Three Wheels Vehicle Dynamics
Three Wheels Vehicle Dynamics
Three Wheels Vehicle Dynamics
820139
David B. Johnson
J. Y. Taylor Mfg. Co.
Garland, TX
ABSTRACT
Comparisons are made between a three Numerous papers have been published con-
wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front cerning the stability of both four wheeled and
axle, a three wheeled vehicle with two wheels two wheeled vehicles; it is surprising, how-
on the rear axle, and a standard four wheeled ever, that no papers have been published con-
vehicle. Each vehicle's lateral stability, cerning the stability of three wheeled vehi-
rollover stability during lateral acceleration, cles. The purpose of this paper is to develop
rollover stability while braking in a turn, and some important but basic relationships which
rollover stability while accelerating in a turn will help the automotive and recreational
are determined. It is shown that for lateral vehicle designer understand the dynamic sta-
stability, the three wheeled vehicle with two bility of three wheeled vehicles.
wheels on the rear axle is more stable than the This paper compares a three wheeled vehi-
four wheeled vehicle, which is in turn more cle with two wheels on the front axle, a three
stable than the three wheeled vehicle with two wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the rear
wheels on the front axle. For rollover sta- axle, and a standard four wheeled vehicle.
bility the four wheeled vehicle is always Geometrical relationships are determined and
stable as long as the vehicle's track width is discussed for each vehicle's lateral stability,
greater than twice its center of mass height. rollover stability during lateral acceleration,
The three wheeled vehicles are less stable than rollover stability while braking in a turn, and
the four wheeled vehicle in terms of rollover rollover stability while accelerating in a
stability. Vehicle track width to center of turn.
mass height relationships which govern rollover
stability are developed for the three wheeled
vehicles. Provided these relationships are LATERAL STABILITY
observed, three wheeled vehicles can offer safe
alternatives to four wheeled vehicles. The first problem is determining the
lateral stability of each of the three vehicles
under consideration. The models used for the
four wheeled vehicle, the three wheeled vehicle
AS A RESULT of the sharp increase in the cost with two wheels on the front axle, and the
of gasoline during the past ten years, signifi- three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the
cant pressure has been put on the automotive rear axle are shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3, res-
and recreational vehicle industries to develop pectively. A zero-width vehicle, commonly
more fuel efficient passenger vehicles. At referred to as the bicycle model, with the
present, standard four wheeled vehicles are appropriate number of wheels per axle is
designed to accommodate four to six passengers assumed for each of the three vehicles. The
comfortably with sufficient space for their wheels are located on the center line of the
cargo. This design criterion limits signifi- vehicle with the front axle located a distance
cant improvements in the fuel efficiency of .2 in front of the center of mass and the rear
1
these vehicles. On the other hand, two wheeled axle located a distance 2 behind the center of
2
vehicles such as bicycles, mopeds and motorcy- mass. The resultant lateral force exerted on
cles are extremely fuel efficient. However, the tire by the road is assumed to act perpen-
these two wheeled vehicles are primarily single dicularly to the plane of the wheel directly
passenger vehicles with limited cargo space. below the wheel center.
In addition, these two wheeled vehicles expose For the specific case of constant-speed
the passenger to,bad weather which makes them straight line motion, the following assumptions
unsatisfactory for the majority of the driving can be made: 1) the steer angle is zero, 2)
public. Therefore, a need exists for vehicles there are no tractive, braking, or rolling
which are designed to carry one or two passen- resistance forces, 3) the speed in the x direc-
gers with some of the space and comfort af- tion is constant (V = constant), and 4) all
forded by standard four wheeled vehicles and second or higher order terms of the variables
significantly greater fuel efficiency. It is are small compared to the first order terms and
natural, therefore, to consider three wheeled can thus be neglected.
vehicles as a means to achieve this goal.
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V
y
Fig. 1 - Four wheeled vehicle model. Fig. 3 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
wheels on rear axle
x
22 1 c ed + 2e2car
6 +
z z V
where
Given the assumptions listed above, the C C = the cornering stiffness of each
equations of motion governing the behavior of ctf' Ur
tire associated with the front
the four wheeled vehicle (Fig. 1) can be writ- and rear axles, respectively.
ten [1,21*
To ensure lateral stability for the four
0.7 0 + 22 1 Caf - 222Cur wheeled vehicle, the roots of the character-
Q istic equation of the above differential equa-
y x z
+ ( Vx tions must be negative. The characteristic
equation for the four wheeled vehicle is
2Caf + 2Car
V = 0 (1)
V
x *Numbers in brackets designate References
at end of paper.
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2 +( 1) 1
X
where K is the understeer coe cient which is
m equal tous
= 0(3)
K = Wf _ Wr (9)
where us \ C uf Cur
2C
uf
+ 2C
ar Eqs. (1)-(9) are quite well known and are
Vx presented here so that ready comparisons can be
made between them and the corresponding equa-
tions associated with the lateral stability of
2C
a
- 2C ar 2 2 three wheeled vehicles.
b 2 = mV x + Vx The equations of motion governing the be-
havior of the three wheeled vehicle with two
wheels on the front axle (Fig. 2) can be writ-
2C af 2 1 - 2C ar g 2 ten as
b3 Vx
22. C - 2 C
mV + mV + 1 cif 2 ur 0
and y x V x z
(
2 (2C cif +ar )
2C
af 21 2 + 2C
ur2. 2
b4 (7) V=0 (10)
Vx Vx
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few algebraic manipulations, this condition may The relationships governing the lateral
be expressed as stability of the three vehicles under consider-
ation are found in Eqs. (7), (17), and (25).
2
V (W W It is readily apparent that these equations are
r
L + 2 C f -) > 0 (17) identical. However, the weight distribution
g
Car for each vehicle is different. For the four
wheeled vehicle, the load on each of the front
Similarly, the equations of motion govern- and rear tires, respectively, is
ing the constant-speed straight line motion of
the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on Wk
2 W21
the rear axle can be written as and W (26)
f = 2L r=
C -
V 22. C ) For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
2 ar
inC7 + mV 1 on the front axle, the load on each of the
y x+
x front and rear tires is
(C + 2C ) Wk W2
af tit 2 1
V=0 (18) W and W = L (27)
V f= r
x
For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the rear axle, the load on each of the front
o 2 r + lo2r
• + -1-af and rear tires is
I zOz +
V
xz W2 W2 1
2
= --- and W= • (28)
Wf L r 2L
(* Cal 2220ar)
V=0 (19)
V Equations (7), (17), and (25), in conjunc-
x
tion with Eqs. (26), (27), and (28), respec-
The characteristic equation for this system of tively, can be used to establish fundamental
differential equations is design conditions that must be satisfied to
ensure stability. To develop these conditions,
2 (di d d d - d d ) assume that the cornering stiffness can be
4A l 4 2 3 expressed in the following analytical form
A+ - 0
m I 1 m [4,5):
z z (20)
C = (A - BW)W (29)
a t
where
where
+ 2C
C af Ur
d (21) C = the cornering stiffness per tire
1= V a
X
W = the normal load on that tire
2. C - 22. C t
1 2 ar
d = mV (22) A,B = positive constants dependent upon
2 x+ V
x the tire's properties.
k C - 2k2Car The design condition for the four wheeled
1
(23) vehicle can be found by combining Eqs. (29),
V
x (26), and (9). Thus,
and W BW(k - 2 )
f W r 2 1
K
2 2 us C C 2L(A - BW I )(4 - BWr)
1C + 22 C af ar
af 2 ar
(24)
V Z 0 (30)
x
In order for the three wheeled vehicle Because the cornering stiffness is always posi-
with two wheels on the rear axle to be stable, tive, Eq. (30) leads to the well known condi-
the zeroth order term of the characteristic tion for lateral stability of a four wheeled
equation must be positive. By means of a few vehicle:
algebraic manipulations it can be shown that
this condition becomes 2 2 or 2 > (31)
2 - I 2=2
2
V (W Consequently, lateral stability is ensured if
F W
- r >0
L + (25) the vehicle's mass center is located in the
g C C
of ar front half of the vehicle.
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By substituting Eqs. (29) and (27) into mass, the critical speeds associated with the
Eq. (9), the design condition for the three four wheeled vehicle and both three wheeled
wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front vehicles were obtained for various mass center
axle can be found. Thus, locations. Each vehicle was assumed to have a
mass, m, of 500 kilograms (z 1100 lbs), a wheel
W BW(2 - 221) base, L, of 2 meters, and identical tires.
f W r 2 1
K - Figure 4 shows a graph, marked by triangles, of
us C C 2L(A - BW )(A - BW ) the cornering stiffness versus normal load for
af ar f r
a B78-13 bias belted tire inflated to 28 psi at
(32) a 1' slip angle [6]. These five data points,
together with the requirement that the cor-
which leads to nering stiffness be zero when the normal load
is zero, were used to obtain, by means of a
least squares curve fitting technique, numer-
22 or a L (33) ical values for the constants A and B of Eq.
2 - 1 2 - 3
(29). The resulting values
Therefore, in order to ensure the lateral
stability of a three wheeled vehicle with two
wheels in the front, the mass center must be A = 16.3
a
located somewhere in the front third of the
vehicle.
1
Finally, the design condition associated and B = 0.00160
Nrad
(36)
with the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the rear axle can be found by combining Eqs.
(29), (28), and (9). Thus,
are used to generate the theoretical curve,
marked by circles, shown in Fig. 4. Table 2
BW(22 2 - 21) 0 lists critical speeds associated with the three
K - (34)
us 2L(A - BW f )(A - BWr) different vehicles. In order to achieve abso-
lute lateral stability (V r r = co) notice that
which leads to the condition that the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on
the front axle allows the smallest acceptable
region for center of mass location whereas the
2 1 2 Or 2 1L (35) three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the
2 2 1 2 3
rear axle allows the largest acceptable region
Consequently, lateral stability is ensured for center of mass location.
provided that the mass center is located in the Although the vehicle models used here do
front two thirds of the vehicle. not include roll freedom, suspension effects,
The lateral stability conditions developed driver control, time delays, lateral normal
in the preceding analysis are summarized in load transfers or nonlinearities, the resultant
Table 1. lateral stability/critical speed equations lead
To illustrate the importance of the hori- to fundamental design conditions that must be
zontal location of the vehicle's center of considered.
Required condition L
for Positive Understeer - 2 -
22 - 2 22 - 3 2 - 3
K 0
US
Table 2 - Comparison of Critical Speeds for Four and Three Wheeled Vehicles
2 = 1/4L
1
2 = 1/3L
1
= 1/2L 42
2.1 = 2/3L 55 29
1 = 3/4L 45 25 61
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45
40 —
F = -2C a
yf uf f
m
s-
' and F = -2C a (39)
yr Ur r
0
30— Solving for the slip angles in Eq. (39) and
x
substituting the resultant relationship, to-
LEGEND gether with Eqs. (26) and (38), into Eq. (37),
,̀" 25—
results in the steer angle expression
U- a THEORETICAL
0 EXPERIMENTAL +/W Wr ) V2
N 20 — f
z 6 = L (40)
f R \Cuf Cur gR
W 15 "
0
L)D For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the front axle, the lateral forces can be
tJ- expressed as
F = -2 Cafaf
Yf
and F = -C (41)
yr Ur r
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
W
3 After Eqs. (27), (38) and (41) are substituted
TIRE NORMAL LOAD x 10 (N)
into Eq. (37), the resulting expression for the
Fig. 4 - Tire cornering stiffness vesus normal steer angle is
load for a B78-13 Bias belted tire
inflated to 28 psi at 1° slip angle W ) 2
L ( W f r V
(40)
STEADY TURNING BEHAVIOR R C C gR
uf ur
Next, consider the steady turning behavior This is the same as the expression found for
of an automobile. It is assumed that the the four wheeled vehicle case. Performing the
vehicle is negotiating a curve of a given same procedure for the three wheeled vehicle
radius, R, at some given speed, V (1,21. The with two wheels on the rear axle results in the
information sought is the steer angle, df, same expression for the steer angle, Eq. (40).
associated with the assumed steady turn. Whenever the understeer coefficient in Eq.
Geometry shows that the steer angle may be (40) is zero, the vehicle is said to have the
represented as property of neutral steer. This condition
occurs when the mass center is located at a
distance of L/2 from the front axle for the
d = -a + a + I (37)
f f r R four wheeled vehicle, at a distance of L/3 from
the front axle for the three wheeled vehicle
where a and a represent the front and rear with two front wheels, and at a distance of
f r
tire slip angles, respectively. When a vehicle 2L/3 from the front axle for the three wheeled
negotiates a curve, an inertia force is devel- vehicle with two rear wheels.
oped that must be balanced by the lateral
forces F and F . The lateral forces on the ROLLOVER STABILITY DURING LATERAL ACCELERATION
Vf vr
front ana rear tires are proportional to the
weight distribution on the front and rear In this section geometrical relationships
axles, respectively; the total lateral force governing the rollover stability during a
equals the inertia force. Thus, these forces lateral acceleration are derived for the four
can be written (L = 2 + 2 ) wheeled vehicle and both three wheeled vehi-
1 2
cles. This lateral acceleration, which may be
22 caused by such occurrences as a windgust or a
WV 2
F = - -- steady turn maneuver, is assumed to act perpen-
yf g R L
dicular to the center line of the vehicle.
22 Figures 5, 6, and 7 illustrate the top and rear
'W V 1 views of the four wheeled vehicle, the three
and F - (38)
L wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front
axle, and the three wheeled vehicle with two
The lateral forces, F f and F r , can also be wheels on the rear axle, respectively. In all
defined in terms of tiCe tire Yornering stiff- figures, the TT axis represents the axis of
nesses, C af and C , and the tire slip angles, tipping. To ensure rollover stability, a
and u . For tRE four wheeled vehicle, which negative clockwise moment about the TT axis, as
r
ha s two wheels per axle, the lateral forces may viewed from the rear of the vehicle, must
also be expressed as exist.
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I V x T
REAR VIEW
W
REAR VIEW s
Fig. 5 - Four wheeled vehicle model, lateral Fig. 6 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
acceleration wheels on the front axle, lateral
acceleration
Consider the four wheeled vehicle model in long as the coefficient of friction, p, has a
Fig. 5. Summing moments about the TT axis value less than b/2h, the vehicle will slide
yields laterally before it overturns. For most four
wheeled vehicles, the term b/2h is greater than
one. In contrast, the coefficient of friction,
(71.‘ 2M =b + -W
W ah 0 - -(42)
TT 2 g p, is always less than one. Therefore, most
four wheeled vehicles are ensured of rollover
which can be rewritten as stability. However, this does not mean that
vehicle rollover can never occur. For in-
a < b stance, if the vehicle hits a curb while
- (43)
g 2h sliding laterally, the lateral force then
becomes infinite, causing the vehicle to over-
Summing forces in the lateral direction reveals turn.
that Next consider the three wheeled vehicle
model with two wheels on the front axle shown
in Fig. 6. Summing moments about the tipping
•-g =
a F
y
< pW (44)
axis, TT, gives
which implies that
Ca
E 711 = -W k sine + - ah cose < 0 (46)
TT 2
-a < p (45) This relationship can be rewritten
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a < b1
(50)
g 2h L
2
V
a = (51)
R
h V = ,NIB1112 (52)
ro vv 2h
F
yr for the four wheeled vehicle, by
REAR VIEW
gRb2
2
V (53)
ro 2hL
Fig. 7 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two for the three wheeled vehicle withtwo front
wheels on the rear axle, lateral wheels, and by
I
acceleration
gRb2i
V = (54)
r0 2hL
for the three wheeled vehicle with two rear
wheels. Notice, that since 2 and 2 are
Notice that 8 is a function of the geometry of 1 2
always less than L, the speeds at which roll-
the vehicle. Thus, it can be shown that over occurs for the three wheeled vehicles will
always be lower than those for the corres-
ponding four wheeled vehicles.
tan8 = (48)
a To illustrate this point further, assume
that each vehicle has the following parameter
Substituting Eq. (48) into Eq. (47) yields the values: a wheel base, L, of 2 meters; a track
following rollover stability condition for the width, b, of 1.25 meters; and a center of mass
three wheeled vehicle with two front tires: height, h, of 0.6 meters. In addition, assume
that each vehicle is negotiating the same turn
a b2 with a radius of curvature, R, of 100 meters.
(49) The speeds at which rollover occurs for each
< f
vehicle as a function of its mass center loca-
Since 2 is always less than L, the three tion are listed in Table 3. Note that as the
2 center of mass location is moved from front to
wheeled vehicle requires less lateral accelera-
tion to overturn than the corresponding four back on the three wheeled vehicle with two front
wheels, the vehicle's rollover speed decreases.
wheeled vehicle.
For the three wheeled vehicle with two The converse is true for the three wheeled
wheels on the rear axle, as illustrated in Fig. vehicle with two rear wheels. Also note that
the rollover speed for the four wheeled vehicle
7, the rollover stability condition after
is independent of its mass center location.
summing moments about the TT axis is
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A = I XI = Va (55)
8
and
s
A-----
2 -1
4
T
Fig. 10 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
Fig. 8 - Four wheeled vehicle model, wheels on rear axle, accelerating in
a turn
accelerating in a turn
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=
2 L/4 , 2= 3L/4 32.0 26.3 18.1
21 = 2
L/3 , 2= 2L/3 32.0 24.6 20.4
21 = 2
L/2, 2, = L/2 32.0 20.9 24.2
21
1
= 2L/3 , t = L/3 32.0 16.2 27.4
2
2 = 3L/4 222 = L/4 32.0 13.4 29.0
1 '
Now consider the following problem. (70)
D=1 5 1 = d
Assume that each vehicle is negotiating a turn
with a 100 m radius of curvature and that each To obtain the resultant vector, 1, and its
vehicle is accelerating at a rate of 0.25 g's. orientation angle, 0, for the braking in a turn
Also assume that each vehicle has the same case, replace the inertia acceleration force,
parameter values used previously in the roll- A, in Eqs. (60), (61), and (62) with the nega-
over stability/lateral acceleration problem. tive of the above inertia braking force, -D.
The rollover speeds associated with each vehi- As in the accelerating in a turn case, the
cle as a function of its mass center location inertia force caused by braking for the four
for the case of accelerating in a turn are wheeled vehicle model is again parallel to the
listed in Table 4. Note that the rollover axis of tipping and therefore does not contri-
speeds associated with the four wheeled vehicle bute to the rollover stability equation. Thus
are independent of the vehicle's mass center the stability condition is the same as that
location and that these values are the same as found previously, i.e.,
those found for the lateral acceleration case.
For the three wheeled vehicle with two front Wb
wheels, the rollover speeds are lower in the E< (58)
2h cosy
accelerating in a turn case than in the pre-
vious lateral acceleration case. The inverse The expression for the speed that causes the
is true for the three wheeled vehicle with two four wheeled vehicle to overturn is
rear wheels. Here a slight increase in the
rollover speeds is seen. gRb
V (59)
These results could have been predicted by ro A/2h cosy
comparing the angle between the resultant
vector, Z, and the axis of tipping, TT, for the
three wheeled vehicles shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the front axle, Fig. 9, it is obvious that
the rollover speecs will be lower since the
resultant vector, 2, is nearly perpendicular to
the axis of tipping. This situation results in
a larger overturning moment. On the other
hand, the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
Sn the rear, Fig. 10, has a resultant vector,
Z, that is almost parallel to the axis of
tipping. This results in a small overturning
moment and, consequently, higher rollover
speeds.
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2
Wb 2
2 cos& < (71)
2h, 1/2
+ (b/2)4]
= m + 6 (72)
2
Wb
Z cos p < (73)
2h 1/2
2
[1. + (b/2) 2 ]
P = (I) - e (74)
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CONCLUSIONS
Based upon the lateral stability and
In this paper lateral and rollover sta- rollover stability relationships developed in
bility relationships governing four wheeled and this paper, the following design guidelines are
three wheeled vehicles have been presented and recommended. To ensure lateral stability for
compared. For the lateral stability case it the situation of constant speed straight line
was shown that the relationship governing both motion, it is recommended that the three
three wheeled vehicles was the same as the wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front
classical lateral stability solution for the axle be designed so that its mass center is
four wheeled vehicle. This result can be located in the front third of the vehicle and
deceiving since the region where each vehicle's that the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
mass center must be located to achieve absolute on the rear axle be designed so that its mass
lateral stability is different. For example, center is located in the front two thirds of
it was shown that the three wheeled vehicle the vehicle. Although constant speed straight
with two wheels on the front axle must have its line motion is the most common driving situa-
mass center located in the front third of the tion, other routinely encountered driving
vehicle, whereas the center of mass location situations must also be studied. Comprehensive
for the four wheeled vehicle must be in its design recommendations must take into account a
front half. For the three wheeled vehicle with vehicle's limit behavior and its lateral sta-
two rear wheels, the mass center may be located bility while changing lanes, braking and ac-
anywhere in the front two thirds of the vehi- celerating in a straight line, braking and
cle. accelerating while negotiating a turn, and
With regard to rollover stability, it was performing avoidance maneuvers. In addition,
shown that the three wheeled vehicles are more the recommendations made in this paper are
susceptible to rollover than the four wheeled based upon the bicycle models shown in Figs.
vehicle. It was also shown that as long as the 1-3; consequently, further studies should
four wheeled vehicle's track width is greater strive to incorporate roll freedom and driver
than twice its center of mass height, it will control into the models.
slide laterally before overturning regardless To ensure a rollover resistance approxi-
of the type of acceleration encountered. Both mately equivalent to that of the four wheeled
three wheeled vehicles have a rollover sta- vehicle in the case of steady turning behavior,
bility relationship similar to that of the four it is recommended that the three wheeled vehi-
wheeled vehicle; however, for the three wheeled cle with two wheels on the front axle be de-
vehicles this relationship is more complex and signed so that the ratio of half of the track
dependent upon each vehicle's mass center width to center of mass height, b/2h, is in-
location in the horizontal plane. For in- creased by a factor of L/2,. For the three
stance, in the case of steady state turning, wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the rear
the closer the mass center is to the axle with axle, it is recommended that this ratio, b/2h,
two wheels, the more stable each vehicle be- be increased by a factor L/2 1 . If the above
comes with regard to rollover. Comparing the recommendations are followed, the three wheeled
governing relationships for each of the three vehicle with two wheels on the front axle will
vehicles, it was evident that a less stable have a slightly higher rollover resistance
condition exists for the three wheeled vehi- compared to that of the four wheeled vehicle in
cles. the case of braking in a turn and a slightly
It was also shown that for the case where lower rollover resistance for the case of
each vehicle is accelerating in a turn, the accelerating in a turn. The converse is true
three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the for the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
rear axle is more stable for rollover than the on the rear axle.
three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the In conclusion, the analysis done to date
front axle. The converse is true for braking suggests that three wheeled vehicles offer a
in a turn. Here the three wheeled vehicle with safe, efficient alternative to traditional four
two front wheels is more stable than the three wheeled vehicles. Ongoing research into the
wheeled vehicle with two rear wheels. In both dynamic behavior of three wheeled vehicles will
of the above cases, the location of the vehi- furnish additional design recommendations that
cle's mass center has an effect on the rollover should further establish the viability of three
speeds. wheeled vehicles.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
4. W. Bergman, "Critical Review of the State-
Support for this work was provided by the of-the-Art in the Tire Force and Moment
Engineering Research Institute, Iowa State Measurements," "SAE Trans.," Vol. 86,
University. Paper No. 770331, pp. 1436-1450, 1977.
58