ME Laboratory 2

(Module no. 5)

Heat Loss Calculation through

bare & lagged Pipes

Engr. Augusto A. Avanceña

Instructor

Alba, Edgar Luigi T.

BSME-5B
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you should be able to;
1. Understand the concept of heat loss calculation
2. Know how to perform heat loss calculation especially in bare and lagged pipes
3. Apply the theory of heat transfer in heat loss calculation.
4. Understand the significance of heat loss calculation in the design of power plants
5. Know different devices in measuring heat loss in pipes.

ACTIVITY:
1. Research Work: Write your discussion about the following topics and upload it in your
respective folders.
a. Heat Transfer
b. Heat loss Calculation in through bare and lagged pipes
c. Significance of heat loss calculation in power plants
d. Application of heat loss calculation
e. Devices used in measuring heat losses
f. Safety protocols
Heat Transfer
What is heat transfer?
Heat transfer is the movement of heat energy from one substance to another. Heat (energy)
always moves from a warmer substance to a cooler substance.

Heat will continue to move until both substances are the same temperature. The greater the
difference in temperature between the substances, the faster the heat will transfer. There are
three types of heat transfer:
o Conduction
o Convection
o Radiation
Conduction
Heat transfer by conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact. Molecules transfer
energy to the molecules next to them. The molecules do not have to be the same substance.
Example:
No matter what it feels like, cold
does not transfer into your body.

Radiation
Heat transfer by radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. There is no
direct contact between the substances.
Convection
Heat transfer by convection is the transfer of heat through the fluid (liquids and gases) movement
of currents. Warm fluids rise, cool down, sink, and then are warmed again.
Example:

Convection, Radiation and Conduction

Heat loss Calculation in through bare and lagged pipes
Heat is transferred when two objects are of different temperature and this transfer continuous
until equilibrium is reached. This property of heat is true to all materials. Three materials are said
to be in thermal equilibrium if first material has the same temperature as the second material
and the second material has the same temperature as the third material. There are different
ways in which heat transfer occurs. Heat is lost from the pipe, or other surfaces to the room in
two ways:
1. by conduction through and air film, and then by convection in the bulk of the air
2. by direct radiation to the cooler walks of the room.
Heat loss in pipes is not a favorable phenomenon in which an industry comes upon. Aside from
the energy lost during the transfer, the surroundings near the pipes may get hotter and
employees may not be comfortable in working. However, this cannot be prevented due to its
properties thus, controlling actions may be done such as coating the pipes with an insulating
material to reduce the transfer of heat from the pipe to the surroundings. Thus, a study in thermal
transfer of pipes is really a good background for a student to start since most processes involves
this phenomenon. In conduction, heat can be conducted through different mediums. Energy is
transferred by the motion of adjacent atoms. The transfer of heat by convection implies the
transfer of heat by bulk transport and mixing of macroscopic elements of warmer portions with
cooler portions of gas or liquids. These usually represents fluids. Radiation differs from heat
transfer by conduction and convection in that no physical medium is needed for its propagation.
Radiation is the transfer of energy through space by means of electromagnetic waves in much
the same way as electromagnetic light waves transfer light.
Theoretical Background
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion,
and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes. Generally, this heat transfer occurs from a high temperature
material to a lower temperature material Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct
microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems.
When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its surroundings, heat flows
so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they are in
thermal equilibrium.
Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the
movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk
motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as (for example) between
a solid surface and the fluid. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids
and gases. When two bodies are at different temperatures and separated by distance, the heat
transfer between them is called as radiation heat transfer. In case of the conduction and
convection heat transfer there is a media to transfer the heat, but in case of the radiation heat
transfer there is no media.
The radiation heat transfer occurs due to the electromagnetic waves that exist in the
atmosphere. Heat transfer is very important since it is frequently used in most of the processes,
and if not, is a natural occurring phenomenon and is inevitable in production. Industrial processes
usually require steam for operations such as heating. This medium is usually transported via
metal pipes. However, it is inevitable to encounter heat losses in this arrangement because of
the inherent temperature difference existing between the hot pipes and the surroundings.
This can instead be minimized through insulations placed on bare pipes. On the other hand, if a
process requires enhancing heat losses then the use of fins would be more appropriate. The heat
loss of pipes is due to the temperature gradient between the pipe and the surroundings.
Temperature difference, the thermal resistance, and the heat transfer area are common factors
involving the rate of heat transfer. The most common approach in dealing with heat loss in pipes
is the installation of insulating materials in the surface of the pipes. The rate of heat lost from a
pipe carrying steam can be measured simply by determining the rate of condensation of steam,
m, which can be collected at a certain point interval of time. By heat balance, Equation 1 where,

where:

Bare pipes are uninsulated kind of pipes. Pipes which are insulated are also called lagged pipes.
To determine therefore the effectiveness of an insulation, it is just a matter of comparing the
heat lost from the pipe with an insulation with that from a bare pipe. Since heat lost is
proportional to the rate of condensation, and the weight of condensate is proportional to the
volume of condensate v, assuming temperatures and pressures of condensates are the same,
then the lagging efficiency may be determined using the equation.
𝑉𝑏−𝑉𝑙
Lagging Efficiency = [ ]
𝑉𝑙

where: Vb = Volume of condensate collected from bare pipe

VL = Volume of condensate collected from lagged pipe
In convection the heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by the equation:

In convection the heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by the equation:

While in radiation:

Significance of Heat Loss Calculation

HEAT LOSS
Heat loss is a measure of the total transfer of heat through the fabric of a building from inside to
the outside, either from conduction, convection, radiation, or any combination of these. This heat
loss figure is normally given in either kilowatts (kW) or British Thermal Units (BTUs) and
represents the energy required to keep a room at a given temperature on the coldest days.
Knowing what heat loss is, how to reduce it and what it means when specifying a heating system
will help to answer one of the most common questions we get asked: “Will underfloor heating
heat my room?“
It is important to understand how heat loss can affect an underfloor heating installation, as a
system needs to provide adequate heat to be used as the primary source of heating or enough
heat so that it increases comfort when used alongside other heating systems.
We know, and can advise you on, the heat output of an underfloor heating system, but this must
be compared to the heat loss of a room in order to ensure that the underfloor heating system
specified will provide sufficient heat. Knowing the heat loss in advance allows confidence in
choosing a system and knowing that it will work efficiently once installed.
Simply put, in order for an underfloor heating system to provide enough heat to a room, the
system output must be greater than the heat loss.
HEAT LOSS and U-VALUES
As mentioned above, heat loss is measured in kWs or BTUs and is a function of heat transfer
rates.
Heat transfer rates in walls, floors and roofs are measured in U values. The U value is the overall
heat transfer co-efficient and indicates how well parts of the building transfer heat. A low U value
signifies a well-insulated building whereas a high value indicates that the building has a poor
thermal performance.
U values are important because they form the basis of any energy or carbon reduction standard.
These values determine whether building falls within the regulatory standards. For any building
project a regulatory approval must be attained, generally using SAP for residential or SBEM for
non-domestic.
To calculate the U value of a building part such as a wall, floor or roof, you need to know the
composition and thickness of each part. The other main property you need to obtain is the
conductivity or heat transfer measurement of each building material.

IMPORTANCE OF HEAT LOSS

The amount of heat loss is important for several reasons:

• Specifying the type of heating and power requirements to ensure the building is
adequately heated
• Understanding whether the building meets regulatory approvals
• Determining whether or not comfort levels can be met for the occupants of the building
• Determining the energy requirements and running costs of the heating system
• Above all, it is essential to understand the heat loss of a room or a property before
installing underfloor heating as this will ensure that the heating system is able to provide
adequate heat.
REDUCING HEAT LOSS & ENERGY CONSUMPTION
There are several ways to reduce energy consumption and heat loss. These include:

• Improving the insulation of the property (reduction of conduction losses)

• Reducing air leakage (reducing convective losses)
• Reducing energy consumption by using efficient heating methods
The overall heat loss can be decreased by looking at all of the above and by adding insulation or
by ensuring that there are no gaps in the existing insulation. For underfloor heating, insulation
boards are essential in reducing heat loss to the subfloor and ensuring a fast heat up time. The
underfloor heating insulation boards are quick to install as part of an underfloor heating
installation and they cut the heat up time significantly, saving energy and money.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT UNDERFLOOR HEATING SYSTEM
When buying underfloor heating, heat loss of a building or a room must be taken into
consideration as failure to do so may result in the building or room not heating up properly or to
the desired comfort levels of the occupants.
Also, installers should also consider whether there is adequate insulation and advice on
increasing the insulation, especially when specifying under floor heating. It is usually advisable to
specify a certain level of insulation below under floor heating to ensure maximum heat output
upwards.
The output of a floor heating system depends on a number of factors, including:

• The overall size of the heated floor area, especially in relation to the overall size of the
room. If the heated area is much smaller than the overall floor area (less than 80-90%),
then it may be difficult to heat the room with floor heating alone, unless the room itself
is very well insulated. In rooms such as bathrooms where the heated floor area can be as
little as 50% of the overall area (due to fixtures), we often find that a supplemental heat
source such as a towel rail or heated wall is required to reach the desired temperature.
• The type of flooring and the surface temperature of the floor – typically, wood flooring
should not be heated above 27°C. As such, the output for a wooden floor is usually lower
than that of a tile or stone floor which can have a higher surface temperature (29-30°C).
• Amount of floor insulation – too little insulation results in much of the energy being lost
into the subfloor.
• The desired air temperature – the higher the air temperature, the harder it is for a heating
system to transfer heat to the air.
• The maximum power of the system – this is normally specified in Watts per square meter.
Properly insulated floors in reasonably modern homes require between 65-85W/m² to
give the required output, however, a system power of 150-200W/m² is usually specified
in order to reduce heat-up times.
ENERGY ASSESSMENT
The heat loss of a building has a significant effect of the Energy Assessment and performance of
a building, this is reflected in the Energy Performance Certificate that a building is rated with.
The energy assessor will take into account all the Heat Losses and U values to determine the
overall energy assessment of a building. Decreasing heat loss will improve the building
performance level.
KEY TAKE OUTS:

• The greater the heat loss, the greater the energy requirement and subsequent running
cost
• Always ensure that the heat output from the heater / heating system is greater than the
heat loss of the room / building
 • Always ensure that the energy requirements of any project fall within regulatory
requirements
• New materials are provided with U values for heat loss calculation. However, for older
properties, care should be taken to ensure proper assessment of walls, floors, windows
and roofs to attain the correct U values. This may require a qualified energy assessment
engineer
• It is important to allow some air movement between the inside and outside of the
property. This means 2 changes per hour, either through natural means or in a newer,
airtight homes, via an air handling system
• The use of an Infra-Red camera can be used to photograph a building externally to identify
any potential areas of heat loss
• Reducing heat loss saves money

Application of Heat Loss Calculation

When it comes to industrial applications, process control is absolutely critical. Poorly optimized
process control can quickly become costly in terms of lost energy, translating to financial loss. It
also can inhibit the transport of the material through the piping, potentially damage the quality
of the substance within the pipes, and put the safety of plant workers at risk. To address each of
these issues, industrial systems are designed to operate within a certain temperature range. The
temperatures of industrial applications are managed by using insulation.
Maintaining the designed temperatures can be crucial to ensuring that the system caters to the
unique chemical needs pertaining to extraction and end use of the substances within the pipes.
For example, high viscosity materials may need higher process temperatures to become
malleable enough to be extracted efficiently. Other materials may become nonviable for end use
if they become too hot.
Moving beyond the operational side, process control also is critical for worker safety. ASTM
C1055: The Standard Guide for Heated System Surface Conditions that Produce Contact Burn
Injuries recommends that the maximum safe-to-touch temperature not exceed 140°F (60°C). It
has been determined that the average person could touch a surface at this temperature for up
to 5 seconds without suffering irreparable harm. Thus, many system designers target a surface
temperature of 140°F (60°C) or less when designing an insulation system.
Process control requires controlling the temperature of the material within the pipe. At the same
time, controlling the temperature of the exposed surface is focused more on personnel safety
than process control. In many cases, however, when the system is designed to personal
protection standards (140°F), the process control portion also is satisfied.
To accomplish this, system designers often will use insulation as the crux of the temperature-
control method. When you consider the details of an insulation system, however, there is
substantially more to consider than simply the insulation’s maximum use temperatures. Features
such as hydrophobicity, compressive strength, the insulation binder, thermal shift, the geometry
of the pipe surface and installation methods all influence insulation effectiveness.

Devices used to measure Heat Loss

Most people would say that thermometers measure temperature, and that's true, but there are
many different kinds. The thermometer you use to take your temperature when you're sick isn't
much help when measuring the temperature of melted lead. Moreover, some things are too
small, too big or too distant to use a standard bulb thermometer to determine their temperature.
Liquid Expansion Thermometer
A standard thermometer is usually a bulb or a spring
thermometer. Both work by having a liquid, either
alcohol or mercury, enclosed in a vacuum, and the liquid
expands as the temperature rises. Colored alcohol or
mercury rises along a scale in a bulb thermometer
whereas expanding liquid rotates a spring to turn an
indicator needle around along a circular scale on a spring
thermometer. Thermometers now often have digital
scale displays.

Thermocouples
Temperature is sometimes measured by a
thermocouple. Two metal leads of
dissimilar metals are placed in close
proximity to each other, creating voltage.
Changes in voltage correspond to changes
in temperature. Thermocouples are used in
industry, and are often connected to other
devices that turn mechanisms off and on in
response to certain temperatures.
Thermocouples are not as accurate as
thermometers.
Resistance Temperature Detector
Thermocouples are increasingly being replaced by
resistance temperature detectors, or resistance
thermometers. RTDs are generally more stable and
accurate than thermocouples; they use carbon or
platinum sensors to detect changes in electrical
resistance. These changes are caused by
temperature changes, and the changes are
predictable. A consistent light current is passed
through the RTD, past the leads, and then resistance can be determined and temperature
calculated.

Pyrometer
A pyrometer measures the surface temperatures of
objects. It is a tool that combines an optic feature with a
temperature reader constructed of an ultrathin filament.
The pyrometer is aimed at the surface of an object,
whereupon the optic device focuses on the thermal
signature – or radiated heat – and transfers that signature
to the filament reader. These are especially useful for
measuring temperatures on surfaces that are out of reach
or too hot to touch, like steam boilers, metallurgy furnaces
and hot air balloons.

Langmuir Probe
Irving Langmuir was a Nobel Prize winning
physicist. Langmuir wanted to learn how to
take the temperature of electrons as part of
his research to learn about the electrical
potential of plasma, a gas-like condition of
matter in which some particles lose
electrons. Langmuir invented a device
called the Langmuir probe that does just
that, by placing electrodes in the plasma,
then measuring currents in the plasma.
Langmuir probes are not in everyday use.
Infrared Sensor
Detecting infrared radiation is
another way to measure heat. When
you look at things, you see visible
light; a red fire truck looks red
whether the temperature is at 0- or
100-degrees Fahrenheit. But if you
look at objects through an infrared
detector, you can see “heat
signatures,” that is, changes based
on temperature. By attaching a
meter that measures infrared light
frequency, the infrared thermometer
can – like the pyrometer – take
surface temperature measurements
from a distance.

Safety Protocols
Determining Heat Energy Requirements
General Applications
The objective of any heating application is to raise or maintain the temperature of a solid, liquid
or gas to or at a level suitable for a particular process or application. Most heating applications
can be divided into two basic situations; applications which require the maintenance of a
constant temperature and applications or processes which require work product to be heated to
various temperatures. The principles and calculation procedures are similar for either situation.
Constant Temperature Applications
Most constant temperature applications are special cases where the temperature of a solid,
liquid or gas is maintained at a constant value regardless of ambient temperature. Design factors
and calculations are based on steady state conditions at a fixed difference in temperature. Heat
loss and energy requirements are estimated using “worst case” conditions. For this reason,
determining heat energy requirements for a constant temperature application is relatively
simple. Comfort heating (constant air temperature) and freeze protection for piping are typical
examples of constant temperature applications.
Variable Temperature Applications
Variable temperature (process) applications usually involve a start-up sequence and have
numerous operating variables. The total heat energy requirements for process applications are
determined as the sum of these calculated variables. As a result, the heat energy calculations are
usually more complex than for constant temperature applications. The variables are:
Total Heat Energy Absorbed — The sum of all the heat energy absorbed during start-up or
operation including the work product, the latent heat of fusion (or vaporization), make up
materials, containers and equipment.
Total Heat Energy Lost — The sum of the heat energy lost by conduction, convection, radiation,
ventilation and evaporation during start-up or operation.
Design Safety Factor — A factor to compensate for unknowns in the process or application
Process Applications
The selection and sizing of the installed equipment in a process application is based on the larger
of two calculated heat energy requirements. In most process applications, the start-up and
operating parameters represent two distinctly different conditions in the same process. The heat
energy required for start-up is usually considerably different than the energy required for
operating conditions. In order to accurately assess the heat requirements for an application, each
condition must be evaluated. The comparative values are defined as follows:

• Calculated heat energy required for process start-up over a specific time period.
• Calculated heat energy required to maintain process temperatures and operating
conditions over a specific cycle time.
Determining Heat Energy Absorbed
The first step in determining total heat energy requirements is to determine the heat energy
absorbed. If a change of state occurs as a direct or indirect part of the process, the heat energy
required for the change of state must be included in the calculations. This rule applies whether
the change occurs during start-up or later when the material is at operating temperature. Factors
to be considered in the heat absorption calculations are shown below:
Start-Up Requirements (Initial Heat-Up)

• Heat absorbed during start-up by:

• Work product and materials
• Equipment (tanks, racks, etc.)
Latent heat absorption at or during start-up:

• Heat of fusion
• Heat of vaporization
Operating Requirements (Process)

• Heat absorbed during operation by:

• Work product in process
• Equipment loading (belts, racks, etc.)
• Make up materials
Latent heat absorption during operation:

• Heat of fusion
• Heat of vaporization
• Time (or cycle) factor, if applicable
Determining Heat Energy Lost
Objects or materials at temperatures above the surrounding ambient lose heat energy by
conduction, convection and radiation. Liquid surfaces exposed to the atmosphere lose heat
energy through evaporation. The calculation of total heat energy requirements must take these
losses into consideration and provide sufficient energy to offset them. Heat losses are estimated
for both start-up and operating conditions and are added into the appropriate calculation.
Heat Losses at Start-Up — Initially, heat losses at start-up are zero since the materials and
equipment are all at ambient temperature. Heat losses increase to a maximum at operating
temperature.
Consequently, start-up heat losses are usually based on an average of the loss at start-up and the
loss at operating temperature.
Heat Losses at Operating Temperature — Heat losses are at a maximum at operating
temperature. Heat losses at operating temperature are taken at full value and added to the total
energy requirements.
Estimating Heat Loss Factors
The heat losses just discussed can be estimated by using factors from the charts and graphs
provided in this section. Total losses include radiation, convection and conduction from various
surfaces and are expressed in watts per hour per unit of surface area per degree of temperature
(W/hr/ft2/°F).
Note — Since the values in the charts are already expressed in watts per hour, they are not
influenced by the time factor “t” in the heat energy equations.
Design Safety Factors
In many heating applications, the actual operating conditions, heat losses and other factors
affecting the process can only be estimated. A safety factor is recommended in most calculations
to compensate for unknowns such as ventilation air, thermal insulation, make up materials and
voltage fluctuations. As an example, a voltage fluctuation (or drop) of 5% creates a 10% change
in the wattage output of a heater.
Safety factors vary from 10 to 25% depending on the level of confidence of the designer in the
estimate of the unknowns. The safety factor is applied to the sum of the calculated values for
heat energy absorbed and heat energy lost.

During emergency response activities or recovery operations, workers may be required to work
in hot environments, and sometimes for extended periods. Heat stress is a common problem
encountered in these types of situations. The following frequently asked questions will help
workers understand what heat stress is, how it may affect their health and safety, and how it can
be prevented.
Where might I be exposed to heat stress?
Any process or job site that is likely to raise the workers deep core temperature (often listed as
higher than 100.4 degrees F (38°C)) raises the risk of heat stress. Operations involving high air
temperatures, radiant heat sources, high humidity, direct physical contact with hot objects, or
strenuous physical activities have a high potential for inducing heat stress in employees. Indoor
operations such as foundries, brick-firing and ceramic plants, glass products facilities, rubber
products factories, electrical utilities (particularly boiler rooms), bakeries, confectioneries,
commercial kitchens, laundries, food canneries, chemical plants, mining sites, smelters, and
steam tunnels are examples of industrial locations where problems can occur. Outdoor
operations conducted in hot weather, such as construction, refining, asbestos removal,
hazardous waste site activities, and emergency response operations, especially those that
require workers to wear semi-permeable or impermeable protective clothing, are also likely to
cause heat stress among exposed workers.
Are there additional causal factors for heat stress?
Age, weight, degree of physical fitness, degree of acclimatization, metabolism, dehydration, use
of alcohol or drugs, and a variety of medical conditions such as hypertension all affect a person's
sensitivity to heat. However, even the type of clothing worn must be considered. Prior heat injury
predisposes an individual to additional injury. Individual susceptibility varies. In addition,
environmental factors include more than the ambient air temperature. Radiant heat, air
movement, conduction, and relative humidity all affect an individual's response to heat.
Heat Stroke is the most serious heat related disorder and occurs when the body's temperature
regulation fails and body temperature rises to critical levels. The condition is caused by a
combination of highly variable factors, and its occurrence is difficult to predict. Heat stroke is a
medical emergency that may result in death. The primary signs and symptoms of heat stroke are
confusion; irrational behavior; loss of consciousness; convulsions; a lack of sweating (usually);
hot, dry skin; and an abnormally high body temperature, e.g., a rectal temperature of 41°C
(105.8°F). The elevated metabolic temperatures caused by a combination of work load and
environmental heat, both of which contribute to heat stroke, are also highly variable and difficult
to predict.
If a worker shows signs of possible heat stroke, professional medical treatment should be
obtained immediately. The worker should be placed in a shady, cool area and the outer clothing
should be removed. The worker's skin should be wetted and air movement around the worker
should be increased to improve evaporative cooling until professional methods of cooling are
initiated and the seriousness of the condition can be assessed. Fluids should be replaced as soon
as possible. The medical outcome of an episode of heat stroke depends on the victim's physical
fitness and the timing and effectiveness of first aid treatment.
Regardless of the worker's protests, no employee suspected of being ill from heat stroke should
be sent home or left unattended unless a physician has specifically approved such an order.
Heat Exhaustion signs and symptoms are headache, nausea, vertigo, weakness, thirst, and
giddiness. Fortunately, this condition responds readily to prompt treatment. Heat exhaustion
should not be dismissed lightly. Fainting or heat collapse which is often associated with heat
exhaustion. In heat collapse, the brain does not receive enough oxygen because blood pools in
the extremities. As a result, the exposed individual may lose consciousness. This reaction is
similar to that of heat exhaustion and does not affect the body's heat balance. However, the
onset of heat collapse is rapid and unpredictable and can be dangerous especially if workers are
operating machinery or controlling an operation that should not be left unattended; moreover,
the victim may be injured when he or she faints. Also, the signs and symptoms seen in heat
exhaustion are similar to those of heat stroke, a medical emergency. Workers suffering from heat
exhaustion should be removed from the hot environment and given fluid replacement. They
should also be encouraged to get adequate rest and when possible, ice packs should be applied.
Heat Cramps are usually caused by performing hard physical labor in a hot environment. These
cramps have been attributed to an electrolyte imbalance caused by sweating. Cramps appear to
be caused by the lack of water replenishment. Because sweat is a hypotonic solution (±0.3%
NaCl), excess salt can build up in the body if the water lost through sweating is not replaced.
Thirst cannot be relied on as a guide to the need for water; instead, water must be taken every
15 to 20 minutes in hot environments. Under extreme conditions, such as working for 6 to 8
hours in heavy protective gear, a loss of sodium may occur. Recent studies have shown that
drinking commercially available carbohydrate-electrolyte replacement liquids is effective in
minimizing physiological disturbances during recovery.

Heat Rashes are the most common problem in hot work environments where the skin is
persistently wetted by unevaporated sweat. Prickly heat is manifested as red papules and usually
appears in areas where the clothing is restrictive. As sweating increases, these papules give rise
to a prickling sensation. Heat rash papules may become infected if they are not treated. In most
cases, heat rashes will disappear when the affected individual returns to a cool environment.
Heat Fatigue is often caused by a lack of acclimatization. A program of acclimatization and
training for work in hot environments is advisable. The signs and symptoms of heat fatigue
include impaired performance of skilled manual, mental, or vigilance jobs. There is no treatment
for heat fatigue except to remove the heat stress before a more serious heat-related condition
develops.
What kind of heat disorders and health effects are possible and how should they be treated?
General ventilation dilutes hot air with cooler air (ideally, bringing in cooler outside air) and in is
the most cost effective). A permanently installed ventilation system usually can handle large
areas or entire buildings. Portable or local exhaust systems may be more effective or practical in
smaller areas.
Air treatment/air cooling differs from ventilation because it reduces the temperature of the air
by removing the heat (and sometimes humidity) from the air. Air conditioning is a method of air
cooling which uses a compressed refrigerant under pressure to remove the heat from the air.
This method is expensive to install and operate. An alternative to air conditioning is the use of
chillers to circulate unpressurized cool water through heat exchangers over which air from the
ventilation system is then passed. Chillers are more efficient in cooler climates or in dry climates
where evaporative cooling can be used. Local air cooling can be effective in reducing air
temperature in specific areas. Two methods have been used successfully in industrial settings.
One type, cool rooms, can be used to enclose a specific workplace or to offer a recovery area
near hot jobs. The second type is a portable blower with built-in air chiller. The main advantage
of a blower, aside from portability, is minimal set-up time.
Another way to reduce heat stress is to cool the employee by increasing the air flow or convection
using fans, etc. in the work area. This is generally only effective as long as the air temperature is
less than the worker's skin temperature (usually less than 95 degrees F dry bulb). Changes in air
speed can help workers stay cooler by increasing both the convective heat exchange (the
exchange between the skin surface and the surrounding air) and the rate of evaporation. This
does not actually cool the air so moving air must impact the worker directly to be effective.
Heat conduction blocking methods include insulating the hot surface that generates the heat
and changing the surface itself. Simple devices such as shields, can be used to reduce radiant
heat, i.e. heat coming from hot surfaces within the worker's line of sight. Polished surfaces make
the best barriers, although special glass or metal mesh surfaces can be used if visibility is a
problem
with some sources of radiation, such as heating pipes, it is possible to use both insulation and
surface modifications to achieve a substantial reduction in radiant heat.
What administrative or work practice controls may be used?
Acclimatize workers by exposing them to work in a hot environment for progressively longer
periods. NIOSH (1986) suggests that workers who have had previous experience in jobs where
heat levels are high enough to produce heat stress may acclimatize with a regimen of 50%
exposure on day one, 60% on day two, 80% on day three, and 100% on day four. For new workers
who will be similarly exposed, the regimen should be 20% on day one, with a 20% increase in
exposure each additional day.
Replace Fluids by providing cool (50°-60°F) water or any cool liquid (except alcoholic beverages)
to workers and encourage them to drink small amounts frequently, e.g., one cup every 20
minutes. Ample supplies of liquids should be placed close to the work area. Although some
commercial replacement drinks contain salt, this is not necessary for acclimatized individuals
because most people add enough salt to their summer diets.
Reduce the physical demands by reducing physical exertion such as excessive lifting, climbing,
or digging with heavy objects. Spread the work over more individuals, use relief workers or assign
extra workers. Provide external pacing to minimize overexertion.
Provide recovery areas such as air-conditioned enclosures and rooms and provide intermittent
rest periods with water breaks.
Reschedule hot jobs for the cooler part of the day, and routine maintenance and repair work in
hot areas should be scheduled for the cooler seasons of the year.
Monitor workers who are at risk of heat stress, such as those wearing semi-permeable or
impermeable clothing when the temperature exceeds 70°F, while working at high metabolic
loads (greater than 500 kcal/hour). Personal monitoring can be done by checking the heart rate,
recovery heart rate, oral temperature, or extent of body water loss.
Develop a heat stress training program, and incorporate into health and safety plans at least the
following components:

• Knowledge of the hazards of heat stress;

• Recognition of predisposing factors, danger signs, and symptoms;
• Awareness of first-aid procedures for, and the potential health effects of, heat stroke;
• Employee responsibilities in avoiding heat stress;
• Dangers of using drugs, including therapeutic ones, and alcohol in hot work
environments;
• Use of protective clothing and equipment; and
• Purpose and coverage of environmental and medical surveillance programs and the
advantages of worker participation in such programs.
What Personal Protective Equipment is effective in minimizing heat stress?
Reflective clothing, which can vary from aprons and jackets to suits that completely enclose the
worker from neck to feet, can reduce the radiant heat reaching the worker. However, since most
reflective clothing does not allow air exchange through the garment, the reduction of radiant
heat must more than offset the corresponding loss in evaporative cooling. For this reason,
reflective clothing should be worn as loosely as possible. In situations where radiant heat is high,
auxiliary cooling systems can be used under the reflective clothing.
Auxiliary body cooling ice vests, though heavy, may accommodate as many as 72 ice packets,
which are usually filled with water. Carbon dioxide (dry ice) can also be used as a coolant. The
cooling offered by ice packets lasts only 2 to 4 hours at moderate to heavy heat loads, and
frequent replacement is necessary. However, ice vests do not tether the worker and thus permit
maximum mobility. Cooling with ice is also relatively inexpensive.
Wetted clothing such as terry cloth coveralls or two-piece, whole-body cotton suits are another
simple and inexpensive personal cooling technique. It is effective when reflective or other
impermeable protective clothing is worn. This approach to auxiliary cooling can be quite effective
under conditions of high temperature, good air flow, and low humidity.
Water-cooled garments range from a hood, which cools only the head, to vests and "long johns,"
which offer partial or complete body cooling. Use of this equipment requires a battery-driven
circulating pump, liquid-ice coolant, and a container. Although this system has the advantage of
allowing wearer mobility, the weight of the components limits the amount of ice that can be
carried and thus reduces the effective use time. The heat transfer rate in liquid cooling systems
may limit their use to low-activity jobs; even in such jobs, their service time is only about 20
minutes per pound of cooling ice. To keep outside heat from melting the ice, an outer insulating
jacket should be an integral part of these systems.
Circulating air is the most highly effective, as well as the most complicated, personal cooling
system. By directing compressed air around the body from a supplied air system, both
evaporative and convective cooling are improved. The greatest advantage occurs when
circulating air is used with impermeable garments or double cotton overalls. One type, used
when respiratory protection is also necessary, forces exhaust air from a supplied-air hood
("bubble hood") around the neck and down inside an impermeable suit. The air then escapes
through openings in the suit. Air can also be supplied directly to the suit without using a hood in
three ways: by a single inlet, by a distribution tree, or by a perforated vest. In addition, a vortex
tube can reduce the temperature of circulating air. The cooled air from this tube can be
introduced either under the clothing or into a bubble hood. The use of a vortex tube separates
the air stream into a hot and cold stream; these tubes also can be used to supply heat in cold
climates. Circulating air, however, is noisy and requires a constant source of compressed air
supplied through an attached air hose. This system tethers the worker and limits his or her
mobility. Additionally, since the worker feels comfortable, he or she may not realize that it is
important to drink liquids frequently.
References:
Heat Transfer
Ivey, N. (2008). Heat Transfer. retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/guest451a35/heat-
transfer-presentation
Heat loss Calculation in through bare and lagged pipes
Ruales, R. (2019). Heat loss in Bare and Lagged Pipes. retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/EdRyan19/heat-loss-in-bare-and-lagged-pipes-ed-ryan-m-ruales
Significance of heat loss calculation
(2017). What Is Heat Loss and Why Does it Matter. retrieved from
https://www.warmup.com/blog/what-is-heat-loss-and-why-does-it-matter-
2?fbclid=IwAR0Q7rZpcaYidK9tClK2xpQvj9Gg0xVjqeyaOwMItbUeKLHkDqZvMcMjwOI
Application of Heat Loss Calculation
Manville, J., Melton, K. (2018). Critical Considerations to Minimize Heat Loss in Industrial Process
Applications. retrieved from https://www.process-heating.com/articles/92774-critical-
considerations-to-minimize-heat-loss-in-industrial-process-applications
Devices used to Measure Heat
Goff, S. (2018). Tools Used to Measure Temperature. retrieved from https://sciencing.com/tools-
used-measure-temperature-8243342.html
Safety Protocol
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