Defects in casting

• Blowholes
– Smooth round holes appearing in the form group of small
holes below the surface of casting
– Due to entrapped bubble of gases
• Scabs
– Projection on the casting that occur when a portion of the
mould lifts and metal flows
• Drop
– Occurs when upper surface of the mold cracks and pieces
of sand falls in to the molten metal
• Shrinkage cavity
– Void created in the casting mainly due to uncontrolled
solidification of the metal
• Internal air pocket
– It appears as small holes inside the casting, due to rapid pouring
of molten metal in to the mold
• Shifts
– An external defect caused due to core misplacement or
mismatching of top and bottom parts of the casting
• Fin
– A thin projection of the metal
– Caused due to incorrect assembling of molds or cores
• Swell
– Enlargement of metal cavity by metal pressure
– Caused by improper ramming
• Warpage
– Unintentional and undesirable deformation in a casting that
occurs during solidification
Welding, Soldering &
Brazing
Welding
Defined as the metallurgical joining of two metal

Pieces together to produce essentially a single

piece of metal.

Uses:
Fabrication work
- metal plates, rolled steel sections
- castings of ferrous metals are joined together
Repairing broken metal parts
Classification
WELDING

PRESSURE FUSION WELDING

WELDING

FORGE RESISTANCE THERMIT ARC GAS

WELDING WELDING WELDING WELDING WELDING

SPOT BUTT SEAM PERCUSSION

WELDING WELDING WELDING WELDING

METAL ATOMIC CARBON

ARC HYDROGEN ARC
 Pressure welding Fusion Welding

Parts to be joined are heated to Parts to be joined are heated to

plastic state then joined together the molten state and allowed to
by applying external pressure solidify

• Forge welding • Arc welding

• Resistance welding • Gas welding

Non pressure welding

Resistance welding

Stationary Jaw

Movable Jaw

Metal parts

Welding gun
Resistance welding
- Uses the principle of both the pressure & fusion welding

PRINCIPLE

- Consists of heating of the parts to be welded to the plastic

state and joined together by applying the mechanical

pressure

- Parts are heated by passing a heavy electric current

- Current encounters very high resistance at the joints, as

a result temperature increases

- When temperature exceeds melting temperature of the

parts external mechanical pressure is applied

- Joining thin metal sheets and wires

Back
Advantages:
• Little pollution
• Efficient energy use
• High production rates

Disadvantages:

• Used for joining relatively thin materials

• Equipment is costly
Principle of Electric Arc welding
E
Electrode
Electrode holder
E

Cables
Arc
Clamp

Work
E
Figure : Principle of Arc welding
Back
Types of welding electrodes

WELDING
ELECTRODES

Consumable Non-consumable
electrodes electrodes

Bare Coated
GAS WELDING
Gas welding flames

Inner cone
(white) Intermediate cone

Torch tip Outer flame envelop

(i) Neutral Flame

(ii) Carburizing flame

Short
cone

Torch tip
(iii) Oxidizing flame
Oxy-Acetylene gas welding

Back
 Joint types

Butt Tee

Edge

Lap Corner
SOLDERING & BRAZING

Filler metal: brass or solder

Base metal

Characteristics of a brazed or soldered joint

SOLDERING
A method of uniting two thin metal pieces using a
dissimilar metal or an alloy by the application of heat

BRAZING
A method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals
using a special fusible alloy
SOLDERING
Soft solder
• Alloy of lead and tin
• Melting temperature, 150 – 3500C
Hard solder
• Alloy of copper , tin and silver
• Soldering temperature, 600 – 9000C
• Used for stronger joints

Flux
• Clean the joint surfaces & to prevent oxidation
• Zinc Chloride
Distinguish between brazing and soldering

Brazing Soldering

Melting point of the filler Melting point of the filler

material is above 4500C material is below 4500C

Dissimilar metals can be Only similar metals can be

joined easily joined

Does not yield a good

Good surface finish
surface finish

Stronger joints Less stronger joints

Comparison of Soldering, brazing and welding

Soldering, Brazing Welding

No direct melting of the base Direct melting of the base

metals being joined metals being joined

Useful for joining Useful for joining similar

dissimilar metals metals

Brazing alloy and the solder Welding alloy has high

have low melting points than the melting point than the
metals to be joined metals to be joined

Filler materials are solder Welding rod is used as

and brazing alloy filler material
Types of Electrodes
1. Consumable electrode
2. Non-consumable electrode
Consumable electrodes
• Melts along with the workpieces and fills the joint.

Non-consumable electrodes
• Requires additional filler material

Advantage:
Amount of the metal deposited by the filler rod can be controlled
Functions of a coated electrode
- Protection of molten metal from oxygen and nitrogen of

the air by providing a gas shield around the arc and

the molten pool of metal

- Establish and maintain the arc throughout welding

- formation of slag over the joint thus protects from rapid

cooling
Limitation of a bare electrode
- Reduces the strength of the joint
- Non metallic constituents gets trapped in the solidifying
Weld metal
Resistance welding
- Uses the principle of both the pressure & fusion welding

- Consists of heating of the parts to be welded to the plastic

state and joined together by applying the mechanical

pressure

- Parts are heated by passing a heavy electric current

- Current encounters very high resistance at the joints, as

a result temperature increases

- When temperature exceeds melting temperature of the

parts external mechanical pressure is applied

- Joining thin metal sheets and wires Back

Definition
classification
Principle of electric arc welding
Principle and working of Resistance spot welding
Principle & working of Oxy-Acetylene gas welding
Principle of Soldering and Brazing
Principle of welding

• A welding is a metallurgical process in which the

junction of the two parts to be joined are heated and

then fused together with or without the application of

pressure to produce a continuity of the homogenous

material of the same composition and the

characteristics of the parts which are being joined.

Welding is a process of metal joining by
applying heat and sometime pressure
 Brazing
A joining process in which filler metal is
placed at or between the surfaces to be
joined. The temperature is raised to melt
the filler metal but not the workpiece.
– Braze melts between 840-2400 degrees F
– The filler material is in thin layers compared to
base metal
– The filler penetrates the gap by capillary
attraction
– Can connect dissimilar metals
– Most common braze defect is lack of braze or
a void
 Soldering
(400-840 degrees F) joints are usually of
lesser strength than brazed but parts can
be joined without exposure to excessive
heat
– Used extensively in electronics industry
because of heat sensitive components
– Surface preparation and the use of fluxes are
most important
Fluxes –prevents oxidation and removes
slight oxide films from work piece surfaces
 Soldering or brazing

In these processes, only the filler metals which join the two pieces to be
welded are melted and not the base metal. The braze metals have higher
melting temperatures than the solder metals.

Filler metal: brass or solder

Base metal

Characteristics of a brazed or soldered joint

 Non-consumable Electrodes
• Gas Tungsten ARC welding - GTAW (Tungsten inert
gas, a.k.a. TIG) – Tungsten electrode not consumed, but
surrounded by an inert gas and produces an arc.
– Filler material is usually applied.
– Gas tungsten arc welding does not produce as deep
a penetration as stick or other types of welding.
– GTAW is a slow method of welding, which results in
an expensive product.
– It can be used to weld aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, and stainless steels.
• Plasma-Arc welding (PAW) – when an arc is created in
a plasma (ionized) gas and a filler material may or may
not be applied to the weld joint
 Welding v casting
• Weld must adhere to mould wall
• Heat is added continually to welds
– High temperature gradient
• Welds solidify much faster than castings
• In welds, the surface shape is constant
 Welding procedure
• Selection of process conditions &
consumables for a weld
• Designed to match base material
properties as closely as possible & avoid
weld defects
• Needs to consider service conditions of
the weld
 Welding Defects
• Cracks
– In weld metal or HAZ
• Porosity
– Gas bubbles entrapped in weld metal
• Incomplete fusion (interrun or at preparation
edge)
• Inclusions
– Slag or other matter entrapped in weld
• Defective profile
– Under-weld, over-weld, lack of penetration, overlap,
undercut
 Causes of weld defects
• Poor design of weldment
– Lack of access to make weld
• Mistakes by welder
– Lack of skill
– Poor placement of weld metal
– Inadequate cleaning
• Poor welding procedure
Classification
WELDING

PRESSURE FUSION WELDING

WELDING

FORGE RESISTANCE THERMIT ARC GAS

WELDING WELDING WELDING WELDING WELDING

SPOT BUTT SEAM PERCUSSION

WELDING WELDING WELDING WELDING

METAL ATOMIC CARBON

ARC HYDROGEN ARC
 Joint types

Butt Tee

Edge

Lap Corner
 Resistance Welding
The third welding process covered in this module is resistance welding.
Resistance welding utilizes pressure and heat that is generated in the pieces to
be welded by resistance to an electric current.
When conducting resistance welding, all equipment shall be installed by a
qualified electrician in conformance with Subpart S, Electrical. If spot and seam
welding machines are used, the following precautions must be taken:

•All doors and access panels of all resistance welding machines and control
panels shall be kept locked and interlocked to prevent access to live portions of
the equipment by unauthorized persons.

•In all press welding operations, if there is a possibility of the operator's fingers
being under the point of operation, effective guards must be used. Examples of
effective guards include an electronic eye safety circuit, two hand controls, or
protection similar to that prescribed for punch press operations.
 Resistance Welding
The hazard of flying sparks shall be, wherever practical, eliminated by installing
a shield guard of safety glass or suitable fire-resistant plastic at the point of
operation. Additional shields or curtains shall be installed as necessary to
protect passing persons from flying sparks.
All foot switches shall be guarded to prevent accidental operation of the
machine.
Two or more safety emergency stop buttons shall be provided on all special
multi-spot welding machines, including 2-post and 4-post weld presses.
Additionally, all portable welding guns, transformers and related equipment
suspended from overhead structures, eye beams, trolleys, etc., shall be
equipped with safety chains or cables. Safety chains or cables shall be capable
of supporting the total shock load in the event of failure of any component of
the supporting system.
 Welding
Soldering and brazing are adhesive bonds,
whereas welding is a cohesive bond.
Joint Preparation
– Butt joints, vee joints, double-vee joints, tee joints,
which require a fillet weld, and lap joints.
– Butt joints are used on metal that has a thickness of
one-quarter inch or less.
Preparation for Weld Joints
– Surfaces to be joined must be ground to the weld
specification.
– Any slag, corrosion, or other foreign material must
be removed.
 GAS WELDING
Oxygen-Acetylene Welding
– Oxygen tank (green)
– Acetylene tank (red, or black with a red top)
– Oxygen pressure valves have a right-hand internal
thread
– Acetylene pressure valve has an external left-hand
thread.
– An oxygen-acetylene flame is very hot, approaching
3500°F.
 GAS WELDING
• Fusion weld is to place the two pieces
against each other and melt their surfaces
together.
• Reducing flame is used to melt low-
melting-point metals and alloys because it
does not oxidize or corrode the metals.
• Neutral flame is the hottest one possible
and is the proper adjustment for welding.
• Oxidizing flame that can cause corrosion
in the metal. It is only used for cutting
flames or burning pieces of metal from a
piece of stock. (Fig 14-9)
 GAS WELDING
• Advantages of an oxy-acetylene weld
– inexpensive
– requires very little specialized equipment.
• Disadvantages
– any traces of carbon left in the weld will weaken it.
 ELECTRICAL WELDING
• Resistance Welding – The two parts are
pressed together and an alternating
current (A/C) is passed through the
contact zone.
• Spot welding – used extensively on sheet
metals (holds handles on pots, car body
together)
• Ribbon welding rollers. - parts to be
welded are drawn between electrodes
rollers while electricity is applied.
 Arc Welding
A sustained arc generates the heat for
melting the work piece and filler material.
– Consumable electrodes
– Non-consumable electrodes
 Consumable electrodes
• Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW) developed in
the early 1950s as an adaptation to SMAW to
overcome limitation imposed by the use of a
stick electrodes. Uses a spool of filler wire fed
through the hand-piece. A core of flux is inside
the wire
• Two versions
– Self-shielded flux-cored arc welding – includes not
only fluxes but also ingredients that generate
shielding gases for protecting the arc.
– Gas-shielded flux-cored arc welding – developed
primarily for welding steels, obtains a shielding from
externally supplied gases, similar to GMAW
 Consumable electrodes
• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) – uses a
continuous, consumable bare wire electrode,
and arc shielding is provided by a cover of
granular flux. Low-carbon, low alloy, and
stainless steels can be readily welded by SAW.
• Electrogas Welding (EGW) – uses a
continuous consumable electrode (either flux-
cored wire or bare wire with externally supplied
shielding gases) and molding shoes to contain
the molten metal.
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) (stick) –
arc is struck between the rod (shielded metal
 Selection of Welding Rods
• Filler rod should have a tensile strength
greater than the metal to be joined.
• Rod must also be compatible with the
welded metal
• Welding positions required
• Welding current (ac or dc)
• Joint design (groove, butt, fillet, etc.)
• Thickness and shape of the base metal
• Service conditions and specifications
• Production efficiency and job conditions
Classification
WELDING

PRESSURE FUSION PROCESS

PROCESSES

FORGE RESISTANCE
WELDING WELDING THERMIT ARC GAS
WELDING WELDING WELDING

SPOT BUTT SEAM PERCUSSION

WELDING WELDING WELDING WELDING

METAL ARC ATOMIC HYDROGEN CARBON ARC

Types of welding electrodes

WELDING
ELECTRODES

Consumable
electrodes Non-consumable
electrodes

Bare Coated
Oxy-Acetylene gas welding