Chapter 3  Loads Contents

3.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

3.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

3.3 Load Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

3.4 Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4

3.5 Load Factors and Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5

3.5.1 Load Factors for Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6

3.6 Loads and Load Factors for Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7

3.7 Load Factors for Post-tensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

3.7.1 Post-tensioning Effects from Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
3.7.2 Secondary Forces from Post-tensioning, PS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

3.8 Permanent Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

3.8.1 Deck Overlay Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

3.9 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10

3.9.1 Design Live Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3.9.2 Loading for Live Load Deflection Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3.9.3 Distribution to Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3.9.4 Bridge Load Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12

3.10 Pedestrian Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13

3.11 Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

3.11.1 Wind Load to Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3.11.2 Wind Load to Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3.11.3 Wind on Noise Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

3.12 Loads on Buried Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15

3.13 Earthquake Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16

3.14 Earth Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

3.15 Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-i

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.16 Other Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19

3.16.1 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3.16.2 Collision Force on Bridge Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3.16.3 Collision Force on Traffic Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3.16.4 Force from Stream Current, Floating Ice, and Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3.16.5 Ice Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3.16.6 Uniform Temperature Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3.16.7 Vehicular Collision Force: CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19

3.99 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21

Page 3-ii WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.1 Scope
AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Specifications shall be the minimum
design criteria used for all bridges except as modified herein.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-1

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.2 Definitions
The definitions in this section supplement those given in LRFD Section 3.

Permanent Loads – Loads and forces that are, or are assumed to be, either constant upon
completion of construction or varying only over a long time interval.

Transient Loads – Loads and forces that can vary over a short time interval relative to the
lifetime of the structure.

Temporary Loads – Loads that occur for a limited duration during pre-service conditions

Page 3-2 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

3.3 Load Designations

Load designations follow LRFD Article 3.3.2.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-3

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.4 Limit States

The basic limit state equation given by LRFD 1.3.2.1 is as:

ΣηiγiQi ≤ φRn = Rr (3.4-1)

where:
ηi = load modifier
γi = load factor
Qi = force effect
φ = resistance factor
Rn = nominal resistance
Rr = factored resistance

The modifier, ηi is the product of factors for ductility, redundancy, and importance. For
simplicity use a value of 1.0 for ηi except for the design of columns when a minimum value
of γi is appropriate. In such a case, use ηi = 0.95. Compression members in seismic designs
are proportioned and detailed to ensure the development of significant and visible
inelastic deformations at the extreme event limit states before failure.

Strength IV load combination shall not be used for foundation design.

The load factor for live load in the Service III load combination shall be as specified
in Section 3.5.

Page 3-4 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

3.5 Load Factors and Load Combinations

The limit states load combinations, and load factors (γi) used for structural design are
in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Table 3.4.1-1. For foundation design, loads are
factored after distribution through structural analysis or modeling.

The design live load factor for the Service III Limit State load combination shall be
as follows:

γLL = 0.8 when the requirements of Sections 5.6.1 and 5.6.2 are satisfied and stress
analysis is based on gross section properties.

γLL = 1.0 when the requirements of Sections 5.6.1 and 5.6.2 are satisfied and stress
analysis is based on transformed section properties.

In special cases that deviate from the requirements of Sections 5.6.1 and 5.6.2 and have
been approved by the WSDOT Bridge Design Engineer, γLL, shall be as specified in the
AASHTO LRFD.

The Service III live load factor for load rating shall be 1.0.

The live load factor for Extreme Event-I Limit State load combination, γEQ as specified in
the AASHTO LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 for all WSDOT bridges and walls shall be taken equal
to 0.50. The γEQ factor applies to the live load force effect obtained from the bridge live
load analysis. Associated mass of live load need not be included in the dynamic analysis.

The AASHTO LRFD allow the live load factor in Extreme Event-I load combination, γEQ,
be determined on a project specific basis. The commentary indicates that the possibility
of partial live load, i.e., γEQ < 1.0, with earthquakes should be considered. The application
of Turkstra’s rule for combining uncorrelated loads indicates that γEQ = 0.50 is reasonable
for a wide range of values of average daily truck traffic (ADTT). The NCHRP Report 489
recommends live load factor for Extreme Event-I Limit State, γEQ equal to 0.25 for all
bridges. This factor shall be increased to γEQ equal to 0.50 for bridges located in main
state routes and congested roads.

Since the determination of live load factor, γEQ based on ADTT or based on bridges
located in congested roads could be confusing and questionable, it is decided that live
load factor of γEQ equal to 0.50 to be used for all WSDOT bridges regardless the bridge
location or congestion.

The base construction temperature may be taken as 64°F for the determination of
Temperature Load.

The load factors γTG and γSE are to be determined on a project specific basis in accordance
with Articles 3.4.1 and 3.12 of the AASHTO LRFD. Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp
are provided in AASHTO LRFD Table 3.4.1-2.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-5

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

The load factor for down drag loads shall be as specified in the AASHTO LRFD Table
3.4.1-2. The Geotechnical Report will provide the down drag force (DD). The down
drag force (DD) is a load applied to the pile/shaft with the load factor specified in the
Geotechnical Report. Generally, live loads (LL) are less than the down drag force and
should be omitted when considering down drag forces.

The Load Factors for Superimposed Deformations are provided in Table 3.5-3 below.

Table 3.5-3 Load Factors for Superimposed Deformations

PS CR, SH
Superstructure 1.0 1.0
Substructures that are fixed at the base and have a longitudinal
connection with the superstructure (such as a hinged or integral 0.5 0.5
connection) and analyzed using the gross moment of inertial (Ig)
All other substructure supporting Superstructure analyzed using
either gross moment of inertia (Ig) or the effective cracked moment of 1.0 1.0
inertia (Ieffective)

3.5.1 Load Factors for Substructure

Table 3.5-4 below provides general guidelines for when to use the maximum or minimum
shaft/pile/column permanent load factors for axial capacity, uplift, and lateral loading.

In general, substructure design should use unfactored loads to obtain force distribution in
the structure, and then factor the resulting moment and shear for final structural design.
All forces and load factors are as defined previously.

Table 3.5-4 Minimum/Maximum Substructure Load Factors for Strength

Limit State
Axial Capacity Uplift Lateral Loading
DCmax, DWmax DCmin, DWmin DCmax, DWmax
DCmax, DWmax for causing shear DCmax, DWmax for causing shear DCmax, DWmax causing shear
DCmin, DWmin for resisting shear DCmin, DWmin for resisting shear DCmin, DWmin resisting shear
DCmax, DWmax DCmax, DWmax DCmax, DWmax
for causing moments for causing moments for causing moments
DCmin, DWmin for DCmin, DWmin for DCmin, DWmin
resisting moments resisting moments for resisting moments
EVmax EVmin EVmax
DD = varies DD = varies DD = varies
EHmax EHmax if causes uplift EHmax

In the table above, “causing moment” and “causing shear” are taken to be the moment and
shear causing axial, uplift, and lateral loading respectively. “Resisting” is taking to mean
those force effects that are diminishing axial capacity, uplift, and lateral loading.

Page 3-6 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

3.6 Loads and Load Factors for Construction

Unless otherwise specified, the load factor for construction loads and for any associated
dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5 in Strength I. The load factor for wind in
Strength III shall not be less than 1.25.

When investigating Strength Load Combinations I, III, and V during construction,

load factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances, DC and DW, shall
not be taken to be less than 1.25.

Where evaluation of construction deflections are required by the contract documents,

Load Combination Service I shall apply. Construction dead loads shall be considered as
part of the permanent load and construction transient loads considered part of the live
load. The associated permitted deflections shall be included in the contract documents.

For falsework and formwork design loads, see Standard Specifications Section
6-02.3(17)A. The base construction temperature shall be taken as 64°F
for the determination of Temperature Load.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-7

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.7 Load Factors for Post-tensioning

3.7.1 Post-tensioning Effects from Superstructure

When cast-in-place, post-tensioned superstructure is constructed monolithic with the

piers, the substructure design should take into account frame moments and shears caused
by elastic shortening and creep of the superstructure upon application of the axial post-
tensioning force at the bridge ends. Frame moments and shears thus obtained should
be added algebraically to the values obtained from the primary and secondary moment
diagrams applied to the superstructure.

When cast-in-place, post-tensioned superstructure are supported on sliding bearings at

some of the piers, the design of those piers should include the longitudinal force from
friction on the bearings generated as the superstructure shortens during jacking. When
post-tensioning is complete, the full permanent reaction from this effect should be
included in the governing AASHTO load combinations for the pier under design.

3.7.2 Secondary Forces from Post-tensioning, PS

The application of post-tensioning forces on a continuous structure produces reactions at

the structure’s support and internal forces that are collectively called secondary forces.

Secondary prestressing forces (i.e. secondary moments) are the force effects in
continuous members, as a result of continuous post-tensioning. In frame analysis
software, the secondary moments are generally obtained by subtracting the primary
moment (P*e) from the total PS moment obtained by applying an equivalent static load
which represents the forces due to post-tensioning. A load factor, γPS, of 1.0 is appropriate
for the superstructure. For fixed columns a 50 percent reduction in PS force effects could
be used given the elasto-plastic characteristics of the soil surrounding the foundation
elements.

Page 3-8 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

3.8 Permanent Loads

The design unit weights of common permanent loads are provided in Table 3.8-1.

Table 3.8-1 Permanent Loads

Item Load
Precast Pre-tensioned or Post-tensioned Spliced Girders including 10 lb/ft3
165 lb/ft3
allowance for reinforcement
All Other Normal-Weight Reinforced Concrete including 5 lb/ft3 allowance for
155 lb/ft3
reinforcement
Unreinforced Concrete 145 lb/ft3
Concrete Overlay 150 lb/ ft3
Lightweight or specified density concrete without allowance for reinforcement 110-135 lb/ft3
Stay-in-Place Form for Box Girder (applied to slab area less overhangs and webs) 5 lb/ft2
Traffic Barrier (32″ – F Shape) (Normal weight concrete) 460 lb/ft
Traffic Barrier (42″ – F Shape) (Normal weight concrete) 710 lb/ft
Traffic Barrier (34″ – Single Slope) (Normal weight concrete) 490 lb/ft
Traffic Barrier (42″ – Single Slope) (Normal weight concrete) 670 lb/ft
Wearing Surface – Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)/Asphalt Concrete Pavement (ACP) 140 lb/ft3
Soil, Compact 125 lb/ft3

For lightweight concrete barrier, multiply the normal weight concrete barrier weight from
Table 3.8-1 by the ratio of the actual material weight to the unit weight of normal weight
concrete (155 lb/ft3).

3.8.1 Deck Overlay Requirement

Vehicular traffic will generate wear and rutting on a concrete bridge deck over the life of
a bridge. One option to correct excessive wear is to add a Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) overlay
on top of the existing concrete deck. This type of overlay requires less construction time
and is less expensive compared to removing a portion of the deck and adding a modified
concrete overlay. The initial bridge design needs to incorporate the future overlay
dead load. All new bridge designs with a concrete driving surface, excluding modified
concrete overlays, shall be designed for a 35 psf future wearing surface load. The future
wearing surface load does not apply to girder deflection, “A” dimension, creep, or profile
grade calculations.

Concrete bridge deck protection systems shall be in accordance with Section 5.7.4 for
new bridge construction and widening projects.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-9

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.9 Live Loads

3.9.1 Design Live Load

Live load design criteria are specified in the lower right corner of the bridge preliminary
plan sheet. The Bridge Preliminary Plan Engineer determines the criteria using the
following guideline:
• New bridges and Bridge widening with addition of substructure – HL-93
• Bridge superstructure widening with no addition of substructure – Live load criteria of
the original design
• Temporary widening of existing bridges: Live load criteria of the existing bridge
• Detour and other temporary bridges, except as required by Section 10.13.2 –
75 percent of HL-93

The application of design vehicular live loads shall be as specified in

AASHTO LRFD 3.6.1.3. The design tandem, or “low boy”, defined in LRFD C3.6.1.1 shall
be included in the design vehicular live load.

The effect of one design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane load
specified in LRFD Article 3.6.1.2.4 and, for negative moment between the points of
contraflexure under a uniform load on all spans and reactions at interior supports, shall
be investigated a dual design tandem spaced from 26.0 feet to 40.0 feet apart, measured
between the trailing axle of the lead vehicle and the lead axle of the trailing vehicle,
combined with the design lane load. For the purpose of this article, the pairs of the design
tandem shall be placed in adjacent spans in such position to produce maximum force
effect. Axles of the design tandem that do not contribute to the extreme force effect
under consideration shall be neglected.
3.9.2 Loading for Live Load Deflection Evaluation

The loading for live load deflection criteria is defined in LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.2.
Live load deflections for the Service I limit state shall satisfy the requirements of
LRFD Section 2.5.2.6.2.
3.9.3 Distribution to Superstructure

A. Multi Girder Superstructure

The live load distribution factor for exterior girder of multi girder bridges designated
in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 as type a, b, c, e, k and also i, j if sufficiently connected to
act as a unit, shall be as follows:
• For exterior girder design with slab cantilever length equal or less than 40 percent
of the adjacent interior girder spacing, use the live load distribution factor for
interior girder. The slab cantilever length is defined as the distance from the
centerline of the exterior girder to the edge of the slab.
• For exterior girder design with slab cantilever length exceeding 40 percent of
the adjacent interior girder spacing, use the lever rule with the multiple presence
factor of 1.0 for single lane to determine the live load distribution. The live load

Page 3-10 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

used to design the exterior girder shall not be less than the live load used for the
adjacent interior girder.
• The special analysis based on the conventional approximation of loads on piles as
described in LRFD Article C4.6.2.2.2d shall not be used unless the effectiveness of
diaphragms on the lateral distribution of truck load is investigated. In accordance
with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 7th Edition, 2014 and later,
the special analysis is only applicable to steel beam-slab bridge cross-sections with
diaphragms or cross-frames.

B. Concrete Box Girders

The load distribution factor for multi-cell cast in place concrete box girders shall be
per AASAHTO LRFD for interior girders from Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 for bending moment,
and Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1 for shear. The live load distribution factor for interior girders
shall then be multiplied by the number of webs to obtain the design live load for the
entire superstructure. The live load distribution need not exceed the total number of
design lanes. The correction factor for live load distribution for skewed support as
specified in Tables 4.6.2.2.2e-1 for bending moment and 4.6.2.2.3c-1 for shear shall
be considered.
DF = Nb x Dfi Live load distribution factor for multi-cell box girder (3.9.4-1)
Where:
Dfi = Live load distribution factor for interior web
Nb = Number of webs

C. Multiple Presence Factors

A reduction factor will be applied in the substructure design for multiple lane loadings
in accordance with AASHTO 3.6.1.1.2.

D. Distribution to Substructure

The number of traffic lanes to be used in the substructure design shall be determined
by dividing the entire roadway slab width by 12. No fractional lanes shall be used.
Roadway slab widths of less than 24 feet shall have a maximum of two design lanes.

E. Distribution to Crossbeam

The design and load rating live loading is distributed to the substructure by placing
wheel line reactions in lane configurations that generate the maximum stress in the
substructure. A wheel line reaction is one-half of the reaction of a single lane of live
load. For integral and hinged continuity diaphragms, live loads are consid­ered to act
directly on the substructure without further distribution through the superstructure
as illustrated in Figure 3.9‑1. For girder configurations where there is a clear load
path through the girders to the cross beam, such as at expansion piers with girders
supported on individual bearings, live load reactions are applied through the bearings.
Normally, substructure design will not consider live load torsion or lateral distribution.
Sidesway effects shall be taken into account.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-11

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

Figure 3.9-1 Live Load Distribution to Substructure

WHEEL LINE LOADS APPLIED
TO SUPERSTRUCTURE

CROSSBEAM

LIVE LOAD ON BRIDGE SECTION

WHEEL LINE LOADS APPLIED

TO SUBSTRUCTURE

CROSSBEAM

For steel and prestressed concrete superstructure where the live load is transferred to
substructure through bearings, cross frames or diaphragms, the girder reaction may be
used for substructure design. Live load placement is dependent on the member under
design. Some examples of live load placement are as follows. The exterior vehicle wheel
is placed 2 feet from the curb for maximum crossbeam cantilever moment or maximum
eccentric foundation moment.

For crossbeam design between supports, the lanes are placed to obtain the maximum
positive moment in the member; then re-located to obtain the maximum shear or
negative moment in the member.

For column design, the design lanes are placed to obtain the maximum transverse
moment at the top of the column; then re-located to obtain the maximum axial force
of the column.

3.9.4 Bridge Load Rating

Bridge designers are responsible for Design, Legal, and Permit load rating of new
bridges in accordance with the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) and the
AASHTO Manual Bridge Evaluation. See Chapter 13 for detailed information on loading
requirements for bridge load rating.

Page 3-12 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Tue Apr 16 11:12:00 2019 M:\BRIDGELIB\BDM\Chapter 3\FIG 3.9-
Loads Chapter 3

3.10 Pedestrian Loads

Pedestrian bridges shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of the AASHTO
LFRD Guide Specifications for the Design of Pedestrian Bridges, dated December 2009.

Seismic design of pedestrian bridges shall be performed in accordance with the

requirements of the AASHTO SEISMIC.

Pedestrian live load on vehicular bridge shall be as specified in LRFD 3.6.1.6.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-13

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.11 Wind Loads

3.11.1 Wind Load to Superstructure

For the usual girder and slab bridges having individual span length of not more than
150 ft and a maximum height of 33 feet above low ground or water level, the following
simplified wind pressure on structure (WS), could be used in lieu of the general method
described in AASHTO LRFD Article 3.8.1.2:

Table 3.11.1-1 Wind Pressure (kip per square foot)

Wind Exposure Category
Limit B C D
State Transverse Longitudinal Transverse Longitudinal Transverse Longitudinal
Strength III 0.029 0.007 0.040 0.010 0.046 0.012
Strength V 0.021 0.005 0.021 0.005 0.021 0.005
Service I 0.016 0.004 0.016 0.004 0.016 0.004
Service IV 0.016 0.004 0.023 0.006 0.026 0.007

Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.

For the usual girder and slab bridges having individual span length of not more than 150
feet and a maximum height of 33 feet above low ground or water level, the following
simplified wind pressure on vehicle (WL), could be used in lieu of the general method
described in AASHTO LRFD Article 3.8.1.3:
• 0.10 kip per linear foot, transverse
• 0.04 kip per linear foot, longitudinal

Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.

3.11.2 Wind Load to Substructure

Wind forces shall be applied to the substructure units in accordance with the
loadings specified in AASHTO. Transverse stiffness of the superstructure may be
considered, as necessary, to properly distribute loads to the substructure provided
that the superstructure is capable of sustaining such loads. Vertical wind pressure, per
AASHTO LRFD Section 3.8.2, shall be included in the design where appropriate, for
example, on single column piers. Wind loads shall be applied through shear keys or
other positive means from the superstructure to the substructure. Wind loads shall be
distributed to the piers and abutments in accordance with the laws of statics. Transverse
wind loads can be applied directly to the piers assuming the superstructure to act
as a rigid beam. For large structures a more appropriate result might be obtained by
considering the superstructure to act as a flexible beam on elastic supports.

3.11.3 Wind on Noise Walls

Wind on Noise Walls shall be as specified in LRFD 3.8.1, 3.8.1.2.4, and 15.8.2.

Page 3-14 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

3.12 Loads on Buried Structures

Loads, live load distribution, and seismic design of buried structures shall be in accordance
with the requirements of Section 8.3.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-15

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.13 Earthquake Effects

Earthquake loads see Chapter 4.

Page 3-16 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

3.14 Earth Pressure

Earth Pressure loads see Chapter 7.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-17

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

3.15 Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations

PS, CR, SH, TU and TG are superimposed deformations. Load factors for PS, CR, and SH,
are as shown in Table 3.5-3. In non-segmental structures: PS, CR, and SH are symbolically
factored by a value of 1.0 in the strength limit state, but are actually designed for in the
service limit state. For substructure in the strength limit state, the value of 0.50 for γPS,
γCR, γSH, and γTU may be used when calculating force effects in non-segmental structures,
but shall be taken in conjunction with the gross moment of inertia in the columns or piers.
The larger of the values provided for load factor of TU shall be used for deformations
and the smaller values for all other effects. The calculation of displacements for TU
loads utilizes a factor greater than 1.0 to avoid under sizing joints, expansion devices,
and bearings.

The current AASHTO LRFD require a load factor of 1.2 on CR, SH, and TU deformations,
and 0.5 on other CR/SH/TU force effects. The lower value had been rationalized as
dissipation of these force effects over time, particularly in the columns and piers.

Changing the load factors for creep and shrinkage is not straight-forward because CR,
SH are “superimposed deformations”, that is, force effects due to a change in material
behavior that cause a change in the statical system. For safety and simplicity in design,
they are treated as loads--despite not being measurable at time t = 0. However, behavior
is nonlinear and application of the load factor must also be considered. Some software
will run service load analysis twice: once with and once without CR, SH effects. The CR
and SH can then be isolated by subtracting the results of the two runs. Other software
will couple the CR and SH with the dead load, giving a shrinkage- or creep-adjusted
dead load.

The proposed compromise is to assign creep and shrinkage the same load factor as
the DC loads, but permit a factor of 1.0 if the project-specific creep coefficient can be
determined and is then used in the linear analysis software.

Thermal and shrinkage loadings are induced by movements of the structure and can
result from several sources. Movements due to temperature changes are calculated
using coefficients of thermal expansion of 0.000006 feet/foot per degree for concrete
and 0.0000065 feet/foot per degree for steel. Reinforced concrete shrinks at the rate
of 0.0002 feet/foot.

Page 3-18 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

3.16 Other Loads

3.16.1 Buoyancy

The effects of submergence of a portion of the substructure is to be calculated, both

for designing piling for uplift and for realizing economy in footing design.

3.16.2 Collision Force on Bridge Substructure

See AASHTO LRFD Articles 3.6.5 and 3.14

3.16.3 Collision Force on Traffic Barrier

See AASHTO LRFD Article 3.6.5.1

3.16.4 Force from Stream Current, Floating Ice, and Drift

See AASHTO LRFD Article 3.9

3.16.5 Ice Load

In accordance with WSDOT HQ Hydraulics Office criteria, an ice thickness of 12″ shall be
used for stream flow forces on piers throughout Washington State.

3.16.6 Uniform Temperature Load

The design thermal movement associated with a uniform temperature change may
be calculated using the ranges of temperature as specified herein. The temperature
ranges shown below reflect the difference between the extended lower and upper
boundary to be used to calculate thermal deformation effects.
• Concrete Bridges (All Regions): 0° to 100°
• Steel Bridges (Eastern Washington): −30° to 120°
• Steel Bridges (Western Washington): 0° to 120°

3.16.7 Vehicular Collision Force: CT

Abutments and piers located within the clear zone as defined by the AASHTO Roadside
Design Guide shall be investigated for collision. Collision shall be addressed by either
providing structural resistance or by redirecting or absorbing the collision load. The
provisions of AASHTO LRFD 2.3.2.2.1 shall apply as appropriate.

Where the design choice is to provide structural resistance, the pier or abutment shall be
designed for an equivalent static force of 600 kip, which is assumed to act in a direction
of zero to 15 degrees with the edge of the pavement in a horizontal plane, at a distance
of between 2.0 and 5.0 ft above the ground, whichever produces the critical shear or
moment in the pier component and the connections to the foundation or pier cap.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-19

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

Each of the following substructure components are considered to have adequate

structural resistance to bridge collapse due to vehicular impacts:

1. Substructure components that are backed by soil (e.g., abutments).

2. Reinforced concrete pier components that are at least 3.0-ft thick and have a
concrete cross-sectional area greater than 30.0 ft2 as measured in the horizontal
plane at all elevations from the top of the pier foundation to a height of at least 5.0 ft
above the grade.

3. Pier systems with three or more columns where the designer shows by calculation
that the superstructure will not collapse with one column missing when subjected
to the full dead load with a 1.1 load factor and the live load in the permanent travel
lanes with a load factor of 1.0.

4. Piers supporting a bridge superstructure where it is shown by calculation that the

superstructure will not collapse with one column missing when subjected to the full
dead load with a 1.1 load factor and the live load in the permanent travel lanes with a
load factor of 1.0.

5. Pier walls and multi-column piers with struts between columns that have been
designed and detailed as longitudinal traffic barriers according to Section 13.

Where the design choice is to redirect or absorb the collision load, protection shall consist
of one of the following:
• For new or retrofit construction, a minimum 42.0-in. high crash tested rigid TL-5
barrier, as specified in AASHTO LRFD Section 13, located such that the top edge of
the traffic face of the barrier is 3.25 ft or more from the face of the pier component
being protected.
• For retrofit construction, a minimum 42.0-in. high crash tested rigid TL-5 barrier may
be placed closer than 3.25 ft from the top edge of the traffic face of the barrier to
the nearest traffic face of the pier component being protected when there is no other
practical option. Such rigid barriers shall be structurally and geometrically capable of
surviving the crash test as specified in AASHTO LRFD Section 13.

Page 3-20 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020
Loads Chapter 3

3.99 References
1. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 8th Edition, November 2017.

2. DRAFT LRFD Guide Specifications for Bridges Subjected to Tsunami.

WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20 Page 3-21

September 2020
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3-22 WSDOT Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.20

September 2020