Repeaters-2021-Medical-Botany

CHAPTER - 00
THE LIVING WORLD

Biology is the science of life and living process. It is the study of life on earth and the story of evolution
of living organism on earth. The word biology is originating from two greek words Bios-means life and
logos means study so biology is known as Life science.
Life is defined as “A unique complex organisation of molecules that express itself through chemical
reaction. Which leads to growth development responsiveness adaptation and reproduction or it is the
sum total of all the biochemical reaction takes place in the body of an organism either unicellular or
multicellular.
Some organisms are unicellular (Eg: Amoeba, Bacteria, paramecium, Euglena
 Some are multicellular (higher plants and animals)
 Some are prokaryotes: Primitive organisms, a well defined nucleus and memb. found cell organelles
is absent, cyclosis is absent
DNA circular is naked, not associated with histone proteins
Eg: Bacteria
 Some are eukaryotes: Advanced organisms a well defined nucleus and memb. bound cell organelles
are present,
Linear DNA found associated with histone proteins
Embryo state is absent in algae due to zygotic meiosis
Eg: Higher plants and animals
 Autotrophs
(a) Photoautotrops: Eg. Algae, green plants, photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria
(b) Chemoautotrops: Eg: Nitrifying bacteria, F bacteria, S bacteria, CH4 bacteria, H2 bacteria
 Heterotrops:
(a) Saprophytic
(b) Parasitic
(c) Symbiotic
 Organisms are diverse based on their habitat and ecology
Eg: Aquatic, terestrial, Air bone organisms

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Characteristic of living organisms

(i) Growth
Study of growth: Auxanology
Increasing mass and increasing number of individuals are twin characteristics of growth.
 Unicellular organisms grow by the accumulation of protoplasmic content due to cellular enlargement
and their cell devides so growth and reproduction an inclusive
 Multicellular organisms grow by cellular enlargement and cell division. Which contributes to an increase
in size of the cell and increase in no. of cells. So growth and reproduction are exclusive events
 Plants show indefinite growth throughout their life span by meristematic cell: Open form of growth
 Animals show definite growth pattern, ie. growth takes place upto a particular age: so growth is closed
in animals.
 In living organisms, growth is internal
 Non-living organisms can also show an increase in size by the accumulation of materials on the
outer surface (External growth)
 So, growth is considered as a non defining property of living org.
(ii) Reproduction
 Unicellular organisms reproduce by cell division
 In multicellular organism, reproduction takes place by 2 ways
(a) Asexual: Uniparental
 Young ones are morphologically and genetically identical to their parents (clones) Eg:
1) Spore formation in fungi
2) External budding in yeast, Hydrae
3) Internal in spongs
4) Fragmentation in fungi, filaments algae and protonema of mosses
5) Regeneration in planaria
(b) Sexual: Biparental which involves formation and fusion of gametes. So, the genetic recombination
leads to variations. Variations are the raw material for evolution. Hence, advanced form of reproduce
 Some living organisms cant reproduce. ( Mule, worker bees, Infertile human couples)
 So, reproduce is also cannot be an all inclusive defining character of living organism but, no non -
living objects can reproduce by itself.
(iii) Metabolism
 The sum total of all biochemical reactions in a living cell
 It may be (i) anabolism: Constructive process (simple → complex)
Eg: Photosynthesis, protein synthesis, vitamin synthesis
ii) Catabolism: Destructive process (complex → simple)
Eg: Cellular respiration/Oxidation of food material
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 It is defining property except in invitro. Invitro is only a living reaction, nither living or non living
(iv) Cellular organisation is a defining property of living organism.
Cell → Tissues → Organs → Organ system → organism
This is due to intraction. The property of tissue are not present in the constituent cells and so on.
(v) Consciousness
 The ability of living organisms to sense their environment and surroundings and respond to it.
 Plants can respond to physical, chemical and biological stimuli such as light, temp, water, etc (tropic
movements)
 Animals are a ware of their environment with the help of sense organs
 Only human beings have self consciousness. So organisms are self replicating, evolving and
self regulating intractive systems capable of responding to external stimuli. So it is a defining
property.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the diversity of organism that seen in the biosphere. Each different kind of plant, animal
or organism that we can see represent a species. The number of that are known and discribed rangs
between 1.7 – 1.8 million. The diversity is the result of organic evolution and diversity can be identified
through classification
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the principle and procedure of arranging organism to proper group based on similarity
and dissimilarity. Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient catagories
based on some, easily observable characters. Therefore catagory is a unit of grouping of any rank
used in taxonomy.
Eg: Species, genus, family
The observable characters include morphology, anatomy, cell structure developmental process and
ecological information.
The basic process of taxonomy includes
1) Characterisation, Identification, classificationa and nomenclature
Earliest classification is based on ‘uses’ of various organism as sources of food clothing and shelter.
 The word ‘taxonomy’ was coined by Ap de Candolle
 Father of taxonomy: Carolus Linnaeus
Nomenclature
 Vernacular nomenclature: Naming an organism by using local or regional language
Scientific nomenclature
(i) Polynomial nomenclature: Naming an organism using many words
(ii) Trinomial: Naming an organism using 3 words (genus, species, subspecies animals /variety plants)

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(iii) Binomial nomenclature:

 A system of naming an organism by using 2 worlds: Genus name and species name
 Proposed by Carolus Linnaeus in the 10th edition of systema naturae
Rules and Regulations
a) Biological name/ Botanical names are generally latinized
b) Each name has 2 parts: Genus and species name
c) Genus name should start with capital letter and species name with small letter
d) Name should be taken form any language but it is latinized
Eg: Ficus benghalensis (Bengal)
e) Biological names are printed in Italics
f) Names when handwritten or type written should be underlined separately
g) Name of the author should be abbreviation at the end
Eg: Homo sapiens Linn
h) The year of publication should be specified at the end
Homo sapiens Linn 1758
Naming codes
ICNB: International Code for the Nomenclature of Bacteria
ICNCP: International Code for the Nomeclature of Cultivated Plants
ICBN: International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
ICZN:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
ICVN:International Code of Viral Nomenclature
Systematics
 It deals with diversity of living organisms and their inter-relationships
 The word systematics was derived from the Latin word ‘systema’ which means the systematic
arrangement of living organisms
 The word ‘systematics’ was coined by Carolus Linnaeus, New systematic was introduced by
Julian Huxley (1940).
 Systematic take into account evolutionary relationship between organisms.
Types of Taxonomy
(i) α : Taxonomy: Taxonomy based on only morphological characters
(ii) β : Taxonomy: Morphological + Anatomical characters
(iii) ω : taxonomy: It considers all the available characters with modern approach

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Taxonomical Hierarchy (T.H)

The systematic arrangement of taxonomic groups or categories in a desending order with kingdom at
the top and species at the end is known as taxonomic hierarchy.
Hierarchy is the arranging rank or categories one above the other in a particular order.

Taxon/Taxonomic category (T.H)

Each unit or level a rank in T.H is known as taxon
Eg: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Species etc..
 In a taxonomic hierarchy from species to kingdom the no. of common characters goes on decreasing
 Species is the lowest taxon in T.H
 It is the basic unit of classific
 The term ‘species’ coined by John Ray
Species
 It is group of morphologically, anatomically, genetically identical members that are reproductively isolated
 They can interbreed producing fertile offsprings.
Biological species concept (by Earnest Mayer/ Darwin of 20th C)
“Species is the members of a population that can potentially interbreed and produce fertile young
ones”. They are reproductively isolated

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Taxonomic Categories Showing Hierarchial Arrangement

Animalia (Kingdom)

Non-chordate (Phylum)
Chordata

Amphibia Reptilia Pisces Aves Mammalia (Class)

'idac' is the suffix for family in animals Carnivora Primata (order)

Felidae Canidae (Family)

Felis Panthera (Genus)

Pandas
Tigris (Leopard)
(Tiger) Leo
(Lion)
Plantae (Kingdom)

(Algae) Thallophyte Bryophytes Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms (Division)

Dictos Monocot (Class)

(advanced)

'ales' is the suffix for order in plants Polynomiales Sapindales (order) Based on floral character

'aceae' is the suffix for family Convolvulaceae Solanaceae (family Based on both vegetative and reproductive character
in plants

Ipoma betata
(Sweet potato)
Solanum Datura (Genus)
Petunia

Tuberosum Nigrum (species)

(Potato) (Makoi)

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Organisms with their taxonomic category

Taxonomic Aids/Taxonomical Tools

 Certain techniques, procedures and stored information that are helpful in the identific and classific of
organisms are called taxonomical aids.
 Largest herbarium in India: Herbarium at Indian botanical garden at Howrah/ Silpur in preserved plant
Kolkata.
(i) Herbarium - Storage + Technique
 It is a store house containing a collection of dried, pressed, preserved plant specimens on a sheet of
paper, for quick reference, Identification of plant, study of ecology of different place
 It helps in the study of flora seen in different areas.
 Largest herbarium in the world: Herbarium at Royal Botanical Garden (R.B.G) Kew garden in
London
Central National Herbarium in Indian Botanical Garden - Kolkata
Herbarium of National Botanical Research Institute - Lucknow
Steps in Herbarium Preparation (6 steps)
a) Collection: Plant materials are collected with the help of digger, cutter, knives etc. Vasculum is a
wooden or metallic box used to carry the collected plant specimens and prevent dehydration.
b) Drying and pressing: Using plant press
c) Poisoning: Using fungicides
d) Mounting: The dried, pressed, preserved plant materials are pasted on a standard sized herbarium
sheet (29×41 cm).
e) Labelling: On the right bottom end
It should have biological/botanical name, common English name, local name, name of the family, date
of collection, name of locality, name of collector.

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f) Storage: Herbarium sheets are arranged based on an accepted system of classific. i.e., Bentham
and Hooker’s classific (Natural system of classific) as it is good to study the taxonomy of flowering and
seed bearing plants.
(ii) Botanical garden
Largest Botanical Garden
(i) In world: Royal Botanical Garden / Kew Garden in London
(ii) In India: Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah/Silpur, Kolkatta
(iii) National Botanical Research Institute -Lucknow
 It is a collection of living plants for reference
 Each plant in the botanical garden is labelled with botanical name of the name of its family for identification
 Purpose of botanical garden:
Aisthetic Purpose
Research Institute
Gumplasm Collection
On site teaching
Conservation of plants
(iii) Zoological Part/ Zoo
 These are places where wild animals are kept in protected environment under human care and control
 All the animals in a zoo are provided the conditions similar to their natural habitat.
Eg: Yellow Stone National Park - USA, National Zoological Park - Delhi
(iv) Museum
 It is a collection of preserved plant and animal specimens for study and reference.
 Specimens are preserved in preservatives, as dried specimens, collection of skeletons fossilised
forms, stuffing
 Insects are preserved in insect boxes after collection, killing and pinning
Eg: Natural History Museum - London, National Museums of Natural History - Delhi
(v) Key
 It is another taxonomical aid used for the identification and classification of plants and animals based
on similarities and dissimilarities
 It is an analytical device used for the identification and classification of organisms found in a particular
area
 The characters of organisms are arranged as contrasting pairs (tall×dwarf) of statements.
Each contrasting pairs is called couplet
Each character in the couplet is called lead
Separate taxonomic keys are required for each taxon/taxonomic category. Such as Kingdom, Phylum,
Class, etc....

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There are some other recording descriptions, that also help in the correct identification of organisms
a) Flora
The book containing an account of habit, habitat and distribution of plants seen in a particular area.
It provides an index to the plant species found in an area
b) Fauna
Description about animal species distributed in an area
c) Monograph
The book containing the description of any one taxon (Kingdom, Phylum, family, etc)
d) Manual
The book containing the description for the identification of names of species found in an area
d) Catalogue:
It is a list or register that enumerate methodically all the species found in an area.
 Aristotle: Book - Historia Animalium, Father of Biology, Zoology
 Theophrastus: Historia Plantarum,Father of Botany
 John Ray: Historia generalis plantarum, Coined ‘species’and introduce key
 Carl Linnaeus: Books- Systema naturae, Species plantarum, Philosophia botanica,
Genera plantarum (some volume)
 Bentham and Hooker: Genera Plantarum