000 each)[10] and 15,000.[74] Armistice Agreements.

Demographic consequences
During the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the 1948 Arab–Israeli War that followed,
around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled.[15] In 1951, the UN Conciliation Commission
for Palestine estimated that the number of Palestinian refugees displaced from Israel was 711,000.[75]
This number did not include displaced Palestinians inside Israeli-held territory. The list of villages
depopulated during the Arab–Israeli conflict includes more than 400 Arab villages. It also includes about
ten Jewish villages and neighbourhoods.

The causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus are a controversial topic among historians.[76] The Palestinian
refugee problem and the debate around the right of their return are also major issues of the Israeli–
Palestinian conflict. Palestinians have staged annual demonstrations and protests on 15 May of each year.

During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, around 10,000 Jews were forced to evacuate their homes in Palestine
or Israel.[77] The war indirectly created a second, major refugee problem, the Jewish exodus from Arab
and Muslim lands. Partly because of the war between Jews and Arabs in Palestine, hundreds of thousands
of Jews who lived in the Arab states were intimidated into flight, or were expelled from their native
countries, most of them reaching Israel. The immediate reasons for the flight were the popular Arab
hostility, including pogroms, triggered by the war in Palestine and anti-Jewish governmental
measures.[78] In the three years following the war, about 700,000 Jews immigrated to Israel, where they
were absorbed, fed and housed[79] mainly along the borders and in former Palestinian lands.[26]
Beginning in 1948, and continuing until 1972, an estimated 800,000 to 1,000,000 Jews fled or were
expelled.[80][81][82] From 1945 until the closure of 1952, more than 250,000 Jewish displaced persons
lived in European refugee camps. About 136,000 of them immigrated to Israel.[21] More than 270,000
Jews immigrated from Eastern Europe,[22] mainly Romania and Poland (over 100,000 each). Overall
700,000 Jews settled in Israel,[83] doubling its Jewish population.[84][85]

Historiography
Since the war, Israeli and Arab historiographies have interpreted the events of 1948 differently. In
Western historiography, the majority view was that the vastly outnumbered and ill-equipped Jews fended
off the massed strength of the invading Arab armies; it was also widely believed that the Palestinian
Arabs left their homes on their leaders' instructions.[86]

In 1980, with the opening of the Israeli and British archives, Israeli historians started giving new insights
into the history of this period. In particular, the roles played by Abdullah I of Jordan and the British
government, the goals of the different Arab nations, the balance of force, and the events related to the
Palestinian exodus have been viewed with more nuance or given new interpretations.[86] These insights
are the result of historical analysis of "the war as contingent on the flow of battle and
voluntary/involuntary movements of threatened populations—rather than on any masterplan or evil
intentions that would raise questions about Israel's legitimacy."[87] Some issues continue to be hotly
debated among historians of the conflict.[88]

Palestinian and Arab historians have also provided context, but their work tends to be apologetic, rely on
subjective sources, and assign blame for the Arab defeat. Palestinian historians since the 1960s who have
used historical methodologies have not had the same impact on Arab society as Israeli New Historians
did in Israeli society. This is due, in part, to fear that critical analysis of their role in the war might
weaken the Palestinian position in the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Unlike Israel and Britain,
Arab governments have not released relevant primary sources from their archives.[87]
In popular culture
A 2015 PBS documentary, A Wing and a Prayer, depicts the Al Schwimmer-led airborne smuggling
missions to arm Israel.[89]

See also
List of battles and operations in the 1948 Palestine war
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East

Notes
a. Israelis refer to the war as their War of Independence or War of Liberation, because the
modern State of Israel originated in the Yishuv (the pre-state Jewish community in
Palestine) declaring its independence from the British Mandate in 1948. Palestinians refer
to this as al-Nakba ("the Catastrophe"), because of the land they lost,[11] the failure to
create a Palestinian Arab State, and the 1948 Palestinian exodus.

Citations
1. Palestine Post, "Israel's Bedouin Warriors", Gene Dison, August 12, 1948
2. AFP (24 April 2013). "Bedouin army trackers scale Israel social ladder" (http://english.alarab
iya.net/en/perspective/profiles/2013/04/24/Bedouin-army-trackers-scale-Israel-social-ladder
-.html). Al Arabiya. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
3. Benny Morris, 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Chapter 5.
4. Moshe Yegar, "Pakistan and Israel," Jewish Political Studies Review 19:3–4 (Fall 2007)
5. Anita Shapira, L'imaginaire d'Israël : histoire d'une culture politique (2005), Latroun : la
mémoire de la bataille, Chap. III. 1 l'événement p. 91–96
6. Benny Morris (2008), p.419.
7. Pollack, 2004; Sadeh, 1997
8. Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=L_xxOM85bD8C&pg=PA160&lpg=PA160&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false).
ABC-CLIO. p. 160.
9. Rosemarie Esber, Under the Cover of War, Arabicus Books & Medica, 2009, p.28.
10. Casualties in Arab-Israeli Wars (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/casualtie
s.html)
11. Michael R. Fischbach, an American scholar of the archives of the United Nations
Conciliation Commission for Palestine, estimates that, in all, Palestinians lost some 6 to 8
million dunams (1.5 to 2 million acres) of land, not including communal land farmed by
villages or state land. Philip Mattar, ‘Al-Nakba,’ in Philip Mattar Encyclopedia of the
Palestinians, (https://books.google.com/books?id=GkbzYoZtaJMC&pg=PA329) Infobase
Publishing, 2005
12. Reuven Firestone To Jews, the Jewish-Arab war of 1947–1948 is the War of Independence
(milchemet ha'atzma'ut). To Arabs, and especially Palestinians, it is the nakba or calamity. I
therefore refrain from assigning names to wars. I refer to the wars between the State of
Israel and its Arab and Palestinian neighbors according to their dates: 1948, 1956, 1967,
1973, and 1982.' (https://books.google.com/books?id=EHyqYbTM-dwC&pg=PA10) Reuven
Firestone, Holy War in Judaism: The Fall and Rise of a Controversial Idea, Oxford
University Press, 2012 p.10, cf.p.296
13. Neil Caplan, ‘Perhaps the most famous case of differences over the naming of events is the
1948 war (more accurately, the fighting from December 1947 through January 1949). For
Israel it is their “War of Liberation” or “War of Independence” (in Hebrew, milhemet ha-
atzama’ut) full of the joys and overtones of deliverance and redemption. For Palestinians, it
is Al-Nakba, translated as “The Catastrophe” and including in its scope the destruction of
their society and the expulsion and flight of some 700,000 refugees.’ (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=JyAgn_dD43cC&pg=PT17) The Israel-Palestine Conflict: Contested Histories,
John Wiley & Sons, Sep 19, 2011 p.17.
14. Neil Caplan Although some historians would cite 14 May 1948 as the start of the war known
variously as the Israeli War of Independence, an-Nakba (the (Palestinian) Catastrophe), or
the first Palestine war, it would be more accurate to consider that war as beginning on 30
November 1947'. (https://books.google.com/books?id=ohPWON3LnDMC&pg=PA17) Futile
Diplomacy: The United Nations, the Great Powers, and Middle East Peacemaking 1948–
1954, (vol.3) Frank Cass & Co, 1997 p.17
15. — Benny Morris, 2004. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA602), pp. 602–604. Cambridge University
Press; ISBN 978-0-521-00967-6. "It is impossible to arrive at a definite persuasive estimate.
My predilection would be to opt for the loose contemporary British formula, that of 'between
600,000 and 760,000' refugees; but,if pressed, 700,000 is probably a fair estimate";
— Memo US Department of State, 4 May 1949 (http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/
FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1949v06&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=973),
FRUS, 1949, p. 973.: "One of the most important problems which must be cleared up before
a lasting peace can be established in Palestine is the question of the more than 700,000
Arab refugees who during the Palestine conflict fled from their homes in what is now Israeli
occupied territory and are at present living as refugees in Arab Palestine and the
neighbouring Arab states.";
— Memorandum on the Palestine Refugee Problem, 4 May 1949 (http://digicoll.library.wisc.
edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1949v06&isize=M&submit=Go+to+
page&page=984), FRUS, 1949, p. 984.: "Approximately 700,000 refugees from the
Palestine hostilities, now located principally in Arab Palestine, Transjordan, Lebanon and
Syria, will require repatriation to Israel or resettlement in the Arab states."
16. Morris (2008), p.77
17. Morris (2008), p.63–65
18. Morris (2008), p.77–79
19. Tal (2003), p.41
20. Devorah Hakohen, Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions
in the 1950s and after (https://books.google.com/books?id=fYOiPrm-6PsC&pg=PA292),
Syracuse University Press 2003 p.267
21. Displaced Persons (http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005462)
retrieved on 29 October 2007 from the U.S. Holocaust Museum.
22. Tom Segev, 1949. The First Israelis, Owl Books, 1986, p.96.
23. Morris, 2001, chap. VI.
24. "Jewish Refugees of the Israeli Palestinian Conflict" (http://www.mideastweb.org/refugees4.
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25. Axelrod, Alan (2014). Idiot's Guides: The Middle East Conflict (https://books.google.com/bo
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26. Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, chap. VI.
27. Morris (2008), p. 7
28. Morris (2008), p. 2
29. Morris (2008), p. 6–7
30. Morris (2008), pp. 7–8
31. Morris (2008), pp. 9–10
32. Morris (2008), pp. 66–69
33. "A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120524094913/http://
domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253). domino.un.org. 1947.
Archived from the original (http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330
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34. Benny Morris (2008). 1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ). Yale University Press. p. 47. Retrieved 13 July 2013. "The Jews
were to get 62 percent of Palestine (most of it desert), consisting of the Negev"
35. Pappe, 2006, p. 35
36. Karsh, p.7
37. El-Nawawy, 2002, p. 1-2
38. Morris, 'Righteous Victims ...', 2001, p. 190
39. Gold, 2007, p. 134
40. UNITED NATIONS CONCILIATION COMMISSION FOR PALESTINE A/AC.25/W/19 30 July
1949 (https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/4ECBF3578B6149C50525657100507FAB)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131002103014/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NS
F/0/4ECBF3578B6149C50525657100507FAB) 2 October 2013 at the Wayback
Machine,"The Arabs rejected the United Nations Partition Plan so that any comment of
theirs did not specifically concern the status of the Arab section of Palestine under partition
but rather rejected the scheme in its entirety."
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ooks?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ). Yale University Press. p. 67. Retrieved 13 July 2013. "p. 67, "The
League’s Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the
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(http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/038/88/IMG/NR003888.pdf?Op
enElement) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110617232624/http://daccess-dds-ny.u
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46. Yoav Gelber (2006), pp.51-56
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48. Benny Morris (2003), p. 163
49. Henry Laurens (2005), p.83
50. Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p.163
51. Benny Morris (2003), p.67
52. Benny Morris (2008). 1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ). Yale University Press. p. 116. Retrieved 13 July 2013. "At the
time, Ben-Gurion and the HGS believed that they had initiated a one-shot affair, albeit with
the implication of a change of tactics and strategy on the Jerusalem front. In fact, they had
set in motion a strategic transformation of Haganah policy. Nahshon heralded a shift from
the defensive to the offensive and marked the beginning of the implementation of tochnit
dalet (Plan D)—without Ben-Gurion or the HGS ever taking an in principle decision to
embark on its implementation. "
53. Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), pp.369-381
54. Benny Morris (2003), pp. 242-243
55. Benny Morris (2003), p.242
56. Henry Laurens (2005), pp.85-86
57. Benny Morris (2003), pp.248-252
58. Benny Morris (2003), pp.252-254
59. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel: 14 May
1948 Retrieved 9 April 2012 (http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Pea
ce+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm) Archived (https://web.a
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ps://web.archive.org/web/20110526013534/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/d442111e
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s/1948historyoffir00morr). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9.
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65. Benny Morris (2008), p.205
66. Morris, Benny. 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War.
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hive.org/details/fiftyyearswarisr00breg). BBC Books.
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p. 330. ISBN 978-0-394-48564-5.
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71. Shapira, Anita. Yigal Allon; Native Son; A Biography, Translated by Evelyn Abel, University
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ooks?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ). Yale University Press. p. 339. Retrieved 13 July 2013. "Al-
Qawuqji supplied the justification for Operation Hiram, in which the IDF overran the north-
central Galilee "pocket" and a strip of southern Lebanon... In truth, as with Yoav, Operation
Hiram had been long in the planning... on 6 October, at the IDF General Staff meeting,
Carmel had pressed for [Hiram] authorization, but the Cabinet held back. The Arabs were
shortly to give him his chance. Before dawn on 22 October, in defiance of the UN Security
Council cease-fire order, ALA units stormed the IDF hilltop position of Sheikh Abd, just north
of, and overlooking, Kibbutz Manara... Manara was imperiled... Ben-Gurion initially rejected
Carmel's demand to launch a major counteroffensive. He was chary of antagonizing the
United Nations so close on the heels of its cease-fire order. ... The kibbutz was now
besieged, and the main south-north road through the Panhandle to Metulla was also under
threat. During the 24–25 October ALA troops regularly sniped at Manara and at traffic along
the main road. In contacts with UN observers, al-Qawuqji demanded that Israel evacuate
neighboring Kibbutz Yiftah... and thin out its forces in Manara. The IDF demanded the ALA's
withdrawal from the captured positions and, after a "no" from al-Qawuqji, informed the
United Nations that it felt free to do as it pleased. Sensing what was about to happen, the
Lebanese army "ordered" al-Qawuqji to withdraw from Israeli territory—but to no avail. Al-
Qawuqji's provocation at Sheikh Abd made little military sense... On 16 October, a week
before the attack on Sheikh Abd, Carmel ... had pressed Ben-Gurion to be allowed "to begin
in the Galilee." Ben-Gurion had refused, but on 24–25 October he gave the green light."
73. Benny Morris (2008), p.369.
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who lived in the Arab world emigrated, were intimidated into flight, or were expelled from
their native countries, most of them reaching Israel, with a minority resettling in France,
Britain, and the other Western countries. The immediate propellants to flight were the
popular Arab hostility, including pogroms, triggered by the war in Palestine and specific
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Lands, Continuum 2001.
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the 1950s and After, Syracuse University Press, 2003
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No. 3 (Aug., 1995), pp. 287–304.
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History and Memory of 1948." The War of 1948: Representations of Israeli and Palestinian
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pp. 203-221.
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n-propaganda.html) Archived (https://www.webcitation.org/5j0sy4bPE?url=http://jeffweintrau
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Further reading
Abdel Jawad, Saleh (2006). "The Arab and Palestinian Narratives of the 1948 War". In
Robert I. Rotberg (ed.). Israeli and Palestinian Narratives of Conflict: History's Double Helix
(https://books.google.com/books?id=qBdvxmuAwxYC). Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-
253-21857-8.
Caplan, Neil (19 September 2011). "War: Atzma'ut and Nakba". The Israel-Palestine
Conflict: Contested Histories (https://books.google.com/books?id=JyAgn_dD43cC&pg=PT1
7). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5786-8.
Yoav Gelber, Palestine 1948, Sussex Academic Press, Brighton, 2006, ISBN 978-1-84519-
075-0
Efraim Karsh, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948, Osprey publishing, 2002.
Walid Khalidi (ed.), All that remains.ISBN 978-0-88728-224-9.
Walid Khalidi, Selected Documents on the 1948 Palestine War (https://www.jstor.org/stable/
2537835), Journal of Palestine Studies, 27(3), 79, 1998.
Benny Morris, 1948, Yale University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9
Ilan Pappe, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine, Oneworld Publications, 2006, ISBN 978-1-
85168-555-4
Eugene Rogan & Avi Shlaim, The War for Palestine — Rewriting the history of 1948,
Cambridge University Press, 2001.
 David Tal, War in Palestine, 1948. Strategy and Diplomacy, Routledge, 2004.

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