108 CHAPTER 3.

DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

diode junction’s thermal capacity, and is usually much higher than the average current rating
due to thermal inertia (the fact that it takes a finite amount of time for the diode to reach
maximum temperature for a given current). Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
Maximum total dissipation = PD , the amount of power (in watts) allowable for the diode to
dissipate, given the dissipation (P=IE) of diode current multiplied by diode voltage drop, and
also the dissipation (P=I2 R) of diode current squared multiplied by bulk resistance. Funda-
mentally limited by the diode’s thermal capacity (ability to tolerate high temperatures).
Operating junction temperature = TJ , the maximum allowable temperature for the diode’s
PN junction, usually given in degrees Celsius (o C). Heat is the “Achilles’ heel” of semiconductor
devices: they must be kept cool to function properly and give long service life.
Storage temperature range = TST G , the range of allowable temperatures for storing a diode
(unpowered). Sometimes given in conjunction with operating junction temperature (TJ ), be-
cause the maximum storage temperature and the maximum operating temperature ratings
are often identical. If anything, though, maximum storage temperature rating will be greater
than the maximum operating temperature rating.
Thermal resistance = R(Θ), the temperature difference between junction and outside air
(R(Θ)JA ) or between junction and leads (R(Θ)JL ) for a given power dissipation. Expressed in
units of degrees Celsius per watt (o C/W). Ideally, this figure would be zero, meaning that the
diode package was a perfect thermal conductor and radiator, able to transfer all heat energy
from the junction to the outside air (or to the leads) with no difference in temperature across
the thickness of the diode package. A high thermal resistance means that the diode will build
up excessive temperature at the junction (where its critical) despite best efforts at cooling the
outside of the diode, and thus will limit its maximum power dissipation.
Maximum reverse current = IR , the amount of current through the diode in reverse-bias
operation, with the maximum rated inverse voltage applied (VDC ). Sometimes referred to as
leakage current. Ideally, this figure would be zero, as a perfect diode would block all current
when reverse-biased. In reality, it is very small compared to the maximum forward current.
Typical junction capacitance = CJ , the typical amount of capacitance intrinsic to the junc-
tion, due to the depletion region acting as a dielectric separating the anode and cathode con-
nections. This is usually a very small figure, measured in the range of picofarads (pF).
Reverse recovery time = trr , the amount of time it takes for a diode to “turn off ” when the
voltage across it alternates from forward-bias to reverse-bias polarity. Ideally, this figure would
be zero: the diode halting conduction immediately upon polarity reversal. For a typical rectifier
diode, reverse recovery time is in the range of tens of microseconds; for a “fast switching” diode,
it may only be a few nanoseconds.
Most of these parameters vary with temperature or other operating conditions, and so a
single figure fails to fully describe any given rating. Therefore, manufacturers provide graphs
of component ratings plotted against other variables (such as temperature), so that the circuit
designer has a better idea of what the device is capable of.

3.4 Rectifier circuits

Now we come to the most popular application of the diode: rectification. Simply defined, rec-
tification is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This involves a
3.4. RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 109

device that only allows one-way flow of electrons. As we have seen, this is exactly what a semi-
conductor diode does. The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier. It only
allows one half of an AC waveform to pass through to the load. (Figure 3.14)

+
AC
Load
voltage
source -

Figure 3.14: Half-wave rectifier circuit.

For most power applications, half-wave rectification is insufficient for the task. The har-
monic content of the rectifier’s output waveform is very large and consequently difficult to
filter. Furthermore, the AC power source only supplies power to the load one half every full
cycle, meaning that half of its capacity is unused. Half-wave rectification is, however, a very
simple way to reduce power to a resistive load. Some two-position lamp dimmer switches ap-
ply full AC power to the lamp filament for “full” brightness and then half-wave rectify it for a
lesser light output. (Figure 3.15)

Bright

Dim
AC
voltage
source

Figure 3.15: Half-wave rectifier application: Two level lamp dimmer.

In the “Dim” switch position, the incandescent lamp receives approximately one-half the
power it would normally receive operating on full-wave AC. Because the half-wave rectified
power pulses far more rapidly than the filament has time to heat up and cool down, the lamp
does not blink. Instead, its filament merely operates at a lesser temperature than normal,
providing less light output. This principle of “pulsing” power rapidly to a slow-responding load
device to control the electrical power sent to it is common in the world of industrial electronics.
Since the controlling device (the diode, in this case) is either fully conducting or fully noncon-
ducting at any given time, it dissipates little heat energy while controlling load power, making
this method of power control very energy-efficient. This circuit is perhaps the crudest possible
method of pulsing power to a load, but it suffices as a proof-of-concept application.
If we need to rectify AC power to obtain the full use of both half-cycles of the sine wave,
a different rectifier circuit configuration must be used. Such a circuit is called a full-wave
rectifier. One kind of full-wave rectifier, called the center-tap design, uses a transformer with a
center-tapped secondary winding and two diodes, as in Figure 3.16.
This circuit’s operation is easily understood one half-cycle at a time. Consider the first half-
cycle, when the source voltage polarity is positive (+) on top and negative (-) on bottom. At this
110 CHAPTER 3. DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

AC +
voltage
source Load
-

Figure 3.16: Full-wave rectifier, center-tapped design.

time, only the top diode is conducting; the bottom diode is blocking current, and the load “sees”
the first half of the sine wave, positive on top and negative on bottom. Only the top half of the
transformer’s secondary winding carries current during this half-cycle as in Figure 3.17.

+ +
+
- -
-

Figure 3.17: Full-wave center-tap rectifier: Top half of secondary winding conducts during
positive half-cycle of input, delivering positive half-cycle to load..

During the next half-cycle, the AC polarity reverses. Now, the other diode and the other half
of the transformer’s secondary winding carry current while the portions of the circuit formerly
carrying current during the last half-cycle sit idle. The load still “sees” half of a sine wave, of
the same polarity as before: positive on top and negative on bottom. (Figure 3.18)

- - +
+
+
-

Figure 3.18: Full-wave center-tap rectifier: During negative input half-cycle, bottom half of
secondary winding conducts, delivering a positive half-cycle to the load.

One disadvantage of this full-wave rectifier design is the necessity of a transformer with a
center-tapped secondary winding. If the circuit in question is one of high power, the size and
3.4. RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 111

expense of a suitable transformer is significant. Consequently, the center-tap rectifier design

is only seen in low-power applications.
The full-wave center-tapped rectifier polarity at the load may be reversed by changing the
direction of the diodes. Furthermore, the reversed diodes can be paralleled with an existing
positive-output rectifier. The result is dual-polarity full-wave center-tapped rectifier in Fig-
ure 3.19. Note that the connectivity of the diodes themselves is the same configuration as a
bridge.

Loads

-
+

AC voltage source -

Figure 3.19: Dual polarity full-wave center tap rectifier

Another, more popular full-wave rectifier design exists, and it is built around a four-diode
bridge configuration. For obvious reasons, this design is called a full-wave bridge. (Figure 3.20)

AC
voltage
source +
Load
-

Figure 3.20: Full-wave bridge rectifier.

Current directions for the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit are as shown in Figure 3.21 for
positive half-cycle and Figure 3.22 for negative half-cycles of the AC source waveform. Note
that regardless of the polarity of the input, the current flows in the same direction through
the load. That is, the negative half-cycle of source is a positive half-cycle at the load. The
current flow is through two diodes in series for both polarities. Thus, two diode drops of the
source voltage are lost (0.7·2=1.4 V for Si) in the diodes. This is a disadvantage compared with
a full-wave center-tap design. This disadvantage is only a problem in very low voltage power
supplies.
Remembering the proper layout of diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit can often be
frustrating to the new student of electronics. I’ve found that an alternative representation of
this circuit is easier both to remember and to comprehend. It’s the exact same circuit, except
all diodes are drawn in a horizontal attitude, all “pointing” the same direction. (Figure 3.23)
112 CHAPTER 3. DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

- +

Figure 3.21: Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for positive half-cycles.

+ +

Figure 3.22: Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for negative half=cycles.

AC
voltage
source
+
Load
-

Figure 3.23: Alternative layout style for Full-wave bridge rectifier.

3.4. RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 113

One advantage of remembering this layout for a bridge rectifier circuit is that it expands
easily into a polyphase version in Figure 3.24.

3-phase
AC source +
Load
-

Figure 3.24: Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.

Each three-phase line connects between a pair of diodes: one to route power to the positive
(+) side of the load, and the other to route power to the negative (-) side of the load. Polyphase
systems with more than three phases are easily accommodated into a bridge rectifier scheme.
Take for instance the six-phase bridge rectifier circuit in Figure 3.25.

6-phase
AC source

+
Load
-

Figure 3.25: Six-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.

When polyphase AC is rectified, the phase-shifted pulses overlap each other to produce a DC
output that is much “smoother” (has less AC content) than that produced by the rectification of
single-phase AC. This is a decided advantage in high-power rectifier circuits, where the sheer
physical size of filtering components would be prohibitive but low-noise DC power must be
obtained. The diagram in Figure 3.26 shows the full-wave rectification of three-phase AC.
In any case of rectification – single-phase or polyphase – the amount of AC voltage mixed
with the rectifier’s DC output is called ripple voltage. In most cases, since “pure” DC is the de-
sired goal, ripple voltage is undesirable. If the power levels are not too great, filtering networks
may be employed to reduce the amount of ripple in the output voltage.
114 CHAPTER 3. DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

1 2 3

TIME
Resultant DC waveform

Figure 3.26: Three-phase AC and 3-phase full-wave rectifier output.

Sometimes, the method of rectification is referred to by counting the number of DC “pulses”

output for every 360o of electrical “rotation.” A single-phase, half-wave rectifier circuit, then,
would be called a 1-pulse rectifier, because it produces a single pulse during the time of one
complete cycle (360o ) of the AC waveform. A single-phase, full-wave rectifier (regardless of
design, center-tap or bridge) would be called a 2-pulse rectifier, because it outputs two pulses
of DC during one AC cycle’s worth of time. A three-phase full-wave rectifier would be called a
6-pulse unit.
Modern electrical engineering convention further describes the function of a rectifier circuit
by using a three-field notation of phases, ways, and number of pulses. A single-phase, half-
wave rectifier circuit is given the somewhat cryptic designation of 1Ph1W1P (1 phase, 1 way,
1 pulse), meaning that the AC supply voltage is single-phase, that current on each phase of
the AC supply lines moves in only one direction (way), and that there is a single pulse of DC
produced for every 360o of electrical rotation. A single-phase, full-wave, center-tap rectifier
circuit would be designated as 1Ph1W2P in this notational system: 1 phase, 1 way or direction
of current in each winding half, and 2 pulses or output voltage per cycle. A single-phase, full-
wave, bridge rectifier would be designated as 1Ph2W2P: the same as for the center-tap design,
except current can go both ways through the AC lines instead of just one way. The three-phase
bridge rectifier circuit shown earlier would be called a 3Ph2W6P rectifier.
Is it possible to obtain more pulses than twice the number of phases in a rectifier circuit?
The answer to this question is yes: especially in polyphase circuits. Through the creative use
of transformers, sets of full-wave rectifiers may be paralleled in such a way that more than
six pulses of DC are produced for three phases of AC. A 30o phase shift is introduced from
primary to secondary of a three-phase transformer when the winding configurations are not
of the same type. In other words, a transformer connected either Y-∆ or ∆-Y will exhibit
this 30o phase shift, while a transformer connected Y-Y or ∆-∆ will not. This phenomenon
may be exploited by having one transformer connected Y-Y feed a bridge rectifier, and have
another transformer connected Y-∆ feed a second bridge rectifier, then parallel the DC outputs
of both rectifiers. (Figure 3.27) Since the ripple voltage waveforms of the two rectifiers’ outputs
are phase-shifted 30o from one another, their superposition results in less ripple than either
rectifier output considered separately: 12 pulses per 360o instead of just six:
3.5. PEAK DETECTOR 115

3Ph2W12P rectifier circuit

Secondary

Primary
3-phase
AC input
DC
+
output
-

Secondary

Figure 3.27: Polyphase rectifier circuit: 3-phase 2-way 12-pulse (3Ph2W12P)

• REVIEW:
• Rectification is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).
• A half-wave rectifier is a circuit that allows only one half-cycle of the AC voltage waveform
to be applied to the load, resulting in one non-alternating polarity across it. The resulting
DC delivered to the load “pulsates” significantly.
• A full-wave rectifier is a circuit that converts both half-cycles of the AC voltage waveform
to an unbroken series of voltage pulses of the same polarity. The resulting DC delivered
to the load doesn’t “pulsate” as much.
• Polyphase alternating current, when rectified, gives a much “smoother” DC waveform
(less ripple voltage) than rectified single-phase AC.

3.5 Peak detector

A peak detector is a series connection of a diode and a capacitor outputting a DC voltage equal
to the peak value of the applied AC signal. The circuit is shown in Figure 3.28 with the cor-
responding SPICE net list. An AC voltage source applied to the peak detector, charges the
capacitor to the peak of the input. The diode conducts positive “half cycles,” charging the ca-
pacitor to the waveform peak. When the input waveform falls below the DC “peak” stored
on the capacitor, the diode is reverse biased, blocking current flow from capacitor back to the
source. Thus, the capacitor retains the peak value even as the waveform drops to zero. Another
view of the peak detector is that it is the same as a half-wave rectifier with a filter capacitor
added to the output.
It takes a few cycles for the capacitor to charge to the peak as in Figure 3.29 due to the
series resistance (RC “time constant”). Why does the capacitor not charge all the way to 5 V?
116 CHAPTER 3. DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

*SPICE 03441.eps
C1 2 0 0.1u
1.0 kΩ R1 1 3 1.0k
1 3 2 V1 1 0 SIN(0 5 1k)
D1 3 2 diode
5 Vp-p V(2) 0.1 uF .model diode d
0 Voffset output
.tran 0.01m 50mm
1 kHz 0
.end

Figure 3.28: Peak detector: Diode conducts on positive half cycles charging capacitor to the
peak voltage (less diode forward drop).

It would charge to 5 V if an “ideal diode” were obtainable. However, the silicon diode has a
forward voltage drop of 0.7 V which subtracts from the 5 V peak of the input.

Figure 3.29: Peak detector: Capacitor charges to peak within a few cycles.

The circuit in Figure 3.28 could represent a DC power supply based on a half-wave rectifier.
The resistance would be a few Ohms instead of 1 kΩ due to a transformer secondary winding
replacing the voltage source and resistor. A larger “filter” capacitor would be used. A power
supply based on a 60 Hz source with a filter of a few hundred µF could supply up to 100 mA.
Half-wave supplies seldom supply more due to the difficulty of filtering a half-wave.
The peak detector may be combined with other components to build a crystal radio ( page
437).
3.6. CLIPPER CIRCUITS 117

3.6 Clipper circuits

A circuit which removes the peak of a waveform is known as a clipper. A negative clipper is
shown in Figure 3.30. This schematic diagram was produced with Xcircuit schematic capture
program. Xcircuit produced the SPICE net list Figure 3.30, except for the second, and next to
last pair of lines which were inserted with a text editor.

*SPICE 03437.eps
* A K ModelName
D1 0 2 diode
1 2 R1 2 1 1.0k
5 Vp V1 1 0 SIN(0 5 1k)
1.0 kΩ
V(2) .model diode d
0 Voffset output
0 1 kHz .tran .05m 3m
.end

Figure 3.30: Clipper: clips negative peak at -0.7 V.

During the positive half cycle of the 5 V peak input, the diode is reversed biased. The diode
does not conduct. It is as if the diode were not there. The positive half cycle is unchanged
at the output V(2) in Figure 3.31. Since the output positive peaks actually overlays the input
sinewave V(1), the input has been shifted upward in the plot for clarity. In Nutmeg, the SPICE
display module, the command “plot v(1)+1)” accomplishes this.

Figure 3.31: V(1)+1 is actually V(1), a 10 Vptp sinewave, offset by 1 V for display clarity. V(2)
output is clipped at -0.7 V, by diode D1.

During the negative half cycle of sinewave input of Figure 3.31, the diode is forward biased,
118 CHAPTER 3. DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

that is, conducting. The negative half cycle of the sinewave is shorted out. The negative half
cycle of V(2) would be clipped at 0 V for an ideal diode. The waveform is clipped at -0.7 V
due to the forward voltage drop of the silicon diode. The spice model defaults to 0.7 V unless
parameters in the model statement specify otherwise. Germanium or Schottky diodes clip at
lower voltages.
Closer examination of the negative clipped peak (Figure 3.31) reveals that it follows the
input for a slight period of time while the sinewave is moving toward -0.7 V. The clipping
action is only effective after the input sinewave exceeds -0.7 V. The diode is not conducting for
the complete half cycle, though, during most of it.
The addition of an anti-parallel diode to the existing diode in Figure 3.30 yields the sym-
metrical clipper in Figure 3.32.

*SPICE 03438.eps
D1 0 2 diode
D2 2 0 diode
1 2
R1 2 1 1.0k
5 Vp
1.0 kΩ

D2 D1 V1 1 0 SIN(0 5 1k)
0 Voffset .model diode d
0 1 kHz .tran 0.05m 3m
.end

Figure 3.32: Symmetrical clipper: Anti-parallel diodes clip both positive and negative peak,
leaving a ± 0.7 V output.

Diode D1 clips the negative peak at -0.7 V as before. The additional diode D2 conducts for
positive half cycles of the sine wave as it exceeds 0.7 V, the forward diode drop. The remainder
of the voltage drops across the series resistor. Thus, both peaks of the input sinewave are
clipped in Figure 3.33. The net list is in Figure 3.32
The most general form of the diode clipper is shown in Figure 3.34. For an ideal diode, the
clipping occurs at the level of the clipping voltage, V1 and V2. However, the voltage sources
have been adjusted to account for the 0.7 V forward drop of the real silicon diodes. D1 clips
at 1.3V +0.7V=2.0V when the diode begins to conduct. D2 clips at -2.3V -0.7V=-3.0V when D2
conducts.
The clipper in Figure 3.34 does not have to clip both levels. To clip at one level with one
diode and one voltage source, remove the other diode and source.
The net list is in Figure 3.34. The waveforms in Figure 3.35 show the clipping of v(1) at
output v(2).
There is also a zener diode clipper circuit in the “Zener diode” section. A zener diode replaces
both the diode and the DC voltage source.
A practical application of a clipper is to prevent an amplified speech signal from overdriving
a radio transmitter in Figure 3.36. Over driving the transmitter generates spurious radio
signals which causes interference with other stations. The clipper is a protective measure.
A sinewave may be squared up by overdriving a clipper. Another clipper application is the
protection of exposed inputs of integrated circuits. The input of the IC is connected to a pair
of diodes as at node “2” of Figure 3.34. The voltage sources are replaced by the power supply
3.6. CLIPPER CIRCUITS 119

Figure 3.33: Diode D1 clips at -0.7 V as it conducts during negative peaks. D2 conducts for
positive peaks, clipping at 0.7V.

*SPICE 03439.eps
V1 3 0 1.3
1 2
V2 4 0 -2.3
V2
1.0 kΩ

V3 D1 2 3 diode
D1 D2 D2 4 2 diode
5 Vp
3 4 R1 2 1 1.0k
0 Voffset V1 V2 V3 1 0 SIN(0 5 1k)
1 kHz + +
− 1.3 V − -2.3 V .model diode d
0 .tran 0.05m 3m
.end

Figure 3.34: D1 clips the input sinewave at 2V. D2 clips at -3V.

120 CHAPTER 3. DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

Figure 3.35: D1 clips the sinewave at 2V. D2 clips at -3V.

clipper
preamp transmitter

microphone

Figure 3.36: Clipper prevents over driving radio transmitter by voice peaks.
3.7. CLAMPER CIRCUITS 121

rails of the IC. For example, CMOS IC’s use 0V and +5 V. Analog amplifiers might use ±12V
for the V1 and V2 sources.

• REVIEW
• A resistor and diode driven by an AC voltage source clips the signal observed across the
diode.
• A pair of anti-parallel Si diodes clip symmetrically at ±0.7V
• The grounded end of a clipper diode(s) can be disconnected and wired to a DC voltage to
clip at an arbitrary level.
• A clipper can serve as a protective measure, preventing a signal from exceeding the clip
limits.

3.7 Clamper circuits

The circuits in Figure 3.37 are known as clampers or DC restorers. The corresponding netlist
is in Figure 3.38. These circuits clamp a peak of a waveform to a specific DC level compared
with a capacitively coupled signal which swings about its average DC level (usually 0V). If the
diode is removed from the clamper, it defaults to a simple coupling capacitor– no clamping.
What is the clamp voltage? And, which peak gets clamped? In Figure 3.37 (a) the clamp
voltage is 0 V ignoring diode drop, (more exactly 0.7 V with Si diode drop). In Figure 3.38, the
positive peak of V(1) is clamped to the 0 V (0.7 V) clamp level. Why is this? On the first positive
half cycle, the diode conducts charging the capacitor left end to +5 V (4.3 V). This is -5 V (-4.3
V) on the right end at V(1,4). Note the polarity marked on the capacitor in Figure 3.37 (a). The
right end of the capacitor is -5 V DC (-4.3 V) with respect to ground. It also has an AC 5 V peak
sinewave coupled across it from source V(4) to node 1. The sum of the two is a 5 V peak sine
riding on a - 5 V DC (-4.3 V) level. The diode only conducts on successive positive excursions
of source V(4) if the peak V(4) exceeds the charge on the capacitor. This only happens if the
charge on the capacitor drained off due to a load, not shown. The charge on the capacitor is
equal to the positive peak of V(4) (less 0.7 diode drop). The AC riding on the negative end,
right end, is shifted down. The positive peak of the waveform is clamped to 0 V (0.7 V) because
the diode conducts on the positive peak.
Suppose the polarity of the diode is reversed as in Figure 3.37 (b)? The diode conducts on
the negative peak of source V(4). The negative peak is clamped to 0 V (-0.7 V). See V(2) in
Figure 3.38.
The most general realization of the clamper is shown in Figure 3.37 (c) with the diode
connected to a DC reference. The capacitor still charges during the negative peak of the source.
Note that the polarities of the AC source and the DC reference are series aiding. Thus, the
capacitor charges to the sum to the two, 10 V DC (9.3 V). Coupling the 5 V peak sinewave
across the capacitor yields Figure 3.38 V(3), the sum of the charge on the capacitor and the
sinewave. The negative peak appears to be clamped to 5 V DC (4.3V), the value of the DC
clamp reference (less diode drop).
Describe the waveform if the DC clamp reference is changed from 5 V to 10 V. The clamped
waveform will shift up. The negative peak will be clamped to 10 V (9.3). Suppose that the
122 CHAPTER 3. DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

1000 pF 1000 pF 1000 pF

4 + - 1 4 2 4 3
- + - +
+ 5 Vpeak -4.3 VDC - 4.3 VDC -
0 Voffset 9.3 VDC
- 1 kHz 0 +0 + 5V +
−
(a) (b) (c) 0

Figure 3.37: Clampers: (a) Positive peak clamped to 0 V. (b) Negative peak clamped to 0 V. (c)
Negative peak clamped to 5 V.

*SPICE 03443.eps
V1 6 0 5
D1 6 3 diode
C1 4 3 1000p
D2 0 2 diode
C2 4 2 1000p
C3 4 1 1000p
D3 1 0 diode
V2 4 0 SIN(0 5 1k)
.model diode d
.tran 0.01m 5m
.end

Figure 3.38: V(4) source voltage 5 V peak used in all clampers. V(1) clamper output from
Figure 3.37 (a). V(1,4) DC voltage on capacitor in Figure (a). V(2) clamper output from Figure
(b). V(3) clamper output from Figure (c).
3.8. VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 123

amplitude of the sine wave source is increased from 5 V to 7 V? The negative peak clamp level
will remain unchanged. Though, the amplitude of the sinewave output will increase.
An application of the clamper circuit is as a “DC restorer” in “composite video” circuitry in
both television transmitters and receivers. An NTSC (US video standard) video signal “white
level” corresponds to minimum (12.5%) transmitted power. The video “black level” corresponds
to a high level (75% of transmitter power. There is a “blacker than black level” corresponding to
100% transmitted power assigned to synchronization signals. The NTSC signal contains both
video and synchronization pulses. The problem with the composite video is that its average
DC level varies with the scene, dark vs light. The video itself is supposed to vary. However,
the sync must always peak at 100%. To prevent the sync signals from drifting with changing
scenes, a “DC restorer” clamps the top of the sync pulses to a voltage corresponding to 100%
transmitter modulation. [2]

• REVIEW:

• A capacitively coupled signal alternates about its average DC level (0 V).

• The signal out of a clamper appears the have one peak clamped to a DC voltage. Example:
The negative peak is clamped to 0 VDC, the waveform appears to be shifted upward. The
polarity of the diode determines which peak is clamped.

• An application of a clamper, or DC restorer, is in clamping the sync pulses of composite

video to a voltage corresponding to 100% of transmitter power.

3.8 Voltage multipliers

A voltage multiplier is a specialized rectifier circuit producing an output which is theoretically
an integer times the AC peak input, for example, 2, 3, or 4 times the AC peak input. Thus,
it is possible to get 200 VDC from a 100 Vpeak AC source using a doubler, 400 VDC from a
quadrupler. Any load in a practical circuit will lower these voltages.
A voltage doubler application is a DC power supply capable of using either a 240 VAC or 120
VAC source. The supply uses a switch selected full-wave bridge to produce about 300 VDC from
a 240 VAC source. The 120 V position of the switch rewires the bridge as a doubler producing
about 300 VDC from the 120 VAC. In both cases, 300 VDC is produced. This is the input to a
switching regulator producing lower voltages for powering, say, a personal computer.
The half-wave voltage doubler in Figure 3.39 (a) is composed of two circuits: a clamper at
(b) and peak detector (half-wave rectifier) in Figure 3.28, which is shown in modified form in
Figure 3.39 (c). C2 has been added to a peak detector (half-wave rectifier).
Referring to Figure 3.39 (b), C2 charges to 5 V (4.3 V considering the diode drop) on the
negative half cycle of AC input. The right end is grounded by the conducting D2. The left end
is charged at the negative peak of the AC input. This is the operation of the clamper.
During the positive half cycle, the half-wave rectifier comes into play at Figure 3.39 (c).
Diode D2 is out of the circuit since it is reverse biased. C2 is now in series with the voltage
source. Note the polarities of the generator and C2, series aiding. Thus, rectifier D1 sees a total
of 10 V at the peak of the sinewave, 5 V from generator and 5 V from C2. D1 conducts waveform
v(1) (Figure 3.40), charging C1 to the peak of the sine wave riding on 5 V DC (Figure 3.40 v(2)).