Make an Arduino-Controlled Robot

Michael Margolis
Published by Make

Beijing ⋅ Cambridge ⋅ Farnham ⋅ Köln ⋅ Sebastopol ⋅ Tokyo

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. Please use a standard desktop web browser to access these files, as they may not be accessible from all ereader devices.
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Preface
Building a robot and enabling it to sense its environment is a wonderful way to take your Arduino knowledge to the next level. In writing
this book, I have brought together my love for invention and my experience with electronics, robotics and microcontrollers. I hope you
have as much pleasure building and enhancing your robot as I did developing the techniques contained in this book.
Arduino is a family of microcontrollers (tiny computers) and a software creation environment that makes it easy for you to create
programs (called
sketches
) that can interact with the physical world. Arduino enables your robot to sense the environment and respond in a rich variety of ways.
This book helps you to build a robot that is capable of performing a wide variety of tasks. It explains how to assemble two of the most
popular mobile platforms, a robot with two wheels and a caster (for stability, since it's hard to balance �t ton two wheels), and a
robot with four wheels and motors. If you want your robot up and running quickly, choosing one of the kits detailed in this book should
speed you through the build process and get you going with the robot projects. But whether you prefer to design and build a platform of
your own construction or build from a kit, you will find the projects that comprise the core of this book a practical and fun introduction to
Arduino robots.

Who This Book Is For

This book is for people who want to explore robotics concepts like: movement, obstacle detection, handling sensors, remote control,
and all kinds of real world physical computing challenges. It is for people who want to understand how these concepts can be used to
build, expand and customize your robot. See
What Was Left Out
for some general references for those with limited programming or electronics experience.

How This Book Is Organized

The book contains information that covers a broad range of robotics tasks. The hardware and software is built up stage by stage, with
each chapter using concepts explained in earlier chapters. A simple "Hello Robot" sketch is introduced in
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
and extended in subsequent chapters. Each chapter introduces sketches that add new capabilities to the robot. Experienced users
can skip directly to the chapters of interest—full source code for every sketch in this book is available online. However, users who want
to learn all about the techniques covered will benefit and hopefully enjoy working with all the sketches presented in the book, as each
sketch enables the robot to perform increasingly complex tasks.
The sketches are built using functional modules. The modules are stored using Arduino IDE tabs (see
Chapter 5
). Modules described in early chapters are reused later and to avoid printing the same code over and over in the book, only code that
is new or changed is printed.
Figure 1
illustrates how the code is enhanced from sketch to sketch. The horizontal bars represent the sketches, the vertical bars represent
functional modules that are included in the sketches. The initial 'helloRobot' sketch is transformed into the 'myRobot' sketch by the
moving the code for program definitions into a module named
robotDefines.ino
and reflectance sensors into a module named
IrSensors.ino
. These module are included as tabs in the 'myRobot' sketch. Each subsequent sketch is enhanced by adding code to an existing
module or creating a new mo�ona Ddule as a tab.
 Figure 1. Sketch and module family tree
All code for every sketch is available in the download for this book and you can load the sketch being discussed into your IDE if you
want a complete view of all the code.
Chapter 1, Introduction to Robot Building
provides a brief introduction to robot hardware and software.
Chapter 2, Building the Electronics
describes how to prepare the electronics for use with the robot.
Chapter 3, Building the Two-Wheeled Mobile Platform
describes how to assemble the 2 Wheel Drive (2WD) mobile platform.
Chapter 4, Building the Four-Wheeled Mobile Platform
describes how to assemble the 4 Wheel Drive (4WD) mobile platform.
Chapter 5, Tutorial: Getting Started with Arduino
introduces the Arduino environment and provides help getting the development environment and hardware installed and working.
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
explains the first robotics sketch. It is used to test the robot. The code covered in this chapter is the basis of all other sketches in the
book:
HelloRobot.ino
(Arduino sketch) — Brings the robot to life so you can test your build.
myRobot.ino
— Same functionality as above but structured into modules to make it easy to enhance.
Chapter 7, Controlling Speed and Direction
explains how you make the robot move:
myRobotMove.ino
— Adds higher level movement capability.
myRobotCalibrateRotation.ino
— A sketch for running the robot through a range of speeds to calibrate the robot.
Chapter 8, Tutorial: Introduction to Sensors
introduces the most popular sensors used with the 2WD and 4WD robots.
Chapter 9, Modifying the Robot to React to Edges and Lines
describes techniques for using reflectance sensors to enable your robot to gain awareness of its environment. The robot will be able
to follow lines or to avoid edges.
myRobotEdge.ino
— The robot will move about in an area bound by a non-reflective surface (a large sheet of white paper placed on a non-
reflective surface).
myRobotLine.ino
— Repositions the sensors used above to allow the robot to follow black lines painted or taped to a white surface. A variant of
this sketch that sends data over serial for display on an external serial device is named
myRobotLineDisplay
and is included in the download code.
Chapter 10, Autonomous Movement
describes how to use distance sensors to enable the robot to see and avoid obstacles encountered as it moves around.
myRobotWander.ino
— Adds 'eyes' to give the robot the ability to look around and avoid obstacles.
myRobotScan.ino
— Adds a servo so robot 'eyes' can scan independent of robot movement.
Chapter 11, Remote Control
describes techniques for remotely controlling the robot. Wired and wireless serial commands and using a TV type infrared remote
control are covered.
myRobotSerialRemote.ino
— Controls the robot using serial commands.
myRobotRemote.ino
— Controls the robot using an IR remote controller.�emoр
LearningRemote.ino
— Captures key codes from your remote control to enable these to be added to the myRobotRemote sketch.
myRobotWanderRemote.ino
— Combines remote control with autonomous movement.
Appendix A
provides tips and techniques for designing and building complex projects.
Appendix B
describes some alternative solutions for motor control.
Appendix C
has hardware and software debugging tips. This sections includes Arduino and Processing source code to enable real time graphical
display of robot parameters on a computer screen.
myRobotDebug.ino
— Arduino example showing how to send data to your computer.
ArduinoDataDisplay.pde
(Processing sketch) — graphs data received from Arduino in real time.
Appendix D
introduces some alternatives for powering your robot.
Appendix E
provides a brief introduction to some of the programming constructs used in the sketches for this book that may not be familiar to
some Arduino users.
Appendix F
summarizes the pins and Arduino resources used by the robot.

What Was Left Out

This book explains all the code used for the robot, but it is not an introduction to programming. If you want to learn more about
programming with Arduino, you may want to refer to the Internet or to one of the following books:
Getting Started with Arduino, 2nd Edi�div Ttion
by Massimo Banzi (O’Reilly)
Arduino Cookbook, 2nd Edition
by Michael Margolis (O’Reilly)
A good book for inspiration on more robotics projects is:
Make: Arduino Bots and Gadgets
by Tero Karvinen, Kimmo Karvinen (O'Reilly)

Code Style (About the Code)

The code used throughout this book has been tailored to clearly illustrate the topic covered in each chapter. As a consequence, some
common coding shortcuts have been avoided. Experienced C programmers often use rich but terse expressions that are efficient but
can be a little difficult for beginners to read. For example, code that returns boolean values uses the somewhat verbose explicit
expressions because they are easier for beginner programmers to read, see the example that follows, which returns true if no
reflection was detected by the robot's sensor:
return irSensorDetect(sensor) == false;

Here is the terse version that returns the same thing (note the negation operator before the function call):
return !irSensorDetect(sensor);

Feel free to substitute your preferred style. Beginners should be reassured that there is no benefit in performance or code size in
using the terse form.
One or two more advanced programming concepts have been used where this makes the code easier to enhance. For example, long
lists of sequential constants use the
enum
declaration.
The
enum
keyword creates an enumeration; a list of constant integer values. All the enums in this book start from 0 and increase sequentially by
one.
For example, the list of constants associated with movement directions could be expressed as:
<&#0;hei db>const int MOV_LEFT = 0
const int MOV_RIGHT = 1;
const int MOV_FORWARD = 2;
const int MOV_BACK = 3;
const int MOV_ROTATE = 4;
const int MOV_STOP = 5;

The following declares the same constants with the identical values:
enum {MOV_LEFT, MOV_RIGHT, MOV_FORWARD,
MOV_BACK, MOV_ROTATE, MOV_STOP};

In addition to brevity, there are many advantages to the

enum
version of the code. If you want to know more about
enum
, an online search for
c++ enum
should tell you all you need to know and more.
Good programming practice involves ensuring that values used are valid (garbage in equals garbage out) by checking them before
using them in calculations. However, to keep the code focused on the topic, error-checking code has been kept to a minimum. If you
expand the code, you are encouraged to add error-checking where needed.

Arduino Hardware and Software

The examples in this book were built using the Arduino Leonardo and Uno boards (see
Chapter 5
). The code has been tested with Arduino release 1.0.1 (the first release that fully supports the Leonardo board). Although many of the
sketches will run on earlier Arduino releases, this has not been tested. If you really want to use a release older than 1.0, you need to
change the extension from
.ino
to
.pde
to load the sketch into a pre-1.0 IDE.
There is a website for this book where you can download code for this book; see
How to Contact Us
.
There is also a link to errata on that site. Errata give readers a way to let us know about typos, errors, and other problems with the
book. Errata will be visible on the page immediately, and we’ll confirm them after checking them out. O’Reilly can also fix errata in
future printings of the book in electronic books, and on Safari® Books Online, making for a better reader experience pretty quickly.
If you have problems getting the code to work, check the web link to see if the code has been updated. The Arduino forum is a good
place to post a question if you need more help:
http://www.arduino.cc
.
If you like—or don’t like—this book, by all means, please let people know. Amazon reviews are one popular way to share your
happiness or other comments. Yo&#0;ri� tu can also leave reviews at the O'Reilly site for the book.

Conventions Used in This Book

The following font conventions are used in this book:
Italic
 Indicates pathnames, filenames, and program names; Internet addresses, such as domain names and URLs; and
new items where they are defined
Constant width
Indicates command lines and options that should be typed verbatim; names and keywords in programs, including
method names, variable names, and class names; and HTML element tags
Constant width bold
Indicates emphasis in program code lines
Constant width italic
Indicates text that should be replaced with user-supplied values

Note
This icon signifies a tip, suggestion, or general note.

Using Code Examples

This book is here to help you make things with Arduino. In general, you may use the code in this book in your programs and
documentation. You do not need to contact us for permission unless you’re reproducing a significant portion of the code. For example,
writing a program that uses several chunks of code from this book does not require permission. Selling or distributing a CD-ROM of
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does
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reporating a significant amount of example code from this book into your product’s documentation
does
require permission.
We appreciate, but do not require, attribution. An attribution usually includes the title, author, publisher, and ISBN. For example: “
Make an Arduino Controlled Robot
by Michael Margolis (O’Reilly). Copyright 2013 Michael Margolis, ISBN (978-1-4493-4437-5).”
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Acknowledgments
Rob DeMartin, the business manager at Maker Media, was the driving force behind the botkits, which inspired the writing of this book.
Isaac Alexander and Eric Weinhoffer at Maker Media ran with the concept to make it a product. I thank them for testing the content of
the book to ensure that the projects and the hardware worked well together.
I am grateful to the Arduino community for contributing a wealth of free software, in particular, the IrRemote library from Ken Sherriff
that is used in the remote control chapter. I would also like to express my appreciation to Limor Fried (Ladyada) for creating the
hardware, software and online build notes for the motor shield used in this book.
Thanks also to DFRobot, the innovative company that designed the robot platforms and provided the exploded view drawings used in
the build chapters.
&#0;war D
Mat Fordy at Cool Components (coolcomponents.co.uk) organized the robotics workshop that provided a testing ground for the
book’s projects. It was helpful and rewarding to work with the participants, each with a different level of experience, to build the robots
and see their pleasure in bringing their creations to life. Their feedback helped make the book content clear, practical and fun.
If I have achieved my goal of making the rich variety of technical topics in this book accessible to readers with limited electronics or
programming experience, then much of the credit goes to Brian Jepson. Brian, who was also my editor for the Arduino Cookbook,
was with me every step of the way. I thank him for his guidance: from his support and passion in beginning the project, to his editorial
expertise and application of his masterful communications skills right through to using his technical knowledge to test all the projects in
the book.
I would like to thank my entire family for listening to me explain the finer points of robotics during a week- long vacation in the early
stages of preparing this book. Four generations of my family were patient and constructive at times when they would have preferred
to be boating on the lake or walking in the woods.
Finally, this book would not be what it is without the contributions made by my wife, Barbara Faden. Her feedback on early drafts of
the manuscript helped shape the content. I am especially grateful for her support and patience in the wake of disruption created as I
wrangled with these two little robots to meet the book’s deadline.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Robot Building

This book takes you through the steps needed to build a robot capable of autonomous movement and remote control. Build
instructions are provided for 2WD (two wheel drive) and 4WD (four wheel drive) platforms. The platforms shown in
Figure 1-1
and
Figure 1-2
will make the construction a snap, but you can build your own robot chassis if you prefer. The connection and use of the control
electronics and sensors are fully explained and the source code is included in the book and available for download online (see
How to Contact Us
for more information on downloading the sample code).
Figure 1-1. The assembled two wheeled robot chassis
 Figure 1-2. The assembled four wheeled robot chassis
Here is a preview of the projects you can build:
Controlling speed and direction by adding high level movement capability.
Enabling the robot to see the ground—using IR sensors for line and edge detection (see
Figure 1-3
and
Figure 1-4
).
Enabling the robot to look around—scanning using a servo so the robot can choose the best direction to move, as shown in
Figure 1-5
.
Adding remote control using a TV remote control or a wired or wireless serial connection.
Figure 1-3. Robot moves around but remains within the white area

Figure 1-4. Robot follows black line

 Figure 1-5. Two wheeled and four wheeled robots with distance scanners

Why Build a Robot?

Building a robot is different from any other project you can make with a microcontroller. A robot can move and respond to its
environment and exhibit behaviors that mimic living creatures. Even though these behaviors may be simple, they convey a sense
tha&#0; wh Pt your creation has a will and intent of its own. Building a machine that appears to have some spark of life has fascinated
people throughout the ages. The robots built over 60 years ago by neurophysiologist W. Grey Walter (see
http://www.extremenxt.com/walter.htm
) explored ways that the rich connections between a small number of brain cells give rise to complex behaviors.
There are many different kinds of robots, some can crawl, or walk, or slither. The robots described in this book are the easiest and
most popular; they use two or four wheels driven by motors.
Choosing Your Robot
The projects in this book can use either a two or four wheeled platform, but if you are still deciding which is right for
you, here are some factors that will help you choose:
Two Wheeled Robot
Light and very maneuverable, this is a good choice if you want to experiment with tasks such as line-
following that require dexterous movement. However, the caster that balances the robot requires a
relatively smooth surface.
Four Wheeled Robot
This robot's four wheel drive makes this a good choice if you want it to roam over rougher surfaces.
This platform has a large top plate that can be used to carry small objects. The robot is heavier and
draws more current than the 2WD robot, so battery life is shorter.

How Robots Move

sidebyside:
 Figure 1-6. Left and Right wheels turn forward, Robot moves Forward
The robots covered in this book move forward, back, left and right much like a conventional car.
Figure 1-6
shows the wheel motion to move the robot forward.
sidebyside:

Figure 1-7. Only Left wheels turn, Robot Turns Right

If the wheels on one side are not driven (or are driven more slowly than the other side) the robot will turn, as in
Figure 1-7
.
sidebyside:

Figure 1-8. Left and Right wheels turn backward, Robot moves Backward
Figure 1-8
shows that reversing the wheel rotation drives the robot backward.
sidebyside:
 Figure 1-9. Left wheels turn forward, Right wheels reverse, Robot rotates Clockwise
Unlike a car (but a little like a tank), these robots can also rotate in place by driving the wheels on each side in
different directions. If the wheels on each side are spinning in opposite directions, the robot will rotate.
Figure 1-9
shows clockwise rotation.

Tools
These are the tools you need to assemble the robot chassis.
Phillips Screwdriver
A small Phillips screwdriver from your local hardware store.
Small long-nose or needle-nose pliers
For example, Radio Shack 4.5-inch mini long-nose pliers, part number 64-062 (see
Figure 1-10
) or Xcelite 4-inch mini long-nose pliers, model L4G.
Small wire cutters
For example, Radio Shack 5" cutters, part number 64-064 (
Figure 1-11
) or Jameco 161411
Soldering iron
For example, Radio Shack 640-2070 (
Figure 1-12
) or Jameco 2094143 are low cost irons suitable for beginners. But if you are serious about electronics, a good
temperature controlled iron is worth the investment, such as Radio Shack 55027897 or Jameco 146595.
Solder 22 AWG (.6mm) or thinner
For example, Radio Shack 640-0013 or Jameco 73605.
sidebyside:

Figure 1-10. Small Pliers

 Figure 1-11. Wire Cutters (Side Cutters)

Figure 1-12. Soldering Iron

Ch&#0;t><�​�apter 2. Building the Electronics

This chapter guides you through the electronic systems that will control your robot. Both the two wheeled and four wheeled platforms
use the same modules, a pre-built Arduino board (Arduino Uno or Leonardo), and a motor controller kit. The motor controller featured
in this book is the AFMotor shield from Adafruit Industries. Although other motor controllers can be used (see
Appendix B
) the AFMotor shield provides convenient connections for the signals and power to all the sensors and devices covered in this book. It
is also capable of driving four motors, which is required for the four wheel drive chassis.
Although the attachment of the boards to the robot differs somewhat depending on the chassis, the building of the AFMotor circuit
board kit is the same for both. If you don't have much experience with soldering, you should practice soldering on some wires before
tackling the circuit board (you can find soldering tutorials here:
http://www.ladyada.net/learn/soldering/thm.html
).

Hardware Required
See
http://shop.oreilly.com/product/0636920028024.do
for a detailed parts list.
Tools listed in
Tools
AFMotor shield kit
Three 6 way 0.1" female headers
Three QTR-1A reflectance sensors
Stripboard, three 3 way 0.1" headers for line sensor mount
Ribbon Cable, 11-way or wider, cut with a sharp knife as follows:
One 10 inch length of 5 conductor ribbon cable for line sensors
Two 10 inch lengths of 3 conductor ribbon cable for edge sensors
Optional: 3 way 0.1" female header for optional charging circuit
Optional: 3 way 0.1" female header for optional wireless connection

Construction Techniques
This section provides an overview of the motor controller shield construction.

Soldering
Soldering is easy to do if you understand the basic principles and have a little practice. The trick for making a good solder joint is to
provide the right amount of heat to the parts to be soldered and use the right solder. 22 AWG solder (0.6mm or .025 inch) or thinner is
a good choice for soldering printed circuit boards. A 25-watt to 40-watt iron, ideally with temperature control, is best. The components
to be joined should be mechanically secure so they don't move while the solder is cooling—wires should be crimped around terminals
(see
Figure 4-11
and
Figure 4-12
). To make the joint, the tip of the iron should have good contact with all the components to be soldered. Feed a small amount of solder
where the iron is touching the parts to be joined. When the solder flows around the joint, remove the solder first and then the iron. The
connection should be mechanically secure and the joint shiny.

Building the Motor Controller

The motor controller shield is the heart of this robot. As well as controlling the motors, all the sensors are connected to Arduino through
this board. The shield is provided as a kit and is the same for use with either the 2WD and 4WD robots, differing only in the method of
connecting the motors and mounting to the chassis (both are detailed in later chapters).
The following is an overview of the construction with some tips that you should read through before starting to build the circuit board.
You can find step by step construction details for the shield at this site:
http://ladyada.net/make/mshield/solder.html
Figure 2-1
shows the components for the shield.

Figure 2-1. Parts required to build the Motor Shield

Note
The parts to the right of (as well as below) the board are packed with the shield, but the three 6-pin headers on the left are not
supplied with the standard shield. These headers are used to connect the sensors. These headers
are
included with the Maker Shed companion kits that go along with this book. You can also purchase female headers from Adafruit
and other suppliers.
The two Maker Shed kits can be found at
http://www.makershed.com/Bots_and_Bits_for_Bots_s/46.htm
. Look for either the Rovera 2W (Arduino-Controlled 2 Wheel Robotics Platform) or Rovera 4W (Arduino Controlled 4 Wheel
Robotics Platform).
Solder the smallest components first (
Figure 2-2
). The three small capacitors and two resistors are not polarized so you can insert them either way around.
 Figure 2-2. Solder the Small Components
The resistor network (the long thin component with ten pins)
is
polarized—the end with the white dot goes to the left of the PCB (nearest to C1) as shown in
Figure 2-3
.

Figure 2-3. Solder the resistor network - the marker (circled) indicates correct orientation
The large capacitors, ICs, and LED are all polarized. The color of the components shown in the step-by-step assembly pictures on the
Adafruit site (you can find the link at the beginning of these build notes) may not match the components or layout for the parts you
received (particularly the capacitors) so carefully check that you have placed the correct value component in the correct orientation.
Figure 2-4
shows the layout for version 1.2 of the shield PCB. The kit includes two IC sockets for the L293D chips. As mentioned in the assembly
instructions on the Adafruit site, these are optional but if you like to play safe and want to use the sockets, solder them so the indent
indicating pin 1 matches the outline printed on the PCB.
 Figure 2-4. Solder the rest of the polarized components
Figure 2-5
shows the board with all of the standard shield components (pushbutton, headers, screw terminals) soldered. The final assembly step
is to solder the three 6-pin female headers near the analog input pins. These headers are not included in the shield package or
mentioned in Adafruit's step-by-step build instructions, but are included with the Maker Shed kits.
 Figure 2-5. Everything soldered except the sensor headers
Figure 2-6
shows all components including the sensor headers soldered. Trim the component pins (except the header pins that connect the
shield to the Arduino) on the underside of the board so they are clear of the Arduino when the shield is plugged onto the board. Locate
one of the jumpers supplied with the shield and plug this onto the pins marked
power jumper
—this connects the motor power input and the Arduino VIN (power input) together so both are fed from the batteries that you will be
wiring after you have built the robot chassis.
 Figure 2-6. Shield with sensor headers
Figure 2-7
shows where all of the sensors and other external devices will be connected. The three pin female headers are not needed for some
of the projects but you will find it convenient to solder these to the shield at this time.
Figure 2-8
shows two styles of connections. On the left, you'll find the stripboard-based wiring scheme as described in
Making a Line Sensor Mount
. As you'll see in later chapters, you can experiment with a variety of m&#0;igh� ​рounting methods, including the stripboard-based
one. The right side of
Figure 2-8
shows the wiring for separately connected sensors. As you read through the later chapters and experiment with various mounting
techniques, you'll use one or the other wiring schemes. Because you'll be using sockets and ribbon connectors to hook up the
sensors, you won't be locked into any particular connection scheme; you can mix and match.

Note
The left and right designation in the diagram refers to left and right from the robot's perspective, and the later chapters will
explain where to connect these.
 Figure 2-7. Connections for devices covered in the chapters to come

Figure 2-8. Connection detail - stripboard wiring is shown on the left, individual jumpers shown on the right

Soldering the Reflectance Sensors

Each sensor package contains a small PCB and a 3-pin header. Insert the header so the shorter length pins emerge on the side of
the board with components already soldered, see
Figure 2-9
. After ensuring you have the header the right way around, solder the three pins.
 Figure 2-9. QTR-1A Reflectance Sensors

Making a Line Sensor Mount

The line sensing project in this book uses three reflectance sensors wired to analog inputs. Although it is possible to wire the three
connections (+5V, Gnd, and Signal) using 9 jumpers, it is more convenient to use a small piece of stripboard to connect the power
lines together. Header sockets soldered to the stripboard enable the sensor to be easily unplugged so you can change configuration if
you want to swap back and forth between line and edge detection.
Figure 2-10
shows the layout of the stripboard (note the five holes you'll need to drill out with a hand drill).
Figure 2-12
shows the wires soldered directly to the stripboard pads. If you'd like to add some strain relief, you can drill out a few extra holes in an
unused area of the stripboard. Next, divide the wire into two groups (one for positive and negative, and three for the analog pins), and
feed the wires through large holes in the board before you solder them. That way, if you tug on the wires, they'll pull against the holes
before they pull against your solder joints.

Figure 2-10. Stripboard layout for mounting QTR-1A reflectance sensors for line following
To ensure that the mounting bolts don't short the tracks, you can either cut the tracks as shown in
Figure 2-10
(you will be cutting along the third column from the left, or the "C" column) or use insulated washers between the bolts heads and the
tracks.
Figure 2-11
shows how the header sockets are connected, and
Figure 2-12
shows the completed stripboard, with the ribbon cable connected. A ten inch length of cable is more than ample.
Figure 2-13
shows the other end of the ribbon connected to shield pins.

Figure 2-11. Stripboard with three 3 pin header sockets

<&#0;e c�​� �div height="0">
Figure 2-12. Stripboard with all wires soldered

Figure 2-13. Ribbon cable connections to shield pins

The method of mounting the stripboard depends on the robot chassis; see
Chapter 3, Building the Two-Wheeled Mobile Platform
or
Chapter 4, Building the Four-Wheeled Mobile Platform
. The three holes shown will suit either chassis but you may prefer to wait until you have built the chassis and only drill the holes you
need.

Next Steps
The next stage in building the robot is to assemble the chassis.
Chapter 3
covers the two-wheeled robot and
Chapter 4
is for the four-wheeled version.

Chapter 3. Building the Two-Wheeled Mobile Platform

This chapter provides advice on the construction of a Two Wheel Drive (2WD) chassis with front caster, as shown in
Figure 3-1
. Construction is straightforward; you can follow the detailed steps or improvise if you want to customize your robot. The chapter also
shows how you attach and connect sensors used in the projects covered in later chapters.
If you prefer to build a two wheeled robot of your own design, you should read the sections on attaching control electronics and
sensors; this will prepare you to use the code for the projects in the chapters to come. Information in this chapter my also provide
some ideas to help with the design of your own robot.

Figure 3-1. 2WD Robot Chassis

Hardware Required
See
http://shop.oreilly.com/product/0636920028024.do
for a detailed parts list.
Tools listed in
Tools
The assembled electronics (see
 Chapter 2, Building the Electronics
2WD Mobile Platform (two wheeled robot kit made by DFRobot)
Two 0.1uF ceramic capacitors
Two lengths of 3 conductor ribbon cable, two 3 way 0.1" headers for edge sensors
Optional: charging circuit resistors and diode, see detailed parts list

Mechanical Assembly
Lay Out the Chassis Parts
Figure 3-2
shows all of the parts contained in the 2WD chassis package. The three black brackets to the left of the figure are not needed for any
of the projects in this book.

Figure 3-2. 2WD Chassis Parts

Figure 3-3
shows the contents of the bag containing the mounting hardware. Locate the two bolts with the flat heads and put them aside for
mounting the battery case. Also identify the&#0;ht=nting� two thicker (M4) bolts that will be used to attach the caster. The remaining
short bolts in this pack are identical.
 Figure 3-3. 2WD hardware pack contents

Motor Assembly
Use two long bolts with lock washers and nuts, as shown in
Figure 3-5
, to attach each motor to the chassis lower plate. Tighten the nuts snugly but take care not to stress the plastic motor housing.

Note
Lock washers are used to prevent a nut from accidentally coming lose due to vibration. This is particularly important for attaching
the motor and switch. These washers have a split ring or serrations that apply extra friction when tightened.
If you find that things still come lose, don't overtighten the nuts; an effective solution is retighten the nut and apply a dab of nail
polish to the point where the threads emerge from the nut.
Figure 3-4
shows the motors in place with the nut seen on the upper right ready to be tightened.
Figure 3-4. Motors mounted on the chassis lower plate
 Figure 3-5. Motor Assembly

Assemble the Chassis Components

Push the wheels onto the motor assembly shafts, aligning the slots in the wheels with the flat section of the motor shaft. Attach the
caster with two M4 bolts&#0;mg �� ​� and nuts.
Figure 3-6
and
Figure 3-7
show this.
 Figure 3-6. Motor Assembly

Figure 3-7. Wheels and caster mounted

Attach the sensor bracket to the underside of the lower chassis plate, as seen in
Figure 3-8
and
Figure 3-9
.

Note
This robot is sometimes built with the sensor plate mounted at the opposite end of the chassis (furthest from the caster). You can
build yours however you like, but the orientation shown here enables the servo mounted distance scanner to be attached in the
front of the robot. Also, the sensor bracket in this location maximizes the distance between the wheels and the line sensors and
this improves line following sensitivity.
Figure 3-9
shows the underside of the chassis after mounting the sensor bracket. Note that the sensor bracket is attached to the bottom of the
chassis plate.
sidebyside:

Figure 3-8. Sensor bracket viewed with the robot right side up
 F� ��eight="0">
Figure 3-9. Sensor bracket viewed with the robot upside down
The battery pack is bolted to the bottom base plate with two countersunk (flat headed) Phillips bolts as shown in
Figure 3-10
and
Figure 3-11
. You may want to delay this step until after the battery leads have been soldered to make it easier to position all the wires.
sidebyside:
Figure 3-10. Motor Assembly
 Figure 3-11. Chassis with Battery Pack Attached
Cut two pieces of red/black wire, each about 7 1/2 inches long. Strip to expose about 3/16 inch of bare wire at one end of the wires
and attach to the motor terminals. Strip 1/4 inch off the other end of the pairs of wires; these will be connected to the motor shield.
Connect a 0.1uF capacitor across each of the motor terminals, as shown in
Figure 3-12
. The capacitors suppress electrical spikes generated by the motor that could interfere with signals on the Arduino board.

Figure 3-12. Wires and capacitors soldered to Motors

The DC power jack is bolted to the top plate using the large (M8) lock washer and nut. The switch is mounted using two (M6) nuts and
a lock washer. Put one nut on the switch leaving around 3/16" of thread above the nut. Then place the lock washer on the thread and
push this through the opening in the rear plate and secure with the second M6 nut.
Orient the switch so the toggle moves towards the jack, as shown in
Figure 3-13
and
Figure 3-14
(
Figure 3-15
shows the view from beneath).

Figure 3-13. Switch and Jack Assembly

sidebyside:

Figure 3-14. Top panel showing location of switch and DC jack

 Figure 3-15. Top panel underside showing orientation of switch and jack
The battery can be wired as shown in
Figure 3-16
and
Figure 3-17
. The power switch will disconnect the battery when the robot is not in use. The DC jack is not used in this configuration (other than as
a junction point for the black ground wires). The switch is off when the toggle is closer to the DC jack as shown (the toggle is a lever;
when the exposed end is up as seen in the figure, the contact at the bottom is connected and the contact wired to the shield is open).

Figure 3-16. Basic Switch Wiring (no trickle charger)

 Figure &#0;ot � ��3-17. Solder the battery wires to the switch
You can build a simple trickle charger into the robot if you will be using rechargeable NiMH batteries. The charger can be built using
the circuit shown in
Figure 3-18
and
Figure 3-19
. See
Trickle Charging
for information about using the charger.
 Figure 3-18. Optional Trickle Charger Wiring

Figure 3-19. Wiring of the optional charger jack

The easiest way to mount the Arduino board is with a strip of Velcro. A 2.5" x 1.5" strip is supplied with the Rovera 2W (Arduino-
Controlled 2 Wheel Robotics Platform) kit. To prevent the Arduino pins from accidentally shorting to the chassis, apply insulating tape
to the underside of the Arduino board. Gaffer tape works well but you can use (non-conductive) duct tape or heavy duty electrical tape.
Attach the 'hairy' side of the Velcro to the taped Arduino board, the hook side is fastened as shown in
Figure 3-20
.

Figure 3-20. Velcro pad in position on the 2WD chassis. Inset shows Velcro attached to the Arduino board.
Figure 3-21
shows the mounted boards. The Velcro will hold the boards in position when the robot is moving about, but use one hand to steady the
Arduino when you unplug the shield and take care not to use too much downward pressure that could push the Arduino pins through
the tape when plugging in the shield.

Figure 3-21. Arduino board mounted using Velcro

If you prefer a more rigid mount, you can use two of the 10mm brass standoffs supplied with the chassis and two M3 bolts and nuts
(seen on the right side of the board as shown in
Figure 3-22
). Use a 10mm spacer and M2.5 in the hole near the reset switch. (The hole near the DC jack at the lower left is not used.)

Note
The spacer is required for a Leonardo board because there is insufficient space for an M3 bolt in the munting hole near the
switch. The Uno board has more room so you can use a another of the 10mm spacers and M3 hardware for mounting that
board.
Figure 3-23
shows the location of the mounting points viewed from the underside of the panel.
sidebyside:
Figure 3-22. Mounting the Arduino board as viewed from the top of the chassis
 Figure 3-23. Underside showing location of the three Arduino mounting points
Attach the top plate with four M3 bolts as shown in
Figure 3-24
.
 Figure 3-24. Top Plate Assembly

Attaching the Control Electronics

Figure 3-25
shows where the battery and motor wires are connected. Left and right are from the robot's perspective (the right wheel is the one
closest to the switch).
Figure 3-26
shows the main electronics in place.
Figure 3-25. Motor and battery connections
 Figure 3-26. 2WD built and ready to mount sensors

Mounting the IR sensors

This section covers mounting of the infrared (IR) reflectance sensors for use in edge detecting or line following.
Infrared Reflectance Sensors
explains how these sensors work and
Chapter 9, Modifying the Robot to React to Edges and Lines
describes how to use IR sensors. This section explains how to mount these to the 2WD platform and connect them to Arduino. The
first projects in this book should have the sensors mounted as shown in the section on edge detection. When you are ready to
implement the line following application in
Chapter 9
, refer back to the section here on positioning the sensors for line following. The stripboard mount described in
Making a Line Sensor Mount
simplifies the attachment and wiring of the sensors for line detection and this can also be used for edge detection, but bear in mind
that the robot will perform the edge detection task best with the sensors further apart. If the sensors are close together, the robot can
have difficulty determining the best angle to turn when an edge is encountered.

Mounting the IR Sensors for Edge Detection

Edge detection requires two QTR-1A sensors mounted on the front of the robot. These should be spaced as widely as possible. The
ideal location is with each sensor positioned in front of a wheel so an edge can be detected before a wheel would otherwise fall off a
'cliff'. However, if your priority is simplicity of construction rather than accuracy of edge detection, you can use the same mount
described in the next section covering line detection.
The side with the sensor faces the ground and the header pins face upwards. Mount each sensor using a 2-56 bolt and nut (M2 bolts
and nuts can also be used) with a 1/2" plastic spacer so the face of the sensor is 3/8" or closer to the ground.
Figure 3-27
,
Figure 3-28
,
Figure 3-29
, and
Figure 3-30
show suggested mounting.

Figure 3-27. Reflectance Sensor location for Edge Detection

Figure 3-28. Edge Detection Sensor Mounting Detail

sidebyside:
Figure 3-29. Front view showing location of the Edge Detection Sensors
 &#0;ght�� �
Figure 3-30. Edge sensors wired and ready to run

Mounting the IR Sensors for Line Following

Three QTR-1a sensors are required for line following.
Making a Line Sensor Mount
describes how to build a stripboard mount for line sensing. However, you can also mount and attach each sensors as described in this
section if you want to experiment with how varying the spacing of the sensors affects line following.
The sensors can be attached using 2-56 or M2 hardware. The component side faces down and the header pins face upwards. They
are mounted in the front, equally spaced with approximately 1/2 inch between the center and the left and right bolts (
Figure 3-31
).
 Figure 3-31. Reflectance Sensor location for Line Following
If you use the stripboard mount for line sensors covered in
Chapter 2, Building the Electronics
, the stripboard can be mounted above or below the sensor bracket, enabling you to experiment with sensor distance to the ground—
but use insulated washers to ensure that the tracks with sensor connections are not shorted to the bracket.
Figure 3-32
and
Figure 3-33
show how the stripboard can be mounted.
Figure 3-32. Reflectance Sensor location for line following
 Figure 3-33. Reflect&#0;="#�� �ance Sensor location for line following, alternate view
See
Figure 3-27
for information on connecting the stripboard wires to the motor shield.

Next Steps
Chapter 5, Tutorial: Getting Started with Arduino
explains how to set up and use the development environment that will be used to upload code to the robot. If you are already an
Arduino expert, you can skip to
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
, but first, see
Installing Third-Party Libraries
for advice on the libraries used with the code for this book.
If you have the libraries installed and want run a simple test to verify that the motors are working correctly, you can run the sketch
shown in
Example 3-1
.
Example 3-1. Initial motor test for 2WD
/*******************************************
* MotorTest2wd.ino
* Initial motor test for 2WD - robot rotates clockwise
* Left motor driven forward, right backward
* then counter-clockwise
* Michael Margolis 24 July 2012
********************************************/
const int LED_PIN = 13;
const int speed = 60; // percent of maximum speed
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library (modified my mm)
AF_DCMotor Motor_Left(1, MOTOR12_1KHZ); // Motor 1
AF_DCMotor Motor_Right(2, MOTOR12_1KHZ); // Motor 2
int pwm;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
 // scale percent into pwm range (0-255)
pwm= map(speed, 0,100, 0,255);
Motor_Left.setSpeed(pwm);
Motor_Right.setSpeed(pwm);
}
// run over and over
void loop()
{
Serial.println("rotate cw");
Motor_Left.run(FORWARD);
Motor_Right.run(BACKWARD);
delay(5000); // run for 5 seconds
Serial.println("rotate ccw");
Motor_Left.run(RELEASE); // stop the motors
Motor_Right.run(RELEASE);
delay(5000); // stop for 5 seconds
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); &nbs&#0;/>#do or/>*KHZp;delay(400);
}
}

This sketch runs the motors in opposite directions to cause the robot to rotate clockwise for 5 seconds, then reverses direction to
rotate counter-clockwise. This will repeat until the power is switched off.

Chapter 4. Building the Four-Wheeled Mobile Platform

This chapter provides advice on the construction of the 4WD (4 Wheel Drive) chassis shown in
Figure 4-1
. Construction is straightforward—you can follow the detailed steps or improvise if you want to customize your robot. The chapter also
shows how you attach and connect sensors used in the projects covered in later chapters.
If you prefer to build a four wheeled robot of your own design, you should read the sections on attaching control electronics and
sensors if you want to use the code for the projects in the chapters to come. Information in this chapter my also provide some ideas to
help with the design of your own robot.

Figure 4-1. The 4WD robot chassis

You will need a Phillips screwdriver, long-nose pliers, wire cutters, wire strippers, a soldering iron, and solder. If you don't have these
on hand, you can find more information in
Chapter 1, Introduction to Robot Building
.

Hardware Required
See
http://shop.oreilly.com/product/0636920028024.do
for a detailed parts list.
Tools listed in
Tools
The assembled electronics (see
Chapter 2, Building the Electronics
4WD Mobile Platform (four wheeled robot kit made by DFRobot)
Four 0.1uF ceramic capacitors<&#0;0">� ​� ​din/p>
Two lengths of 3 conductor ribbon cable, two 3 way 0.1" headers for edge sensors
Optional: charging circuit resistors and diode, see detailed parts list

Mechanical Assembly
Mechanical assembly of the 4WD chassis is straightforward and the only tools needed are a Phillips screwdriver and pliers. Following
the steps in order will ensure that you use the correct hardware in each assembly. You will need a soldering iron, wire cutters, and wire
strippers to wire up the motor and power leads.

Lay Out the Chassis Parts

Figure 4-2
shows all of the parts contained in the 4WD chassis package.
Figure 4-3
shows the contents of the bag containing the mounting hardware. The three black brackets to the left of the figure are not needed for
any of the projects in this book. Locate the two bolts with the flat heads and put them aside for mounting the battery case. The
remaining short bolts in this pack are identical.

Figure 4-2. 4WD chassis parts

 Figure 4-3. 4WD hardware pack contents

Motor Assembly
Use four long bolts to attach two motors to each of the side plates. The motor shaft goes through the large hole and there is a small
locating stud on the motor that fits into the smaller hole. The lock washer (the one with a raised edge) goes between the nut and flat
washer. Ensure the motor is flat against the plate and tighten the nuts firmly but take care not to use too much force or you will stress
the plastic mo&#0;div heig r="#8tor housing.
Figure 4-4
and
Figure 4-5
shows the assembly.
 Figure 4-4. Motor assembly
sidebyside:

Figure 4-5. Motors mounted onto side plates

Note
 Lock washers are used to prevent a nut from accidentally coming loose due to vibration. This is critical for attaching
the motor and switch. These washers have a split ring or serrations that apply extra friction when tightened. If you
find that things still come loose, don't overtighten the nuts. Instead, retighten the nut and apply a dab of nail polish to
the point where the threads emerge from the nut.

Assemble the Chassis Components

The battery pack is bolted to the bottom base plate with two countersunk (flat headed) Phillips bolts as shown in
Figure 4-6
and
Figure 4-7
.

Figure 4-6. Battery holder assembly

 &#0;="0�� �
Figure 4-7. Battery holder assembly
The DC power jack is bolted to the rear plate using the large (M8) lock washer and nut as shown in
Figure 4-8
. The switch is mounted using two nuts and a lock washer (the locating washer is not used). Put one nut on the switch, leaving about
enough thread for the nut to be attached to the other side. Place the lock washer on the thread and push this through the opening in the
rear plate and secure with the second M6 nut. Orient the switch so the toggle moves from side to side, as shown in the figure.
Figure 4-9
and
Figure 4-10
show two views of the assembly.
 Figure 4-8. Switch and power jack assembly
sidebyside:

Figure 4-9. Rear panel switch and power jack assembly viewed from the front
 Figure 4-10. The other side of the panel showing the switch orientation and power jack

Solder the Power and Motor Connections

sidebyside:
It is easier to solder the connections before everything is bolted together. The motor connections use t&#0;igh��
�he red and black wire provided in the kit. Cut four pieces, each three inches long. Strip 1/4 inch off the red and
black wires on one end; this end connects to the motor shield. The other end is connected to the motor terminals;
strip to expose about 3/16 inch of bare wire. Connect a 0.1uF capacitor across each of the motor terminals, as shown
in
Figure 4-11
. The capacitors suppress electrical spikes generated by the motor that could interfere with signals on the Arduino
board. Connect and crimp the wires as shown in
Figure 4-12
, and then solder the wires and capacitors to the motor terminals as shown in
Figure 4-13
.
Figure 4-11. Crimp the capacitor leads to the motor terminals
sidebyside:
Figure 4-12. Crimp the wires
 Figure 4-13. Solder the motor terminals

Connecting the Battery Pack and Power Switch

The battery can be wired as shown in
Figure 4-14
, but you cannot charge the battery in this configuration. The power switch will disconnect the battery when the robot is not in use. The
DC jack is not used in this configuration (other than as a junction point for the black ground wires). The switch is off when the toggle is
closer to the DC jack as shown (the toggle is a lever, when the exposed end is up as seen in the figure, &#0;t="�� � the contact at
the bottom is connected and the contact wired to the shield is open).
Figure 4-15
shows the completed circuit.
 Figure 4-14. Basic switch wiring (no trickle charger)

Figure 4-15. Red wires soldered to switch

Building the Optional Trickle Charger

You can build a simple trickle charger into the robot if you will be using rechargeable NiMH batteries. See
Trickle Charging
for information about using the charger.
The circuit is wired as shown in
Figure 4-16
and
Figure 4-17
. The battery is connected to both the robot and charger when it is switched on, enabling the Arduino to monitor and display the battery
voltage. The connection via the resistor to pin 13 is required to tell the Arduino that a charger is connected so it can monitor the
voltage instead of driving the robot.

Figure 4-16. Wiring for trickle charging with Arduino voltage monitoring

Figure 4-17. Wiring for trickle charging with Arduino voltage monitoring

Assemble the Chassis

Attach the front and rear plates to the sides using eight of the M3x6 bolts (
Figure 4-18
). The sides are symmetrical so it doesn't matter which end goes to the front or back.
 Figure 4-18. Chassis assembly
Attach the bottom plate using four M3x6 bolts (
Figure 4-19
).

Figure 4-19. Bottom plate assembly

Mounting Arduino and Connecting Wires to the Shield

The easiest way to mount the Arduino board is with a strip of Velcro. A 2.5" x 1.5" strip is supplied with the Rovera 4W (Arduino-
Controlled 4 Wheel Robotics Platform) kit. To prevent the Arduino pins from accidentally shorting to the chassis, apply insulating tape
to the underside of the Arduino board. Gaffer tape works well but you can use (non-conductive) duct tape or heavy duty electrical tape.
Attach the 'hairy' side of the Velcro to the taped Arduino board; the hook side is fastened as shown in
Figure 4-20
.
Figure 4-21
shows some other views of this.
 Figure 4-20. Velcro pad in position on the top plate
The Velcro will hold the boards in position when the robot is moving about, but use one hand to steady the Arduino when you unplug
the shield and take care&#0;no �� � not to use too much downward pressure that could push the Arduino pins through the tape
when plugging in the shield.
 Figure 4-21. Inset shows Velcro attached to the Arduino board.
If you prefer a more rigid mount, you can use three 3/8" or 1/4 inch (5mm) spacers with three 1/2 inch 2-56 bolts and nuts.
Figure 4-22
and
Figure 4-23
show the location of the mounting hardware.
sidebyside:

Figure 4-22. Arduino board mounted using three spacers

 Figure 4-23. Underside view showing mounting nuts
Figure 4-24
shows the motor wires and battery wires inserted through the cutouts in the top plate ready for the connections shown in
Figure 4-25
.
sidebyside:
 Figure 4-24. Wires ready to connect to shield

Figure 4-25. Wires connected

Figure 4-26
shows how the motor and battery wires attach to the connectors on the motor shield.
 Figure 4-26. Motor and battery connections
Attach the sensor plate with two M3 bolts as shown in
Figure 4-27
; the top plate is attached using four M3 bolts as seen in
Figure 4-28
.

Figure 4-27. Sensor plate assembly

 Figure 4-28. Top plate assembly
The upper deck is bolted to four 50mm standoffs that are attached as shown in
Figure 4-29
.

Figure 4-29. Attach the upper deck

Figure 4-30
shows the fully-assembled chassis (a side view is visible in
Figure 4-31
). You can see the front and rear views in
Figure 4-32
and
&#0;ght� ��
Figure 4-33
.
sidebyside:

Figure 4-30. The assembled chassis

Figure 4-31. Side view
sidebyside:

Figure 4-32. Front view

 Figure 4-33. Rear view

Mounting the IR sensors

This section covers mounting of the infrared (IR) reflectance sensors for use in edge detecting or line following.
Infrared Reflectance Sensors
explains how these sensors work and
Chapter 9, Modifying the Robot to React to Edges and Lines
describes how to use IR sensors. This section explains how to mount these sensors onto the 4WD platform and connect them to
Arduino. The first projects in this book should have the sensors mounted as shown in the section on edge detection. When you are
ready to implement the line following application in
Chapter 9 @ xa>
, refer back to the section on positioning the sensors for line following. The stripboard mount described in
Making a Line Sensor Mount
simplifies the attachment and wiring of the sensors for line detection and this can also be used for edge detection, but bear in mind
that the robot will perform the edge detection task best with the sensors further apart. If the sensors are close together, the robot can
have difficulty determining the best angle to turn when an edge is encountered.

Mounting the IR Sensors for Edge Detection

Edge detection requires two QTR-1A sensors mounted on the front of the robot. These should be spaced as widely apart as possible.
The ideal location is with each sensor positioned in front of a wheel so an edge can be detected before a wheel would otherwise fall
off a 'cliff'. However, if your priority is simplicity of construction rather than accuracy of edge detection, you can use the same mount
described in the next section covering line detection. But bear in mind that the robot will perform the edge detection task best with the
sensors further apart. If the sensors are close together, the robot can have difficulty determining the best angle to turn when an edge is
encountered.
Mount each sensor using a 2-56 bolt and nut (M2 bolt and nut can also be used). The component side faces the ground and the
header pins face upwards. The sensors can be angled as shown in
Figure 4-34
and
Figure 4-35
.
 Figure 4-34. Reflectance sensor location for edge detection

Figure 4-35. Reflectance sensor location for edge detection

Mounting the IR Sensors for Line Following

Three QTR-1a sensors are required for line following.
Making a Line Sensor Mount
describes how to build a stripboard mount for line sensing. However, you can also mount and attach each sensors as described in this
section if you want to experiment with how varying the spacing of the sensors affects line following. Like the edge sensors, they can be
attached using 2-56 or M2 hardware. The component side faces down and the header pins face upwards. They are mounted in the
front, equally spaced with approximately 1/2 inch between the center and the left and right bolts (see
Figure 4-36
).
Figure 4-37
and
Figure 4-38
show the sensors attached to the chassis.

Figure 4-36. Reflectance sensor location for line following

sidebyside:
Figure 4-37. Reflectance sensor location for line following, viewed from front
 Figure 4-38. Reflectance sensor location for line following, alternate view

Next Steps
Chapter 5, Tutorial: Getting Started with Arduino
explains how to set up and use the development environment that will be used to upload code to the robot. If you are already an
Arduino expert, you can skip to
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
, but first, see
Installing Third-Party Libraries
for advice on the libraries used with the code for this book and the steps needed to configure the RobotMotor library for the 4WD
robot.
If you have the libraries installed and want run a simple test to verify that the motors are working correctly, you can run the following
sketch:
Example 4-1. Initial motor test for 4WD
/*******************************************
* MotorTest4wd.ino
* Initial motor test for 4WD
* robot rotates clockwise
* (Left motors driven forward, right backward)
* Michael Margolis 24 July 2012
********************************************/
const int LED_PIN = 13;
const int speed = 60; // percent of maximum speed
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library (modified my mm)
AF_DCMotor Motor_Left_Front(4, MOTOR34_1KHZ); // Motor 4
AF_DCMotor Motor_Right_Front(3, MOTOR34_1KHZ); // Motor 3
AF_DCMotor Motor_Left_Rear(1, MOTOR12_1KHZ); // Motor 1
AF_DCMotor Motor_Right_Rear(2, MOTOR12_1KHZ); // Motor 2
int pwm;
void setup()
{
 Serial.begin(9600);
blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
// scale percent into pwm range (0-255)
pwm= map(speed, 0,100, 0,255);
Motor_Left_Front.setSpeed(pwm);
Motor_Right_Front.setSpeed(pwm);
Motor_Left_Rear.setSpeed(pwm);
Motor_Right_Rear.setSpeed(pwm);
}
// run over and over
void loop()
{
Serial.println("rotate cw");
Motor_Left_Front.run(FORWARD);
Motor_Left_Rear.run(FORWARD);
Motor_Right_Front.run(BACKWARD);
Motor_Right_Rear.run(BACKWARD);
delay(5000); // run for 5 seconds
Serial.println("stopped");
Motor_Left_Front.run(RELEASE); // stop the motors
Motor_Right_Front.run(RELEASE);
Motor_Left_Rear.run(RELEASE); // stop the motors
Motor_Right_Rear.run(RELEASE);
delay(5000); // stop for 5 seconds
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(400);
}
}

This sketch runs the motors in opposite directions to cause the robot to rotate clockwise for 5 seconds, then stops for 5 seconds. This
will repeat until the power is switched off.

Note
This test sketch does not use the RobotMotor library—if this test functions correctly but the test in
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
does not work, the most likely cause is the configuration of the motor library—make sure you copy the 4wd version of the library
code as described in
Installing Third-Party Libraries
.

Chapter 5. Tutorial: Getting Started with Arduino

The Arduino environment has been designed to be easy to use for beginners who have no software or electronics experience. If you
are new to Arduino, this chapter will help you get started but you will need to consult the Arduino online help and a good book on
Arduino will be a big help (the author's "Arduino Cookbook" is highly recommended as reference.)

Note
If you’re already familiar with Arduino, please feel free to skip the introductory material in this chapter. However, you will need to
install the libraries that are included in the download the code available from:
http://shop.oreilly.com/product/0636920028024.do
. The section
Installing Third-Party Libraries
has details on installing the required libraries.
Arduino is best known for its hardware, but you also need software to program that hardware. Both the hardware and the software are
called “Arduino.” The combination enables you to create projects that sense and control the physical world. The software is free, open
source, and cross-platform. The boards are inexpensive to buy or you can build your own (the hardware designs are also open
source). In addition, there is an active and supportive Arduino community that is accessible worldwide through the Arduino forums and
the wiki (known as the Arduino Playground). The forums and the wiki offer project development examples and solutions to problems
that can provide inspiration and assistance as you pursue your own projects.
The information in this chapter will get you started by explaining how to set up the development environment and how to compile and
run an example
sketch
.

Note
Source code containing computer instructions for controlling Arduino functionality is usually referred to as a
sketch
in the Arduino community. The word
 in the Arduino community. The word
sketch
will be u&#0;all�​� sed throughout this book to refer to Arduino program code.
The Blink sketch, which comes with Arduino, is used as an example sketch in this chapter. If you have already assembled the robot
and downloaded the source code for this book, feel free to use the HelloRobot sketch described in
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
.

Warning
If you don't have the Arduino software and driver installed on your machine, wait until
Connecting the Arduino Board
to plug the Arduino into your computer.

Hardware Required
Computer with Arduino 1.0.1 or later installed
Leonardo (or Uno) Arduino board
Motor Shield (see
Chapter 2, Building the Electronics
)
USB cable

Arduino Software
Software programs, called sketches, are created on a computer using the Arduino
integrated development environment
(IDE). The IDE enables you to write and edit code and convert this code into instructions that Arduino hardware understands. The IDE
also transfers those instructions to the Arduino board (a process called
uploading
).

Arduino Hardware
The Arduino board is where the code you write is executed. The board can only control and respond to electricity, so specific
components are attached to it to enable it to interact with the real world. These components can be
sensors
, which convert some aspect of the physical world to electricity so that the board can sense it, or
actuators
, which get electricity from the board and convert it into something that changes the world. Examples of sensors include switches,
accelerometers, and ultrasound distance sensors. Actuators are things like lights and LEDs, speakers, motors, and displays.
There are a variety of official boards that you can run your Arduino sketches on and a wide range of Arduino-compatible boards
produced by members of the community.
The most popular boards contain a USB connector that is used to provide power and connectivity for uploading your software onto the
board.
Figure 5-1
shows the board used for the robots in this book, the Arduino Leonardo.
 Figure 5-1. Basic board: the Arduino Leonardo
You can get boards that are smaller and boards with more connections. The Leonardo is used with these robotics projects because it
is inexpensive but you can use other boards such as the Uno if you prefer.

Note
If you want to use an Uno board (or earlier Arduino boards), you may need to use a s slightly higher voltage (an additional
battery) to power the robot, see
Appendix D
).
Add-on boards that plug into Arduino to extend hardware resources are called
shields
. The robots covered in this book use a shield that controls the direction and speed of the motors, see
Figure 5-2
:
 Figure 5-2. Motor Shield plugged into the Arduino Leonardo
Online guides for getting started with Arduino are available at
http://arduino.cc/en/Guide/Windows
for Windows,
http://arduino.cc/en/Guide/MacOSX
for Mac OS X, and
http://www.arduino.cc/playground/Learning/Linux
for Linux.

Installing the Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

The Arduino software for Windows, Mac, and Linux can be downloaded from
http://arduino.cc/en/Main/Software
.

Installing Arduino on Windows

The Windows download is a ZIP file. Unzip the file to any convenient directory—
Program Files/Arduino
is a sensible place.
Unzipping the file will create a folder named
Arduino-1.0.<nn>
(where
<nn>
is the version number of the Arduino release you downloaded). The directory contains the executable file (named
Arduino.exe
), along with various other files and folders. Double-click the
Arduino.exe
file and the splash screen should appear (see
Figure 5-3
), followed by the main program window (see
Figure 5-4
). Be patient, as it can take some time for the software to load.
 Figure 5-3. Arduino splash screen (Version 1.0 in Windows 7)

Installing Arduino on OS X
The Arduino download for the Mac is a disk image (
.dmg
); double-click the file when the download is complete. The image will mount (it will appear like a memory stick on the desktop). Inside
the disk image is the Arduino application. Copy this to somewhere convenient—the
Applications
folder i&#0;3.� div h Ts a sensible place. Double-click the application once you have copied it over (it is not a good idea to run it from
the disk image). The splash screen will appear, followed by the main program window (
Figure 5-4
).
 Figure 5-4. IDE main window (Arduino 1.0 on a Mac)

Installing Arduino on Linux

Linux installation varies depending on the Linux distribution you are using. See the Arduino wiki for information (
http://www.arduino.cc/playground/Learning/Linux
).

Driver Installation
To enable the Arduino development environment to communicate with the board, the operating system needs to use the appropriate
drivers for your board.
On Windows, use the USB cable to connect your PC and the Arduino board and wait for the Found New Hardware Wizard to appear.
If you are using a Leonardo or Uno board let the wizard attempt to find and install drivers.
Troubleshooting the Found New Hardware Wizard
If the Found New Hardware Wizard does not appear when you first connect a Leonardo board, open Device Manager
as described in the next paragraph and if you see
Other device> Arduino Leonardo
with an exclamation point, right click on the entry and select Update Driver Software. Choose the Browse my
computer for Driver Software option, and navigate to the Drivers folder inside the Arduino folder you just unzipped.
Select the
drivers
folder and windows should then proceed with the installation process. If the
Windows can't verify the publisher of the driver software
dialog pops up, select
Install this software anyway
.
If the Wizard starts but fails to find drivers (don't worry, this is the expected behavior with an Uno board). To fix it
you now need to go to Start Menu>Control Panel>System and Security. Click on System, and then ope&#0;p><��
�​n Device Manager. In the listing that is displayed find the entry in COM and LPT named
Arduino UNO (COM nn)
.
nn
will be the number Windows has assigned to the port created for the board. You will see a warning logo next to this
because the appropriate drivers have not yet been assigned. Right click on the entry and select Update Driver
Software. Choose the Browse my computer for Driver Software option, and navigate to the Drivers folder inside the
Arduino folder you just unzipped. Select the
ArduinoUNO.inf
file and windows should then proceed with the installation process. If the
Windows can't verify the publisher of the driver software
 dialog pops up, select
Install this software anyway
.
If you are using an earlier board (any board that uses FTDI drivers) with Windows Vista or Windows 7 and are online, you can let the
wizard search for drivers and they will install automatically. On Windows XP (or if you don't have internet access), you should specify
the location of the drivers. Use the file selector to navigate to the
FTDI USB Drivers
directory, located in the directory where you unzipped the Arduino files. When this driver has installed, the Found New Hardware
Wizard will appear again, saying a new serial port has been found. Follow the same process as before.
On the Mac, the latest Arduino boards can be used without additional drivers. When you first plug the board in a notification will pop up
saying a new network port has been found; you can dismiss this. If you are using earlier boards (boards that need FTDI drivers), you
will need to install driver software. There is a package named
FTDIUSBSerialDriver
, with a range of numbers after it, inside the Arduino installation disk image. Double-click this and the installer will take you through the
process. You will need to know an administrator password to complete the process.
On Linux, most distributions have the driver already installed, but follow the Linux link given in
Arduino Hardware
for specific information for your distribution.

Note
If the software fails to start, check the troubleshooting section of the Arduino website,
http://arduino.cc/en/Guide/Troubleshooting
, for help solving installation problems.

Connecting the Arduino Board

Plug the board into a&#0;ortlems..... x USB port on your computer and check that the green LED power indicator on the board
illuminates. The location of the LED is indicated in
Figure 5-5
.

Figure 5-5. The Leonardo

If you have a factory fresh board, an orange LED (labeled “Pin 13 LED” in
Figure 5-5
) should flash on and off when the board is powered up (boards come from the factory preloaded with software to flash the LED as a
simple check that the board is working).

Note
If the power LED does not illuminate when the board is connected to your computer, the board is probably not receiving power.

Using the IDE

Use the Arduino IDE to create, open, and modify sketches that define what the board will do. You can use buttons along the top of the
IDE to perform these actions (shown in
Figure 5-6
), or you can use the menus or keyboard shortcuts (some are shown in
Figure 5-7
).
 Figure 5-6. Arduino IDE
The Sketch Editor area is where you view and edit code for a sketch. It supports common text editing keys such as Ctrl-F (⌘-F on a
Mac) for find, Ctrl-Z (⌘-Z on a Mac) for undo, Ctrl-C (⌘-C on a Mac) to copy highlighted text, and Ctrl-V (⌘-V on a Mac) to paste
highlighted text.
Figure 5-7
shows how to load the Blink sketch (the sketch that comes preloaded on a new Arduino board).
After you’ve started the IDE, go to the File→
Examples menu and select 1.Basics→
Blink, as shown in
Figure 5-&#0;ighight=7
. The code for blinking the built-in LED will be displayed in the Sketch Editor window.
 Figure 5-7. IDE menu (selecting the Blink example sketch)
Before the code can be sent to the board, it needs to be converted into instructions that can be read and executed by the Arduino
controller chip; this is called
compiling
. To do this, click the compile button (the top-left button with a tick inside), or select Sketch→
Verify/Compile (Ctrl-R, ⌘-R on a Mac).
You should see a message that reads “Compiling sketch...” and a progress bar in the message area below the text editing window.
After a second or two, a message that reads “Done Compiling” will appear. The black console area will contain the following
additional message:
Binary sketch size: 1026 bytes (of a 32256
byte maximum)

The exact message may differ depending on your board and Arduino version; it is telling you the size of the sketch and the maximum
size that your board can accept.
The final message telling you the size of the sketch indicates how much program space is needed to store the controller instructions
on the board. If the size of the compiled sketch is greater than the available memory on the board, the following error message is
displayed:
Sketch too big;
see http://www.arduino.cc/en/Guide/Troubleshooting#size for tips
on reducing it.

If this happens, you need to make your sketch smaller to be able to put it on the board, or get a board with higher capacity. You will not
have this problem with the Blink example sketch.
If there are errors in the code, the compiler will print one or more error messages in the console window. These messages can help
identify the error.
As you develop and modify a sketch, you should also consider using the File→
Save As menu option and using a different name or version number regularly so that as you implement each bit, you can go back to an
older version if you need to.

Uploading and Running the Blink Sketch

To transfer your compiled sketch to the Arduino board, connect your board to your computer using the USB cable. Load the sketch
into the IDE as described in
Using the IDE
.
Next, select Tools→
Board from the drop-down menu and select the name of the board you have connected.
Now select Tools→
Serial Port. You will get a drop-down list of available serial ports on your computer. Each machine will have a different combination of
serial ports, depending on what other devices you have used with your computer.
On Windows, they will be listed as numbered COM entries. If there is only one entry, select it. If there are multiple entries, your board
will probably be the last entry.
On the Mac, your board will be listed twice (you can use either one):
/dev/tty.usbmodem
XXXXXXX
/dev/cu.usbmodem
XXXXXXX

If you have an older board, it will be listed as follows:

/dev/tty.usbserial-
XXXXXXX
/dev/cu.usbserial-
XXXXXXX

Each board will have different values for

XXXXXXX
. Select either entry.
Click on the upload button (in
Figure 5-6
, it’s the second button from the left), or choose File→
Upload to I/O board (Ctrl-U, ⌘-U on a Mac).
The software will compile the code, as in
Using the IDE
. After the software is compiled, it is uploaded to the board. If you look at your board, you will see the LED stop flashing, and two lights
(labeled as Serial LEDs in
Figure 5-5
) just below the previously flashing LED should flicker for a couple of seconds as the code uploads. The original light should then start
flashing again as the code runs.
The IDE will display an error message if the upload is not successful. Problems are usually due to the wrong board or serial port being
selected or the board not being plugged in. The currently selected board and serial port are disp&#0;tal�� layed in the status bar at
the bottom of the Arduino window
If you have trouble identifying the correct port on Windows, try unplugging the board and then selecting Tools→
Serial Port to see which COM port is no longer on the display list. Another approach is to select the ports, one by one, until you see the
lights on the board flicker to indicate that the code is uploading.

Using Tabs
Tabs provide a convenient way to organize code when your sketch starts to grow. It enables you to keep functionally related code
together and simplifies sharing this code across more than one sketch.
The arrow in the upper right of
Figure 5-8
points to the button which invokes a drop-down window of tab related functions. This window displays the names of the tabs and offers
a list of commands:
New Tab
creates a new tab that (you will be prompted to name the tab)
Rename
enables you to change the name of the currently selected tab
Delete
deletes the current tab (you are asked if you are sure you want to do that)
 Figure 5-8. IDE tabs
Each tab is a separate file and when you copy these files to other sketches you add the tab to that sketch.
Because there are many functional modules used in this book and these are shared across most of the sketches, tabs are used
extensively.
Figure 5-8
shows the myRobot sketch, discussed in the next chapter, that uses tabs for infrared sensor code (irSensors) and for program
constants and definitions (
robotDefines.h
).

Installing Third-Party Libraries

The download code for this book (see
How to Contact Us
) contains three libraries that are required to run all the sketches described in the book. These libraries are in a folder called
libraries
in the zip. You need to copy these so they are in a folder called
libraries
inside your Arduino document folder. To find the Arduino document folder, open Preferences (Arduino→
Preferences on Mac; File→
Preferences on Windows) and note the sketchbook location. Navigate to that directory in a file system browser (such as Windows
Explorer or the OS X Finder) or at the terminal. If no
libraries
folder exists, create one and put the folder you unzipped inside it.
If the Arduino IDE is still running, quit and restart it. The IDE scans this folder to find libraries only when it is launched. If you now go to
the menu Sketch→
Import Library, at the bottom, below the gray line and the word
Contributed
, you should see the library you have added.
Configuring the Library for Four Wheels
If your robot uses four wheel drive, you must configure the
RobotMotor
library code by modifying the
RobotMotor.h
file to tell the compiler that the library should be built for the 4WD chassis.
To modify the
RobotMotor.h
file to use the 4WD chassis, first go to Arduino's preferences (File→
Preferences on Windows or Linux, Arduino→
Preferences on Mac). Under Sketchbook Location, you'll find the name of the directory that contains your sketches and
libraries. Next:
 1. Open the sketchbook folder in the Finder (Mac) or Explorer (Windows).
2. Locate the libraries directory inside, and then open the directory named
RobotMotor
.
3. Right-click the
RobotMotor.h
file, and open it with a plain text editor. On Windows, you can use Notepad. On the Mac, you can use TextEdit.
On Linux, use your favorite plain text editor.
4. Change
#define CHASSIS_2WD
to
#define CHASSIS_4WD
and sa&#0;ht=��ve the file
A version of
RobotMotor.h
with the modification for 4wd preconfigured is in the
libraries/RobotMotor/RobotMotor4wd
folder of the examples zip file. Copying this file to the
RobotMotor
folder will replacing the 2wd with the 4wd version of the file.
If the libraries provide example sketches, you can view these from the IDE menu; click File→
Examples, and the library's examples will be under the library's name in a section between the general examples and the Arduino
distributed libraries example listing.
If the library examples do not appear in the Examples menu or you get a message saying “Library not found” when you try to use the
library, check that the
libraries
folder is in the correct place with the name spelled correctly. A library folder named
<LibraryName>
(where
<LibraryName>
is the name for the library) must contain a file named
<LibraryName>.h
with the same spelling and capitalization. Check that additional files needed by the library are in the folder.

Chapter 6. Testing the Robot's Basic Functions

In this chapter, you will upload a test sketch to the robot that will verify that your robot is working correctly.

Hardware Required
The assembled robot chassis.
Motors connected to shield (see
Figure 3-25
for 2WD or
Figure 4-26
for 4WD).
Example code and libraries installed, see
Installing Third-Party Libraries
.
5 AA cells inserted into the battery holder (USB does not provide sufficient power to drive t&#0;0">� ​� ​� he motors).
Reflectance sensors mounted and connected (left sensor to analog input 0, right to analog 1). You can use the stripboard wiring
described in
Making a Line Sensor Mount
. But to run the edge detecting project described in
Chapter 9
, you need more space between the sensors.
Figure 6-1
shows the assembled two wheel robot;
Figure 6-2
shows the assembled four wheel robot.
Figure 6-3
shows the sensor and motor connections.
sidebyside:
Figure 6-1. Two wheeled robot with reflectance sensors
 Figure 6-2. Four wheeled robot with reflectance sensors

Figure 6-3. Reflectance sensor connections

Software Prerequisites
Although the sketch code used in this chapter is printed in the pages that follow, you will need some libraries that are included in
example code (see
How to Contact Us
for the URL). The sketch folders can be copied to your Arduino sketchbook folder (if you are not familiar with the Arduino environment,
&#0; Cenv� ​read through
Chapter 5
). The download files in the library folder must be copied to your Arduino libraries folder (see
Installing Third-Party Libraries
).
Install the AFMotor library contained in the download zip file. This library is modified from the one on the Adafruit site to work with the
Leonardo board; the standard Adafruit library can be used with the Uno board.
Install the RobotMotor library contained in the example code download. This library comes configured for the two wheeled robot; if you
have the four wheeled robot will need to update the library for this robot as described in the
Note
below.

Note
If your robot uses four wheel drive, you must configure the
RobotMotor
library code by modifying the
RobotMotor.h
file to tell the compiler that the library should be built for the 4WD chassis. See
Installing Third-Party Libraries
for details on how to do this.
A third library, named IrRemote, is also included in the download. This library won't be needed until
Chapter 11
, but copying it into your libraries folder now will save you having to do this later.

Sketches Used in This Chapter

helloRobot.ino
—A sketch that rotates the robot when triggered by a sensor. The code uses constants to refer to sensors and motors, and
contains functions for handling the infrared reflectance sensors. The sketch uses the RobotMotor library to interface with the
motors as shown in
Figure 6-4
.
myRobot.ino
—The functionality from
helloRobot.ino
restructured into modules using Arduino tabs. Program constants are moved into a tab named robotDefines.h. Reflectance
sensor code is moved into a tab named IrSensors as shown in
Figure 6-5
.

Figure 6-4. HelloRobot Sketch

Figure 6-5. myRobot Sketch

Load and Run helloRobot.ino
Example 6-1
shows the sketch you can use to test edge detection. Before you upload the sketch, ensure the battery power switch is off (switch
toggle angled toward the DC jack) and connect your Arduino to your computer with a USB cable. Next, upload the sketch (see
Chapter 5
if you need help loading the sketch).
Example 6-1. The Hello, Robot sketch
/****************************************************
HelloRobot.ino: Initial Robot test sketch
Michael Margolis 4 July 2012
*****************************************************/
// include motor libraries
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include <RobotMotor.h> // 2wd or 4wd motor library
/***** Global Defines ****/
// defines to identify sensors
const int SENSE_IR_LEFT = 0;
const int SENSE_IR_RIGHT = 1;
const int SENSE_IR_CENTER = 2;
// defines for directions
const int DIR_LEFT = 0;
const int DIR_RIGHT = 1;
const int DIR_CENTER = 2;
const char* locationString[] = {"Left", "Right", "Center"}; // Debug labels
// http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/String for more on character string arrays
// obstacles constants
const int OBST_NONE = 0; // no obstacle detected
const int OBST_LEFT_EDGE = 1; // left edge detected
const int OBST_RIGHT_EDGE = 2; // right edge detected
const int OBST_FRONT_EDGE = 3; // edge detect at both left and right sensors
const int LED_PIN = 13;
/**** End of Global Defines ****************/
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
motorBegi&#0; Cbsp�​n(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorBegin(MOTOR_RIGHT);
irSensorBegin(); // initialize sensors
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
Serial.println("Waiting for a sensor to detect blocked reflection");
}
void loop()
{
// call a function when reflection blocked on left side
if(lookForObstacle(OBST_LEFT_EDGE) == true) {
calibrateRotationRate(DIR_LEFT,360); // calibrate CCW rotation
}
// as above for right sensor
if(lookForObstacle(OBST_RIGHT_EDGE) == true) {
calibrateRotationRate(DIR_RIGHT, 360); // calibrate CW rotation
}
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(400);
}
}
/**********************
code to look for obstacles
**********************/
// returns true if the given obstacle is detected
boolean lookForObstacle(int obstacle)
{
switch(obstacle) {
case OBST_FRONT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_LEFT) || irEdgeDetect(DIR_RIGHT);
case OBST_LEFT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_LEFT);
case OBST_RIGHT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_RIGHT);
}
return false;
}
/*************************************
functions to rotate the robot
*************************************/
// return the time in milliseconds to turn the given angle at the given speed
long rotationAngleToTime( int angle, int speed)
{
int fullRotationTime; // time to rotate 360 degrees at given speed
if(speed < MIN_SPEED)
return 0; // ignore speeds slower then the first table entry
angle = abs(angle);
if(speed >= 100)
fullRotationTime = rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS-1]; // the last entry is 100%
else
{
int index = (speed - MIN_SPEED) / SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL; // index into speed
// and time tables
int t0 = rotationTime[index];
int t1 = rotationTime[index+1]; // time of the next higher speed
fullRotationTime = map(speed,
speedTable[index],
speedTable[index+1], t0, t1);
// Serial.print("index= "); Serial.print(index); Serial.print(", t0 = ");
// Serial.print(t0); Serial.print(", t1 = "); Serial.print(t1);
}
// Serial.print(" full rotation time = "); Serial.println(fullRotationTime);
long result = map(angle, 0,360, 0, fullRotationTime);
return result;
}
// rotate the robot from MIN_SPEED to 100% increasing by SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL
void calibrateRotationRate(int sensor, int angle)
{
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" calibration" );
for(int speed &#0; Bl.p= MIN_SPEED; speed <= 100; speed += SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL)
{
delay(1000);
blinkNumber(speed/10);
if( sensor == DIR_LEFT)
{ // rotate left
motorReverse(MOTOR_LEFT, speed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);
}
else if( sensor == DIR_RIGHT)
{ // rotate right
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, speed);
motorReverse(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);
}
else
Serial.println("Invalid sensor");
int time = rotationAngleToTime(angle, speed);
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]); Serial.print(": rotate ");
Serial.print(angle); Serial.print(" degrees at speed "); Serial.print(speed);
Serial.print(" for "); Serial.print(time); Serial.println("ms");
delay(time);
motorStop(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorStop(MOTOR_RIGHT);
delay(2000); // two second delay between speeds
}
}
/****************************
ir reflectance sensor code
****************************/
const byte NBR_SENSORS = 3; // this version only has left and right sensors
const byte IR_SENSOR[NBR_SENSORS] = {0, 1, 2}; // analog pins for sensors
int irSensorAmbient[NBR_SENSORS]; // sensor value with no reflection
int irSensorReflect[NBR_SENSORS]; // value considered detecting an object
int irSensorEdge[NBR_SENSORS]; // value considered detecting an edge
boolean isDetected[NBR_SENSORS] = {false,false}; // set true if object detected
const int irReflectThreshold = 10; // % level below ambient to trigger reflection
const int irEdgeThreshold = 90; // % level above ambient to trigger edge
void irSensorBegin()
{
for(int sensor = 0; sensor < NBR_SENSORS; sensor++)
irSensorCalibrate(sensor);
}
// calibrate thresholds for ambient light
void irSensorCalibrate(byte sensor)
{
int ambient = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get ambient level
irSensorAmbient[sensor] = ambient;
// precalculate the levels for object and edge detection
irSensorReflect[sensor] = (ambient * (long)(100-irReflectThreshold)) / 100;
irSensorEdge[sensor] = (ambient * (long)(100+irEdgeThreshold)) / 100;
}
// returns true if an object reflection detected on the given sensor
 // the sensor parameter is the index into the sensor array
boolean irSensorDetect(int sensor)
{
boolean result = false; // default value
int value = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get IR light level
if( value <= irSensorReflect[sensor]) {
result = true; // object detected (lower value means more reflection)
if( isDetected[sensor] == false) { // only print on initial detection
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" object detected");
}
}
isDetected[sensor] = result;
return result;
}
boolean irEdgeDetect(int sensor)
{
boolean result = false; // default value
int value = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get IR light level
if( value >= irSensorEdge[sensor]) {
result = true; &#0; Bnbs// edge detected (higher value means less reflection)
if( isDetected[sensor] == false) { // only print on initial detection
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" edge detected");
}
}
isDetected[sensor] = result;
return result;
}

The sketch tests the calibration of the robot's speed of movement. The front sensors are used to initiate a motor test—the motors
rotate the robot 360 degrees in the direction of the sensor that was triggered. If the robot is functioning correctly, it will execute a
complete revolution at seven speeds ranging from slowest to fastest.
To run the test, place the robot on a reflective white surface such as a large sheet of paper. When the robot's up and running, Arduino's
pin 13 LED will flash once.

Note
Another way to test is to put the robot on something that will raise the wheels off the ground by an inch or so. This will enable
the motors to turn without the robot skittering around.
This sketch displays debugging information to the serial console. If you'd like to view it, you'll need to keep the USB cable plugged into
your computer and your robot; be careful, since the robot will be moving. If you're using an Arduino Leonardo, wait until the robot's LED
flashes to indicate it's ready before opening the Arduino Serial Monitor (the Serial Monitor is the rightmost icon on the Arduino
toolbar). When the sketch starts, you should see the following in the Arduino Serial Monitor:
Waiting for a sensor to detect blocked reflection

Swipe something dark (a small piece of matte black paper the size of a business card works well) near one of the sensors (panel 2
seen in
Figure 6-7
). The Serial monitor should now display the output similar to that shown in
Example 6-2
. The number of lines and the values displayed will vary with different robots but you should see multiple lines showing the direction of
rotation, speed and time in milliseconds.
Example 6-2. Serial output from HelloRobot.ino
Left calibration
Left: rotate 360 degrees at speed 40 for 5500ms
Left: rotate 360 degrees at speed 50 for 3300ms
Left: rotate 360 degrees at speed 60 for 2400ms
Left: rotate 360 degrees at speed 70 for 2000ms
Left: rotate 360 degrees at speed 80 for 1750ms
Left: rotate 360 degrees at speed 90 for 1550ms
Left: rotate 360 degrees at speed 100 for 1150ms<&#0; Bnbs/blockquote>

Motors on the left side should spin in reverse, motors on the right should spin forward for the indicated time in milliseconds (if the robot
was on the ground, it would rotate to the left (counter-clockwise). If you don't see the expected results, see
Troubleshooting
for help.
Completing this test will verify that everything (the robot motors, power source, Arduino and motor shield) is wired up and functioning
correctly. Double check that you have completed all the building steps. Take particular care that the battery wires to the motor shield
are attached to the correct polarity.
sidebyside:
 Figure 6-6. Robot sitting on a reflective surface
Figure 6-6
shows the robot stationary on a reflective surface. If the robot moves when placed on the surface, switch the power
off and then on so the robot can measure and calibrate for the ambient light level. It should remain motionless until a
sensor detects a reduction in the light reflected off the surface.
sidebyside:
 Figure 6-7. Non-reflective card under right sensor
The robot should rotate in the direction of the sensor that detects the reduced reflection. In
Figure 6-7
, a non-reflective card is swiped under the right sensor which will trigger the robot to turn clockwise.
sidebyside:
 Figure 6-8. Robot rotate&#0; B Bos in direction of swiped sensor
Figure 6-8
shows the right motor running backwards and the left forwards which will rotate the robot clockwise.

About the Sketch

The code in
Example 6-1
forms the nucleus of all the sketches that follow so it is worthwhile taking a moment to look through the code to see how it works. The
purpose of the code is to drive the motors in opposite directions for a duration that will rotate the robot one revolution at speeds
ranging from the slowest speed to the fastest. All the sketches in the book refer to speeds as a percent of maximum speed, the next
chapter,
Chapter 7, Controlling Speed and Direction
explains speed control in detail.
The functions to access the Adafruit motor shield (see
Chapter 2, Building the Electronics
) are included by the line shown in
Example 6-3
.
Example 6-3. #include line for Adafruit library
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library

The line shown in

Example 6-4
includes the library written for this book (
RobotMotor.h
).
Example 6-4. #include line for this book's library
#include <RobotMotor.h> // 2wd or 4wd motor library

This library provides a consistent interface for motor functions in order to isolate the higher level logic from hardware specifics. This
means that you can use the same sketch code with (almost) any motor hardware simply by changing the
RobotMotor
library code to suit the hardware. The motor code is explained in the next chapter and you can find example code to support &#0; Ce
t� ​a different motor controller in
Appendix B
.
The block that begins with:
/***** Global Defines ****/
contains declarations for constants that identify: sensors, directions and obstacles. These constants enable you to refer to elements in
your sketch using meaningful names instead of numbers, for example this:
calibrateRotationRate(DIR_LEFT,360);

instead of this:
motorForward(0, 360);

The
setup
section calls functions to initialize the motor and sensor modules (more on these later). The
loop
function uses the
lookForObstacle
function to determine if a reflection is detected. It waits until no reflection is detected on either sensor; the robot is not on the ground (or
on a non-reflective surface). The
lookForObstacle
function is checked to determine if the left or right sensor detects a reflection, and if so, calls the
calibrateRotationRate
function to rotate the robot for a short period.
The
lookForObstacle
function is told which obstacle to check for (the obstacles are identified using the defines described above). The
case
statement (see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SwitchCase
) is used to call
irEdgeDetect
function that returns true if an object is detected on that sensor. If no object is detected, the function returns
OBST_NONE
, shown in
Example 6-5
. See
Infrared Reflectance Sensors
for a detailed explanation of
irEdgeDetect
and related functions.
Example 6-5. The lookForObstacle function
// returns true if the given obstacle is detected
boolean lookForObstacle(int obstacle)
{
&nb&#0; Bighsp; switch(obstacle) {
case OBST_FRONT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_LEFT) &&
irEdgeDetect(DIR_RIGHT);
case OBST_LEFT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_LEFT);
case OBST_RIGHT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_RIGHT);
}
return false;
}

The sensor detection is done in the function

irSensorDetect
, shown in
Example 6-6
.
Example 6-6. The irSensorDetect function
// returns true if reflection level reduces below a threshold
// for example if the robot is does not sense the reflective surface
// the sensor parameter is the index into the sensor array
boolean irEdgeDetect(int sensor)
{
boolean result = false; // default value
int value = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get IR light level
if( value >= irSensorEdge[sensor]) {
 result = true; // edge detected (higher value means less reflection)
if( isDetected[sensor] == false) { // only print on initial detection
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" edge detected");
}
}
isDetected[sensor] = result;
return result;
}

This function will return

true
if the reflection level is reduced. This is determined through a call to
analogRead
to get a raw sensor reading that is compared to a detected/not detected threshold. Values greater than or equal to the threshold are
considered a loss of reflection (the voltage from the sensor increases when the reflected light decreases , see
Infrared Reflectance Sensors
for details on the reflectance sensors). The results from this test is stored in an array named
isDetected
. The array can be used to recall the sensor state of the most recent call to
irSensorDetect
and is used here to suppress printing of the test result if a previous test already indicated that an object was detected, as shown in
Example 6-7
.
Example 6-7. Initial detection
if( isDetected[sensor] == false) { // only print on initial detection
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" object detected");
}

The motor code commands the motor controller board to drive the motor forwards, backwards or stop.
For example, the following will spin the right motor forward at a speed given by the
speed
parameter (the parameter is the percentage of the maximum speed):
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);

Motor code is explained in detail in

Chapter 7, Controlling Speed and Direction
.
Rotating the robot is handled by the
calibrateRotationRate
function. For example. if the left sensor is triggered, the code will spin the left motor in reverse and the right motor forward, thus
rotating the robot towards the left (counterclockwise):
if( sensor == DIR_LEFT)
{ // rotate left
motorReverse(MOTOR_LEFT, speed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);
}

Troubleshooting
If you are having trouble getting HelloRobot working then the first thing to do is to put the robot down, walk away from your computer
screen and have a refreshing drink. Come back and look at things with fresh eyes and check to see if you have things wired up and
connected correctly. If it looks like the connections are okay, then the next step is to make a list of the major symptoms:
Compile errors
'AF_DCMotor' does not name a type
error message—this message indicates the AFMotor library has not been found. This library is included with the download code
for this book (see
How to Contact Us
for the URL). See
Installing Third-Party Libraries
in
Chapter 5, Tutorial: Getting Started with Arduino
&#0; Cv h� ​
for help with this.
"This chip is not supported!"
error message—This message is displayed if the chip selected in the IDE is not recognized by the library. This will occur if you
select the Leonardo board and use a version of the AFmotor library that does not support this chip. Replacing your AFMotor
library with the one in the book's example code will fix this problem.
"expected definition: CHASSIS_2WD or CHASSIS_4WD not found"
will be displayed if you changed the defines in the RobotMotor library to an invalid value. This library expects to find either
CHASSIS_2WD or CHASSIS_4WD following the
#define
in RobotMotor.h.
Software Errors
The Serial Monitor is not displaying the text shown at the end of
Load and Run helloRobot.ino
—read through
Chapter 5, Tutorial: Getting Started with Arduino
and check that you have the drivers for your board correctly installed.
The Serial Monitor displays the initial text but then displays errors or other unexpected text—see
Appendix C
.
Hardware symptoms
No LEDs on the Arduino board are lit (you may need to remove the motor shield to check this). - This usually means that either
no power is being supplied to the board. If the power switch is on, check that the batteries have sufficient voltage and are
located correctly. Check the wiring from the battery and switch to the shield.
Motors don't turn—Check that the batteries are fitted correctly (USB does not provide enough power to drive the motors). Check
the motor wiring. You can test each motor by disconnecting the motor wires going to the motor terminals on the shield and
connecting them directly to the battery terminals. If the motors still do not turn but the shield LED is lit, then double check the
shield soldering.
Two of the four motors don't turn on the 4WD robot—Have you configured the library for 4WD?—see
Software Prerequisites&#0; B
.
Motors run but the robot does not rotate 360 degrees—the robot rotation does not need to be exact; anything within 20 or 30
degrees is good enough. See
Chapter 7
if you do want to adjust the rotation rate.
See
Appendix C
for more on debugging.

Making the Sketch Easy to Enhance

Although this is the simplest sketch in this book, it performs a number of different tasks: controlling the motors, interfacing with
sensors, and rotating the robot in response to object detection. You will be adding much more functionality to the robot in later
chapters. To help keep the various functional elements under control, it makes sense to organize the code into modules to keep
functionally similar code together and to separate code that is not functionally related.
The
HelloRobot
sketch naturally divides into three sections: the main logic (the loop and rotation code), sensor interface, and motor control.
Moving the sensor interface and motor control into separate modules makes the code easier to enhance. You can change one of the
modules without disturbing the code for the other. And you can easily copy modules into other sketches—the tab code file has the
same name as shown in the tab, with the extension
.ino
. Adding this file to another sketch will automatically create the tab for that sketch the next time the sketch is opened on the IDE.
The Arduino IDE provides tabs as a convenient mechanism for managing modules (see
Chapter 5, Tutorial: Getting Started with Arduino
,
Using Tabs
). The following explains how sections of
HelloRobot
code are moved into two new tabs, one providing an interface for IR sensors, the other an interface for motors. All of the code in later
chapters use tabs as containers for functional modules.
The following steps creates a sketch named
myRobot
derived from
HelloRobot
that contains two tabs for sensor and motor functions:

Note
You can download the
myRobot
sketch from the book's website but you may want to go through these steps yourself to familiarize yourself with the procedure for
creating and using tabs in the IDE.
 1. Load the HelloRobot sketch and use the IDE file menu to save as 'myRobot'.
2. Create a tab by clicking the tab dropdown and selecting 'New Tab' (see
Figure 5-8
). Name the tab 'IrSensors'.
3. Click the
myRobot
tab, scroll down to the end of the sketch and
cut
all code from the end up to the
ir reflectance sensor code
(
Example 6-8
) comment and paste it into the
IrSensors
tab.
Example 6-8. IR reflectance sensor code
/****************************
ir reflectance sensor code
****************************/
const byte NBR_SENSORS = 3; // this version only has left and right sensors
const byte IR_SENSOR[NBR_SENSORS] = {0, 1, 2}; // analog pins for sensors
int irSensorAmbient[NBR_SENSORS]; // sensor value with no reflection
int irSensorReflect[NBR_SENSORS]; // value considered detecting an object
int irSensorEdge[NBR_SENSORS]; // value considered detecting an edge
boolean isDetected[NBR_SENSORS] = {false,false}; // set true if object detected
const int irReflectThreshold = 10; // % level below ambient to trigger reflection
const int irEdgeThreshold = 90; // % level above ambient to trigger edge
void irSensorBegin()
{
for(int sensor = 0; sensor < NBR_SENSORS; sensor++)
irSensorCalibrate(sensor);
}
// calibrate for ambient light
void irSensorCalibrate(byte sensor)
{
int ambient = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get ambient level
irSensorAmbient[sensor] = ambient;
// precalculate the levels for object and edge detection
irSensorReflect[sensor] = (ambient * (long)(100-irReflectThreshold)) / 100;
irSensorEdge[sensor] = (ambient * (long)(100+irEdgeThreshold)) / 100;
}
// returns true if an object reflection detected on the given sensor
// the sensor parameter is the index into the sensor array
boolean irSensorDetect(int sensor)
{
boolean result = false; // default value
int value = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get IR light level
if( value <= irSensorReflect[sensor]) {
result = true; /&#0; B A/ object detected (lower value means more reflection)
if( isDetected[sensor] == false) { // only print on initial detection
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" object detected");
}
}
isDetected[sensor] = result;
return result;
}
boolean irEdgeDetect(int sensor)
{
boolean result = false; // default value
int value = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get IR light level
if( value >= irSensorEdge[sensor]) {
result = true; // edge detected (higher value means less reflection)
if( isDetected[sensor] == false) { // only print on initial detection
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" edge detected");
}
}
isDetected[sensor] = result;
return result;
}

The
myRobotOk
example sketch provided in the book download code shows the code after the code is moved into the tabs.
Global Definitions
Definitions that need to be accessed across multiple modules are called 'global' definitions. These are generally stored
in files called 'header files' (or 'headers'). These files typically have a file extension of
 .h
and the file containing these global definitions is here called
robotDefines.h
. Although the Arduino build process will automatically make all of the functions in each tab accessible throughout the
sketch, constant definitions should be explicitly included at the top of the main tab as follows:
// include the global defines
#include "robotDefines.h"

The final step in restructuring the sketch is to move the constant definitions at the top of the sketch into a separate tab. These
constants are used by a number of different modules and collecting these together makes it easier to ensure that the values are
accessible by all the modules:
1. Create a tab named
robotDefines.h
(don't forget the
.h
).
2. From the top of the myRobot tab, move the defines starting from:
/**** Global Defines ****/

and ending at:

/*** End of Global Defines *******/

(
Example 6-9
) into the tab you just created.
Switch back to the myRobot tab, and add this line at the top, right after the
#include
s for
AFMotor.h
and
RobotMotor.h
:
#include "robotDefines.h"

This is the code that goes into the

robotDefines.h
:
Example 6-9. Global defines
/***** Global Defines ****/
// defines to identify sensors
const int SENSE_IR_LEFT = 0;
const int SENSE_IR_RIGHT = 1;
// defines for directions
const int DIR_LEFT = 0;
const int DIR_RIGHT = 1;
const int DIR_CENTER = 2;
const char* locationString[] = {"Left", "Right", "Center"}; // Debug labels
// http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/String for more on character string arrays
// obstacles constants
const int OBST_NONE = 0; // no obstacle detected
const int OBST_LEFT_EDGE = 1; // left edge detected
const int OBST_RIGHT_EDGE = 2; // right edge detected
const int OBST_FRONT_EDGE = 3; // edge detect at both left and right sensors
const int LED_PIN = 13;
/**** End of Global Defines ****************/

Chapter 7. Controlling Speed and Direction

This chapter covers the principles of robot motor control that apply to both two wheeled and four wheeled platforms. The motor
controller hardware is explained, as is the code used to make this functionality accessible to the sketches. The second half of
this chapter (
Software Architecture for Robot Mobility
) describes software modules that frees the sketch logic from a dependency on any specific motor hardware. All sketches use
the library named
RobotMotor
that provides a consistent interface to the hardware specific motor system. An optional softwar&#0; B @� e module named
Move
provides high level functions to move the robot that simplifies the code in the more complex sketches that follow in chapters to
come.

Hardware Required
This chapter uses the AFMotor shield described in
Chapter 2
.

Sketches Used in This Chapter

The motor control code used in
Chapter 6
is explained and two new sketches are introduced:
MyRobotCalibrateRotation.ino
—A sketch for running the robot through a range of speeds to calibrate the robot.
MyRobotMove.ino
—This sketch shows how to use higher level movement functions. Constants for defining the current robot movement are
added to the robotDefines tab. A new tab named Move is added that contains the high level movement functions. The
IrSensor tab and RobotMotor library are unchanged (
Figure 7-1
).

Figure 7-1. myRobotMove Sketch

Types of Motors
Brushed DC Motors, such as the ones used in the two wheeled and four wheeled platforms (see
Figure 7-2
) are the most common type used with Arduino robots. These have two leads connected to brushes (contacts) that control&#0; K
th� ​ the magnetic field of the coils that drive the motor core (armature). Motor direction can be reversed by reversing the polarity
of the power source. These motors typically rotate too fast to directly drive the robot wheels or tracks, so gear reduction is used
to reduce speed and increase torque.
 Figure 7-2. DC motor with gearbox
Other kinds of motors can be used to power robots; here are some you may come across:
Continuous rotation servo
These motors are used on smaller robots. They have the advantage that the motor controller, motor, and
gearbox are all mounted in the same housing, so they are easy to attach to a robot and can be driven directly
from Arduino pins. However they usually have less torque than typical stand-alone brushed motors.
Brushless motors
These have increased torque and efficiency compared to brushed motors but they are more expensive and
complex to control. However, prices are dropping and they are a good choice for a larger robot.
Stepper motors
These motors are used on large robots when precise control is required. These motors typically require 12 or
24 volts so they are not often used on small battery operated robots. However they may become more popular
due to the recent availability of low cost 5 volt steppers.

Motor Controllers
The two wheel and four wheel platforms use small DC motors that are controlled using an H-Bridge. The H-Bridge featured in
this book is part of the AFMotor shield from Adafruit Industries. This can drive up to four motors independently, although only two
are used with the two wheeled robot. This shield requires a library for interfacing sketch code with the hardware; this library is
included with the code download for this book (see
How to Contact Us
).

Note
The name H-bridge derives from the characteristic shape that you can see in these figures.
To enable the sketches to work with other H-Bridge hardware, a library named
RobotMotor
is provided with the example code that provides generic control functions that the library translates into the specific commands
for the AFMotor shield or another shield if you have use different hardware. see
Software Architecture for Robot Mobility

Note
This library is modified from the one on the Adafruit site to work with the Leonardo board. The standard Adafruit library
can be used with the Uno board). See
Installing Third-Party Libraries
if you need directions for installing a library. If you followed along with
Chapter 6
, you will already have the library installed.
The following diagrams explain how an H-bridge works and the
RobotMotor
functions used to control the motors:
sidebyside:
 Figure 7-3. H-Bridge with Motor Idle
Figure 7-3
is a schematic drawing that shows how an H-bridge works. The motor is connected to the positive supply
voltage and ground through four switches (in the actual H-bridge, the switching is done with transistors). When
all the switches are open, no current flows and the motor is stopped. The code to stop a motor is:
motorStop(motor);

Note
The parameter in brackets
(motor)
is a constant identifying the motor (
MOTOR_
LEFT
or
MOTOR
_RIGHT
) to control. The software for the four wheeled robot treat&#0; J qs the two motors on the same side as if they were a
single motor.
sidebyside:
 Figure 7-4. H-Bridge with Motor Running Forward
Figure 7-4
shows the two switches that when closed will cause the motor to run forward. The one marked A
connects the positive motor terminal to the positive power supply. Switch D
connects the negative motor terminal to ground. The code to run a motor forward at the given speed is:
motorForward(motor, speed);

Note
The constant
speed
is a value representing speed as a percent of maximum speed. This is described in the section:
Controlling Motor Speed
.
sidebyside:
 Figure 7-5. H-Bridge with Motor Running in Reverse
Figure 7-5
shows that the opposite switches result in the motor reversing. Switch C
connects the positive supply to the negative motor terminal. Switch B
connects the positive motor terminal to ground. The code to run a motor in reverse at the given speed is:
motorReverse(motor, speed);

&#0; J q
sidebyside:
 Figure 7-6. H-Bridge with Motor Brake
Figure 7-6
shows switches B
and D
closed. Both motor terminals are connected together - neither terminal is connected to the positive supply
voltage. This is a mode supported by some H-bridge hardware to stop the motor more quickly than it would in
the previous case where the motor is simply disconnected from the power. Because the motor terminals are
shorted, the motor will resist rotation. If the motor had been spinning and then set to this mode, it will stop
more quickly than if the terminals were simply disconnected. The code to brake a motor is:
motorBrake(motor);

Note
Not all H-bridges, including the Adafruit library, support this mode. The
RobotMotor
library will call
motorStop
when the
motorBrake
function is called.

Controlling Motor Speed

How Motor Speed Is Controlled
Motor speed is controlled by a technique called
Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM), which varies the proportion of the motors on-time to-off time. The higher the proportion of on-time, the greater the motor
power and the faster the robot will move (see
Figure 7-7<&#0; K 7� � ​ /a>
).

Figure 7-7. Controlling motor power using Pulse Width Modulation

All the code in this book uses a percent value to refer to speed. This value is the percentage of power given to the motors
(technically, its called the
duty cycle
). Percent speed is used instead of the raw PWM value to isolate the sketch logic from the low level motor code. Different motor
hardware use various techniques for controlling motor rotation speed. For example, continuous rotation servos can use servo
angle (where 90 is stop and 0 actually rotates the motor at full reverse speed), and stepper motors don't use PWM to control
speed. Because the high level logic always uses percent and this is mapped to the range needed by the hardware in the motor
interface code, the same high level code can be used with other hardware simply by swapping the appropriate motor interface
module.

Code for Motor Control

The AFMotor library that interfaces with the motor hardware expects a PWM value ranging from 0 to 255, so the
motorSetSpeed
function in the RobotMotor library converts the percent into a PWM value using the
map
function, as shown in
Example 7-1
.
Example 7-1. Setting the motor speed; from RobotMotor.cpp
 void motorSetSpeed(int motor, int speed)
{
motorSpeed[motor] = speed; // save the value
int pwm = map(speed, 0,100, 0,255); // scale to PWM range
motors[motor].setSpeed(pwm) ;
}

Note
map
is a handy function that is used extensively throughout this book. The function scales a value from one range to another
range. For example, the following scales a value from
analogRead
(0-1023) to a percent (0-100):
int toPercent = map(val, 0,1023, 0,100);

You can read more about map here:

http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/map
.
Bear in mind that the speed percentage is actually controlling motor power and this is usually not directly proportional to speed,
particularly at low power. The amount of power required to get the robot moving is dependent on the motor, gearbox, battery
voltage, robot weight and the surface the robot is on. The method to calibrate the robot will be described shortly, but first, here is
an explanation of how the software handles robot speed control.
The code fragment shown in
Example 7-2
contains the constants that are used to calculate the appropriate delays for different speeds to rotate the robot.
rotationTime
stores the duration for a 360 degree rotation for all practical speeds. Speeds less than
MIN_SPEED
(40%) do not provide sufficient power to overcome friction in the drive system.
Example 7-2. Constants for the delays needed to rotate the robot, from RobotMotor.cpp
const int MIN_SPEED = 40; // first table entry is 40% speed
const int SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL = 10; // each table entry is 10% faster speed
const int NBR_SPEEDS = 1 + (100 - MIN_SPEED)/ SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL;
int speedTable[NBR_SPEEDS] = {40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100}; // speeds
int rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS] = {5500, 3300, 2400, 2000, 1750, 1550, 1150}; // time

The table holds durations in milliseconds for speeds in intervals of 10%. The values were derived from experimentation with the
two wheeled robot using a sketch named
myRobotCalibrateRotation
sketch and noting the angles for each of the speeds as shown in
Figure 7-8
.

Figure 7-8. Angle that the robot rotates for one second burst at each of the supported speeds
By calculating the angle as a fr&#0; JJJJv haction of 360 degrees, the time to rotate the robot one complete revolution can be
determined for each speed ( the calculation for the value in milliseconds is:
1000*(360/angle)
.
Figure 7-9
shows the actual times for the 2WD robot.
 Figure 7-9. Time for a full rotation at various speeds
The relationship between rotation angle and speed percentage is not linear, so interpolation is used to calculate the duration to
produce a full rotation for any speed (as long as it is as fast or faster than the minimum speed).
Example 7-3
shows the code that uses the table with times based on the data shown in
Figure 7-9
.
The RobotMotor library has the code to determine how much time the robot requires to rotate 360 degrees. This will differ
between the two and four wheeled chassis and vary as the motor speed varies.
Example 7-3
shows the values used in the RobotMotor.cpp code for the 2WD chassis.
Example 7-3. Controlling rotation rate
// tables hold time in ms to rotate robot 360 degrees at various speeds
// this enables conversion of rotation angle into timed motor movement
// The speeds are percent of max speed
// Note: low cost motors do not have enough torque at low speeds so
// the robot will not move below this value
// Interpolation is used to get a time for any speed from MIN_SPEED to 100%
const int MIN_SPEED = 40; // first table entry is 40% speed
const int SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL = 10; // each table entry is 10% faster speed
const int NBR_SPEEDS = 1 + (100 - MIN_SPEED)/ SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL;
int speedTable[NBR_SPEEDS] = {40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100}; // speeds
int rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS] = {5500, 3300, 2400, 2000, 1750, 1550, 1150}; // time

Example 7-4
shows the values for the 4WD chassis.
Example 7-4. Controlling rotation rate
const int MIN_SPEED = 60; // first table entry is 60% speed
const int SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL = 10; // each table entry is 10% faster speed
const int NBR_SPEEDS = 1 + (100 - MIN_SPEED)/ SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL;
int speedTable[NBR_SPEEDS] = {60, 70, 80, 90, 100}; // speeds
int rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS] = {5500, 3300, 2400, 2000, 1750}; // time

Note that there are fewer entries in the tables for the 4WD robot because this chassis requires a higher speed to get going.
Calibrating Rotation and Tracking
explains how to adjust the tables to suit your robot.
The table entries assume speed intervals of 10% so the value for MIN_SPEED should be multiple of 10. There must be one
rotation time per speed so if you increase MIN_SPEED by 10 for example, you will also need to remove the first element in both
speedTable and rotationTime.
The code in
RobotMotor.cpp
that uses the data in the rotationTime table is the same for both chassis (see
Example 7-5
).
Modifying a Library
You know how to modify an Arduino sketch—just edit it in the Arduino IDE. But modifying a library is a bit
more involved. You need to go into the sketch folder, open up the library directory, and find the file. Then you
need to open it in a text editor. Here's how to modify the
RobotMotor.h
file to use the 4WD chassis.
First, find the sketchbook location. Go to Arduino's preferences (File→
Preferences on Windows or Linux, Arduino→
Preferences on Mac). Under Sketchbook Location, you'll find the name of the directory that contains your
sketches and libraries. Next:
1. Open the sketchbook folder in the Finder (Mac) or Explorer (Windows).
2. Locate the libraries directory inside, and then open the directory named
RobotMotor
.
3. Right-click (or Control-click on the Mac) the
RobotMotor.h
file, and open it with a plain text editor. On Windows, you should use Notepad. On the Mac, you can use
TextEdit. On Linux, use your favorite plain text editor.
4. Change
#define CHASSIS_2WD
to
#define CHASSIS_4WD
<="0">
and save the file.
Although you need to quit and restart the Arduino IDE when you install a new library, you don't need to do so each time you
modify a library.
Example 7-5. Applying the rotationTime table
// return the time in milliseconds to turn the given angle at the given speed
long rotationAngleToTime( int angle, int speed)
{
int fullRotationTime; // time to rotate 360 degrees at given speed
if(speed < MIN_SPEED)
return 0; // ignore speeds slower then the first table entry
angle = abs(angle);
if(speed >= 100)
fullRotationTime = rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS-1]; // the last entry is 100%
else
{
int index = (speed - MIN_SPEED) / SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL ; // index into speed
// and time tables
int t0 = rotationTime[index];
int t1 = rotationTime[index+1]; // time of the next higher speed
fullRotationTime = map(speed,
speedTable[index],
speedTable[index+1], t0, t1);
// Serial.print("index= "); Serial.print(index);
// Serial.print(", t0 = "); Serial.print(t0);
// Serial.print(", t1 = "); Serial.print(t1);
}
// Serial.print(" full rotation time = "); Serial.println(fullRotationTime);
long result = map(angle, 0,360, 0, fullRotationTime);
return result;
}

This code determines the index into the

speedTable
array that is closest to (but not greater than) the desired speed. This index is stored in the variable
t0
. The interpolated time will be between this value and the next index (
t1)
, with the rotation time calculated using the ratio of the
rotationTime
value between t0 and t1 in the same proportion as the desired speed in the
speedTable
. It may be easier to understand how this works by consulting
Figure 7-10
.

Figure 7-10. Speed Interpolation

For example, for a speed of 65%, which is halfway between the values for 60% and 70%, the time associated with 65% speed
will be 2200, which is half way between 2400 (the 60% speed value) and 2000 (the 70% speed value). A speed of 62.5% is 1/4
of the range between the table entries (60 and 70), so the time will be 1/4 of the range between the speeds for that range (2400
and 2000, which is 2300 milliseconds). The
map
function is used to calculate this proportional value:
fullRotationTime = map(speed,speedTable[index],speedTable[index+1],t0,t1);

To calculate the time to rotate an angle other than 360 degrees, the
map
function is used again:
long result = map(angle, 0,360, 0, fullRotationTime);

Calibrating Rotation and Tracking

Motor timings do not need to be exact but if you are using the four wheeled platform you will probably want to calibrate the values
in the table because this platform requires more rotation time than the two wheeled version. You can calibrate your robot with the
myRobotCalibrateRotation
sketch. Here is the main tab for that sketch; the actual calibration is performed in the
calibrateSpeed
function shown in
Example 7-6
.
Example 7-6. Robot calibration
/**********************************************************
MyRobotCalibrateRotation.ino
***********************************************************/
// include motor libraries
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
 #include <RobotMotor.h> // 2wd or 4wd motor library
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
motorBegin(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorBegin(MOTOR_RIGHT);
calibrateSpeed();
}
void loop()
{
}
void calibrateSpeed()
{
for(int speed = MIN_SPEED; speed <= 100; speed += 10)
{
// rotate robot left for 1 second
motorReverse(MOTOR_LEFT, speed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);
&#0; Jspe�​delay(1000); // delay 1 second
motorStop(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorStop(MOTOR_RIGHT);
delay(3000); // wait 3 seconds
// rotate robot right for 1 second
motorReverse(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, speed);
delay(1000); // delay 1 second
motorStop(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorStop(MOTOR_RIGHT);
delay(3000); // wait 3 seconds
}
}

Running this sketch will rotate the robot left (CCW) for one second, stop for one second, then rotate the robot right (CW) for a
second. If you mark the angle of the robot after each CCW rotation, you can calculate how much longer or shorter it would take
the robot to turn 360 degrees for each speed. If your robot does not rotate at all at the slower speeds, note the lowest speed that
the robot does move and set
MIN_SPEED
in RobotMotor.cpp to this value.
The RobotMotor library also supports the ability to adjust the relative power to each motor in order to prevent the robot drifting off
a straight course due to differences in performance between the left and right motor(s). If your robot does not track a straight line
when moving forward or backward, you can modify the motor library (see next section) to correct this.
The RobotMotor.cpp library file contains a constant that can be adjusted to correct drift:
const int differential = 0; // % faster left motor turns compared to right

Here is how the differential constant is used in the code:

if( motor == MOTOR_LEFT
&& speed > differential)
speed -= differential;

If your robot drifts, adjust the constant

differential
to compensate. Set the value using trial and error, positive values nudge the robot to the right, negative values to the left. The
correct value will be the difference in speed between the motors in percent. The drift will vary somewhat with motor speed so
best to set this when testing with the robot running at a speed midway between the minimum and maximum speeds.
Here is a modified version of the previous sketch that will drive the robot in a straight line when the differential constant is
adjusted to correct drift. You can make
differential
a negative number if your right motor turns faster than your left (the robot drifts to the left).
Example 7-7. Robot tracking
/**********************************************************
MyRobotCalibrateTracking.ino
***********************************************************/
// include motor libraries
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include <RobotMotor.h> // 2wd or 4wd motor library
const int TEST_SPEED = MIN_SPEED + 10; // Typical speed to run the robot
const int differential = 0; // % faster left motor turns compared to right
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
motorBegin(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorBegin(MOTOR_RIGHT);
calibrateDrift();
}
void loop()
 {
}
void calibrateDrift()
{
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, TEST_SPEED - differential);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, TEST_SPEED);
delay(2000); // delay 2 second
motorStop(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorStop(MOTOR_RIGHT);
}

If the robot drifts the right when running this sketch, try setting
differential
to 2. If this overcorrects (the robot now drifts to the left), decrease the differential value. If you need more correction, increase the
value. If the robot was drifting to the left, use negative values of differential to compensate. You should be able to get the robot
running more or less straight after a little trial and error. Don't worry about minor deviations which are caused by small
differences in the efficiency of the motors at varying battery levels.
After you have settled in a value for
differential
you must change this in the RobotMotor.cpp file. Open this file with a text editor and (see
Modifying a Library
) and find the declaration towards the beginning of the file:
const int differential = 0; // % faster left motor turns compared to right

Replace 0 with the value determined from the calibration sketch and save the file.

Software Architecture for Robot Mobility

This book provides software modules to minimize the coupling between the application logic and the hardware that actually
moves the robot. This minimizes changes that would otherwise be required if you want to use the same logic with different
hardware. A low level motor interface library named
RobotMotor
encapsulates the motor hardware functions so that the same sketch code can be used with the two wheeled or four wheeled
robot with the Adafruit shield or with a different motor shield. A higher level module named
Move
is&#0; K"0"� ​� ​� also provided to enable the sketch logic to deal with robot movements instead of motor power, for example,
the
Move
module has commands to move the robot left or right, to move backward, or rotate 90 degrees.
Figure 7-11
shows how the software and hardware is layered. The high level
Move
code is described in detail later in this chapter.
 Figure 7-11. Software architecture for motor control
Example 7-9
shows the source code for the RobotMotor library's .cpp file. The header file
RobotMotor.h
(
Example 7-8
) defines the constants for the left and right motors and declares the functions for speed and direction.
Example 7-8. RobotMotor.h header file
/*******************************************************
RobotMotor.h
low level motor driver interface
Copyright Michael Margolis May 8 2012
********************************************************/
/* if you have the 4WD chassis, change the line:
#define CHASSIS_2WD
to:
#define CHASSIS_4WD
*/
#define CHASSIS_2WD // change suffix from 2WD to 4WD if using the 4WD chassis
// defines for left and right motors
const int MOTOR_LEFT = 0;
const int MOTOR_RIGHT = 1;
extern const int MIN_SPEED;
extern int speedTable[];
extern int rotationTime[];
extern const int SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL;
 extern const int NBR_SPEEDS;
void motorBegin(int motor);
// speed range is 0 to 100 percent
void motorSetSpeed(int motor, int speed);
void motorForward(int motor, int speed);
void motorReverse(int motor, int speed);
void motorStop(int motor);
void motorBrake(int motor);

Example 7-9. RobotMotor functions

/*******************************************************
&&#0; J); RobotMotor.cpp // Adafruit version for 2WD and 4WD chassis
low level motor driver for use with adafruit motor shield
Motor constants used are defined AFMotor.h
Copyright Michael Margolis May 8 2012
********************************************************/
#include <Arduino.h>
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include "RobotMotor.h"

const int differential = 0; // % faster left motor turns compared to right

// tables hold time in ms to rotate robot 360 degrees at various speeds
// this enables conversion of rotation angle into timed motor movement
// The speeds are percent of max speed
// Note: low cost motors do not have enough torque at low speeds so
// the robot will not move below this value
// Interpolation is used to get a time for any speed from MIN_SPEED to 100%
// constants for 2 wheeled robot chassis
#if defined CHASSIS_2WD
const int MIN_SPEED = 40; // first table entry is 40% speed
const int SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL = 10; // each table entry is 10% faster speed
const int NBR_SPEEDS = 1 + (100 - MIN_SPEED)/ SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL;
int speedTable[NBR_SPEEDS] = {40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100}; // speeds
int rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS] = {5500, 3300, 2400, 2000, 1750, 1550, 1150}; // time
AF_DCMotor motors[] = {
AF_DCMotor(1, MOTOR12_1KHZ), // left is Motor #1
AF_DCMotor(2, MOTOR12_1KHZ) // right is Motor #2
};
// constants for 4 wheeled robot
#elif defined CHASSIS_4WD
const int MIN_SPEED = 60; // first table entry is 60% speed
const int SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL = 10; // each table entry is 10% faster speed
const int NBR_SPEEDS = 1 + (100 - MIN_SPEED)/ SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL;
int speedTable[NBR_SPEEDS] = {60, 70, 80, 90, 100}; // speeds
int rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS] = {5500, 3300, 2400, 2000, 1750}; // time
AF_DCMotor motors[] = {
AF_DCMotor(4, MOTOR34_1KHZ), // left front is Motor #4
AF_DCMotor(3, MOTOR34_1KHZ), // right front is Motor #3
AF_DCMotor(1, MOTOR12_1KHZ), // left rear is Motor #1
AF_DCMotor(2, MOTOR12_1KHZ) // right rear is Motor #2
};
#else
#error "expected definition: CHASSIS_2WD or CHASSIS_4WD not found"
#endif
int motorSpeed[2] = {0,0}; // left and right motor speeds stored here (0-100%)
void motorBegin(int motor)
{
motorStop(motor); // stop the front motor
#if defined CHASSIS_4WD
motorStop(motor+2); // stop the rear motor
#endif
}
// speed range is 0 to 100 percent
void motorSetSpeed(int motor, int speed)
{
if( motor == MOTOR_LEFT && speed > differential)
speed -= differential;
motorSpeed[motor] = speed; // save the value
int pwm = map(speed, 0,100, 0,255); // scale to PWM range
motors[motor].setSpeed(pwm) ;
#if defined CHASSIS_4WD
motors[motor+2].setSpeed(pwm) ;
#endif
}
void motorForward(int motor, int speed)
{
 motorSetSpeed(motor, speed)&#0; J#13;
motors[motor].run(FORWARD);
#if defined CHASSIS_4WD
motors[motor+2].run(FORWARD);
#endif
}
void motorReverse(int motor, int speed)
{
motorSetSpeed(motor, speed);
motors[motor].run(BACKWARD);
#if defined CHASSIS_4WD
motors[motor+2].run(BACKWARD);
#endif
}
void motorStop(int motor)
{
// todo set speed to 0 ???
motors[motor].run(RELEASE); // stopped
#if defined CHASSIS_4WD
motors[motor+2].run(RELEASE);
#endif
}
void motorBrake(int motor)
{
motors[motor].run(BRAKE); // stopped
#if defined CHASSIS_4WD
motors[motor+2].run(BRAKE);
#endif
}

The
RobotMotor.cpp
file contains code for both the two wheel and four wheel chassis. Conditional compilation is used to build the library for the
appropriate version.
#if defined CHASSIS_2WD
and
#if defined CHASSIS_4WD
are checks to see which chassis has been defined in the
RobotMotor.h
file. code between
#if defined CHASSIS_2WD
and
#endif
will only be compiled if
CHASSIS_2WD
is defined in
RobotMotor.h
. See
Installing Third-Party Libraries
for more details on changing the define for the four wheel chassis.
This library can be modified to support different hardware. For example, see
Appendix B
for the code to use the Ardumoto shield (but note that Ardumoto only supports two motors so is not suitable for the four wheeled
robot).

Functions to Encapsulate Robot Movements

You can simplify your code for controlling your robot's behaviour by using higher level movement functions provided in the Move
module. These functions reference the desired movement from the robot's perspective rather than specific motor control. For
example, to rotate the robot, rather than calling functions to run one motor forwards and the other backwards, you can call a
single function that rotates the robot. And by calibrating the speed of rotation, you can easily get the robot t&#0; Kt t� ​o rotate to
any desired angle.
The sketch named
myRobotMove
has the movement code in a tab called Move. That sketch is similar to the
myRobot
sketch from
Making the Sketch Easy to Enhance
but uses the rotation functions in the Move tab to drive the robot. Using the higher level functions to drive the robot not only
simplifies your code, it isolates the sketch logic from the hardware specific motor code. The sketches in all of the following
chapters control robot movement through the functions in the Move tab.

Core Movement Code

Here is a list of the core movement functions:
Move Forward
Both motors are driven forward at the same speed
Move Backward
Both motors driven in reverse at the same speed
Move Left
Left motor stopped, right motor driven forward
Move Right
Right motor stopped, Left motor driven forward
Move Stop
Both motors stopped
Set Move Speed
Used to set the speed for future robot movements
Example 7-10
shows the code in the Move tab that provides the core movement functionality.
Example 7-10. The core movement functions
/*************************************
Drive: mid level movement functions
*************************************/
int moveState = MOV_STOP; // what robot is doing
int moveSpeed = 0; // move speed stored here (0-100%)
int speedIncrement = 10; // percent to increase or decrease speed
void moveBegin()
{
motorBegin(M&#0; J="0�OTOR_LEFT);
motorBegin(MOTOR_RIGHT);
moveStop();
}
void moveLeft()
{
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, 0);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, moveSpeed);
changeMoveState(MOV_LEFT);
}
void moveRight()
{
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, moveSpeed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, 0);
changeMoveState(MOV_RIGHT);
}
void moveStop()
{
motorStop(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorStop(MOTOR_RIGHT);
changeMoveState(MOV_STOP);
}
void moveBrake()
{
motorBrake(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorBrake(MOTOR_RIGHT);
changeMoveState(MOV_STOP);
}
void moveBackward()
{
motorReverse(MOTOR_LEFT, moveSpeed);
motorReverse(MOTOR_RIGHT, moveSpeed);
changeMoveState(MOV_BACK);
}
void moveForward()
{
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, moveSpeed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, moveSpeed);
changeMoveState(MOV_FORWARD);
}
void moveSetSpeed(int speed)
{
motorSetSpeed(MOTOR_LEFT, speed) ;
motorSetSpeed(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed) ;
moveSpeed = speed; // save the value
}

The code provides functions that combine the individual motor commands described in
Motor Controllers
. For example, the
moveForward
function calls the individual functions to rotate the left and right motors in the direction that moves the robot forward. The speed to
function calls the individual functions to rotate the left and right motors in the direction that moves the robot forward. The speed to
move is set by the
moveSetSpeed
function.
moveSetSpeed
commands the motors to run at the desired speed and stores the speed value so the robot can resume running at the last set
speed following an evasive action needed to avoid obstacles.

Additional Core Functions

Some additional functions are included in this tab that are not used in any of the sketches in this book but are convenient if you
want to slow down or speed up the robot, for example with remote control. The
moveSlower
and
moveFaster
functions can be used to command the robot to decrease or increase speed:
Example 7-11. Functions to speed up or slow down the robot
void moveSlower(int decrement)
{
Serial.print(" Slower: ");
if( moveSpeed >= speedIncrement + MIN_SPEED)
moveSpeed -= speedIncrement;
else moveSpeed = MIN_SPEED;
&#0; J in�​ moveSetSpeed(moveSpeed);
}
void moveFaster(int increment)
{
Serial.print(" Faster: ");
moveSpeed += speedIncrement;
if(moveSpeed > 100)
moveSpeed = 100;
moveSetSpeed(moveSpeed);
}
int moveGetState()
{
return moveState;
}
// this is the low level movement state.
// it will differ from the command state when the robot is avoiding obstacles
void changeMoveState(int newState)
{
if(newState != moveState)
{
Serial.print("Changing move state from "); Serial.print( states[moveState]);
Serial.print(" to "); Serial.println(states[newState]);
moveState = newState;
}
}

The
moveFaster
function increases the current speed by a specified increment and calls
moveSetSpeed
to make this the current speed. For example,
movefaster(10);
will result in the robot moving at 85% speed if it was previously moving at 75%.
The
moveSlower
function is similar but decreases rather than increases the speed. Both functions check to ensure that the new speed is valid. If
moveSlower(20)
was called when the robot was moving at 85% speed, the robot would slow down to run at 65% speed.
The movement functions also call the function
changeMoveState
to store the current movement state. These states are defined in the
robotDefines.h
tab (see
Example 6-9
) and are used to enable the robot to make decisions with the knowledge of what it is currently doing. For example, detecting an
obstacle in front can be handled differently depending on whether the robot is moving forwards or backwards. The robot can
check the current move state when it encounters an object and take action if the robot is moving towards it but ignore obstacles
that are not in the direction of movement. Here are all the move states:
enum {MOV_LEFT, MOV_RIGHT, MOV_FORWARD,
MOV_BACK, MOV_ROTATE, MOV_STOP};

Note
If you are unfamiliar with
enum
 (enumerated lists), see
Code Style (About the Code)
in
<&#0; Jdirit font color="#8e0012">Preface
or an online C or C++ reference.
To assist debugging, each state has an associated text label that can be printed to the serial monitor to show what the robot
should be doing.
const char* states[] = {"Left", "Right", "Forward",
"Back", "Rotate", "Stop"};

The move state defines are located at the end of the

robotDefines.h
tab.

Functions to Rotate the Robot

Rotation is a common task as the robot is exploring and moving to avoid obstacles. The robots described in this book do not
know the angle they are facing or how much actual movement results from driving the motors. Commands to rotate the robot at
particular angle are implemented by timing how long to turn the motors based on data collected during calibration.
Example 7-12
shows the rotation functions from the Move tab:
Move Rotate
One motor forward, one reverse for the duration to rotate the robot to the given angle. Positive angles rotate
clockwise, negative angles counter-clockwise
Rotation Angle to Time
Function used to calculate the duration to rotate the robot to a given angle at a given speed. This function is the
same as listed in
Load and Run helloRobot.ino
Calibrate Rotation Rate
Function used for calibration—the robot will attempt to rotate at a given angle at speeds from minimum speed
up to 100% at intervals of 10%. This function is the same as listed in
Load and Run helloRobot.ino
Example 7-12. Functions to rotate the robot
void moveRotate(int angle)
{
Serial.print("Rotating "); Serial.println(angle);
if(angle < 0)
{
Serial.println(" (left)");
&n&#0; Jv><�​bsp; motorReverse(MOTOR_LEFT, moveSpeed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, moveSpeed);
angle = -angle;
changeMoveState(MOV_ROTATE);
}
else if(angle > 0)
{
Serial.println(" (right)");
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, moveSpeed);
motorReverse(MOTOR_RIGHT, moveSpeed);
changeMoveState(MOV_ROTATE);
}
int ms = rotationAngleToTime(angle, moveSpeed);
movingDelay(ms);
moveBrake();
}
// return the time in milliseconds to turn the given angle at the given speed
long rotationAngleToTime( int angle, int speed)
{
int fullRotationTime; // time to rotate 360 degrees at given speed
if(speed < MIN_SPEED)
return 0; // ignore speeds slower then the first table entry
angle = abs(angle);
if(speed >= 100)
fullRotationTime = rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS-1]; // the last entry is 100%
else
{
int index = (speed - MIN_SPEED) / SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL; // index into speed and time tables
int t0 = rotationTime[index];
int t1 = rotationTime[index+1]; // time of the next higher speed
fullRotationTime = map(speed, speedTable[index], speedTable[index+1], t0, t1);
// Serial.print("index= "); Serial.print(index); Serial.print(", t0 = "); Serial.print(t0);
// Serial.print(", t1 = "); Serial.print(t1);
}
// Serial.print(" full rotation time = "); Serial.println(fullRotationTime);
long result = map(angle, 0,360, 0, fullRotationTime);
 return result;
}

// rotate the robot from MIN_SPEED to 100% increasing by SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL

void calibrateRotationRate(int direction, int angle)
{
Serial.print(locationString[direction]);
Serial.println(" calibration" );
for(int speed = MIN_SPEED; speed <= 100; speed += SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL)
{
delay(1000);
//blinkNumber(speed/10);
if( direction == DIR_LEFT)
{ // rotate left
motorReverse(MOTOR_LEFT, speed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);
}
else if( direction == DIR_RIGHT)
{ // rotate right
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, speed);
motorReverse(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);
}
else
Serial.println("Invalid direction");

int time = rotationAngleToTime(angle, speed);

Serial.print(locationString[direction]);
Serial.print(": rotate "); Serial.print(angle);
Serial.print(" degrees at speed "); Serial.print(speed);
Serial.print(" for "); Serial.print(time);
Serial.println("ms");
delay(time);
motorStop(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorStop(MOTOR_RIGHT);
delay(2000); // two second delay between speeds
}
}

The
moveRotate
function will rotate a robot by the given angle. Negative angles turn counter clockwise, positive angles turn clockwise. Rotation is
achieved by running the motors in opposite directions (see
How Robots Move
).

Higher-Level Movement Functions

Higher level movement functions work together to provide a simple way to instruct the robot briefly move away from one obstacle
while checking to see if it needs to avoid another obstacle encountered while taking evasive action.
Timed Move
Moves the robot in a specified direction for a specified duration.
Moving Delay
Checks for obstacles while delaying for a specified period. Uses
checkMovement()
function in the
Look
module to see if an obstacle is detected in the current direction of movement.
Example 7-13. Higher level movement functions
/************* high level movement functions ****************/
//moves in the given direction at the current speed for the given duration in milliseconds
void timedMove(int direction, int duration)
{
Serial.print("Timed move ");
if(direction == MOV_FORWARD) {
Serial.println("forward");
moveForward();
}
else if(direction == MOV_BACK) {
Serial.println("back");
moveBackward();
}
else
Serial.println("?");
movingDelay(duration);
moveStop();
}
// check for obstacles while delaying the given duration in ms
void movingDelay(long duration)
 {
long startTime = millis();
while(millis() - startTime < duration) {
// function in Look module checks for obstacle in direction of movement
if(checkMovement() == false) {
if( moveState != MOV_ROTATE) // rotate is only valid movement
{
Serial.println("Stopping in moving Delay()");
moveBrake();
}
}
}
}

The
timedMove
and
movingDelay
functions work together to provide a simple way to instruct the robot briefly move away from an obstacle. Because
movingDelay
can check for obstacles while taking evasive action, it can avoid bumping into new obstacles while moving away from another.
The
checkMovement
function is implemented in the Look module (see
The Look Code
).

Chapter 8. Tutorial: Introduction to Sensors

Sensor information can be used by your robot to navigate and interact with its environment. Sensors report on the world around
them; measuring light, distance, sound, movement, direction, temperature, pressure, or location. This chapter describes how
common sensors used with two wheeled and four wheeled platforms work.
The first half of this chapter covers the primary sensors used in the chapters that follow: IR reflective sensors and SONAR
distance sensors. These are used to determine if an object is near the robot. Reflective sensors detect nearby objects and are
used for line following and edge detection (determining if the robot is near the edge of the surface it is moving on, such as the
edge of a table). Distance sensors are used to determine the distance to objects up to ten feet away from the robot. The second
half of the chapter covers other types of sensors you can add to enable the robot to respond to distance, sound, movement, or
other stimuli. You should also have a look at
Appendix D
which describes a very useful aspect to sense, the robot's battery voltage.

Hardware Discussed
QTR-1A reflectance sensors
Two are used for edge detection, but a third is required for line following. Additional sensors are available from
many internet shops that stock robot parts, or direct from the manufacturer:
http://www.pololu.com/catalog/product/958/
SONAR Distance Sensor
One is used to measure the distance to obstacles (Maker Shed product code MKPX5).
@​ X� kquote>
Maxbotix EZ1 distance sensor
This is an optional item that can be used to measure distance.
Sharp IR
This is an optional item that can be used to measure distance.
PIR (Passive Infrared) sensor
This is an optional item that can be used to activate the robot when it detects the presence of a 'warm body'
(Maker Shed product code: MKPX6).
Sound Sensor
This is an optional item that can activate the robot on a sound level, such as a hand clap. (SparkFun product
code BOB-09964).

Software
The chapter contains background information on sensors that will be added to the robot in later chapters. The reflectance sensor
code is from the sketches introduced in
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
. The Ping (Sonar distance sensor) hardware and software is covered in
Chapter 10, Autonomous Movement
.

Infrared Reflectance Sensors

These sensors use reflected infrared light to detect the presence of a line for line following, or the absence of a reflection for
edge (cliff) detection.

Figure 8-1. Sensor using Infrared to detect obstacles

The robot uses a function named
irSensorDetect
, shown in
Example 8-1
to return true if the light level has increased sufficiently above the ambient level indicating that a nearby object is reflecting the IR
beam.
Example 8-1. Detecting an obstacle that reflects light
const byte NBR_SENSORS = 3; // this version only has left and right sensors
const byte IR_SENSOR[NBR_SENSORS] = {0, 1, 2}; // analog pins for sensors
// returns true if an object is detected on the given sensor
// the sensor parameter is the index into the sensor array
int irSensorDetect(int sensor)
{
boolean result = false; // default value
int value = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get IR light level
if( value <= irSensorReflect[sensor]) {
result = true; // object detected (lower value means more reflection)
if( isDetected[sensor] == false) { // only print on initial detection
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" object detected");
}
}
isDetected[sensor] = result;
return result;
}

Sensor constants determine which sensor to use:

SENSE_IR_LEFT
for the left sensor,
SENSE_IR_RIGHT
for the right (these constants are defined in
robotDefines.h
(see
(see
Making the Sketch Easy to Enhance
). The
irSensorDetect
function uses the sensor constant to retrieve the analog pin number stored in the
IR_SENSOR
array. If the
analogRead
value is less than a predetermined threshold, the function returns
true
indicating that a reflection has been detected. These functions use arrays instead of simple variables to store pins and
thresholds because arrays make it easy to extend the code to support any number of sensors. To add a sensor, increase the
NBR_SENSORS
constant and add the sensors pin number to the list of pins in the
IR_SENSOR
array.

Note
The sensor voltage reduces with increased light, so lower readings mean more reflectance. Therefore, the closer a reflecting
object is to the sensor, the lower the reading on the analog pin monitoring the sensor.
Whereas
irSensorDetect
returns true when a reflection is detected, sometime you want the opposite case—to return true if an edge (no&#0; R A
reflection) is detected, as in
Example 8-2
. The
irEdgeDetect
provides this capability; it is used to return true when an edge is detected. In other words, when the sensor is looking
downwards, no reflection from the surface is detected because a dark object is blocking the reflection or the nearest surface—
probably the floor—is many inches away! This effect is used in the examples from
Chapter 6
to detect when you've placed a dark object under the sensor.
Example 8-2. Detecting the absence of a reflection
boolean irEdgeDetect(int sensor)
{
boolean result = false; // default value
int value = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get IR light level
if( value >= irSensorEdge[sensor]) {
result = true; // edge detected (higher value means less reflection)
if( isDetected[sensor] == false) { // only print on initial detection
Serial.print(locationString[sensor]);
Serial.println(" edge detected");
}
}
isDetected[sensor] = result;
return result;
}

The sensors need to be calibrated to take ambient light into account. Reflectance sensors respond to sunlight and artificial light
so a threshold is measured with no object near the sensor. Levels above this threshold mean the light level is
above ambient
, which indicates that a nearby object is reflecting the IR light from the sensor. Ambient light calibration is done using the code
shown in
Example 8-3
.
Example 8-3. Light calibration
// calibrate thresholds for ambient light
void irSensorCalibrate(byte sensor)
{
int ambient = analogRead(IR_SENSOR[sensor]); // get ambient level
irSensorAmbient[sensor] = ambient;
// precalculate the levels for object and edge detection
irSensorReflect[sensor] = (ambient * (long)(100-irReflectThreshold)) / 100;
irSensorEdge[sensor] = (ambient * (long)(100+irEdgeThreshold)) / 100;
}

Note
(long)
is used in the calculation to prevent overflow. Values like 950&#0; R A00 cannot fit into an Arduino integer (max value is
32,767) whereas a long can store values up to 2,147,483,647.
You may come across code that performs this calculation using floating point (
ambient * 0.95)
. However, floating point requires more code and memory than integer calculations.
This loads the ambient light level into the variable
ambient
, calculates levels for reflectance detection (stored in the
irSensorReflect
array) and levels for edge detection (stored in the
iresensorEdge
array). The constant
irReflectThreshold
is the percentage difference in light to detect a reflecting obstacle. The constant
iredgeThreshold
is the percent difference to detect an edge. The default values for these thresholds are 10% for reflection and 90% for edge
detection.
Here is an example assuming the ambient value from analogRead was 1000 with
irReflectThreshold
equal to 10 :
(1000 * 90) / 100 =
90000 / 100 =
900

In this example, if the ambient reading was 1000, the irSensorReflect's threshold reading for object detection is 900, which is
10% below the ambient reading.

Sonar Distance Sensors

Sound pulses can be used to measure distance. The time it takes for a pulse to bounce off an object and return to the sensor is
proportional to the distance.

Figure 8-2. Ping Sensor using SONAR to determine distance

The speed of sound is 340 meters per second, which means it takes 29 microseconds for sound to travel 1 centimeter (the
reciprocal of 340 metres per second). To derive the distance in cm, the duration is divided by 29. The duration is the time for the
sum of outgoing and reflected pulses so the distance to the object is
microseconds / 29 / 2
.
The pulse duration is measured using the Arduino
pulseIn function<&#0; Sfon� ​div height="0">
. This returns the a pulse duration in microseconds, see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/pulseIn
.
Example 8-4
shows the code that uses the Ping sensor to return the distance in inches. You'll see this code in action in
Chapter 10
.
Example 8-4. The source code for the Ping sensor
/*********************************
code for ping distance sensor
**********************************/
// Returns the distance in inches
// this returns 0 if no ping sensor is connected or the distance is greater than around 10 feet
int pingGetDistance(int pingPin)
{
// establish variables for duration of the ping,
// and the distance result in inches and centimeters:
 long duration, cm;
// The PING))) is triggered by a HIGH pulse of 2 or more microseconds.
// Give a short LOW pulse beforehand to ensure a clean HIGH pulse:
pinMode(pingPin, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(2);
digitalWrite(pingPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(5);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
pinMode(pingPin, INPUT);
duration = pulseIn(pingPin, HIGH, 20000); // if a pulse does not arrive
// in 20 ms then the ping sensor
// is not connected
if(duration >=20000)
return 0;
// convert the time into a distance
cm = microsecondsToCentimeters(duration);
return (cm * 10) / 25 ; // convert cm to inches
}
long microsecondsToCentimeters(long microseconds)
{
// The speed of sound is 340 m/s or 29 microseconds per centimeter.
// The ping travels out and back, so to find the distance of the
// object we take half of the distance travelled.
return microseconds / 29 / 2;
}

The
pingGetDistance
function returns the distance in inches as measured with a ping sensor on the digital pin (
pingPin
) passed to the function. The sound pulse used to measure the distance is triggered by sending a digital pulse that is low for 2
microseconds and high for 5 microseconds. The pin mode is changed from output to input and the
pulseIn
function is used to measure the response from the sensor, which arrives as an incoming pulse width. The formula described at
the beginning of this section is used to convert this value &#0; R Qto the distance.

Maxbotix EZ1 Sonar Distance Sensor

Example 8-5
shows the code for the Maxbotix EZ1 SONAR distance sensor (pictured in
Figure 8-3
).

Figure 8-3. Maxbotix EZ1 SONAR distance sensor

Example 8-5. Code for the EZ1 sensor
/********************************
code for the EZ1 SONAR sensor
*********************************/
// return distance using EZ1 connected to analog pin
int ezDistanceAN(int pin) // using analog
{
const int bitsPerInch = 2; // each bit is 0.5 inch
int value = analogRead(pin);
int inches = value / 2;
return inches;
}
// return distance using EZ1 connected using PW
int ezDistancePW(int pin) //using digital pin
{
int value = pulseIn(pin, HIGH); // timeout can be added (MAX_DISTANCE * 147L * 2)
int cm = value / 58; // pulse width is 58 ms per cm
int inches = value / 147; // which is 147 ms per inch
return inches;
}
The version using pulse width (
ezDistancePW)
will wait for one second before giving up if no return pulse is detected (for example, if the sensor is disconnected). You can
optionally set the maximum time to wait for
pulseIn
; the following example sets the timeout to the duration needed for a pulse to travel the maximum distance detectable by the
sensor:
int value = pulseIn(pin, HIGH, MAX_DISTANCE * 147L * 2);
// pulseIn with timeout

You can use the analog input version (

ezDistanceAN
), if you have a spare analog input pin, but if you only have digital pins free, then use the pulse width code (
ezDistancePW
). The analog version takes only as long as needed to measure the voltage so does not need &#0; Soes� ​a timeout.
You can find more information on this sensor on the manufacturers web page:
http://www.maxbotix.com/Ultrasonic_Sensors/MB1010.htm
.

Sharp IR Distance Sensor

Example 8-6
shows the code for the Sharp GP2Y0A02YK0F long range IR distance sensor (pictured in
Figure 8-4
).

Figure 8-4. Sharp IR Distance Sensor

Example 8-6. Code for the Sharp IR sensor
/*********************************
code for Sharp GP2Y0A02YK0F IR distance sensor
**********************************/
const long referenceMv = 5000; // the reference voltage in millivolts
int irGetDistance(byte pin)
{
int val = analogRead(pin);
int mV = map(val, 0, 1023, 0 , referenceMv);
// or:
//int mV = (val, * referenceMv) / 1023;
int cm = mvToDistance(mV);
return cm;
}
// the following is used to interpolate the distance from a table
// table entries are distances in steps of 250 millivolts
const int TABLE_ENTRIES = 11;
const int firstElement = 250; // first entry is 250 mV
const int INTERVAL = 250; // millivolts between each element
static int distance[TABLE_ENTRIES] = {200,130,90,64,50,41,35,30,25,20,15};
int mvToDistance(int mV)
{
if( mV < firstElement )
return distance[0];
if( mV > INTERVAL * TABLE_ENTRIES )
return distance[TABLE_ENTRIES-1];
else
{
int index = mV / INTERVAL; // highest table element <= mV value
int mV0 = index * INTERVAL; // mV value of this element
int mV1 = mV0 + INTERVAL; // mV value of the next higher element
int result = map(mV, mV0, mV1, distance[index-1], distance[index]);
result = map(result, 0, 200, 0, 79); // convert from cm to inches
return result;
}
}

You can find lots more information on this sensor here:

http://www.societyofrobots.com/sensors_sharpirrange.shtml
.

Proximity Sensor
A PIR (Passive Infrared) sensor can be used to activate your robot when it detects the presence of a nearby person, or even a
dog or cat. The sensor acts like a switch that sends a
HIGH
signal to an Arduino pin when motion is detected (they work by detecting changes in the heat radiated from people or pets).
Figure 8-5
shows the sensor connected to analog pin 5, but you can use any spare pin, such as
A4
instead of
A5
.
 Figure 8-5. PIR Sensor Connected to Analog Pin 5
The following
loop
code will spin the robot when movement is detected. If you want your robot to do this, replace the
loop
function in the
myRobot
sketch from
Making the Sketch Easy to Enhance
with the code shown in
Example 8-7
.
Example 8-7. Spinning the bot
void loop()
{
Serial.println("Waiting to detect movement from PIR sensor");
pinMode(A5, INPUT); // configure the pin for input
if(digitalRead(A5) == HIGH)
{
calibrateRotationRate(DIR_LEFT, 360); // spin robot CCW one rotation
}
}

Sound Sensor
You can use a sound sensor to start or stop your ro&#0; S st� ​bot in response to sound, for example a hand clap or whistle. You
will need a microphone with an amplifier, for example, the BOB-09964 breakout board from SparkFun.
Figure 8-6
shows the board connected to analog pin 4.
 Figure 8-6. Sound Sensor Connected to Analog Pin 4
The code that follows is the main tab from the
myRobotSound
sketch available in the download for this book. Noise level above a threshold will drive the robot forward. The robot stops when
the level drops below the threshold. If you need to change the sensitivity, experiment with higher or lower values for the threshold.
Example 8-8
shows the code for the main tab.
Example 8-8. Sound sensor code
/**********************************************************
MyRobotSound.ino
Robot moves when a sound level exceeds a threshold
Based on Recipe 6.7 from Arduino Cookbook
Copyright Michael Margolis 20 July 2012
***********************************************************/
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include "RobotMotor.h" // 2wd or 4wd motor library
#include "robotDefines.h" // global defines
const int analogInPin = 5; // analog pin the sensor is connected to
const int middleValue = 512; //the middle of the range of analog values
const int numberOfSamples = 128; //how many readings will be taken each time
int sample; //the value read from microphone each time
long signal; //the reading once you have removed DC offset
long averageReading; //the average of that loop of readings
long runningAverage=0; //the running average of calculated values
const int averagedOver= 16; //how quickly new values affect running average
//bigger numbers mean slower
const int threshold=400; //at what level the robot will move
int speed = 50;
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
motorBegin(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorBegin(MOTOR_RIGHT);
}
void loop()
{
 int level = getSoundLevel();
if (level > threshold) //is level more than the threshold ?
&&#0; RRRRbr/nbsp; {
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, speed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, speed);
}else
{
motorStop(MOTOR_LEFT);
motorStop(MOTOR_RIGHT);
}
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(400);
}
}
int getSoundLevel()
{
long sumOfSquares = 0;
for (int i=0; i<numberOfSamples; i++) { //take many readings and average them
sample = analogRead(analogInPin); //take a reading
signal = (sample - middleValue); //work out its offset from the center
signal *= signal; //square it to make all values positive
sumOfSquares += signal; //add to the total
}
averageReading = sumOfSquares/numberOfSamples; //calculate running average
runningAverage=(((averagedOver-1)*runningAverage)+averageReading)/averagedOver;
return runningAverage;
}

See the Arduino Cookbook if you want a detailed description of how this code works.

Arduino Cookbook
For descriptions of how to use lots of additional sensors with Arduino, see:
Arduino Cookbook
by Michael Margolis (O’Reilly).

Chapter 9. Modifying the Robot to React to Edges and Lines

This chapter covers techniques that enable your robot to use sensors to gain awareness of its environment. Using reflectance
sensors, the robot will gain the ability to follow lines or to avoid falling off the edge of the surface it is on. Information from the
sensors is abstracted so that the robot logic has a single consistent interface and can easily be enhanced to support other
sensors. The physical mounting of the sensors varies with different platforms: see
Chapter 4, Building the Four-Wheeled Mobile Platform
if you have the 4WD chassis,
Chapter 3, Building the Two-Wheeled Mobile Platfo&#0; RRRRsenso� rm
if you have the 2WD chassis.

Hardware Required
Two reflectance sensors are used for edge detection and a third is needed for line following. Although you can use the
stripboard mount (for the three line following sensors) discussed in
Chapter 2
to experiment with edge detection, the robot will perform the edge detection task best with the sensors further apart (the
stripboard approach is best for line following). If the sensors are close together, the robot can have difficulty determining
the best angle to turn when an edge is encountered.

Note
See
Chapter 3, Building the Two-Wheeled Mobile Platform
for details of mounting these sensors on the 2WD chassis and
Chapter 4, Building the Four-Wheeled Mobile Platform
for the 4WD chassis. The principles of reflectance sensors are covered in
Infrared Reflectance Sensors
in
Chapter 8, Tutorial: Introduction to Sensors
.
A reflective surface with non-reflective edges for the edge detection sketch (see
Figure 9-2
. You can use a large sheet of plain white paper with the edges marked using a black marker pen or black electrical tape.
The border should be around 3/4 of in inch thick or so. The optimal surface would be white, but with sufficient friction that
 your robot won't slip. Lining paper, often sold as unpasted wall liner, is a great surface. It's designed to provide an even
surface or wallpapering or painting, but with enough texture that makes it great for racing robots.
A reflective surface with a non-reflective line approximately 3/4 inch wide, see
Figure 9-3
. If your surface is at least a couple of feet wide, you can use the same course for edge detection and line following. The
sketches have been tested using a three foot length of 27 inch wide lining paper.

Sketches Used in This Chapter

myRobotEdge.ino
The robot will move about in an area bounded by a non-reflective surface (for example, a large sheet of white
paper placed on a non-reflective surface. Most surfaces that reflect visible light will reflect infrared from the
sensor).
myRobotLine.ino
This repositions the sensors used in
myRobotEdge.ino
to allow the robot to follow black lines painted on or taped to a white surface. The only change to the tab code
is support for the center sensor. A variant of this sketch that sends data over serial for display on an external
serial device is named
myRobotLineDisplay
and is included in the example code download (see
How to Contact Us
).
Figure 9-1
shows the organization of the modules for this chapter.

Figure 9-1. myRobotEdge and myRobotLine Sketches

The Look Code

The code to look for an obstacle and return
true
if detected is implemented in the function named
lookForObstacle
. You saw this function in the main tab of the sketch described in
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
. Because this code will be extended in this and later chapters to support additional sensors, it makes sense to extract this code
into its own tab. The download code for all sketches introduced from here on in have a tab named
Look
that contains the code shown in
Example 9-1
.
Example 9-1. Code for the Look tab
/**********************
code to look for obstacles
**********************/
void lookBegin()
{
irSensorBegin(); // initialize sensors
}
// returns true if the given obstacle is detected
boolean lookForObstacle(int obstacle)
{
switch(obstacle) {
case OBST_FRONT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(SENSE_IR_LEFT) && irEdgeDetect(SENSE_IR_RIGHT);
case OBST_LEFT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(SENSE_IR_LEFT);
 case OBST_RIGHT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(SENSE_IR_RIGHT);
}
return false;
}
// function to check if robot can continue moving when taking evasive action
// returns true if robot is not blocked when moving to avoid obstacles
// this 'placeholder' version always returns true
boolean checkMovement()
{
return true;
}

As mentioned in
Chapter 6, Testing the Robot's Basic Functions
, the
lookForObstacle
function enables you to enquire if an obstacle is detected and will return true if so. The
case
statement (see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SwitchCase
) tries to match the
obstacle
variable with one of the obstacle constants (defined in
robotDefines.h)
. If there is a match, the
irEdgeDetect
function is called with relevant sensor and this will return true if an object is detected on that sensor. If no object is detected, the
function returns
OBST_NONE
. The look functionality can be expanded by adding code to the case statement and calling appropriate sensor functions, as you
will see later in this chapter.
But first, let's use the existing functionality to give the robot the ability to follow lines and detect edges.

Edge Detection
Edge detection is one of the easier behaviors to understand and program. The robot moves until it encounters an edge; it should
then change direction to avoid moving over the edge. Edges are detected by using reflectance sensors (see:
Chapter 8, Tutorial: Introduction to Sensors
). Typically, the edge is an area that does not reflect, for example the edge of a table.
In the sketch that follows, the robot will remain within a reflective surface (for example, a large white sheet of paper) that is
bounded by a black line. Black electrical tape (3/4 inch or wider) works well but a black line of similar width drawn with magic
marker or paint can also work as the 'edge'. To avoid damaging your robot, an actual table is not recommended for early
experiments until you are sure you have everything working correctly.
Figure 9-2
shows how the robot responds to moving over an edge. In panel1, the sensors do not detect an edge so the robot moves
forward. In panel 2, the left sensor moves off the reflective surface so the robot stops and rotates 120 degrees. In panel 3, the
robot completes its rotation; panel 4, shows the robot moving forward again.
 Figure 9-2. Robot stays within the reflective area
Example 9-2. Main sketch code for edge detection
/******************************************************************************
myRobotEdge.ino
Robot sketch to move within area bordered by a non-reflective line
Michael Margolis 7 July 2012
******************************************************************************/
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include "RobotMotor.h" // 2wd or 4wd motor library
#include "robotDefines.h" // these were the global defines from myRobot
/// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
lookBegin(); /// added Look tab
moveBegin(); /// added Move tab
Serial.println("Ready");
}
void loop()
{
/// code for roaming around and avoiding obstacles
if( lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT_EDGE) == true)
{
Serial.println("both sensors detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 300);
moveRotate(120);
 while(lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT_EDGE) == true )
moveStop(); // stop motors if still over cliff
}
else if(lookForObstacle(OBST_LEFT_EDGE) == true)
{
Serial.println("left sensor detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 100);
moveRotate(30);
}
else if(lookForObstacle(OBST_RIGHT_EDGE) == true)
{
Serial.println("right sensor detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 100);
&&#0; ZZZZ Qnbsp; moveRotate(-30);
}
else
{
moveSetSpeed(MIN_SPEED);
moveForward();
}
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(400);
}
}

The code for this sketch is derived from the myRobotMove sketch discussed in
Chapter 7, Controlling Speed and Direction
. You can download the example code, locate myRobotEdge, open the sketch and upload it to the robot. Or you can derive the
sketch yourself:
1. Open the myRobotMove sketch in the example code and do a Save As and name it myRobotEdge.
2. Create the Look tab.
3. Locate and move the two functions at the end of the main tab starting from the comment "code to look for obstacles" into
the Look tab. This code is listed in the section:
The Look Code
.
4. Replace the main sketch code with the code listed here:
Example 9-2
.
5. Compile and upload the code
Place the robot within the bounded surface and switch the power on (the robot calibrates the sensors after it is switched on so all
the sensors should be over the reflective area). After a short delay the robot will move forward until it detects a non-reflective
edge.
The loop code checks if an edge is detected directly ahead with both sensors (
OBST_FRONT_EDGE
), or on the left (
OBST_LEFT_EDGE
) or right (
OBST_RIGHT_EDGE
). If the edge was ahead, the robot backs away for 0.3 seconds, rotates 120 degrees and then moves forward again. If the edge
was to the side, the robot turns 30 degrees away from that side and then moves forward. Feel free to experiment with the angles
to get a behaviour that suits the area you have defined for containing your robot.
Is Your Robot Not Moving Right?
If your robot is not rotating enough or too much when attempting to move away from an edge, you may need
to calibrate rotation rates; see
Controlling Motor Speed
. If the robot 'stutters' instead of turning, try increasing the speed by changing the loop code from
moveSetSpeed(MIN_SPEED);
to
moveSetSpeed(MIN_SPEED+10);
.
If the robot does not detect the edge, you can make it more sensitive by reducing the value of
irEdge
Threshold
in the IrSensors tab.

Line Following
Line following is a classic task for a robot. The robot uses sensors to determine its position in relation to a line and follows this
line by moving to keep its sensors centered above the line.
Figure 9-3
shows a robot moving around a track marked with a black line on a white surface.

Figure 9-3. Robot follows a black line on a white surface

In Panel 1, the robot is approaching a corner but is still centered over the line - the motors are both running at the same speed
(indicated by the equal length arrows), and the robot moves straight ahead. The robot has reached the left hand curve in panel 2
—the right motor speed is increased, the left slowed to turn the robot to the right. Panel 3 shows the robot completing the turn. In
Panel 4, the robot is about to reach a curve to the left where it will continue to adjust motor speeds to keep the sensors over the
line.
The illustrations that follow show what happens in more detail.
Figure 9-4
shows the location of the sensor with respect to the line when the robot is centered. The left and right sensors are above the
reflective surface. Lots of light will reflect back to the sensor and the
analogRead
values are low. The center sensor is above the black line so has little reflected light, causing the reading to be high. The
difference in readings between left and right indicates drift and is close to zero so both motors will be driven at the same speed
—the robot moves straight ahead. You can read about how to display sketch data in real time in
Seeing Sketch Data
.
 Figure 9-4. Robot centered on black line
Figure 9-5
shows the robot to the left of the line because the line is curving to the right. The left sensor detects maximum reflection (the
analogRead
value is low). As the center sensor moves towards the edge of the line, the reflection increases (decreasing the
analogRead
value). The right sensor moves towards the line so its reading increases. The drift (the difference between the left and right) is
positive so the left motor speeds up and the right motor slows down—the robot turns to the right.

Figure 9-5. Robot off to left of line

Figure 9-6
shows the robot to the right of the line because the line is curving to the left. The right sensor detects maximum reflection (the
analogRead
value is low). The reading from the center sensor increases as it moves towards the edge of the line. The left sensor moves
towards the line so its reading increases. The drift is negative so the left motor slows down and the right motor speeds up—the
robot turns to the left.

Figure 9-6. Robot off to right of line

For the robot to successfully follow a curvy line, the movement must be responsive enough to make sharp turns but not so
responsive that it zigs and zags its way along even straight lines. Tuning the software to get this just right requires
experimentation and patience. The code that follows uses the difference value between the left and right sensors to adjust the
differential motor speed. The preceding figures display the relative signal levels from the sensors and the difference value is
indicated as 'Drift'. Sensitivity is controlled by mapping the drift value to the actual motor differential speed.
Example 9-3
shows the line sense code that calculates the drift value (you'll see it again in a moment when you see the complete listing for the
sketch):
Example 9-3. Line sense code for calculating drift
//returns drift - 0 if over line, minus value if left, plus if right
int lineSense()
{
int leftVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_LEFT);
int centerVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_CENTER);
int rightVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_RIGHT);
int leftSense = centerVal - leftVal;
int rightSense = rightVal - centerVal;
int drift = rightVal - leftVal ;
return drift;
}

The drift and desired speed are passed to the

lineFollow
function to drive the robot. To adjust the motor's sensitivity, drift is divided by a 'damping' factor - the higher the factor, the less
sensitive to drift. Decrease the damping if you need to make the robot more sensitive, for example, if it is not turning fast enough
to follow sharp bends. Increase the damping if the robot is unnecessarily zig-zagging on straight lines. The drift value is
subtracted from the speed for the left motor and added to the speed of the right motor to provide a differential speed
proportional to drift. The Arduino
constrain
function is used to ensure the values remain within the valid range for speed (0 to 100 %). Depending on the radius of your
bends, you may not be able to completely eliminate the zig-zags.
int lineFollow(int drift, int speed)
{
int leftSpeed = constrain(speed - (drift / damping), 0, 100);
int rightSpeed = constrain(speed + (drift / damping), 0, 100);
 motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, leftSpeed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, rightSpeed);
}

Example 9-4. Complete listing for code in the myRobotLine main tab
/******************************************************************************
myRobotLine.ino
Robot sketch to follow lines
Michael Margolis 7 July 2012
******************************************************************************/
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include "RobotMotor.h" // 2wd or 4wd motor library
#include "robotDefines.h" // these were the global defines from myRobot
int speed = MIN_SPEED; // speed in percent when moving along a straight line
/// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
lookBegin(); /// added Look tab
moveBegin(); /// added Move tab
lineSenseBegin(); // initialize sensors
Serial.println("Ready");
}
void loop()
{
int drift = lineSense();
&n&#0; ZZZZ absp; lineFollow(drift, speed);
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(400);
}
}
/****************************
Line Sensor code
****************************/
int damping = 5; //1 is most sensitive, range 1 to 1023)
void lineSenseBegin()
{
}
//returns drift - 0 if over line, minus value if left, plus if right
int lineSense()
{
int leftVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_LEFT);
int centerVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_CENTER);
int rightVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_RIGHT);
int leftSense = centerVal - leftVal;
int rightSense = rightVal - centerVal;
int drift = rightVal - leftVal ;
return drift;
}
int lineFollow(int drift, int speed)
{
int leftSpeed = constrain(speed - (drift / damping), 0, 100);
int rightSpeed = constrain(speed + (drift / damping), 0, 100);
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, leftSpeed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, rightSpeed);
}

The code for this sketch is derived from the myRobotEdge sketch discussed earlier in this chapter. You can download the
example code, locate myRobotLine, open the sketch and upload it to the robot. Or you can derive the sketch yourself:
1. Open the myRobotEdge sketch in the example code and do a Save As and name it myRobotLine.
2. Locate the defines for locations of sensors in the robotDefines tab and add the center sensor following the defines for the
left and right sensors:
const int SENSE_IR_CENTER = 2;
.
3. Replace the main sketch code with the code listed here:
Example 9-4
.
 4. Compile and upload the code
Place the robot on the surface with the center sensor above the line and switch the power on. After a short delay the robot will
move forward and track the line. The robots ability to follow the line depends on many factors:
Line thickness - the optimum thickness depends on the spacing of the sensors. 3/4 inch works well with the robot built as
described but you can experiment with different line widths and different sensor spacing.
Sensor height above surface - the sensors are less sensitive when further from the surface- try using spacers to move the
sensors closer to the surface.
Speed - too slow and the robot may not have enough torque, too fast and &#0; ZZZZ athe robot will overshoot the line. Try
running at a speed around 10% above minimum speed if the robot appears to be sluggish - in the top of the main tab,
change the code to :
int speed = MIN_SPEED+10;
.
Robot over sensitive - if the robot follows the line but zig-zags excessively , increase the damping value in the line sensor
code in the main tab. Try larger values until you find a range that works. Note that you may need a different damping value
if you change the speed.
Robot not sensitive enough - if the robot drifts off the line, decrease the damping value in the line sensor code in the main
tab. Try smaller values until you find a range that works. Note that you may need a different damping value if you change
the speed.

Seeing Sketch Data

Viewing the values of variables in real time makes it much easier to tune or debug your code. You can view values printed to the
serial port on the Serial Monitor, but that can be difficult to read if these values are changing quickly.
Appendix C
describes how to use a Processing sketch to display data as bar charts, similar to the that shown earlier in this chapter (see
Figure 9-4
).

Figure 9-7. Arduino Data Displayed in Processing

Here is how the line following sketch should be modified to display the sensor value:
Add the DataDisplay tab to the sketch (the myRobotLineDisplay sketch in the example code download (
How to Contact Us
) has this tab added as well as all the other code changes that follow).
In the main sketch, add constants identifying the list of items to be displayed, labels for each item, and the minimum and
maximum values.
Example 9-5
shows the constants used to produce the display in
Figure 9-7
.
Example 9-5. Constants for display labels
enum {DATA_start,DATA_LEFT,DATA_CENTER,DATA_RIGHT,
DATA_DRIFT,DATA_L_SPEED,DATA_R_SPEED, DATA_nbrItems};
char* labels[] =
{"", "Left Line", "Center Line", "Right Line","Drift", "Left Speed", "Right Speed"};
int minRange[] =
{0, 0, 0, 0, -1023, 0, 0};

int maxRange[] =
 int maxRange[] =
{0, 1023, 1023, 1023, 1023, 100, 100};

Add the function call shown in

Example 9-6
to
setup()
.
Example 9-6. Adding a call to begin the data display
dataDisplayBegin(DATA_nbrItems, labels, minRange, maxRange );

You can then call the

sendData
function to send the values you want to display.
Example 9-7
shows the
lineSense()
function updated to send sensor data.
Example 9-7. lineSense now sending sensor data
//returns drift - 0 if over line, minus value if left, plus if right
int lineSense()
{
int leftVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_LEFT);
int centerVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_CENTER);
int rightVal = analogRead(SENSE_IR_RIGHT);
sendData(DATA_LEFT, leftVal); // send left sensor value
sendData(DATA_CENTER, centerVal); // send center sensor value
sendData(DATA_RIGHT, rightVal); // send right sensor values

int leftSense = centerVal - leftVal;

int rightSense = rightVal - centerVal;
int drift = rightVal - leftVal ;
sendData(DATA_DRIFT, drift); // send drift sensor values
return drift;
}

Motor speed can be displayed by adding calls to

sendData
in the
lineFollow
function as shown in
Example 9-8
.
Example 9-8. Adding support for displaying motor speed
int lineFollow(int drift, int speed)
{
int leftSpeed = constrain(speed - (drift / damping), 0, 100);
int rightSpeed = constrain(speed + (drift / damping), 0, 100);
sendData(DATA_L_SPEED, leftSpeed); // send left motor speed
sendData(DATA_R_SPEED, rightSpeed); // send right motor speed
motorForward(MOTOR_LEFT, leftSpeed);
motorForward(MOTOR_RIGHT, rightSpeed);
}

Chapter 10. Autonomous Movement

This chapter describes how to use a distance sensor to enable the robot to see and avoid obstacles as it moves around. The
first sketch, named
myRobotWander
, drives the robot forward, and if it detects an obstacle, it stops and rotates the robot to try and find a clear path to move forward.
Another sketch, named
myRobotScan
, adds a servo that can rotate the sensor so the robot can look left and right without having to twist itself around.

Hardware Required
Ping distance sensor from Parallax; see
Sonar Distance Sensors
in
Chapter 8, Tutorial: Introduction to Sensors
.
 Servo required for myRobotScan; see
Sonar Distance Sensors
in
Chapter 8, Tutorial: Introduction to Sensors
.
Connect the Ping sensor and servo the right way around; the black wires (ground) go nearest the pin marked
-
, the white (or lighter color) signal wire goes nearest the pin mar&#0; ZZZZ p� ​� ked
S
(
Figure 10-1
).

Figure 10-1. Ping sensor and servo plug into pins on the motor shield

Sketches Used in This Chapter

myRobotWander.ino
Uses a SONAR distance sensor (the Ping sensor) to enable the robot to see and avoid obstacles as it
wanders around.
#defines
are added for front and rear obstacles (only the front is implemented in the sketch), the look module has added
support for distance sensing. This sketch introduces a new tab, named Distance, which contains the Ping
sensor code that you originally saw in
Sonar Distance Sensors
.
myRobotScan.ino
Has the sensor mounted on a servo so it can scan independently of robot movement. This code is similar to
myrobotWander
with the Look module enhanced to support control of the servo to look around. A new module named softServo
is added for servo control.

Note
The Distance tab's code is not listed in this chapter, but it is included in the example code (see
How to Contact Us
for information on downloading the example code).
Figure 10-2
shows the modules used in this chapter.

Figure 10-2. myRobotWander and myRobotScan Sketches

Mounting a Ping Distance Sensor

There are various ways to mount a Ping sensor. You can buy a commercial off-the-shelf product such as the one illustrated in
Figure 10-3
.
The bracket shown in
Figure 10-4
and
Figure 10-5
is another commercial off-the-shelf bracket that mounts the sensor on a servo so it can be rotated to scan for objects on either
side of the robot. If you use a commercial off-the-shelf product, follow the supplied instructions for assembly and mounting.

Figure 10-3. Parallax Ping Bracket

sidebyside:
 Figure 10-4. Parallax Ping Servo Bracket

Figure 10-5. Parallax servo bracket parts

If you prefer to make a bracket, it's easy to do, as the next section explains.

Making a Mount for the Ping Sensor

You can make a simple mount from a small piece of wood. A small mount can be cut from 1" x 1 3/4" x 3/8" pine. You can drill
holes for bolts (4-40 or M3) or use small wood screws to attach the sensor. The holes are close to the edges, so drill pilot holes
if you use wood screws.
Figure 10-6
shows a template you can use for the mount. You can see the Ping sensor attached to the mount in
Figure 10-7
and
Figure 10-8
.

Figure 10-6. Dimensions for the holes for a simple mount

Figure 10-7
shows the a small block of wood cut and drilled.
sidebyside:

Figure 10-7. Ping sensor with homemade wood mount, not fully assembled
 Figure 10-8. Rear view of mount; note nuts used as spacers between PCB and mount
Figure 10-9
and
Figure 10-10
show the mount attached to the robot.

Figure 10-9. Sensor can be mounted directly to the chassis or on a servo

 Figure 10-10. Feel free to make your mount in a different size or shape

Mounting the Ping Sensor in a Fixed Position

The manufactured mounts are supplied with mounting hardware. If you are using a homemade wooden mount, you can attach it
to the base with two wood screws from the underside of the top plate.

Mounting the Ping Sensor on a Servo

The wooden mounts can be hot glued or screwed onto the servo horn supplied with the servo as shown in
Figure 10-11
.
Figure 10-11
showed the sensor attached to a servo that's attached to the 2WD.
Figure 10-12
shows the sensor on a servo attached to the 4WD.
Figure 10-11. Servo mount showing attachment detail
 Figure 10-12. 2WD with sensor mounted onto servo

Letting the Robot Wander

The
myRobotWander
sketch adds support for a fixed forward-facing distance sensor that enables the robot to move forward when no obstacle is
detected (panel 1 in
Figure 10-13
). The robot stops when approaching an obstacle ahead (panel 2). It rotates left (panel 3) to see if there is an obstacle in that
direction. If no obstacle is seen, the robot will turn in that direction and move off. If the left is obstructed, it will turn right and move
off in that direction (panel 5). If both left and right are blocked, the robot will turn around and move off in the opposite direction.
 Figure 10-13. Ping Sensor fixed in place to look for obstacles ahead
The code to provide this behaviour is in the sketch named
myrobotWander
.
Example 10-1
shows the main myRobotWander tab for this sketch.
Example 10-1. Contents of the sketch's main tab
/******************************************************************************
myRobotWander.ino
Robot wanders using forward scanning for obstacle avoidance
Michael Margolis 28 May 2012
******************************************************************************/
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include "RobotMotor.h" // 2wd or 4wd motor library
#include "robotDefines.h" // global defines
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
lookBegin();
moveBegin();
moveSetSpeed(MIN_SPEED + 10) ; // Run at 10% above minimum speed
Serial.println("Ready");
}
void loop()
{
moveForward();
roam(); // look around
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(400);
}
}
This simply initializes the 'Look' module (
The Look Code
) and 'Move' module (
Core Movement Code
) and then calls a function named
roam
that does all the hard work of looking for obstacles and moving to avoid them. The
roam
function is added into code in the Look tab;
Example 10-2
replaces the entirety of the Look tab code that you saw in earlier examples.
Example 10-2. The new version of the Look tab code
/**********************
code to look for obstacles
**********************/
const int MIN_DISTANCE = 8; // robot stops when object is nearer (in inches)
const int CLEAR_DISTANCE = 24; // distance in inches considered attractive to move
const int MAX_DISTANCE = 150; // the maximum range of the distance sensor
// angles left, right, center
const int lookAngles[] = { -30, 30, 0};
const byte pingPin = 10; // digital pin 10
void lookBegin()
{
irSensorBegin(); // initialize sensors
}
// returns true if the given obstacle is detected
boolean lookForObstacle(int obstacle)
{
switch(obstacle) {
case OBST_FRONT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_LEFT) && irEdgeDetect(DIR_RIGHT);
case OBST_LEFT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_LEFT);
case OBST_RIGHT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_RIGHT);
case OBST_FRONT: return lookAt(lookAngles[DIR_CENTER]) <= MIN_DISTANCE;
}
return false;
}
// returns the distance of objects at the given angle
// this version rotates the robot
int lookAt(int angle)
{
moveRotate(angle); // rotate the robot
int distance, samples;
long cume;
distance = samples = cume = 0;
for(int i =0; i < 4; i++)
{
distance = pingGetDistance(pingPin);
if(distance > 0)
{
// printlnValue(" D= ",distance);
samples++;
cume+= distance;
}
}
if(samples > 0)
distance = cume / samples;
else
distance = 0;
moveRotate(-angle); // rotate back to original direction
return distance;
}
// function to check if robot can continue moving in current direction
// returns true if robot is not blocked moving in current direction
// this version only tests for obstacles in front
boolean checkMovement()
{
boolean isClear = true; // default return value if no obstacles
if(moveGetState() == MOV_FORWARD)
{
if(lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT) == true)
{
isClear = false; &#0; bbbbbnbs
}
}
return isClear;
}
// Look for and avoid obstacles by rotating robot
void roam()
{
int distance = lookAt(lookAngles[DIR_CENTER]);
if(distance == 0)
{
 moveStop();
Serial.println("No front sensor");
return; // no sensor
}
else if(distance <= MIN_DISTANCE)
{
moveStop();
//Serial.print("Scanning:");
int leftDistance = lookAt(lookAngles[DIR_LEFT]);
if(leftDistance > CLEAR_DISTANCE) {
// Serial.print(" moving left: ");
moveRotate(-90);
}
else {
delay(500);
int rightDistance = lookAt(lookAngles[DIR_RIGHT]);
if(rightDistance > CLEAR_DISTANCE) {
// Serial.println(" moving right: ");
moveRotate(90);
}
else {
// Serial.print(" no clearence : ");
distance = max( leftDistance, rightDistance);
if(distance < CLEAR_DISTANCE/2) {
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 1000); // back up for one second
moveRotate(-180); // turn around
}
else {
if(leftDistance > rightDistance)
moveRotate(-90);
else
moveRotate(90);
}
}
}
}
}
// the following is based on loop code from myRobotEdge
// robot checks for edge and moves to avoid
void avoidEdge()
{
if( lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT_EDGE) == true)
{
Serial.println("left and right sensors detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 300);
moveRotate(120);
while(lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT_EDGE) == true )
moveStop(); // stop motors if still over cliff
}
else if(lookForObstacle(OBST_LEFT_EDGE) == true)
{
Serial.println("left sensor detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 100);
moveRotate(30);
}
else if(lookForObstacle(OBST_RIGHT_EDGE) == true)
{
Serial.println("right sensor detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 100);
moveRotate(-30);
}
}

The
roam
function uses information reported by the distance sensor to detect obstacles. The distance sensor code is described in
Sonar Distance Sensors
, the sketches in this chapter contain the code in a new tab named Distance.
The
checkMovement
function introduced in the previous chapter is enhanced here to check for and return
false
if there are obstacles in front when the robot is moving forward.
checkMovement
is called when the robot is taking evasive action during a timed move. You can add additional checks into this function if needed.
For example, if you add sensors to detect an edge to the rear of the robot and added your own code that returned true when this
sensor detected an edge, the logic shown in
Example 10-3
would prevent the robot from going over an edge when backing up to avoid an obstacle in front.
Example 10-3. The checkMovement function
boolean checkMovement()
{
boolean isClear = true; // default return value if no obstacles
if(moveGetState() == MOV_FORWARD)
{
if(lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT) == true)
{
isClear = false;
}
 }
else if(moveGetState() == MOV_BACK)
{
if(lookForObstacle(OBST_REAR_EDGE) == true)
{
isClear = false;
}
}
return isClear;
}

In this fragment, if the robot is moving backward a call is made to

lookForObstacle
(with a new case you need to add for a rear edge sensor) that checks if an edge is detected at that back of the robot.
The rest of the Look code is similar to the code described in
Chapter 9, Modifying the Robot to React to Edges and Lines
. The
lookForObstacle
function has an additional case for detecting an obstacle in front (
OBST_FRONT
). This case calls a new function named
lookAt
that is given the angle to look towards, and returns the distance of the nearest object detected at that angle. That distance is
compared to a minimum allowable distance and
lookForObstacle
returns true if the robot is any closer (in other words, it has detected an obstacle).
The
lookAt
function (repeated in
Example 10-4
from the previous listing) rotates the robot to th&#0; bbbbbbste desired angle using the
moveRotate
command described in
Chapter 7, Controlling Speed and Direction
.
Example 10-4. The lookAt function
// returns the distance of objects at the given angle
// this version rotates the robot
int lookAt(int angle)
{
moveRotate(angle); // rotate the robot
int distance, samples;
long cume;
distance = samples = cume = 0;
for(int i =0; i < 4; i++)
{
distance = pingGetDistance(pingPin);
if(distance > 0)
{
samples++;
cume+= distance;
}
}
if(samples > 0)
distance = cume / samples;
else
distance = 0;
moveRotate(-angle); // rotate back to original direction
return distance;
}

The pingGetDistance function (

Example 8-4
) returns the distance in inches. To minimize spurious reflection affecting the readings, the function is called four times to get an
average distance. After taking the readings, the robot is rotated so it is facing in the original direction. Because the robot
doesn't rotate to exactly the angle requested (due to changes in battery voltage, friction, etc.), the robot may not end up facing
exactly the same direction and may appear to zig-zag as it moves forward.
The
#define
s shown in
Example 10-5
are added to the
robotDefines
tab.
Example 10-5. New constants for front and rear detection
const int OBST_FRONT = 4; // obstacle in front
const int OBST_REAR = 5; // obstacle behind
 Adding Edge Detection
Unlike the earlier chapters, the sketches in this chapter do not try to avoid edges. This enables the robot to
wander over surfaces such as wooden floors that could create false triggers on the edge sensors. The edge
detection code that was in the loop of the myRobotEdge sketch has been moved to the Look &#0; bbbbb hetab
into a function named
avoidEdge
. If you want to add edge detection capability to these sketches, add a call to
avoidEdge
in loop as follows:
void loop()
{
moveForward();
roam(); // look around
avoidEdge(); // avoid edges
}

Adding Scanning
In the previous sketch, the robot needs to turn in order to look left and right. Mounting the distance sensor on a servo adds the
ability to rotate the sensor so the robot can 'turn its head' to look around as shown in
Figure 10-14
.

Figure 10-14. Robot Scans using Ping Sensor Mounted on Servo

The sketch logic is the same, but the
Look
module has code added to command a servo to rotate left and right for brief periods. This allows the sensor to look to see if it
can detect an obstacle (see
Figure 10-15
). If your distance sensor is not centered, you can add a line in
setup()
that will center the servo.
Example 10-6
shows the complete setup function with the servo centering line added.
Example 10-6. The new setup function
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
 blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
lookBegin();
moveBegin();
moveSetSpeed(MIN_SPEED + 10) ; // Run at 10% above minimum speed
softServoWrite(90, 2000); // Add this line to center the servo
Serial.println("Ready");
}

The c&#0; cght 522 all to

softServoWrite
centers the servo and waits for two seconds. If your sensor is not centered, follow these steps:
1. Switch the power off
2. Unscrew the servo shaft screw (see the instructions supplied with the Ping bracket)
3. Lift the Ping mounting bracket and reposition so it is facing forward
4. Replace the servo shaft screw
5. Power on and recheck

Figure 10-15. Servo used to scan left, center, and right

The servo angle is controlled by adjusting the pulse width on the Arduino pin connected to the servo. 1.5ms pulses will center the
servo, and increasing or decreasing the pulse width will turn the servo one direction or the other.

Note
The exact relationship between pulse width and servo angle varies across different servo products. If your servo turns right
when it should turn left, swap the right and left servo angles in the
servoAngles
array:
// servo angles left, right, center
const int servoAngles[] = { 150, 30, 90};

Arduino has a Servo library that can control up to 12 servos, however this is not used in this sketch for two reasons. The Servo
library enables you to send an angle to the servo and carry on executing sketch code while the servo is being moved in the
background, but your code must wait until the servo is facing the desired direction before requesting a reading from the distance
sensor. However, the main reason not to use the Servo library is because it requires exclusive use of one of the Arduino chip's
hardware timers (timer 1) and timers are in short supply on a standard Arduino chip (see
Appendix F
).
The code to control the servo goes in a tab named
Softservo
(see
Example 10-7
).
Example 10-7. The code from the Softservo tab
Example 10-7. The code from the Softservo tab
/*******************************
Softservo.ino
software servo control without using timers
note that these functions block until complete
*******************************/
int servoPin;
void softServoAttach(int pin)
{
servoPin = pin;
pinMode(pin, OUTPUT);
}
// writes given angle to servo for given delay in milliseconds
void softServoWrite(int angle, long servoDelay)
{
int pulsewidth = map(angle, 0, 180, 544, 2400); // width in microseconds
do {
digitalWrite(servoPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(pulsewidth);
digitalWrite(servoPin, LOW);
delay(20); // wait for 20 milliseconds
servoDelay -= 20;
} while(servoDelay >=0);
}

The
softServoAttach
function stores the pin number that the servo is attached to. The
softServoWrite
function converts the desired angle into a pulse width and creates the pulse using
digitalWrite
with a pulse width determined by a call to
delayMicroseconds
. The pulses are sent repeatedly for the duration of the given
servoDelay
which is a period sufficient for the servo to turn to the desired direction.
The
Look
code is similar to the code described at the beginning of this chapter, but here the
lookAt
function calls
softServoWrite
to rotate the servo instead of rotating the entire robot.
Example 10-8
shows the
Look
tab used in the
myRobotScan
sketch.
Example 10-8. The modified Look tab code
/**********************
code to look for obstacles
**********************/
// servo defines
const int sweepServoPin = 9; // pin connected to servo
const int servoDelay = 500; // time in ms for servo to move
const int MIN_DISTANCE = 8; // robot stops when object is nearer (in inches)
const int CLEAR_DISTANCE = 24; // dis&#0; bbbbb> ctance in inches considered attracive to move
const int MAX_DISTANCE = 150; // the maximum range of the distance sensor
// servo angles left, right, center
const int servoAngles[] = { 150, 30, 90};
const byte pingPin = 10; // digital pin 10
void lookBegin()
{
irSensorBegin(); // initialize sensors
softServoAttach(sweepServoPin); /// attaches the servo pin to the servo object
}
// returns true if the given obstacle is detected
boolean lookForObstacle(int obstacle)
{
switch(obstacle) {
case OBST_FRONT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_LEFT) && irEdgeDetect(DIR_RIGHT);
case OBST_LEFT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_LEFT);
case OBST_RIGHT_EDGE: return irEdgeDetect(DIR_RIGHT);
case OBST_FRONT: return lookAt(servoAngles[DIR_CENTER]) <= MIN_DISTANCE;
}
return false;
}
// returns the distance of objects at the given angle
int lookAt(int angle)
{
softServoWrite(angle, servoDelay ); // wait for servo to get into position
int distance, samples;
long cume;
distance = samples = cume = 0;
for(int i =0; i < 4; i++)
{
distance = pingGetDistance(pingPin);
if(distance > 0)
{
// printlnValue(" D= ",distance);
samples++;
cume+= distance;
}
}
if(samples > 0)
distance = cume / samples;
else
distance = 0;
if( angle != servoAngles[DIR_CENTER])
{
Serial.print("looking at dir ");
Serial.print(angle), Serial.print(" distance= ");
Serial.println(distance);
softServoWrite(servoAngles[DIR_CENTER], servoDelay/2);
}
return distance;
}
// function to check if robot can continue moving in current direction
// returns true if robot is not blocked moving in current direction
// this version only tests for obstacles in front
boolean checkMovement()
{
boolean isClear = true; // default return value if no obstacles
if(moveGetState() == MOV_FORWARD)
{
if(lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT) == true)
{
isClear = false;
}
}
return isClear;
}
// Look for and avoid obstacles using servo to scan
void roam()
{
int distance = lookAt(servoAngles[DIR_CENTER]);
if(distance == 0)
{
moveStop();
Serial.println("No front sensor");
return; // no sensor
}
else if(distance <= MIN_DISTANCE)
{
moveStop();
//Serial.print("Scanning:");
int leftDistance = lookAt(servoAngles[DIR_LEFT]);
if(leftDistance > CLEAR_DISTANCE) {
// Serial.print(" moving left: ");
moveRotate(-90);
}
else {
delay(500);
int rightDistance = lookAt(servoAngles[DIR_RIGHT]);
&&#0; bbbbb conbsp; if(rightDistance > CLEAR_DISTANCE) {
// Serial.println(" moving right: ");
moveRotate(90);
}
else {
// Serial.print(" no clearence : ");
distance = max( leftDistance, rightDistance);
if(distance < CLEAR_DISTANCE/2) {
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 1000); // back up for one second
moveRotate(-180); // turn around
}
else {
if(leftDistance > rightDistance)
moveRotate(-90);
else
moveRotate(90);
}
}
}
}
}
// the following is based on loop code from myRobotEdge
// robot checks for edge and moves to avoid
void avoidEdge()
{
if( lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT_EDGE) == true)
{
 Serial.println("left and right sensors detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 300);
moveRotate(120);
while(lookForObstacle(OBST_FRONT_EDGE) == true )
moveStop(); // stop motors if still over cliff
}
else if(lookForObstacle(OBST_LEFT_EDGE) == true)
{
Serial.println("left sensor detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 100);
moveRotate(30);
}
else if(lookForObstacle(OBST_RIGHT_EDGE) == true)
{
Serial.println("right sensor detected edge");
timedMove(MOV_BACK, 100);
moveRotate(-30);
}
}

The
lookForObstacle
and
roam
functions are modified from the non-scanning version to use the appropriate servo angles for looking left, right, and center. The
servo angles are stored in the array
servoAngle
(swap the left and right values if your servo turns in the wrong direction). The
lookAt
function now rotates the servo to the desired angle instead of moving the entire robot.

Chapter 11. Remote Control

This chapter describes how to remotely control robot movement. Techniques for sending Serial commands as well as TV type
infrared remote control are both explained. The example sketches enable you to command the robot to perform any of the higher
level drive functions describ&#0; bbbbbForOppred in
Chapter 7
.

Hardware Required
The TV remote control sketch requires an infrared decoder module. TSOP4838 (or the equivalent PNA4602) modules (
Figure 11-1
) have power and signal pins oriented to enable them to plug directly into the socket on the motor shield.
You will also need an infrared remote control—almost any controller from a TV or DVD player will do.
 Figure 11-1. Infrared Decoder Module

Sketches Used in This Chapter

myRobotSerialRemote.ino
—enables the robot to be controlled by commands from the serial port.
myRobotRemote.ino
- uses commands from a TV type remote to control the robot.
Figure 11-2
shows the modules used in this chapter.

Figure 11-2. Remote Control sketches

Design of the Remote Control Code

The code to handle remote control functions is contained in a module named Re&#0; kdul om themote that appears as a tab in
sketches introduced in this chapter. This module:
Defines constants that identify each command.
Matches received data to a command.
Executes a function associated with each command which activates the appropriate action.
Here are the commands used in the remote control example:
const char MOVE_FORWARD = 'f'; // move forward
const char MOVE_BACK = 'b'; // move backward
const char PIVOT_CCW = 'C'; // rotate 90 degrees CCW
const char PIVOT_CW = 'c'; // rotate 90 degrees CW
const char PIVOT = 'p'; // rotation angle (minus rotates CCW)
const char HALT = 'h'; // stop moving
These constants are used to switch program execution to a function associated with each command:
void processCommand(int cmd, int val)
{
switch(cmd)
{
case MOVE_FORWARD : changeCmdState(MOV_FORWARD); moveForward(); break;
case MOVE_BACK : changeCmdState(MOV_BACK); moveBackward(); break;
case PIVOT_CCW : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(-90); break;
case PIVOT_CW : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(90); break;
case PIVOT : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(val); break;
case HALT : changeCmdState(MOV_STOP); moveStop(); break;
}
}

Before calling a movement function, a function named

changeCmdState
is called to store the current command state. This enables the robot logic to be aware of what it was last asked to do so it can
make decisions if it encounters obstacles while trying to execute the commanded movement.
To get this code working with serial commands, all that is needed is to add a function that passes serial data to the
processCommand
function.
Example 11-1
shows the code for the Remote tab that supports simple serial remote control.
Example 11-1. Remote tab code for simple serial remote control
// robot remote commands
// This version is for serial commands
// Command constants
const char MOVE_FORWARD = 'f'; // move forward
const char MOVE_BACK = 'b'; // mov&#0; jjjjj Qe backward
const char MOVE_LEFT = 'l'; // move left
const char MOVE_RIGHT = 'r'; // move right
const char PIVOT_CCW = 'C'; // rotate 90 degrees CCW
const char PIVOT_CW = 'c'; // rotate 90 degrees CW
const char PIVOT = 'p'; // rotation angle (minus rotates CCW)
const char HALT = 'h'; // stop moving
// not used in this example
const char MOVE_SPEED = 's';
const char MOVE_SLOWER = 'v'; // reduce speed
const char MOVE_FASTER = '^'; // increase speed
int commandState = MOV_STOP; // what robot is told to do
void remoteService()
{
if(Serial.available() )
{
int cmd = Serial.read();
processCommand(cmd);
}
}

void changeCmdState(int newState)

{
if(newState != commandState)
{
Serial.print("Changing Cmd state from "); Serial.print( states[commandState]);
Serial.print(" to "); Serial.println(states[newState]);
commandState = newState;
}
}
void processCommand(int cmd)
{
int val = 0;
if( cmd == PIVOT || cmd == SPEED) {
val = Serial.parseInt();
}
processCommand(cmd, val);
}
void processCommand(int cmd, int val)
{
byte speed;
Serial.write(cmd); // echo
switch(cmd)
{
case MOVE_LEFT : changeCmdState(MOV_LEFT); moveLeft(); break;
case MOVE_RIGHT : changeCmdState(MOV_RIGHT); moveRight(); break;
case MOVE_FORWARD : changeCmdState(MOV_FORWARD); moveForward(); break;
case MOVE_BACK : changeCmdState(MOV_BACK); moveBackward(); break;
case PIVOT_CCW : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(-90); break;
case PIVOT_CW : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(90); break;
case PIVOT : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(val); break;
case HALT : changeCmdState(MOV_STOP); moveStop(); break;
case SPEED : speed = val; moveSetSpeed(speed); break;
}
}
This code adds a function named
remoteService
that is called from the main sketch to check if any remote commands have been received. The
remoteService
function will be exanded later in this chapter to support other remote control inputs.
You may have noticed that there are two functions named
processCommand
. The one that takes a single parameter tests if a second parameter is required (as in the case of the
PIVOT
command) and if so gets this using the Serial Stream
parseInt
function.
&#0; jjjjj Q
Example 11-2
shows the main sketch code from the example, myRobotSerialRemote that responds to the serial commands.
Example 11-2. Main sketch code
/******************************************************************************
myRobotSerialRemote.ino
Robot sketch with serial remote commands
Created by Michael Margolis 10 June 2012
******************************************************************************/
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include "RobotMotor.h" // 2wd or 4wd motor library
#include "robotDefines.h" // global defines
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
while(!Serial); // only needed for leonardo
moveBegin();
moveSetSpeed(MIN_SPEED + 10) ; // Run at 10% above minimum speed
}
void loop()
{
remoteService(); // wait for serial commands
}
// function to check if robot can continue moving when taking evasive action
// returns true if robot is not blocked when moving to avoid obstacles
// this 'placeholder' version always returns true
boolean checkMovement()
{
return true;
}

If you have a wireless device that passes serial data such as a Bluetooth module, you can wirelessly control the robot by
connecting the serial output of the adapter to the Arduino serial input and wiring up the power leads. If you are using a Leonardo,
note that the TX/RX pins (digital 1 and 0) are accessed through
Serial1
rather than
Serial
, so modify your code accordingly (you'll need to replace all instances of Serial with Serial1 in all the tabs of your sketch).

Controlling the Robot with a TV Type IR Remote

The remote code can be expanded to support the decoding of IR remote controls. To do this, an IR module is used to receive
and condition the IR pulses so they can be decoded by Arduino.

Installing the IR Decoder Chip

The IR receiver module looks something like a three pin transistor with a bulge for the IR sensor lens. The module is plugged into
the shield as shown in
Figure 11-3
and
Figure 11-4
. It is polarized, so make sure it is facing the direction shown or you can damage the module.
 Figure 11-3. IR Receiver Module

Figure 11-4. IR Receiver Module plugged into the motor shield

If the receiver module does not plug securely into the socket, use a long-nose pliers to twist the ends of each of the three leads
90 degrees, as shown in
Figure 11-5
.

Figure 11-5. IR Receiver Module with leads twisted to for better fit into socket

The IR Remote Software

The low level decoding of the infrared signal is handled by an Arduino library named
IRremote
that is included with the book's download code.
If you need help installing a library, see
Installing Third-Party Libraries
.
You don't need to understand how the library works in order to use it, but if you are curious, the following is an overview of how
the library works.
The
IRremote
library uses an
irrecv
object to decode the pulses from the IR Receiver.
The IRremote Library and Pin Assignments
T&#0; jjjjj av>
irrecv
object is:
IRrecv irrecv(irReceivePin);

The
irReceivePin
is the pin that the module is connected to. This pin is defined at the top of the main sketch tab:
const byte irReceivePin = A3;
// analog pin 3

The Arduino analog input pins can also be used as digital pins, but the pin numbers are not the same—analog pin 3 is not digital
pin 3! The
A3
constant is the Arduino way of referring to the digital pin number associated with the analog input (the
irrecv
object expects the digital pin number). On Leonardo, analog input 3 is used as digital input 21; on a standard ATmega328
board like the Uno, A3 is digital pin 17. If you use Arduino constants to refer to the digital pin assignments for the analog input
pins, the correct values will automatically be assigned.
A numeric value is provided for each remote keypress detected. The specific key values decoded will depend on the remote
controller you use.
Example 11-3
shows code for the
Remote
tab with support for the IR receiver.
Example 11-3. The Remote tab code
// robot remote commands
#include <IRremote.h> // IR remote control library
IRrecv irrecv(irReceivePin);
decode_results results;
// Command constants
const char MOVE_FORWARD = 'f'; // move forward
const char MOVE_BACK = 'b'; // move backward
const char MOVE_LEFT = 'l'; // move left
const char MOVE_RIGHT = 'r'; // move right
const char PIVOT_CCW = 'C'; // rotate 90 degrees CCW
const char PIVOT_CW = 'c'; // rotate 90 degrees CW
const char PIVOT = 'p'; // rotation angle (minus rotates CCW)
const char HALT = 'h'; // stop
// not used in this example
const char MOVE_SPEED = 's';
const char MOVE_SLOWER = 'v'; // reduce speed
const char MOVE_FASTER = '^'; // increase speed
//IR remote keycodes:replace this with codes for your remote
// See text for procedure for obtaining codes.
const long IR_MOVE_FORWARD = 1064;
const long IR_MOVE_BACK = 3112;
const long IR_MOVE_LEFT = 1128;
const long IR_MOVE_RIGHT = 2152;
const long IR_PIVOT_CW = 136;
const long IR_PIVOT_CCW = 1160;
const long IR_HALT = 2216&#0; jjjjj `��;
int commandState = MOV_STOP; // what robot is told to do
void remoteBegin(byte irPin)
{
irrecv.enableIRIn(); // Start the receiver
}
void remoteService()
{
if (irrecv.decode(&results))
{
if (results.decode_type != UNKNOWN)
{
//Serial.println(results.value); // uncomment to see raw result
convertIrToCommand(results.value);
}
irrecv.resume(); // Receive the next value
}
// additional support for serial commands
if(Serial.available() )
{
int cmd = Serial.read();
processCommand(cmd);
}
}
void convertIrToCommand(long value)
{
{
switch(value)
{
case IR_MOVE_LEFT : processCommand(MOVE_LEFT); break;
case IR_MOVE_RIGHT : processCommand(MOVE_RIGHT); break;
case IR_MOVE_FORWARD : processCommand(MOVE_FORWARD); break;
case IR_MOVE_BACK : processCommand(MOVE_BACK); break;
case IR_PIVOT_CCW : processCommand(PIVOT_CCW); break;
case IR_PIVOT_CW : processCommand(PIVOT_CW); break;
case IR_HALT : processCommand(HALT); break;
// case IR_SLOWER : processCommand(SLOWER); break;
// case IR_FASTER : processCommand(FASTER); break;
}
}
}
void changeCmdState(int newState)
{
if(newState != commandState)
{
Serial.print("Changing Cmd state from "); Serial.print( states[commandState]);
 Serial.print(" to "); Serial.println(states[newState]);
commandState = newState;
}
}
void processCommand(int cmd)
{
int val = 0;
if( cmd == MOVE_SPEED) {
val = Serial.parseInt();
}
else if( cmd == PIVOT) {
val = Serial.parseInt();
}
processCommand(cmd, val);
}
void processCommand(int cmd, int val)
{
byte speed;
//Serial.write(cmd); // uncomment to echo
switch(cmd)
{
case MOVE_LEFT : changeCmdState(MOV_LEFT); moveLeft(); break;
case MOVE_RIGHT : changeCmdState(MOV_RIGHT); moveRight(); break;
case MOVE_FORWARD : changeCmdState(MOV_FORWARD); moveForward(); break;
case MOVE_BACK : changeCmdState(MOV_BACK); moveBackward(); break;
case PIVOT_CCW : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(-90); break;
case PIVOT_CW : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(90); break;
case PIVOT : changeCmdState(MOV_ROTATE); moveRotate(val); break;
case HALT : changeCmdState(MOV_STOP); moveStop(); break;
case MOVE_SPEED : speed = val; moveSetSpeed(speed); break;
// case SLOWER &#0; jjjjj `��: moveSlower(speedIncrement); break;
// case FASTER : moveFaster(speedIncrement); break;
case '\r' : case '\n': break; // ignore cr and lf
default : Serial.print('['); Serial.write(cmd); Serial.println("] Ignored"); break;
}
}

Timers and IRremote Library

The standard
IRremote
library uses Timer 2 and, at the time of writing, did not support the Leonardo board. However, Timer 1 is the
only available timer when using the 4WD with the Leonardo board. The version of this library included with the
example code (see
How to Contact Us
) supports the Leonardo board and is modified to use Timer 1.
Pin and Timer Tables
shows how the sketches in this book use the timers. These timers were selected so the same code can be used
with the 2 motor and 4 motor robots with either the Arduino Uno or Arduino Leonardo boards. If you want to
use a timer other than Timer 1 and you are sure that another timer is free, then the information on
Modifying a Library to Change Timer Allocation
will help you modify the library for use with a different Timer.
To use this code with your remote, you need to replace the IR commands with the ones your remote controller sends.
Figure 11-6
shows a typical controller with a suggested key assignment but you can choose any keys you want.
 Figure 11-6. Remote Controller Command Buttons
You can use the sketch shown in
Example 11-4
to display the actual IR codes that are sent. After you upload and run the sketch, it will prompt you to press a key for each
command to be learned. These are: forward, reverse, left, right, pivot counterclockwise, pivot clockwise, and stop. The decoded
value will be displayed for each recognized keypress. After all the keys are learned, the codes are written to the Serial Monitor in
a format that you can copy into the
Remote
tab below the comment line that reads:
//IR remote keycodes:replace this with codes for your remote
.
Example 11-4. Learning remote sketch
/*
* LearningRemote.cpp
*/
#include <IRremote.h> // IR remote control library
const int irPin = A3; // analog input pin 3 (digital 17)
const long NO_KEY = -1;
const long TIMEOUT = 5000; //max number of milliseconds to wait for a key (5 secs)
const int KEYCOUNT = 7; // the number of key codes supported
long irKeyCodes[ KEYCOUNT]; // this will store raw codes for all keys
char * remoteKeyNames[KEYCOUNT] =
{"Forward", "Back", "Left", "Right", "PivotCW", "PivotCCW", "Halt" };
// not used: Slower, Faster
IRrecv irrecv(irPin); // create the IR receive object
decode_results results; // ir data goes here
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
while(!Serial); // only needed for leonardo
irrecv.enableIRIn(); // Start the ir receiver
learnKeycodes();
printConstants();
Serial.println();
Serial.println("Now press the remote keys to verify correct detection");
}
void loop()
{
long key = getIrKeycode(TIMEOUT);
if( key!= NO_KEY)
{
int index = findKey(key);
if( index != NO_KEY)
{
Serial.println(remoteKeyNames[index]);
}
}
}
// get remote control codes
// the key map should be set to zero before calling this
void learnKeycodes()
{
Serial.println("Ready to learn remote codes");
for(int i = 0; i < KEYCOUNT; )
{
//delay(100);
Serial.println();
Serial.print("press remote key for ");
Serial.print( remoteKeyNames[i]);
long key = getIrKeycode(TIMEOUT);
if( key > 0 )
{
Serial.println(", release key ...");
long temp;
do {
temp = getIrKeycode(200);
}
while( temp == key);
if( findKey(key) == NO_KEY)
{
Serial.print(" -> using code ");
Serial.print( key );
Serial.print(" for ");
Serial.println(remoteKeyNames[i]);
irKeyCodes[i] = key;
i++;
}
else
{
Serial.println("key already assigned");
}
}
else continue;
}
 Serial.println("Done\n");
}

// wait up to timeout milliseconds for a key

long getIrKeycode(long timeout)
{
flushKeys();
long key = NO_KEY;
unsigned long startTime = millis();
while( millis() - startTime < timeout )
{
if( irrecv.decode(&results) ) {
key = results.value;
//Serial.println(key, HEX);
irrecv.resume(); // Receive the next value
if(key != NO_KEY ) {
break;
}
}
}
return key;
}
//clear the buffer
void flushKeys()
{
while(irrecv.decode(&results))
irrecv.resume();
results.value = -1;
}
// returns the index for the given key code if found
// returns NO_KEY if code is not found
int findKey(long code)
{
for(int i=0; i < KEYCOUNT; i++ )
{
if(irKeyCodes[i] == code)
return i;
}
return NO_KEY;
}
void printConstants()
{
int i = 0;
Serial.println("//IR remote keycodes:");
Serial.print("const long IR_MOVE_FORWARD = "); Serial.print(irKeyCodes[i++]);
Serial.println(";");
Serial.print("const long IR_MOVE_BACK = "); Serial.print(irKeyCodes[i++]);
Serial.println(";");
Serial.print("const long IR_MOVE_LEFT = "); Serial.print(irKeyCodes[i++]);
Serial.println(";");
Serial.print("const long IR_MOVE_RIGHT = "); Serial.print(irKeyCodes[i++]);
Serial.println(";");
Serial.print("const long IR_PIVOT_CW = "); Serial.print(irKeyCodes[i++]);
Serial.println(";");
Serial.print("const long IR_PIVOT_CCW = "); Serial.print(irKeyCodes[i++]);
Serial.println(";");
Serial.print("const long IR_HALT = "); Serial.print(irKeyCodes[i++]);
Serial.println(";");
Serial.println(); Serial.println("Copy the above lines to the Remote tab");
}

The IR remote example sketch shown in

Example 11-5
is similar to the example earlier in this chapter with some additional lines for the IR remote.
Example 11-5. IR remote sketch code
/******************************************************************************
myRobotRemote.ino
Robot sketch with remote commands
Note: if motors don't turn, check that irRemoteInt.h uses Timer1, not Timer2
Michael Margolis 28 May 2012
******************************************************************************/
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include "RobotMotor.h" // 2wd or 4wd motor library
#include "robotDefines.h" // global defines
const byte irReceivePin = A3; /// analog pin 3
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
blink&#0; jjjjj `��Number(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
lookBegin();
 moveBegin();
remoteBegin(irReceivePin); /// added Remote tab
moveSetSpeed(MIN_SPEED + 10) ; // Run at 10% above minimum speed
Serial.println("Ready");
}
void loop()
{
remoteService();
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(400);
}
}

The
remoteBegin(irReceivePin);
function called in
setup
initializes the IRdecode library.
ireReceivePin
is the pin the ir decoder module is connected to, in this case, analog pin 3. Because the library expects a digital pin number, the
Arduino constant
A3
is used.

Appendix A. Enhancing Your Robot

Experienced software engineers use a variety of techniques to help manage complex projects. This section provides a list of
useful tips for designing and building complex robotics projects.

Planning
Think Before You Code
It helps to think about your project and be clear on what you want it to achieve before you start coding. Tinkering around without a
plan is a good way to learn and to have fun, but it can make a large project too cumbersome to manage.

Avoid Feature Bloat

Don't add features that you don't need. Features added 'just in case' may seem like a good way to save time later on, but nine
times out of ten, the features you actually need will require changes to the code you wrote that are usually more troublesome than
writing the feature from scratch after you are clear on what you really need.

Don't Reinvent the Wheel

See what’s out there that you can reuse. The Arduino community has made available a vast collection of useful software. Even if
you don't end up using something off the shelf, seeing how others have solved problems similar to yours can inform your own
solutions.

Structure to Reflect Functionality

Think about functional associations when organizing your code. Grouping similar functionality together enables you to create
modules which can be tested in isolation from the rest of your code, simplifying debugging and reducing the likelihood that
adding functionality later will have side effects on other parts of your sketch.

Use Clear Names for Functions and Variables

Each function should have a single clear purpose. Choose a name that reflects that purpose so when you later need to debug,
add or change functionality, it will be clear what each function or variable is doing. A few extra seconds spent finding evocative
names when you are coding can save hours later on when you are trying to figure out what a piece of code is intended to do.

Implementing a Complex Project

Test Often
Testing after each major addition or change in code saves time because you will find and fix problems more quickly. It may
seem more efficient to wait until you have lots of code completed before stopping to test, but when the inevitable bugs arise, you
can waste a huge amount of time just trying to locate which part of the code is causing the problem.

Simplify
Spending time simplifying code will be repaid in reduced debug time. Complex code can be difficult to debug or enhance,
particularly when you come back to it after a while. Looking at each completed function with an eye to seeing if there is a simpler
way o&#0; ssim `� ​� ​� � ​f achieving the functionality can result in cleaner code that is easier to maintain.

If It Is Awkward, Start Over

Don't be afraid to throw away prototype code that becomes a burden. Sometimes you need to tinker to get things working, but if
this ends up making your code a tangled mess, use what you have learned to rethink your structure and start over.

Don't Confuse Activity with Progress

If you are not making progress, stop and take a break and come back fresh. It is easier taking in the big picture after a break,
particularly if you pause to get a clear picture in your mind of the problem you are trying to solve and a list of the assumptions you
are making about what is standing in your way.

Experiment
If what you have tried isn't working, try something new. Software problems may actually be a hardware issue (and vice versa).

Be Tenacious
Interesting projects usually come with difficult problems—overcoming these is part of the reward for a job well done.

Have Fun
Isn't that why you started this project in the first place?

Appendix B. Using Other Hardware with Your Robot

You may want to add more capability to your robot or perhaps substitute different hardware than the items covered in the text.
This chapter describes how to use some common alternative components.

Alternative Motor Controllers

<&#0; rrrrr p� ​� ​� pdiv height="0">

Ardumoto
This popular H-bridge can be used instead of the Adafruit shield described in the text if you have a two wheeled robot (the shield
only supports two motors). It also lacks the convenient layout for the analog sensors and you will need to add two 3 pin headers
for the servo and distance sensor connections. The Motor code for Ardumoto is shown in
Example B-1
.

Continuous Rotation Servos

Continuous rotation servos are hobby servos modified to rotate continuously with a speed and rotation direction controlled by
the Servo library that comes with Arduino. The servo rotates in one direction as the angle written to the servo is increased from
90 degrees; it rotates in the other direction when the angle is decreased from 90 degrees. The actual direction forward or
backward depends on how you have the servos attached. Continuous rotation servos may not stop rotating when writing exactly
90 degrees. Some servos have a small potentiometer you can trim to adjust for this, or you can add or subtract a few degrees to
the
motorStopAngle
element to stop the servo. This version uses digital pins 7 and 8 but you can change this by altering the elements of the
servoPins
array (the first element for all the arrays is the left servo, the second is the right servo). See
Example B-2
.
These functions convert requests to set the motor speed into servo angles that are written to the continuous rotation servos. The
conversion is performed using the Arduino map function.

Note
This code uses the Servo library. If you want to build the infrared remote control project with continuous rotation servos,
you will need to ensure that the
IRremote
library is configured to use a timer other than Timer 1) because the Servo library requires Timer 1. See
Modifying a Library to Change Timer Allocation
for timer usage and details on how to configure timers for the
IRremote
library.
Example B-1. RobotMotor library code for th&#0; zzzzz qervo)e Ardumoto shield
/*******************************************************
RobotMotor.cpp // Ardumoto version
low level motor driver for use with ardumoto motor shield and 2WD robot
 Michael Margolis May 8 2012
********************************************************/
#include <Arduino.h>
#include "RobotMotor.h"
const int differential = 0; // % faster left motor turns compared to right
/****** motor pin defines *************/
// Pins connected to the motor driver. The PWM pins control the speed, and the
// other pins are select forward and reverse
// Motor uses pins : 3,11,12,13
const byte M_PWM_PIN[2] = {11,3}; // ardumoto v13
const byte M_DIR_PIN[2] = {13,12};
/* end of motor pin defines */
int motorSpeed[2] = {0,0}; // motor speed stored here (0-100%)
// tables hold time in ms to rotate robot 360 degrees at various speeds
// this enables conversion of rotation angle into timed motor movement
// The speeds are percent of max speed
// Note: low cost motors do not have enough torque at low speeds so
// the robot will not move below this value
// Interpolation is used to get a time for any speed from MIN_SPEED to 100%
const int MIN_SPEED = 40; // first table entry is 40% speed
const int SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL = 10; // each table entry is 10% faster speed
const int NBR_SPEEDS = 1 + (100 - MIN_SPEED)/ SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL;
int speedTable[NBR_SPEEDS] = {40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100}; // speeds
int rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS] = {5500, 3300, 2400, 2000, 1750, 1550, 1150}; // time
void motorBegin(int motor)
{
pinMode(M_DIR_PIN[motor], OUTPUT);
motorStop(motor);
}
// speed range is 0 to 100
void motorSetSpeed(int motor, int speed)
{
motorSpeed[motor] = speed; // save the value
speed = map(speed, 0,100, 0,255); // scale to PWM range
analogWrite(M_PWM_PIN[motor], speed); // write the value
}
void motorForward(int motor, int speed)
{
digitalWrite(M_DIR_PIN[motor], HIGH);
motorSetSpeed(motor, speed);
}
void motorReverse(int motor, int speed)
{
digitalWrite(M_DIR_PIN[motor], LOW);
motorSetSpeed(motor, speed);
}
void motorStop(int motor)
{
analogWrite(M_PWM_PIN[motor], 0);
}
void motorBrake(int motor)
{
// Ardumoto does not support brake, so just stop the motor
analogWrite(M_PWM_PIN[motor], 0);
}

Example B-2. RobotMotor library header for continuous rotation servos

/*******************************************************
RobotMotor.cpp // continuous rotation servo version
low level motor driver for use with continuous rotation servos and 2WD robot
Copyright Michael Margolis May 8 2012
********************************************************/
#include <Arduino.h>
#include <Servo.h>
#include "RobotMotor.h"
Servo myservo[2]; &nb&#0; zzzzz p��sp; // create instances for two servos
const int MAX_ANGLE = 60; // number of degrees that motor driven at max speed
const int servoPins[2] = {7,8}; // digital pins connected to servos:(left,right)
// change sign to reverse direction of the motor
int motorSense[2] = {1,-1}; // 1 increases angle for forward, -1 decreaes
int motorStopAngle[2] = {90,90}; // inc or dec so motor stops when motorStop is called
int motorSpeed[2] = {0,0}; // left and right motor speeds stored here (0-100%)
// tables hold time in ms to rotate robot 360 degrees at various speeds
// this enables conversion of rotation angle into timed motor movement
// The speeds are percent of max speed
 // Note: low cost motors do not have enough torque at low speeds so
// the robot will not move below this value
// Interpolation is used to get a time for any speed from MIN_SPEED to 100%
const int MIN_SPEED = 40; // first table entry is 40% speed
const int SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL = 10; // each table entry is 10% faster speed
const int NBR_SPEEDS = 1 + (100 - MIN_SPEED)/ SPEED_TABLE_INTERVAL;
int speedTable[NBR_SPEEDS] = {40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100}; // speeds
int rotationTime[NBR_SPEEDS] = {5500, 3300, 2400, 2000, 1750, 1550, 1150}; // time
void motorBegin(int motor)
{
myservo[motor].attach(servoPins[motor]);
}
// speed range is 0 to 100
void motorSetSpeed(int motor, int speed)
{
motorSpeed[motor] = speed; // save the value
}
void motorForward(int motor, int speed)
{
motorSetSpeed(motor, speed);
int stopAngle = motorStopAngle[motor];
int maxSpeedAngle = stopAngle + (MAX_ANGLE * motorSense[motor]);
int angle = map(speed, 0,100, stopAngle, maxSpeedAngle);
myservo[motor].write(angle);
}
void motorReverse(int motor, int speed)
{
motorSetSpeed(motor, speed);
int stopAngle = motorStopAngle[motor];
int maxSpeedAngle = stopAngle - (MAX_ANGLE * motorSense[motor]);
int angle = map(speed, 0,100, stopAngle, maxSpeedAngle);
myservo[motor].write(angle);
}
void motorStop(int motor)
{
myservo[motor].write(motorStopAngle[motor]);
}
void motorBrake(int motor)
{
myservo[motor].write(motorStopAngle[motor]);
}

Appendix C. Debugging Your Robot

Complex projects inevitably throw up obstacles in the form of bugs. As these arise, you can congratulate yourself for choosing
such a challenging project and bear in mind the satisfaction you will feel when all the problems have been overcome. Here is
some software that should help you find and fix problems you may encounter.

Identify the Symptoms and Localize the proble&#0; zzzzz p�​� �m

Seeing What the Robot Is Doing
Visualizing data from the sensors in real time can be tremendous help in understanding what is actually happening in your
sketch.
Figure C-1
shows the screen from a Processing sketch that enables you to easily view Arduino values.
 Figure C-1. Arduino Data Displayed in Processing
Figure C-1
depicts the analogRead values from left, center and right and sensors used in line detection. The grey numbers in parentheses
on the right indicate the possible range of values, the following number is the numeric value sent from Arduino.
The figure shows the values when the robot is straying slightly to the right of a dark line it is trying to follow (the values increase
when the sensor is over the line). The Position value goes positive when straying right and negative when left. The Position value
is used in the line following sketch to adjust the robot direction so it stays on the line. The Distance value is in inches and is
obtained from the ping distance sensor.
The Processing sketch expects data in the following format; fields are separated by commas:
The string: Data
The row to display; the first row is row 1
The value to display
The newline character "\n"
For example, sending
"Data,2,680\n"
will display a bar with a value of 680 on the second line.
You can send labels for each line by sending a string such as:
"Label,2,Center Line\n"
, which will tag the second row with the label "Center Line".
The data range can be sent using a string such as
"Range,5,0,144\n"
which will set the range of the fifth line from 0 to 144.
The easiest way to send this data is to add the DataDisplay tab to your sketch and call the functions to fo&#0;����� q
@rmat and send the data:
sendData(row, value);
sends the specified value for display on the given row
sendLabel(row, label);
sends the specified label for display on the given row
sendRange(row, minimum, maximum);
sends the minimum and maximum values for the specified row
The sketch named
myRobotDebug
contains the DataDisplay tab and provides an example of how to send data to the Processing.
Example C-1
shows the main sketch code.
Example C-1. myRobotDebug main sketch code
/**********************************************************
MyRobotDebug.ino
Simple debug example using Processing debug monitor
This version displays values from the line and distance sensors
***********************************************************/
#include "robotDefines.h" // global defines
const byte pingPin = 10; // Distance sensor connected to digital pin 10
enum {DATA_start, DATA_LEFT, DATA_CENTER, DATA_RIGHT,DATA_DRIFT,DATA_DISTANCE,
DATA_nbrItems};
char* labels[]= {"","Left Line","Center Line","Right Line","Drift","Distance"};
int minRange[]= { 0, 0, 0, 0, -1023, 0 };
int maxRange[]= { 0, 1023, 1023, 1023, 1023, 144};
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
while(!Serial); // only needed for leonardo
dataDisplayBegin(DATA_nbrItems, labels, minRange, maxRange );
Serial.println("Ready");
}
void loop()
{
lineSense();
int distance = pingGetDistance(pingPin);
sendData(DATA_DISTANCE, distance); // send distance
}
 /****************************
Line Sensor code
****************************/
// defines for locations of sensors
const int SENSE_LINE_LEFT = 0;
const int SENSE_LINE_RIGHT = 1;
const int SENSE_LINE_CENTER = 2;
//returns drift - 0 if over line, minus value if left, plus if right
int lineSense()
{
int leftVal = analogRead(SENSE_LINE_LEFT);
int centerVal = analogRead(SENSE_LINE_CENTER);
int rightVal = analogRead(SENSE_LINE_RIGHT);
sendData(DATA_LEFT, leftVal); // send left sensor value sendData(DATA_CENTER, centerVal); // send center sensor
value
sendData(DATA_RIGHT, rightVal); // send right sensor values
int leftSense = centerVal - leftVal;
int rightSense = rightVal - centerVal;
int drift = leftVal- rightVal ;
sendData(DATA_DRIFT, drift); // send drift sensor values
return drift;
}
// Returns the distance in inches
// this will return 0 if no ping sensor is connected or
// the distance is greater than around 10 feet
int pingGetDistance(int pingPin)
{
long duration, cm;
pinMode(pingPin, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(2);
digitalWrite(pingPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(5);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
pinMode(pingPin, INPUT);
duration = pulseIn(pingPin, HIGH, 20000); // if a pulse does not arrive in 20 ms then
// the ping sensor is not connected
if(duration >=20000)
return 0;
// convert the time into a distance
cm = duration / 29 / 2;
return (cm * 10) / 25 ; // convert cm to inches
}

The Arduino code that sends the data is in the tab named
DataDisplay
(
Example C-2
), you can copy the code into any sketch you want to debug, or you can simply add the tab to the sketch.
Example C-2. the DataDisplay tab code
// DataDisplay
void dataDisplayBegin(int nbrItems, char* labels[], int minRange[], int maxRange[] )
{
for(int i = 1; i < nbrItems; i++)
{
sendLabel(i, labels[i]);
sendRange(i, minRange[i], maxRange[i]);
}
}
void sendLabel( int row, char *label)
{
sendString("Label"); sendValue(row); sendString(label); Serial.println();
}
void sendRange( int row, int min, int max)
{
sendString("Range"); sendValue(row); sendValue(min); sendValue(max); Serial.println();
}

void sendData(int row, int val)

{
sendString("Data"); sendValue(row); sendValue(val); Serial.println();
}
void sendValue( int value)
{
Serial.print(value); Serial.print(",");
}
void sendString(char *string)
{
Serial.print(string); Serial.print(",");
}
The Processing sketch is called
ArduinoDataDisplay
and is located in the
Processing
folder of the example code download (see
How to Contact Us
for the download location).
Example C-3
shows the code.
Example C-3. Processing sketch for displaying data
/*
* ArduinoDataDisplay
* based on Arduino Cookbook code from Recipe 4.4
*
* Displays bar graphs of sensor data sent as CSV from Arduino
* in all cases, N is the Row to be associated with the given message
* Labels sent as: "Label,N,the label\n" // "the label" is used for Row N
* Range sent as : "Range,N,Min, Max\n" // Row N has a range from min to max
* if Min is negative then the bar grows from the midpoint of Min and Max,
* else the bar grows from Min
* Data sent as: "Data,N,val\n" // val is plotted for row N
*/
short portIndex = 1; // select the com port, 0 is the first port
int maxNumberOfRows = 12;
int graphWidth = 600;
int displayWidth = 1024;
int displayHeight = 800;
int fontSize = 12;
PFont fontA;
int windowWidth;
int windowHeight;
int graphHeight;
int rectCenter;
int rectLeft;
int rectRight;
int topMargin;
int bottomMargin;
int leftMargin = 50;
int rightMargin = 80;
int textHeight;
ArrayList<String> labelList = new ArrayList<String>();
int [] values = { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0};
int [] rangeMin = { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0};
int [] rangeMax = { 0, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024, 1024};
float lastMsgTime;
float displayRefreshInterval = 20; // min time between screen draws
void setup() {
String os=System.getProperty("os.name");
println(os);
initComms();
fontA = createFont("Arial.normal", fontSize);
textFont(fontA);
textHeight = (int)textAscent();
for (int i = 0; i <= maxNumberOfRows; i++)
labelList.add(Integer.toString(i));
adjustSize();
drawGrid();
}
void adjustSize()
{
topMargin = 3 * textHeight;
bottomMargin = 0;
if (displayWidth > 800) {
windowWidth = 800;
windowHeight = topMargin + bottomMargin + yPos(maxNumberOfRows);
size(windowWidth, windowHeight);
}
else {
windowWidth = displayWidth;
windowHeight = displayHeight;
}
//leftMargin = getleftMarginLen() ;
graphHeight = windowHeight - topMargin - bottomMargin;
rectCenter = leftMargin + graphWidth / 2;
rectLeft = leftMargin;
rectRight = leftMargin + graphWidth;
}
void drawGrid() {
fill(0);
String Title = "Arduino Data" + commsPortString() ;
int xPos = (int)( rectCenter - textWidth(Title)/2) ;
 text(Title, xPos, fontSize*2); // Title
line(rectLeft, topMargin + textHeight,
rectLeft, yPos(maxNumberOfRows) + 2); // left vertical line
line(rectRight, topMargin + textHeight, rectRight, yPos(maxNumberOfRows )+ 2); &nbs&#0;����� p��p;// right
line
line(rectCenter, topMargin+textHeight, rectCenter, yPos(maxNumberOfRows) + 2); // center line
for (int i=1; i <= maxNumberOfRows; i++) {
fill(0);
text(labelList.get(i), 2, yPos(i)); // row labels
fill(150);
String rangeCaption = "(" + rangeMin[i] + "~" + rangeMax[i] + ")";
text(rangeCaption, rectRight + textWidth(" "), yPos(i)); // range caption
}
}
int yPos(int index) {
return topMargin + ((index) * textHeight * 2);
}
void drawBar(int rowIndex) {
fill(204);
if ( rangeMin[rowIndex] < 0) {
if (values[rowIndex] < 0) {
int width = int(map(values[rowIndex], 0, rangeMin[rowIndex], 0, graphWidth/2));
rect(rectCenter-width, yPos(rowIndex)-fontSize, width, fontSize);
}
else {
int width = int(map(values[rowIndex], 0, rangeMax[rowIndex], 0, graphWidth/2));
rect(rectCenter, yPos(rowIndex)-fontSize, width, fontSize);
}
}
else {
int width=int(map(values[rowIndex], rangeMin[rowIndex], rangeMax[rowIndex], 0,graphWidth));
rect(rectLeft, yPos(rowIndex)-fontSize, width, fontSize); //draw the value
}
fill(0);
text(values[rowIndex],
rectRight + (int)textWidth(" (-1000~1000) "), yPos(rowIndex)); // print the value
}
void processMessages() {
while(true) {
String message = commsGetMessage();
if (message.length() > 0)
{
int row = 0;
String [] data = message.split(","); // Split the CSV message
if ( data[0].equals("Data")) { // check for data header
row = Integer.parseInt(data[1]);
values[row] = Integer.parseInt(data[2]);
checkRefresh();
}
else if ( data[0].equals("Label") ) { // check for label header
row = Integer.parseInt(data[1]);
labelList.set(row, data[2]);
if ( (int)textWidth(data[2]) > leftMargin) {
leftMargin = (int)(textWidth(data[2]) + textWidth(" ") + 2) ;
adjustSize();
}
checkRefresh();
}
else if ( data[0].equals("Range")) { // check for Range header
row = Integer.parseInt(data[1]);
rangeMin[row] = Integer.parseInt(data[2]);
rangeMax[row] = Integer.parseInt(data[3]);
checkRefresh();
}
else
println(message) ;
}
else
break; // finish processing when the message length is 0
}
}
void checkRefresh()
{
if ( la&#0;����� p��stMsgTime < 1)
lastMsgTime = millis(); // update the time if it was reset by the last display refresh
}
void draw() {
processMessages();
if ( millis() - lastMsgTime > displayRefreshInterval)
{
background(255);
drawGrid();
for ( int i=1; i <= maxNumberOfRows; i++)
{
drawBar(i);
}
lastMsgTime = 0;
}
}
 /******************************
code for Serial port
*****************************/
import processing.serial.*;
Serial myPort; // Create object from Serial class
void initComms(){
String portName = Serial.list()[portIndex];
println(Serial.list());
println(" Connecting to -> " + portName) ;
myPort = new Serial(this, portName, 9600);
}
String commsPortString() {
return " (" + Serial.list()[portIndex] + ")" ;
}
String message;
String commsGetMessage() {
if (myPort.available() > 0) {
try {
message = myPort.readStringUntil(10);
if (message != null) {
// print(message);
return message;
}
}
catch (Exception e) {
e.printStackTrace(); // Display whatever error we received
}
}
return "";
}

This sketch talks to Arduino using the serial port and you need to ensure that the Processing sketch is using the same port that
is connected to your robot. The port Arduino uses is displayed on in the Arduino IDE. You set the Processing port by changing
the value of the variable
portIndex
. When starting the Processing sketch, you will see a list of the ports on your computer.
portIndex
is the position of the Arduino port in this list, but note that the index starts from 0, so the default value of 1 for
portIndex
is for the second port in the list.
A robot tethered via USB is not very convenient when you want to see what the robot is doing while moving. Adding a wireless
serial device such as Bluetooth or XBee can be a big help when debugging or tuning your robot. If you are using a Leonardo,
note that the TX/RX pins (digital 1 and 0) are accessed through
Serial1
rather than
Serial
, so modify your code accordingly (you'll need to replace all instances of Serial with Serial1 in all the tabs of your sketch).
A standard board like the Uno uses the same
Serial
object as USB and although you don't need to modify the example code, you will need to disconnect the wireless device from the
pins when uploading code. This is because the wireless device uses the same pins (digital 1 and 0) as USB.
<&#0;����� p�� /div>

Appendix D. Power Sources

Monitoring Battery Voltage
The battery voltage can be monitored using an Arduino analog input, but you can't directly connect the battery to an input pin
because a fully charged battery can exceed the maximum voltage that the Arduino chip can tolerate.
Another factor to be aware of is that the default voltage reference for
analogRead
is the 5 volt output from the regulator on the Arduino board. This regulator requires more than 6 volts to produce a stable 5 volt
output. When the voltage difference between the regulator input and output (referred to in the regulator datasheet as the
dropout voltage
) is less than a volt, the output voltage will drop below the required 5 volt level. Because this voltage is used as the default
Arduino reference for analog conversion, the analog readings will no longer be accurate. In short, you shouldn't rely on the battery
voltage as a reference to measure the battery voltage. So you need a reliable voltage reference that is not dependent on the
output from the regulator.
The solution is to use an internal voltage reference that is built into the Arduino chip. This provides a 1.1 volt reference that is
stable for any voltage that is sufficient to power the Arduino chip. Because the reference is 1.1 volts, the voltage being measured
must not exceed this value, so a voltage divider to drop battery voltage down to an acceptable range is required (
must not exceed this value, so a voltage divider to drop battery voltage down to an acceptable range is required (
Figure D-1
).

Figure D-1. Resistors used as a voltage divider

To support a wide range of battery choices (including 8.4 volt LiPo batteries), resistor values of 18k ohms for R1 and 2.2k ohms
for R2 provide a voltage range of up to 10 volts.

Note
Here is the voltage divider formula for these resistor values:
R2 / R1 + R2
. Substituting the chosen values results in:
2200/(18000 + 2200)
= 0.109
Therefore the voltage on the terminal will be the battery voltage times 0.109. For example, 10 volts at the battery will be dropped
to just under the 1.1 volt range of the internal reference.
The resistors can be attached to the battery terminals as shown in
Figure D-2
, but a more permanent solution is to solder the resistors to the shield as shown in
Figure D-3
and
Figure D-4
.
 Figure D-2. Resistors added to shield to monitor battery

Figure D-3. Voltage Divider Resistors soldered to Vin and Gnd pins
 Figure D-4. Voltage Divider Resistors soldered to Vin and Gnd pins
The code to read and interpret the voltage is in the
Battery
tab (
Example D-1
). This code reads the output of the voltage divider using
analogRead
and converts this into the battery voltage expressed in millivolts. This is compared to preset thresholds levels so an LED can be
flashed to indicate low and critical battery levels. The code can also detect if the optional charger plug is connected to stop robot
movement while being recharged.
Example D-1. Battery tab code
// code to monitor battery voltage
/***&#0;����� q***************************************************************
* LED starts flashing when volage drops below warning level
* mark space ratio increses from 10% to 50% as voltage decreses from warning to critical
* robot shuts down when battery below critical and led flashes SOS
*
* LED mark space ratio changes from 10% to 90% as voltage increases to full
*****************************************************************/

// thresholds are the cell millivolts times number of cells

const int batteryFull = 1500 * 5; // threshold for battery is low warning
const int batteryWarning = 1100 * 5; // threshold for battery is low warning
const int batteryCritical= 1000 * 5; // threshold to shut down robot
int batteryMonitorPin; // analog pin to monitor
int chargerDetectPin =-1; // pin goes open circuit when charger connected, default is no pin
int blinkPin; // led pin to flash

void batteryBegin(int monitorPin, int ledPin)

{
batteryMonitorPin = monitorPin;
blinkPin = ledPin;
pinMode(blinkPin, OUTPUT);
}
// version for charger detection
void batteryBegin(int monitorPin, int ledPin, int chargerPin)
{
 batteryBegin(monitorPin, ledPin);
chargerDetectPin = chargerPin;
pinMode(chargerDetectPin, INPUT_PULLUP); // connect pull-up resistor
}
// indicates battery status using the given LED
void batteryCheck()
{
int mv = batteryMv(batteryMonitorPin); // get battery level in millivolts
Serial.print("mv="); Serial.print(mv);
if(chargerDetectPin >=0 && digitalRead(chargerDetectPin) == HIGH)
{
// here if charger detect is enabled and charger plugged in
while( digitalRead(chargerDetectPin) == HIGH) // while charger is plugged in
{
moveStop();
mv = batteryMv(batteryMonitorPin); // get battery level in millivolts
Serial.print(", charger detected, voltage=");
Serial.println(mv); Serial.println(", percent=");
int percent = map(mv, batteryCritical, batteryFull, 50, 100);
percent = constrain(percent, 0, 100);
Serial.println(percent);
flash(percent, blinkPin);
}
}
else
{
if(mv < batteryCritical)
{
Serial.println("Critical");
// shut down the robot
moveStop();
while(1) {
flashCritical(blinkPin);
// check of the charger is plugged in
if(chargerDetectPin >=0 && digitalRead(chargerDetectPin) == HIGH)
return; // exit if charging
delay(5000);
}
}
else if (mv < batteryWarning)
{
int percent = map(mv, batteryCritical, batteryWarning, 10, 50);
flash(percent, blinkPin);
}
}
delay(1000);
Serial.println();
}
// return the voltge on the given pin in mi&#0;����� qllivolts
// see text for voltage divider resistor values
int batteryMv(int pin )
{
#if defined(__AVR_ATmega32U4__) // is this a Leonardo board?
const long INTERNAL_REFERENCE_MV = 2560; // leo reference is 2.56 volts
#else
const long INTERNAL_REFERENCE_MV = 1100; // ATmega328 is 1.1 volts
#endif
const float R1 = 18.0; // voltge dividier resistors values, see text
const float R2 = 2.2;
const float DIVISOR = R2/(R1+R2);
analogReference(INTERNAL); // set reference to internal (1.1V)
analogRead(pin); // allow the ADC to settle
delay(10);
int value = 0;
for(int i=0; i < 8; i++) {
value = value + analogRead(pin);
}
value = value / 8; // get the average of 8 readings
int mv = map(value, 0,1023, 0, INTERNAL_REFERENCE_MV / DIVISOR );
analogReference(DEFAULT); // set the reference back to default (Vcc)
analogRead(pin); // just to let the ADC settle ready for next reading
delay(10); // allow reference to stabalise
return mv;
}
// flashes SOS in morse code
void flashCritical(int pin)
{
for(int i=0; i< 3; i++)
flash(20, pin);
for(int i=0; i< 3; i++)
flash(60, pin);
for(int i=0; i< 3; i++)
flash(20, pin);
}

// percent is the percent of on time time (duty cycle)

void flash(int percent, int pin)
{
Serial.print(", flash percent="); Serial.println(percent);
 const int duration = 1000;
// Blink the LED
digitalWrite( pin, HIGH);
int onTime = map(percent, 0, 100, 0, duration);
delay(onTime);
digitalWrite( pin, LOW);
delay(duration - onTime);
}

There are two versions of the

batteryBegin
function. Use the one with three parameters if you have wired up the trickle charger circuit. The three parameters passed to the
function are: the pin that the voltage divider is connected to, the LED pin, and the pin that detects the charger plug. Here is the
function:
batteryBegin(alogBatteryPin, ledPin, chargerDetectPin)

If you have not wired the robot to use a charger, then call
batteryBegin
with two parameters: the pin that the voltage divider is connected to and the LED pin:
batteryBegin(alogBatteryPin, ledPin)

The checking is done in the

batteryCheck
function. This gets the battery level in millivolts by calling
batteryMv
and compares this to the warning and critical thresholds. The LED is flashed when the level drops below the
warning level with a flash ratio (blink on time to off time) that changes as the voltage drops. If the
voltage drops below the critical level, the robot movement is stopped, and the LED flashes a distress signal
(SOS in morse code) every 5 seconds. When this happens, the batteries must be replaced or recharged before
the robot will reactivate.

The
myrobotBatteryMonitor
example sketch (
Example D-2
) in the download shows how to use the battery monitor function.
Example D-2. Battery monitor example sketch
/******************************************************************************
myRobotBatteryMonitor.ino
sketch to demonstrate battery voltage monitoring
based on myRobotWander
Robot wanders using forward scanning for obstacle avoidance
LED blinks when battery runs low, robot goes to sleep when battery is critical.
Created by Michael Margolis 22 July 2012
******************************************************************************/
#include "robotDefines.h" // global defines
#include <AFMotor.h> // adafruit motor shield library
#include "RobotMotor.h" // 2wd or 4wd motor library
const int ledPin = 13; // onboard LED
const int alogBatteryPin = 5; // input on analog 5
const int chargerDetectedPin = 2; // digital pin 2
// Setup runs at startup and is used configure pins and init system variables
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
blinkNumber(8); // open port while flashing. Needed for Leonardo only
lookBegin();
moveBegin();
//batteryBegin(alogBatteryPin, ledPin);
batteryBegin(alogBatteryPin, ledPin, chargerDetectedPin);
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
Serial.println("Ready");
}
void loop()
{
// roam();
batteryCheck();
}
// function to indicate numbers by flashing the built-in LED
void blinkNumber( byte number) {
pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable the LED pin for output
while(number--) {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(100);
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(400);
}
 }

Trickle Charging
The build chapters in the beginning of the book described a simple trickle charger that you can use to recharge NiMH batteries.
This section describes how to use the charger as well as some important points to ensure that you don't damage your batteries.
Trickle charging is a method of recharging NiMH batteries that provides a slow but steady charging current which should fully
recharg&#0;� fu te 5 AA cells in around 14 to 16 hours. The charger has been designed for cells with a rated capacity of 2000
to 2500 mAh (milliampere hours). Cells with a higher rating can be used but they will require a longer charging period.

Warning
Do not try to charge non-rechargeable batteries.
The batteries start charging when a DC power supply is plugged into the charging socket and the power switch is turned on. The
charging circuit is designed for use with a 12 volt supply with a 2.1mm plug (positive on the center connector). Cells with the
suggested rating should handle the trickle charge current for long periods, however it is good practice to keep your charge
session to 24 hours or less, particularly if your DC supply could be delivering a little more than the recommended 12 volts.

Appendix E. Programming Constructs

The code in this book takes advantage of a number of Arduino functions that are summarized in this appendix. See the online
Arduino reference for each function if you want more detail.

Digital I/O
pinMode(pin, mode);
Configures a digital pin to read (input) or write (output) a digital value; see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/PinMode
digitalRead(pin);
Reads a digital value (HIGH or LOW) on a pin set for input; see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DigitalRead
digitalWrite(pin, value);
Writes the digital value (HIGH or LOW) to a pin set for output; see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/DigitalWrite
pulseIn(pin, pulseType, timeout);
Returns the pulse width in microseconds of a changing digital signal on the given pin.
pulseType
(either HIGH or LOW) determines if duration is for a high or low pulse.
timout
is an optional value indicating how long to wait for a pulse (the default is one second); see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/PulseIn

Analog I/O
analogRead(pin);
Reads a value from the specified analog pin. The value ranges from 0 to 1023 for voltages that range from 0 to
the reference voltage (5 volts by default, but can be changed by using analogReference; see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AnalogRead
analogReference(type);
Configures the reference voltage used for analog input. This is used in the battery monitor code discussed in
Appendix D
; see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/AnalogReference

Math functions
min(x,y);
Returns the smaller of two numbers; see
 http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Min
max(x,y);
Returns the larger of two numbers; see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Max
constrain(x,lower,upper);
Constrains the value of x to be between the lower and upper range; see
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Constrain
map(x,fromLow,fromHigh,destLow,destHigh);
Scales a value from one range to another range. The result will have the same proportion within the destination
range as in the source range. The following code scales the analogRead value to a percentage of the full scale
reading:
int val = analogRead(0);
int percent = map(val, 0,1023, 0,100)

The following code scales an

analogRead
value to its value in millivolts (
refMv
is the reference voltage expressed in millivolts):
int mV = map(val, 0,1023, 0, refMv);

See
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Map

Other Functions and Constructs

switch / case statements
Controls program flow by testing if a number matches one of a number of alternative values. Here is a
simplified example from the remote control sketch that uses
switch
to execute the appropriate function associated with each command:
void processCommand(int command)
{
switch(command)
{
case MOVE_LEFT : moveLeft(); break;
case MOVE_RIGHT : moveRight(); break;
ca&#0;�nbs div> case MOVE_BACK : moveBackward(); break;
case PIVOT_CCW : moveRotate(-90); break;
case PIVOT_CW : moveRotate(90); break;
case HALT : moveStop(); break;
}
}

The
break
statement is necessary to prevent execution falling through to the following case statement. See
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SwitchCase
array
An array is a collection of variables accessed using an index number. The first element of an Arduino array is
accessed using an index of 0. An array can be initialized when it is declared by placing values in curly
brackets. The following declares an array named
motorSpeed
with two elements that will store the speed for the left and right motors and initialize the speed values to 0:
const int NUMBER_OF_MOTORS = 2;
int motorSpeed[NUMBER_OF_MOTORS] = {0,0}; // motor speed stored here (0-100%)

see:
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Array
#include "header.h"
This makes functions and variables declared in the specified file available to your sketch. See
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Include
Appendix F. Arduino Pin and Timer Usage
The tables in this section show the pin and timer resources used by the projects in this book. You can use the same pin
assignments for the Leonardo boards or the standard ATmega328 boards such as the Uno. However, there are subtle low level
differences between these boards, so if you are adding capabilities that use additional pins or resources beyond those
described in this book, then check the documentation on pin and resource usage for your board.

Handling Resource Conflicts

The Arduino chip has a rich collection of hardware resources, but you can run up against a conflict if a feature you are adding
requires a hardware resource that some other feature is already using. A resource conflict occurs when a function reconfigures
or requires exclusive access to some hardware capability. Running out of analog or digital pins is one kind of resource conflict,
usually easy to spot.
More subtle is a conflict caused by a library that requires a resource such a hardware timer that is already used by some other
function. For example, a motor shield uses PWM to control motor speed and each motor requires a timer component. Arduino
tries to hide the underlying hardware (one of the things that makes it easy to use) but this can result in things going wrong when a
resource conflict does occur. Sometimes the compiler will report a problem with an error message about a resource conflict. But
sometimes the sketch will compile without an error message even though a resource conflict is preventing the code from
functioning as expected.
For example, the infrared remote control library uses a timer to decode pulses in the background. If this is the same timer used
by some other function, say the Arduino Servo library, one or both of these libraries will malfunction. The solution is to either
reassign one of the libraries to use a different timer, or to find an alternative way to perform one of the functions without a timer.
Both of these approaches will be discussed in this appendix.

Modifying a Library to Change Timer Allocation

Modifying a library is not a task for a beginner, but some libraries are designed to allow configuration. For example, the
irRemote
library used in
Chapter 11, Remote Control
has a file named
irRemoteInt.h
that can be edited to change the timer used by this library. Here are fragments of this file that determines the timer used by the
library:
// Leonardo or Teensy 2.0
#elif defined(__AVR_ATmega32U4__)
//#define IR_USE_TIMER1 // tx = pin 14
// #define IR_USE_TIMER3 // tx = pin 9
#define IR_USE_TIMER4_HS // tx = pin 10

And further down the file:

// Arduino Duemilanove, Diecimila, LilyPad, Mini, Fio, etc
#else
//#define IR_USE_TIMER1 // tx = pin 9
#define IR_USE_TIMER2 // tx = pin 3
#endif

The first code fragment determines the timer to be used with a Leonardo board (the Arduino build process will use the
c&#0;� wil le="Chapt `ode in this fragment if the chip is an
ATmega32U4
). The uncommented line contains:
#define IR_USE_TIMER4_HS
which results in the library using Timer 4. However, Timer 4 is also used to control one of the motors in the 4WD robot. If you
have the 4WD robot and want to use the infrared remote control library, you need to find a free timer to use. You can't easily
change the motor library because the pin for Timer 4 is hard wired to the motor controller chip. But you can change the remote
timer by commenting out the line for Timer 4 and uncommenting a line that enables a free timer. The Leonardo has 5 timers but
as shown in
Table F-2
, only Timer 1 is available. The code to disable Timer 4 and enable Timer 1 is as follows:
// Leonardo or Teensy 2.0
#elif defined(__AVR_ATmega32U4__)
#define IR_USE_TIMER1 // tx = pin 14
// #define IR_USE_TIMER3 // tx = pin 9
// #define IR_USE_TIMER4_HS // tx = pin 10

Using your text editor to make and save that change in

irRemoteInt.h
will eliminate the conflict by using Timer 1 instead of Timer 4.
If your 4WD robot uses an Arduino Uno, then the change is to remove the
//
comment characters before the
IR_USE_TIMER1
line and add the comment characters before
IR_USE_TIMER2
// Arduino Duemilanove, Diecimila, LilyPad, Mini, Fio, etc
 #else
#define IR_USE_TIMER1 // tx = pin 9
//#define IR_USE_TIMER2 // tx = pin 3
#endif

Writing Code That Avoids the Use of a Timer

Sometimes there is a conflict but no alternative resource to use. An example of this is if your infrared remote library is using
Timer 1 (see previous section) and you also want to use the Servo library, which also uses Timer 1. If you have the 2WD robot
with a Uno, then you could use Timer 2 for the remote library so the Servo library can remain on timer 1. There are no free timers
available if you have a 4WD robot or the 2WD robot with a Leonardo board, but you can solve this conflict by adding some code
that controls the servo without using a timer. See
Adding Scanning
for an example of how this can be done.

Pin and Timer Tables

The best way to handle hardware conflicts is to plan in advance by familiarizing yourself with the resources currently in use and
the resources needed by the function you are adding. The tables in this appendix show the chip pins and timers used by the
projects in this book. Although you will have some pins free after connecting up all the projects presented in this book, there may
not be enough pins to connect all the optional sensors mentioned in
Chapter 8, Tutorial: Introduction to Sensors
along with some of the suggestions in the appendices. Use
Table F-1
and
Table F-2
to keep track of your pin and timer allocations.
Table F-1. Pin Usage

Pin Usage Comment

Digital 0 Serial Receive
Digital 1 Serial Transmit
Digital 2 Unused Leonardo can use this for I2C
Digital 3 Motor 2 PWM Timer 2b on Uno, Timer 0b on Leo (Leo uses this for I2C)
Digital 4 Motor control < size="-1 p�"0">
Digital 5 Motor 4 PWM Timer 0b on Uno, Timer 3a on Leo
Digital 6 Motor 3 PWM Timer 0a on Uno, Timer 4d on Leo
Digital 7 Motor control
Digital 8 Motor control

Digital 9 Scan Servo used in

Chapter 10, Autonomous Movement

Digital 10 Distance Sensor used in

Chapter 10, Autonomous Movement
Digital 11 Motor 1 PWM Timer 2a on Uno, Timer 0a or 1c on Leo
Digital 12 Motor control
Digital 13 On-board LED This can be used as a digital pin if LED not needed

Analog 0 Left Reflectance Sensor

Analog 1 Right Reflectance Sensor
Analog 2 Center Reflectance Sensor
used in
Analog 3 IR Remote Decoder Chapter 11, Remote Control
Analog 4 Optional Battery Monitor Uno can use this for I2C
Analog 5 Optional sound or proximity sensor Uno can use this for I2C

Table F-2. Timer Usage

Timer Uno 2WD Uno 4WD Leo 2WD Leo 4WD

Timer 0 PWM for motors 3 & 4 PWM for motor 1 & 2 PWM for motor 1 & 2
Timer1 IR Remote IR Remote IR Remote IR Remote
Timer2 PWM for motors 1 &2 PWM for motors 1 &2 Not available Not available
Timer3 Not available Not available PWM for motor 4
Timer4 Not available Not available PWM for motor 3

About the Author

Michael Margolis is a technologist in the field of real time computing with expertise in developing and delivering hardware and software for interacting
 Michael Margolis is a technologist in the field of real time computing with expertise in developing and delivering hardware and software for interacting
with the environment. He has more than 30 years of experience at senior levels with Sony, Microsoft, and Lucent/Bell Labs. He has written libraries and
core software that are part of the official Arduino 1.0 distribution.

Make an Arduino-Controlled Robot

Michael Margolis
Editor

Brian Jepson

Revision History
2012-09-12 First release
2012-10-03 Second release

Copyright © 2012 Michael Margolis

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Make
2012-10-18T12:24:59-07:00

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