XI Biology (Sir Nasim Zulfiqar)

First Year 1 Biology
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Short question and answers
Q. Define biology. Explain its branches.

BIOLOGY
“It is a branch of natural science, which deals with the study of life,
living things and related phenomenon.”
How to define life Living things are organized, take materials and energy from
the environment, respond to stimuli, reproduce and develop, and adapt to the
environment.
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Formally & classically biology was classified into 02 main branches,
namely:
1. Zoology – It is the study of animals.
2. Botany – It is the study of plants.
Each branch is sub divided into following branches:

1. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
It is the study of structure and function of the molecules that form
structure of the cell and organelles associated with living organism.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY
It deals with the study of environment and its effect on organisms.
3. MICROBIOLOGY
It deals with the study of micro organisms {protozoan, bacteria etc}
4. MARINE BIOLOGY
It deals with the study of organisms inhabiting the sea and oceans, and
the physical and chemical properties of their environment.
5. FRESH WATER BIOLOGY
It deals with the life dwelling in the fresh waters, physical and chemical
characteristics of fresh water bodies affecting it.
6. HUMAN BIOLOGY
It deals with the study of all biological aspects of man regarding
evolution, anatomy, physiology, health, inheritance etc.
7. GENETICS
It is the study of inheritance of characters through genes and their mode
of transmission from parents to off springs.
8. SOCIAL BIOLOGY
It is concerned with the social interactions within a population of a given
animal species, especially in human beings focuses on such issues as whether
certain behavior are inherited or culturally induced.
9. BIOTECHNOLOGY
It deals with the data and techniques of engineering and technology for
the study and solution of problems concerning living organisms particularly
the human beings.
10. PARASITOLOGY
It is the study of different parasites and their effects on their hosts.
11. TAXONOMY
It is the classification, identification naming and grouping of living
beings.
Q. What do we mean by modern system of classification?
MODERN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
Robert Whittaker in 1969 contradicted old concept of “Animals and
Plants” & proposed a new system of “Taxonomy”. According to this system of
classification, Living beings are classified into five Kingdoms, which are
explained under:
1. Kingdom Monera
2. Kingdom Protista (Protoctista)
3. Kingdom Mycetes (Fungi)
4. Kingdom Plantae
5. Kingdom Animalia
Q. What does kingdom Monera include?

In this kingdom, all living things having “Incipient Nucleus” (Nuclear
material is not bounded in a nuclear membrane) are included. They are
generally called Prokaryotes. Examples are Virus, Bacteria and Blue green
Algae.
Q. What organism Kingdom Protoctista include?

These are microscopic acellular or unicellular Eukaryotes (Living beings
having complete nucleus). They may be single celled or colonial. Nutrition may
be Autotrophic or Holozoic. Examples are Protozoans like Amoeba,
Paramecium and single celled Algae like Euglena and Chlamydomonas.
Q. Describe Kingdom Mycetes (Fungi).

These are unicellular to multicellular Eukaryotic Thalloid, Heterotrophic
organisms. Multicellular fungi are filamentous, whole structure of them is
called Mycelium made up of Hyphae. Reproduction is generally asexual by
means of spores. Examples are Yeast, Moulds and Mushrooms.
Q. Define and describe Kingdom Plantae.

These are Multicellular Eukaryotic Autotrophic (few heterotrophic) living
organisms generally having differentiated structures like root, stem and leaves.
Examples are all phanerogams and Cryptogams.
Q. Define Kingdom Animalia.

These are all Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic, multicellular animals (Metazoan)
which may be “sessile” or generally “motile”. Examples are Man, Monkey, Ant,
Star fish.
Q. Describe the levels of biological organization.

The complexity of the living organisms are based upon certain
combinations of biochemical elements and the fundamental unit of any
element is an element. The Levels of biological organization starts from Atom to
the high level organism.
ATOMIC LEVEL
The bodies of all the living organisms are composed of elements and the
smallest unit of element is called atom which contains all the properties of
atom. These form the basic level of biological organization.
MOLECULAR LEVEL
Atoms combined to form a molecule and these biological molecules forms the
organic and inorganic essential compounds of the living organism.
E.g. Proteins and carbohydrates etc.
CELL AND ORGANELLES

Numerous simple and complex molecules arranged in a particular
manner to form cells and their organelles. Cell is the fundamental
protoplasmic unit of life having DNA which contains all the necessary
information which is required for the existence of life.
TISSUE LEVEL
In Multicellular organism cells combine together to form different kinds
of tissues which perform various functions of life. E.g. nervous, excretory,
connective tissues and in plants xylem and phloem tissues for conduction of
water. Etc.
ORGAN AND ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL:

Various tissues grouped together to form organs and these organs
collectively join together to perform a single function called organ system level
of body organization. e.g. Heart and different blood vessels collectively form a
complete blood vascular system.
ORGANISM LEVEL
When several organ systems work together with complete coordination
and cooperation, an individual whole organism is formed.
Q. Describe the broader level of biological organization.
BROADER LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

1. Species: A group of very similar potentially interbreeding population.
2. Population: Members of one species inhabiting the same area.
3. Community:Two or more populations of different species living and
interacting in the same area.
4. Ecosystem: A Community interaction with its non-living surroundings.
5. Biosphere: That part of earth inhabited by living organisms.
Q. Describe the emergence of life on earth by the help of geological

time period.
TIME PERIODE OF LIFE ORIGINATION: 2.5 Billions years ago approx.
LIFEORGANIZATION: Acellular as the consequences of gradual

modifications in the genetic material new types of living organisms
evolved.First living forms are simple acellular organisms. Researchers from
time to time worked curiously and by applying different techniques they come
to know from the fossils records about the different group of organisms that
arose in different geological times.
Q. Describe the association among living organisms.

The organizations in living organisms are as follows:
1. Symbiosis: Two organisms live together and at least one or both useful
to each other.
2. Commensalism: Two organisms live together one get benefit other gets
no harm no benefit.
3. Mutualism: Two organisms live together and both are useful to each
other if separated both can survive independently.
4. Parasitism: Two organisms live together one get benefit other gets harm.
Organisms developed from acellular to multicellular by the process

of evolution. This can be studied through fossils which are mostly naturally
preserved remains of organisms. By fossils it is confirmed that different groups
of fossils have different age and they have developed in different geological
periods of time.
Q. Write a note on Hydroponics.
HDROPHONICS:
Definition: “It is the science of growing terrestrial plants in an aerated
solution. It is also called soil less or water culture”.
This technique is used for growing vegetables and other plants. It helps
to fulfill the food requirement of people living in particular area. Tomato and
other vegetables were experimented in green houses and result obtained
satisfactory.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It controls the weeds and soil disease problems.
2. Area required for cultivation is reduced.
3. Crops are successfully grown in the arid parts of the world to meet the
food requirement.
Q. Describe phyletic lineage in view of evolution.

Phyletic lineage is the common origin of species during the process of
evolution. Evolution is the series of gradual changes occurs in living organisms
to accommodate themselves in the environment and these changes must be
inherited in their off springs.
Phyletic lineage is an unbroken series of species, which are arranged in

ancestor to descendent arrangement, related with other species, which have
evolved from that species immediately, preceded it.
Q. Define cloning. Describe the method and importance of cloning.

CLONING
Definition: It is a method of production of duplicate copies of genetic
material; cells or entire multicellular living organism occurs naturally in plants
and animals.”
Some common examples are identical twins, asexual reproduction,
regeneration and development of tumors and cancers.
CLONING METHOD
In this process a fertilized egg nucleus is replaced by the unfertilized egg
nucleus and that zygote is then placed in to the womb of the female for
complete development. This individual is quite similar to that individual whose
nucleus is used.
IMPORTANCE OF CLONING:
1. By this process different kinds of human cells can be replaced such as
liver cells, Skin cells, Blood cells etc.
2. Defective organs can be replaced by cloned organs.
3. This method is used to improve the quality in agriculture and medical
sciences.
4. Growth hormones, insulin and other substances can be prepared by
cloning method.
Q. How can we protect and conserve our environment.
PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Environmental hazards have always been threatened to the mankind.
This has been increased due to urbanization and industrialization.
Environment is damaged in different ways.
• POLLUTION: “This referred to as the unwanted physical or

chemical changes o ccurred in the environment”.
There are different types of pollution air, land, water, noise pollutions. Green
house effect, Acid rain is caused due to pollution. To protect the environment
certain effective methods are necessary to apply to reduce the pollution.
• DEFORESTATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION: Cut down the

forest and establishing industries also causes disturbance in the biological
system of natural environment. Conservation of forests and parks helps to
reduce soil erosion and flooding etc.
Q. What do we mean by biological control and disease management?

Naturally occurring organisms are now used to fight pathogens or pests
in most of the countries. This method is called biological control. For example
introduction of small fishes in the pond inhibits the production of larvae and
pupae of mosquito.
Control of insect pest by free living non pathogenic nematodes and
pathogenic nematodes by fungi is another advance approach of biological
control and disease management.
In plants crop rotation is very successful in preventing the diseases in
which different crops are grown on the same ground and cultivation of same
crop is not repeated year after year. Soil fertility can be increased by
introducing a crop of leguminous family which has nitrogen bacteria in their
root nodules.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Q. Explain biological method in detail.

Like other subjects of science, Biology also has got definite way of
investigation for the exploration & discovery of new fact. The scientific way of
study and exploration of facts in biology is called Biological Method,details are
as follow:
1. Hypothesis
The first logical statement given by scientist about work under study is
the hypothesis. It is fairly reliable and simplified version of facts.
A, INDUCTIVE REASONING
After statement scientist uses isolated facts to reach the general idea
that explains a phenomenon. Example Robert Hook cell discovery led to further
observations and experimentations on plant and animal material.
B, DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Once hypothesis is stated, deductive reasoning involves with if ---then
statement. Based on results of accurate experimentation, conclusions are
drawn.
2. EXPERIMENT AND OBSERVATION
Hypothesis is then tested experimentally, results are recorded and
certain additions or deductions are made accordingly.
3. THEORY
After performing a number of experiments, the results are summarized
and if majority of results and observations are in favor, a “theory” is
established.
4. LAW
If a theory is tested and always found correct, it is accepted as a rule or
law.
Q. Explain in detail the applications of biology.
The biology plays immensely important role for the development and
welfare of mankind. It improves the quality of living standard, helps people to
promote better health, protection and protection and conservation of
environment by Appling the modern techniques in the field of agriculture and
medical sciences etc.
Some of the applications of the biology in the medical sciences are as

follows:
• IMMUNIZATION AND VACCINATION:

Definition: “Immunization is concerned about resistance against diseases
which is carried out by vaccination in the world”.
Dangerous diseases like Polio, Small pox, hepatitis etc have been
controlled and rate of mortality and infection is greatly reduced. Vaccination
was first introduced by Edward Jenner in 1795. In this process vaccines are
introduced in the body to prevent person from many dangerous diseases.
However in many cases protection may not be long life.
• ANTIBIOTICS:
Definition: “Antibiotics are chemical substances that prevent the growth or
kill the harmful micro-organisms in our body”.
First antibiotic Penicillin was isolated from a fungus, called penicillium

notatum. this great work was done by Fleming, Flory and Chain, they got noble
prize. These antibiotics are widely used to control many diseases, such as T.B.,
Cholera, Leprosy, Anthrax diseases which have been controlled properly in the
whole world.
• CHEMOTHERAPY:
Definition: “It is a method to control diseases like cancer, AIDS by certain
chemicals”
With the advancement of medical sciences, biologists have developed new
methods to tackle the problems concerning health. This method has proved to
be successful.
• RADIOTHERAPY:
Definition: “Use of radioactive rays for the treatment of diseases”
This technique is also useful for the diagnosis of diseases. This

process is also destructive to human tissues. When exposed in high doses.
However treatments of Cancer and tumors have been successfully introduced
by radiotherapy.
• INCREASE OF FOOD PRODUCTION:

With the increase of population getting food is the major problem
persists in the nature therefore biologists have been constantly engaged to
increase the maximum yield of food resources and introduce the latest
techniques in agricultural field to produce better quality crops.
• HDROPHONICS:
Definition: “It is the science of growing terrestrial plants in an aerated solution.
It is also called soil less or water culture”.
This technique is used for growing vegetables and other plants. It helps
to fulfill the food requirement of people living in particular area. Tomato and
other vegetables were experimented in green houses and result obtained
satisfactory.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It controls the weeds and soil disease problems.
2. Area required for cultivation is reduced.
3. Crops are successfully grown in the arid parts of the world to meet the
food requirement.
• CLONING:
Definition: It is a method of production of duplicate copies of genetic material;
cells or entire multicellular living organism occurs naturally in plants and
animals.”
Some common examples are identical twins, asexual reproduction,
regeneration and development of tumors and cancers.
Cloning Method:
In this process a fertilized egg nucleus is replaced by the unfertilized egg
nucleus and that zygote is then placed in to the womb of the female for
complete development. This individual is quite similar to that individual whose
nucleus is used.
Importance of cloning:
4. By this process different kinds of human cells can be replaced such as
liver cells, Skin cells, Blood cells etc.
5. Defective organs can be replaced by cloned organs.
6. This method is used to improve the quality in agriculture and medical
sciences.
7. Growth hormones, insulin and other substances can be prepared by
cloningmethod.
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Chapter #2
Biological Molecules
Short questions and answers
Q. Define biochemistry. Give its importance.
Biochemistry
Def: - “It is a branch of biology which deals with the study biochemical
compounds and chemical processes in the body of living organisms”.
Importance of biochemistry:-
It helps to get information about structure and formation of biochemical

compounds like proteins, carbohydrates etc.
It explains about abnormal reactions causing disease in our body so
these could be treated well by medicines.
It also explains about the messages transport mechanism in neurons.
It gives information about the chemical basis of cellular differentiation
from fertilized egg to different body organ tissues.
It explains about the growth of cells
It explains about the mechanism of memory
Q. Briefly describe the Chemical Composition of Cell.

Introduction:
The body of all living organisms is composed of cells & a cell contains a
living material called Protoplasm. It contains enormous biochemical compounds
& is responsible for all vital functions of life. Protoplasm contain about 70 to
90% water when water evaporates remaining mass is the dry weight of cell. The
biochemical present in it mainly composed 98% of these six elements C, N2, P,
H2, O2 & S.
Q. Name the biological molecules present in living organisms.

Biomolecules can be divided in to following groups according to variability
in their functions and chemical structures.
1. Proteins
2. Carbohydrates
3. Nucleic acids
4. Lipids
5. Conjugated molecules
Q. Describe the chemical nature of water.

Water is present in all living cells. Its composition varies from 70 to 90%
from cell to cell.
Chemical nature of Water:-
A water molecule is chemically composed of two Hydrogen atoms and one
Oxygen atom. Water is a polar molecule i.e. it ahs slightly negative end, oxygen
and slightly positive end, Hydrogen atoms. This separation of electrical charge
is called dipole. This property helps H2O molecule to form hydrogen bonds.
Q. Why water is considered as a best solvent?

Water is called a universal solvent due to its polar nature and dissolve
substances many polar and can also react with non polar substances.
Q. How biochemical reactions carried out at constant rate and cellular
contents remain stable in water?
The specific heat of water is high therefore it is slow to release and absorb
heat. This thermal stability plays an important role in biochemical reactions to
carried out at fairly constant rate.
Due to strong hydrogen bonding water requires high amount of heat to
change in to vapor form. Similarly needs greater amount of energy to
freeze. Therefore cellular contents remain stable.
Q. Water act as amphoteric molecule. How?

Water acts as both acid and a base, so it is an amphoteric molecule. Due
to this property it acts as the best suitable medium for chemical processes
particularly metabolism by maintaining its pH as buffer in the living cell.
Q. Classify the primary types of organic molecules.

The molecules contain carbon and hydrogen elements necessarily with
other elements are called organic molecules. These are formed inside the cell in
the following state.
Macromolecules These are huge & highly organized molecules. Ex. DNA,
Haemoglobin.
Monomers: Macromolecules are composed of large numbers of low molecular
weight building blocks or subunits are called monomers. Ex. amino acids.
Polymers These are formed by the combination of more than two monomers.
Ex. proteins, lipids etc.
Q. Describe the synthesis of large molecules by condensation.

“The joining of two monomers are called condensation”.
Two monomers join together when a hydroxyl (-OH) group is removed from one
monomer and a (-H) is removed from another monomer. This is also called
dehydration synthesis because water is removed and a bond is made.
Condensation always takes place in the presence of enzyme and energy.
Q. Describe the breaking of large molecules by Hydrolysis.

“The process in which macromolecules or polymers are broken down into
smaller monomers or sub-units by the addition of water is called hydrolysis”.
During this process a water molecule breaks in to +H and –OH ions by the
help of enzyme, whereas –OH group attaches to one monomer and a –H attaches
to the other. When a bond is broken, energy is released or made available. E.g.
In animals large molecules are digested by the activity of enzyme called
hydrolytic enzyme.
Q. Briefly describe Carbon element.

Carbon is a unique element it forms number of compounds which vary
widely in their properties and adaptation. Study of these carbon containing
compounds are called organic chemistry.
Carbon has atomic number 6 and contains 4 electrons in its outmost shell
so it can combine with four atoms by covalent bond.
Carbon is capable of forming bonds with other elements like Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus, and Halogens (Cl, Br, I) and with electropositive
element Hydrogen.
Q. Define and describe the types of covalent bonds.
“A chemical bond formed by the mutual sharing of electrons in between at least
two same or different elements is called covalent bond”.
Carbon forms three types of covalent bonds.
1. Single Covalent bond: This bond is form by the mutual sharing of one
pair between the atoms.
CH 3 ------CH 3
Ethane
2. Double Covalent bond: This bond is form by the mutual sharing of two
CH 3 ======CH 3
Ethene
3. Triple Covalent bond: This bond is form by the mutual sharing of three
CH 3 _____CH 3
Ethyne
Q. Define a functional group and their linkages.

Functional Group: These are particular group of atoms that behave as a
unit and give organic molecules their physical, chemical properties and solubility
in aqueous solution.
Some functional groups are as follows
The most common linkages formed between functional groups are as follows
1) Ester bond: - Bond formed between carboxylic acid and alcohol.
2) Amide bond: - A bond formed between carboxylic acid and amine.
Q. Write a note on Protein.

Proteins are the most important building block of all the living organisms’
body. These are large molecules with structural and metabolic functions.
Keratin, which makes up hair and nails, and collagen fibers, which support
many organs, are examples of structural proteins.
The name protein was suggested by Berzelius in 1838 and the Dutch
Chemist G.J. Murlder in 1883 recognized the importance of protein as vital
compound. Proteins are complex organic compounds having H, C, O, and N as
elements but sometimes they contain P and S also. Due to the presence of N
they are called nitrogenous compounds. Egg, meat, fish, pulses are the major
source of proteins.
Q. Describe the functions of Protein.

Some of the important characteristics of proteins are as follows:
• Proteins provide many of the structural elements of a cell, and help
to bind cells together into tissues.
• Some proteins act as contractile elements, to make movement
possible; others control the activity of genes, transport needed
material across the membrane.
• Proteins in the form of antibodies protect animals form disease and,
in the form of interferon, attack the viruses which escape form
antibodies.
• Proteins in the form of some hormones participate in growth and
development of living organism.
Q. Define and describe the characters of Amino Acids.
Def: - “An organic compound containing one or more amino groups (-NH 2 ) and
one or more carboxyl groups (-COOH) is known as amino acid”.
• The amino acids occur freely in the cytoplasmic matrix.
• The amino acids are derived from the organic acids in which the
hydrogen in alpha position is replaced by the amino group. For
example the amino acid glycine is formed by the acetic acid and
alanine derived from propionic acid.
• Amino acids are linked together by specialized bond or linkage
called peptide linkage.
• The cytoplasm contains about 20 amino acids which are classified
in to two groups; hydrophilic amino acids (11) and hydrophobic
amino acids (9).
Q. How amino aids combine with each other.
When two molecules of amino acids are combined then the basic group (-
NH 2 ) of one amino acid molecule combines with the carboxylic (-COOH) group of
other amino acid & the loss of a water molecule takes place. This condensation
of two amino acid molecules by –NH-CO linkage or bond is known as peptide
linkage or peptide bond resulting the formation of polypeptide chain formation
of protein.
Q. Briefly describe the structures of protein.

Structure of proteins:
There are four basic level structures of proteins:
1) Primary structure: A polypeptide chain having a linear sequence of amino
acid having disulphide (S-S) bond is called primary structure. This structure was
discovered by Frederick Sanger and his co-workers at Cambridge University
in 1955.
2) Secondary structure: When a polypeptide chain of amino acids become
spirally coiled this structure is called Secondary structure of protein. This
is a tubular and rigid structure called helix.
3) Tertiary structure: The term Tertiary structure refers to the irregular
loops or bends making three dimensional polypeptide structures.
4) Quaternary Structures: It is the association of more than one polypeptide
chain into large sized molecules called quaternary structure.
Q. Briefly describe Carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are the compounds of the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
They generally represented as (CH 2 O) n and are called hydrate of carbon. Only
green parts of plants and certain microbes have the power of synthesizing the
carbohydrates form the water and CO 2 in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll by the process of photosynthesis. Carbohydrates use as a building
material and as storage substances in living organisms.
Q. Classify carbohydrates on the basis of monomers.
These are classified in to following groups on the basis of monomers.
1. Monosaccharides (Monomers),
2. Oligosaccharides (Oligomers), and
3. Polysaccharides (Polymers).
Q. Write a note on Monosaccharides.

These are called simple sugars with the empirical formula C n (H 2 O) n . They
are classified and named according to the number of carbon atoms in their
molecules as follows. These are found in various fruits and vegetables e.g.
Glucose is a primary source of energy for the cell found in ripe fruits, honey,
sugar cane etc. Fructose is also present in fruits and called fruit sugar. Galactose
is found in combined state in lactose (milk).
Q. Define Oligosaccharides with examples.

These consists of 2 to 10 Monosaccharides in their molecules. These are formed
by condensation of Monosaccharides. Certain important oligosaccharides are as
follows:
 Disaccharides contain two monomers e.g. sucrose, lactose, maltose etc.
 Trisacchrides contain three monomers e.g. rabinose
 Tetrasaccharides contain four monomers e.g. scordose.
 Pentasacchrides contain five monomers e.g. verbascose.
Q. Describe Polysaccharides with example

The polysaccharides are composed of ten to many thousands
monosaccharide as the monomers in their molecules. These are of two kinds.
• Homopolysaccharides contains similar kinds of monosaccharides in
their molecules. e.g. starch, glycogen an cellulose.
• Heteropolysaccharides contains different kinds of monosaccharides in
their molecules.
Q. Give a comparison of Starch, Glycogen and Cellulose.
Starch Glycogen Cellulose

1. It is the important 1. It is also a reserve 1. Cellulose is a glucose
storage food material of storage food and polymer produce in plants.
plants. commonly known as 2. In cellulose glucose
2. It is found in cereals, animal starch. molecules are arranged in
legumes, potatoes and 2. It is found in bacteria, a linear sequence.
other vegetables. fungi, liver and muscles 3. It is the main
3. It is insoluble in water. tissues of animals. constituent of plant cell
4. It is converted in to 3. It is insoluble in water. wall and most abundant
simple sugars by 4. It is stored in granular carbohydrate in nature.
hydrolysis and then form.
oxidized to produce energy
to be used in metabolism
of other biomolecules.
Q. Describe the functions of carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are the major source of energy.
• It is also act as storage food in the form of starch in plants and
glycogen in animals.
• Cellulose forms the cell wall of the plant cells and provides
mechanical support to the cell.
• The hyaluronic acid (Muccopolysacchrides) forms the cementing
material of the connective tissues. it occurs in the skin, connective
tissues and synovial fluid of the joints.
• The chondroitin sulphate occurs in the cells of the cartilage, skin,
cornea, umbilical cord and it serves as a matrix for the bone
formation.
• Chitin which is similar to cellulose and serve as a structural
polysaccharide for fungi and certain other lower plants and as the
exoskeleton of many insects.
Q. Briefly describe lipids.

Bloor in 1943 proposed the term lipid according to him, “These are organic
compounds which are insoluble in the water but soluble in organic solvent”.
The lipids are non polar and hydrophobic. They are the important
constituents of the cellular membranes, hormones, and vitamins of the cells.
They also form the source of energy for the cells.
Q. Write a note on Acylglycerol.

Acylglycerol (Fats and Oil)
Generally these are called fats and oils and found in animals and plants.
These compounds posses double amount of energy then Carbohydrates by
having C-H bonds. About 16 Kg fats or 144000 k cal energy present in a person
of average size.
Acylglycerol is also called a Triacyglyceride because of three fattyacids
linked with one glycerol molecule.
There are two types of Acylglycerol.
(a) Saturated Acylglycerol

• These compounds have no double bond between the carbon atoms.
• These are solid at ordinary temperature.
• These are mostly found in animals
(b) Unsaturated Acylglycerol

• They contain one or more than one double bond between carbon
atom.
• They are liquid at ordinary temperature.
• They are found in plants and also called oil. e.g. linolin present in
cotton seed.
Q. Briefly describe waxes.

Waxes belong to the group of biological molecules called lipid. In waxes, a
long chain of fatty acid combines with a long chain of alcohol by ester bonding.
Being hydrophobic, they are also water proof and resistant to degradation. In
many plants waxes form a protective cuticle (covering) that retards the loss of
water for all exposed parts. In animals, waxes are involved in skin and fur
maintenance. In humans wax is produced by glands in the outer ear canal here
its function is to trap dust and dirt particles.
Q. Write a note on Phospholipids

These are similar to Tryacylglycerol or an oil except in place of fatty acid
is replaced by phosphate group. A phosphate group is a polar group that can
ionize and therefore is hydrophilic. When Phospholipids molecules are placed in
water, they form a double layer in which the polar heads face outward and the
non polar tails face each other. This property of phospholipids means that they
can form an interface or separation between two solutions, such as the interior
and exterior of a cell. Therefore helps in cell permeability and transport
processes.
Q. Describe the properties of Terpenoids.

• Terpenoids is a large and important class of lipids.
• They help in oxidation reduction processes as terpens.
• These are found in cell membrane and as plant pigments.
Q. Describe few characters of Steroids.

• Steroids belong to the Terpenoids of lipids.
• They consist of four fused carbon ring and varies from other
steroids primarily by the type of functional groups attached to the
rings.
• These fused rings with total of 17 carbon atoms are called steroid
nucleus.
• Cholesterol is an important steroid used for the synthesis of other
steroids, sex hormones such as testosterone, progesterone and
estrogens.
Q. What are Carotenoids describe their characters.

• The carotenoids are the compound lipids and they form the
pigments of the animals and plant cells.
• There are about 70 carotenoids occurring in both type of cells.
• Chemically carotenoids are propyrines which are linked with
metals and proteins and forming the important pigments of
animals and plant cells such as the chlorophyll and haemoglobin.
• Carotenoids are red, orange, yellow, cream and brown in colours in
plants.
• Some important carotenoids are carotene, xanthophylls etc.
Q. Write a note on Nucleic Acid.

Initially 22 years old a Swedish Friedrich Miescher isolate a nuclear
substance and named nuclein, later on it was named nucleic acid. These nucleic
acids are present in all living organisms in the form of DNA and RNA which often
remain combined with nuclear proteins. In a typical eukaryotic nucleus
thousand times more DNA than a bacterium and a hundred thousands times
more than a virus is found. Nucleic acids are composed of large numbers of
nucleotides like proteins and the arrangements of nucleotides in a chain manner
is called polynucleotide or polymer of nucleotide.
Q. What are the components of nucleotide?

Definition: “Portion of DNA or RNA molecule composed of one Deoxyribose
phosphate unit (in DNA) or one ribose phosphate unit (in RNA) in addition with
Purine or a Pyrimidine is called a Nucleotide”.
A nucleotide is consists of following three parts.
(i) Pentose sugar
(ii) Phosphoric acid
(iii) Nitrogen base
Pentose sugar
“Sugar molecules contain five carbon atoms called pentose”. These are of
two types Ribose (C 5 H 10 O 5 ) or Deoxyribose (C 5 H 10 O 4 ) which serves as a basic
skeleton in DNA or RNA.
Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 )
Phosphoric acid is common in all nucleotides. It is attached with 5th
carbon of pentose sugar I each nucleotide.
Nitrogen bases
“The nitrogen containing organic compounds of DNA or RNA are called
nitrogenous bases”.
There are two basic types of nitrogen bases Purines and Pyrimidine.
Purine includes Adenine and Guanine.
Pyrimidine includes cytosine, thymine and uracil.
Q. Describe the Formation of Nucleotide.

Formation of nucleotide takes place in two steps.
i) Firstly the nitrogenous base combines with pentose sugar as its first
carbon to form a nucleoside.
ii) At the second step the phosphoric acid combines with the 5th carbon
of Pentose sugar to form a nucleotide.
Q. Describe the types of nucleotides.

Mononucleotide
“Mononucleotide is the molecules used to caries energy and exists singly
in the cell”.
Some of these have extra phosphate group e.g. ATP (adenosine
triphosphate).
Dinucleotide
“When two nucleotide are covalently bounded together, these compounds
are called dinucleotide”.
The best example of dinucleotide is Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD).
Polynucleotide
Polynucleotides include nucleic acids. These are considered as central
dogma of life. These are biological macromolecules serves as repositors of genetic
information and precursor to determine the path of growth and development in
living organisms and control the synthesis of different biomolecules like proteins
etc. Both RNA and DNA are polynucleotide.
Q. Write notes on the following

1. ATP 2. NAD
ATP
The ATP consists of a Purine base adenine, a pentose sugar ribose and three
molecules of the phosphoric acid. in ATP the last phosphate group is linked with
ADP by a special bond “ because when the last phosphate group of the ATP is
released the large amount of energy is released as shown by the following
reaction.
NAD
NAD is a Co-enzyme [Coenzymes are the molecules (non-protein) which bind to
enzyme (Protein) and serves as a carrier for chemical groups or electrons] that
carries electron and work with dehydrogenate enzyme. It removes two hydrogen
atom (2e- +2H+) from its substrate, both electrons. But only one hydrogen ion is
passed to NAD which reduces it to NADH.
Q. Differentiate between RNA and DNA

RNA DNA
• In RNA ribose sugar present. • In DNA Deoxyribose sugar is present.
• RNA occur in nucleus, ribosome and in • DNA presents in the nucleus but also
the cytoplasmic matrix. occur in the mitochondria plastids and
• RNA contains Adenine, Guanine, centrioles.
Cytosine and Uracil bases in their • In DNA bases are Adenine, Guanine,
nucleotide. Cytosine, and Thymine in their
• RNA is of three kinds rRNA, tRNA, and nucleotides.
mRNA. • DNA is of just one kind.
• RNA is single stranded. • DNA is double stranded helical
• RNA work as a Carrier of structure.
information in Eukaryotes. • DNA work as hereditary material in
Eukaryotes.
Q. Why DNA considered as hereditary material?

The DNA has a key role in all the biosynthetic and hereditary functions of
the living organisms. The most important function of the DNA is that it acts as
a carrier of genetic information from generation to generation. It is the most
stable compound of the biological world which can be considered as immortal.
This can be proved by transformation process in bacteria and infection of
bacteria by bacteriophage where it directs the synthesis of more phages. Hershey
and Chase thus experimentally confirmed that DNA must be the genetic
material.
Q. What are Genes? Explain.

In view of molecular geneticists, a gene is a sequence of DNA nucleotide
bases that codes for a product. DNA has specific sequence of nitrogenous bases.
These four bases shows enormous combinations in which each of these
combinations refer to specific information as we see in protein synthesis where
amino acids are represented by different pairs of codons. Thus these
combinations representing specific information and are called genes. e.g. a piece
of DNA with 10 nucleotide and exists in over a million different possible
sequences of four bases these all are considered as genes which represents
specific characters.
Q. Why RNA considered as a Carrier of Information?

RNA is considered as a carrier of information because it receives and
transmits the information from the DNA and act accordingly in different
biochemical processes.
DNA synthesis RNA which carries information from DNA to the cytoplasm. There
are three types of RNA’s present in cytoplasm that perform different functions.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA): This carries information from DNA to
cytoplasmic matrix.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA): These are present in the cytoplasm and act
according to the instructions coming from DNA through mRNA.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): These are present in the ribosomes and
providing a platform for the attachment of both tRNA and mRNA.
Activities of RNA’s can be seen in the process of protein synthesis which
is a two step process.
Transcription
In this step DNA synthesis mRNA and transfer the information for the
manufacturing of protein in the cytoplasmic matrix.
Translation
In this step information receive in ribosome where rRNA and tRNA work
according to the instruction and synthesize the protein.
Q. What are Conjugated Molecules describe their types and functions.

These are the biomolecules which are formed by the combination of two
different molecules. Following are the types of conjugated molecules.
i) Glycolipids
Def; “Lipids containing fatty acids carbohydrates and nitrogenous
compounds are called Glycolipids”. These are important constituent of brain and
also called cerebrosides.
ii) Glycoproteins or Mucoids

Def.:- “When carbohydrates combined with protein molecules these molecules
are called Glycoproteins”. E.g. egg albumin, gonadotropic hormones etc.
ii) Nucleoproteins
Def: - “These are found in the nucleus conjugated with nucleic acid”. These are
weakly acidic and soluble in water.
iv) Lipoproteins
Def:- “ Lipids and proteins combined together and form molecules are called
Lipoproteins”.
• These help in the transportation of lipid in the blood plasma.
• They also present in cellular organelles.
• These occur in the hyaline sheath of nerves, photoreceptive
structures, chloroplast and the membranes of bacteria.
Descriptive questions
Q. Describe the Biological properties of water.
The biologically important properties of water are as follows:-
Best Solvent: Water is called a universal solvent due to its polar

nature and dissolve substances many polar and can also react with non polar
substances.
High heat capacity: The specific heat of water is high therefore it is
slow to release and absorb heat. This thermal stability plays an important role
in biochemical reactions to carried out at fairly constant rate.
High Heat of vaporization: Due to its hydrogen bonding water
requires high amount of heat to change in to vapour form. Similarly needs
greater amount of energy to freeze. Therefore cellular contents remain stable.
An amphoteric molecule: Water acts as both acid and a base, so it is
an amphoteric molecule. Due to this property it acts as the best
suitable medium for chemical processes particularly metabolism by maintaining
its pH as buffer in the living cell.
Cohesive force in water molecules: There is a force of attraction
among the water molecules, it is called cohesive force. It helps in the
transportation of substances both outside and inside the cells.
Importance in Metabolism: The water has greater importance for the

various metabolic functions because most of them require exclusively the
aqueous media.
Water as absorbent for photosynthesis: The water is transparent to
light, enabling the specialized photosynthetic organelles, the chloroplast, inside
the plant cell to absorb the sunlight for the process of photosynthesis.
Q. Explain the structure and functions of protein in view of amino acids.

Proteins
Proteins are the most important building block of all the living organisms’
body. These are large molecules with structural and metabolic functions.
Keratin, which makes up hair and nails, and collagen fibers, which support
many organs, are examples of structural proteins.
The name protein was suggested by Berzelius in 1838 and the Dutch Chemist
G.J. Murlder in 1883 recognized the importance of protein as vital compound.
Proteins are complex organic compounds having H, C, O, and N as elements but
sometimes they contain P and S also. Due to the presence of N they are called
nitrogenous compounds. Egg, meat, fish, pulses are the major source of
proteins.
Functions of Proteins:
Some of the important characteristics of proteins are as follows:
• Proteins provide many of the structural elements of a cell, and
help to bind cells together into tissues.
• Some proteins act as contractile elements, to make movement
possible; others control the activity of genes, transport needed
material across the membrane.
• Proteins in the form of antibodies protect animals form disease
and, in the form of interferon, attack the viruses which escape
form antibodies.
• Proteins in the form of some hormones participate in growth and
development of living organism.
AMINO ACID AS A BUILDING BLOCK OF PROTEIN:

Def:- “ An organic compound containing one or more amino groups (-NH 2 ) and
one or more carboxyl groups (-COOH) is known as amino acid”.
• The amino acids occur freely in the cytoplasmic matrix.
• The amino acids are derived from the organic acids in which the
hydrogen in alpha position is replaced by the amino group. For example the
amino acid glycine is formed by the acetic acid and alanine derived from
propionic acid.
• Amino acids are linked together by specialized bond or linkage called
peptide linkage. Where R is the radical group, it shows the variety of structures.
• The cytoplasm contains about 20 amino acids which are classified in to
two groups; hydrophilic amino acids (11) and hydrophobic amino acids (9).
Linkage of Amino Acids:

When two molecules of amino acids are combined then the basic group (-
NH 2 ) of one amino acid molecule combines with the carboxylic (-COOH) group of
other amino acid and the loss of a water molecule takes place. This condensation
of two amino acid molecules by –NH-CO linkage or bond is known as peptide
linkage or peptide bond resulting the formation of polypeptide chain formation
of protein.
Structure of proteins:
There are four basic level structures of proteins:
1) Primary structure: A polypeptide chain having a linear sequence of amino
acid having disulphide (S-S) bond is called primary structure. This structure
was discovered by Frederick Sanger and his co-workers at Cambridge
University in 1955.
2) Secondary structure: When a polypeptide chain of amino acids become
spirally coiled this structure is called Secondary structure of protein. This
is a tubular and rigid structure called helix.
3) Tertiary structure: The term Tertiary structure refers to the irregular
loops or bends making three dimensional polypeptide structures.
4) Quaternary Structures: it is the association of more than one polypeptide
chain into large sized molecules called quaternary structure.
Q. Explain the structure, classification and functions of Carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the compounds of the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
They generally represented as (CH 2 O) n and are called hydrate of carbon. Only
green parts of plants and certain microbes have the power of synthesizing the
carbohydrates form the water and CO 2 in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll by the process of photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates use as a building material and as storage substances in
living organisms.
These are classified in to following groups on the basis of monomers.
1. Monosaccharides (Monomers),
2. Oligosaccharides (Oligomers), and
3. Polysaccharides (Polymers).
1. Monosaccharides (Monomers)
These are called simple sugars with the empirical formula C n (H 2 O) n . They are
classified and named according to the number of carbon atoms in their
molecules as follows.
Class Formula Example
Triose They contain three carbon Glyceraldehydes and
atoms C 3 H 6 O 3 Dihydroxy acetone
Tetrose They contain four carbon Erythrose, Erythrulose
atoms C 4 H 8 O 4
Pentose They contain five carbon Ribose, Deoxyribose
atoms C 5 H 10 O 5
Hexose They contain six carbon Glucose, Fructose etc.
atoms in their molecules
C 6 H 12 O 6
Heptose They contain seven carbon Glucoheptose,
atoms in their Sedoheptulose.
molecules.C 7 H 14 0 7
These are found in various fruits and vegetables e.g.

Glucose is a primary source of energy for the cell found in ripe fruits,
honey, sugar cane etc. Fructose is also present in fruits and called fruit sugar.
Galactose is found in combined state in lactose (milk).
Oligosaccharides
These consists of 2 to 10 monosaccharides in their molecules. These are
formed by condensation of monosaccharides. Certain important
oligosaccharides are as follows:
• Disaccharides contain two monomers e.g. sucrose, lactose,
maltose etc.
• Trisacchrides contain three monomers e.g. rabinose
• Tetrasaccharides contain four monomers e.g. scordose.
• Pentasacchrides contain five monomers e.g. verbascose.
Polysaccharides
The polysaccharides are composed of ten to many thousands
monosaccharide as the monomers in their molecules. These are of two kinds.
• Homopolysaccharides contains similar kinds of monosaccharides
in their molecules. e.g. starch, glycogen an cellulose.
• Heteropolysaccharides contains different kinds of
monosaccharides in their molecules.
Functions of Carbohydrates:
• Carbohydrates are the major source of energy.
• It is also act as storage food in the form of starch in plants and
glycogen in animals.
• Cellulose forms the cell wall of the plant cells and provides
mechanical support to the cell.
• The hyaluronic acid (Muccopolysacchrides) forms the cementing
material of the connective tissues. it occurs in the skin, connective
tissues and synovial fluid of the joints.
• The chondroitin sulphate occurs in the cells of the cartilage, skin,
cornea, umbilical cord and it serves as a matrix for the bone
formation.
• Chitin which is similar to cellulose and serve as a structural
polysaccharide for fungi and certain other lower plants and as the
exoskeleton of many insects.
Q. Explain the classes of lipid with their characteristics.

Lipids
Bloor in 1943 proposed the term lipid,“ these are organic compounds
which are insoluble in the water but soluble in organic solvent”.
• The lipids are non polar and hydrophobic.
• They are the important constituents of the cellular membranes,
hormones, and vitamins of the cells.
• They also form the source of energy for the cells.
The important groups of lipids are as follows.
1. Acylglycerol (Fats and Oil)

• Generally these are called fats and oils and found in animals and
plants.
• These compounds posses double amount of energy then
Carbohydrates by having C-H bonds.
• About 16 Kg fats or 144000 k cal energy present in a person of
average size.
• Acylglycerol is also called a Triacyglyceride because of three
fattyacids linked with one glycerol molecule.
There are two types of Acylglycerol.
1. Saturated Acylglycerol
• These compounds have no double bond between the carbon atoms.
• These are solid at ordinary temperature.
• These are mostly found in animals
2. Unsaturated Acylglycerol
• They contain one or more than one double bond between carbon
atom.
• They are liquid at ordinary temperature.
• They are found in plants and also called oil. e.g. linolin present in
cotton seed.
Waxes
• In waxes, a long chain of fatty acid combines with a long chain of
alcohol by ester bonding.
• Being hydrophobic they are also water proof & resistant to
degradation
• In many plants waxes form a protective cuticle (covering) that
retards the loss of water for all exposed parts.
• In animals, waxes are involved in skin and fur maintenance.
• In humans wax is produced by glands in the outer ear canal here
its function is to trap dust and dirt particles.
Phospholipids
• These are similar to Tryacylglycerol or an oil except in place of fatty
acid is replaced by phosphate group.
• A phosphate group is a polar group that can ionize and therefore is
hydrophilic.
• When Phospholipids molecules are placed in water, they form a
double layer in which the polar heads face outward and the non
polar tails face each other. This property of phospholipids means
that they can form an interface or separation between two
solutions, such as the interior and exterior of a cell. Therefore
helps in cell permeability and transport processes.
Terpenoids
• Terpenoids is a large and important class of lipids.
• They help in oxidation reduction processes as terpens.
• These are found in cell membrane and as plant pigments.
Some important classes of Terpenoids are as follows.
Steroids
• These consists of four fused carbon ring and varies from other
steroids primarily by the type of functional groups attached to the
rings.
• These fused rings with total of 17 carbon atoms are called steroid
nucleus.
• Cholesterol is an important steroid used for the synthesis of other
steroids, sex hormones such as testosterone, progesterone &
estrogens
Carotenoids
• The carotenoids are the compound lipids and they form the
pigments of the animals and plant cells.
• There are about 70 carotenoids occurring in both type of cells.
• Chemically carotenoids are propyrines which are linked with
metals and proteins and forming the important pigments of
animals and plant cells such as the chlorophyll and haemoglobin.
• Carotenoids are red, orange, yellow, cream and brown in colours in
plants.
• Some important carotenoids are carotene, xanthophylls etc.
Q. Explain the structure and composition of Nucleic acid in view of
nucleotide.
Nucleic Acid
Initially 22 years old a Swedish Friedrich Miescher isolate a nuclear
substance and named nuclein, later on it was named nucleic acid.
• These nucleic acids are present in all living organisms in the form
of DNA and RNA which often remain combined with nuclear
proteins.
• In a typical eukaryotic nucleus thousand times more DNA than a
bacterium & a hundred thousands times more than a virus is
found.
• Nucleic acids are composed of large numbers of nucleotides like
proteins and the arrangements of nucleotides in a chain manner is
called polynucleotide or polymer of nucleotide.
Composition of Nucleotide
Definition: “Portion of DNA or RNA molecule composed of one Deoxyribose
phosphate unit (in DNA) or one ribose phosphate unit (in RNA) in addition with
Purine or a Pyrimidine is called a Nucleotide”.
A nucleotide is consists of following three parts.
(i) Pentose sugar
(ii) Phosphoric acid
(iii) A nitrogen base
Pentose sugar
“Sugar molecules contain five carbon atoms called pentose”. These are of
two types Ribose (C 5 H 10 O 5 ) or Deoxyribose (C 5 H 10 O 4 ) which serves as a basic
skeleton in DNA or RNA.
Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 )
Phosphoric acid is common in all nucleotides. It is attached with 5th
carbon of pentose sugar I each nucleotide.
Nitrogen bases
“The nitrogen containing organic compounds of DNA or RNA are called
nitrogenous bases”.
There are two basic types of nitrogen bases Purines and Pyrimidine.
Purine includes Adenine and Guanine.
Pyrimidine includes cytosine, thymine and uracil.
Types of nucleotides
Mononucleotide
“ Mononucleotide are the molecules used to caries energy and exists singly
in the cell”.
Some of these have extra phosphate group e.g. ATP (adenosine
triphosphate).
Dinucleotide
“When two nucleotide are covalently bounded together, these compounds
are called dinucleotide”.
The best example of dinucleotide is Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD).
Polynucleotide
Polynucleotides include nucleic acids. These are considered as central
dogma of life. These are biological macromolecules serves as repositors of genetic
information and precursor to determine the path of growth and development in
living organisms and control the synthesis of different biomolecules like proteins
etc. Both RNA and DNA are the examples of polynucleotide.
CHAPTER # 03
ENZYMES
Q. Define enzymes and describe their characteristics.
The term enzyme was first used by a scientist named Friedrich Wilhelm
Kuhune in 1878 he defined as:
“Enzymes are the organic substances capable of catalyzing specific
chemical reactions in the living system”.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYME
• These are produced in the cell and act inside or outside the cell as
organic biocatalyst.
• Enzymes are large molecules of proteins but may contain non
protein molecules.
• They can react with both acidic and alkaline substances.
• They act in a small quantity to bring about change in large amount
of substrate.
• Enzymes are specific in their action and react with particular
substrate in particular pH.
• Their activities can be accelerated by certain ions like Mg, Ni, and
Mn etc. called activators.
• Enzymes are heat sensitive and are called ‘Thermo labile’.
Q. What are ribozymes?
During 1980’s Thomas Czech and Sidney Altman discovered that certain
molecules of ribonucleic acid also function as enzymes. These are called
“ribozymes” which catalyze reactions involved in processing genetic information
to be used by the cell. Generally enzymes are protienecios in nature.
Q. Write a note on energy of Activation.
ENERGY OF ACTIVATION
Definition:
“It is the energy required for the formation of chemical complex by the
reactants”.
The enzymes react with the energy rich and energy poor molecules which
form an intermediate complex which break into product and enzyme. If
activation energy of formation of this complex is low many molecules can react
and participate in reaction. In this way activation energy is lowered by the
enzyme but in this action equilibrium (ratio of concentration of reactant and
product) is remains same.
Q. Describe the theories of enzyme action.

In order to explain the mode of action of enzymes two theories has been
given importance which are as follows.
KEY-LOCK THEORY
Fischer (1898) proposed this theory and later improved by Paul filder and
D.D. Woods. They said;
“An enzyme act on a particular substrate like particular lock can be
unlocked by a particular key”.
This theory depends upon physical contact between substrate and enzyme
and the groove of specific shape of enzyme is called ‘active site’.
INDUCE FIT MODEL

Koshland (1959) proposed this theory and stated that;
“When a substrate combined with an enzyme it induces changes in
the enzyme structure and performs its catalytic activity more
effectively”.
Q. Describe the types of enzymes.
SIMPLE ENZYME: Enzyme contains only protein.

CONJUGATED ENZYME: Enzyme contains another group other then
protein. Euler (1932) also named conjugated
enzyme as ‘Holoenzyme’.
HOLOENZYME: It contains two parts, the protein part called
‘apoenzyme’ and non protein part called
‘prosthetic group’.
TYPES OF HOLOENZYME: On the basis of the nature of prosthetic group,

conjugated enzymes or holoenzymes are of two
types;
1. Co-factors: The holoenzymes in which prosthetic group is inorganic

ion. These inorganic ions are known as Co-factors like Mg, Ca, & K
etc
2. Co-enzymes; The holoenzymes in which prosthetic group is an
organic ion. These organic prosthetic groups are called Co-enzymes
like NAD, NADPH, FMN, ATP etc.
Q. How the concentration of substrate effect enzyme action.
The rate of reaction increases with an increase of amount of substrate

until the available enzyme becomes saturated with the substrate. Very high
concentration of substrate exerts a retarding effect upon enzyme action and
further increase of substrate has no effect on the rate of reaction.
Q. What is the effect of temperature on enzyme activity?
Enzymes are heat sensitive and lost their activity at high temperature and
destroyed. The optimum temperature for most of the enzyme is 30 to 37 degree
centigrade at 100 degree they destroyed and at 0 degree they become inactive
but not destroyed.
Q. What are co-enzymes, activators and inhibitors?
Co-factors have been divided into three categories.

Co-Enzymes: If the co-factor is an organic molecule , its is called co-
enzyme without coenzyme certain enzyme are unable to
function e.g. NAD,FAD etc.
Activators: Enzyme activity enhance in the presence of inorganic
substances which are called activators e.g. Mg, Zn etc.
Inhibitors: Substances which decreases the activity of an enzyme
are called inhibitors e.g. DDT and parathion are
inhibitors of key enzymes in nervous system.
Q. Write a note on competitive and Non-Competitive inhibitors.
Competitive Inhibitors
These resemble with the substrate molecule and block the active site of
enzyme for the entrance of substrate molecule.
Non-Competitive Inhibitors
These bind with the enzyme away from the active site which is called
‘allosteric site’ this cause the change in enzyme shape and active site hence
causing the active site unreceptive to substrate.
Q. What do we mean by Feed-back inhibition?
Feed-back Inhibition
When end product in abundance it attached with the enzyme active site it
is called feed back inhibition. This reduces the inhibition and as a result more
products is formed but if it is bind with the allosteric site no more product is
formed.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. Describe the factors affecting enzyme activities.
Following factors affect the enzyme activity:

• CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTRATE
The rate of reaction increases with an increase of amount of substrate
until the available enzyme becomes saturated with the substrate. Very
high concentration of substrate exerts a retarding effect upon enzyme
action and further increase of substrate has no effect on the rate of
reaction.
• TEMPERATURE
Enzymes are heat sensitive and lost their activity at high temperature and
destroyed. The optimum temperature for most of the enzyme is 30 to 37
degree centigrade at 100 degree they destroyed and at 0 degree they
become inactive but not destroyed.
• WATER
Water is essential for the rate of enzymatic activity. In germinating
seeds amount of water increase the activity of enzyme to precede
germination.
• RADIATION
Enzymes are generally inactivated rapidly by exposure to ultraviolet light
and also to Beta, Gamma and X rays.
• Co-ENZYMES, ACTIVATORS AND INHIBITORS

Co-factors have been divided into three categories.
1. Co-Enzymes: If the co-factor is an organic molecule , its is

called co-enzyme without enzyme certain enzyme are unable
to function e.g. NAD,FAD etc.
2. Activators: Enzyme activity enhance in the presence of
inorganic substances which are called activators e.g. Mg, Zn
etc.
3. Inhibitors: Substances which decreases the activity of an
enzyme are called inhibitors e.g. DDT and parathion are
inhibitors of key enzymes in nervous system.
(a) Competitive Inhibitors

These resemble with the substrate molecule and block the
active site of enzyme for the entrance of substrate molecule.
(b) Non-Competitive Inhibitors

These bind with the enzyme away from the active site which is
called ‘allosteric site’ this cause the change in enzyme shape
and active site hence causing the active site unreceptive to
substrate.
(c) Feed-back Inhibition

When end product in abundance it attached with the enzyme
active site it is called feedback inhibition. This reduces the
inhibition and as a result more products is formed but if it is
bind with the allosteric site no more product is formed.
CHAPTER # 4
THE CELL
Q. What are the contributions of scientists in the discovery of cell?

The ‘Cell’ was first discovered by Robert Hooke (1665) through his research
work on the structure of cork. Later Robert Brown (1831) discovered the nucleus
in the cell and Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839) worked on the cellular
organization and proposed a cell theory.
Q. Describe the postulates of cell theory

CELL THEORY
In 1838 Schleiden a German botanist, stated that plants were made of
cell. In 1838 another German Zoologist published a report on the cellular basis
of animals. Both proposed a cell theory which state that:
• All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
• The cell is the structural unit of life.
Rudolf Virchow (1855) a German pathologist added that:

• Cells can arise only by division of pre-existing cell.
Now cell defined as:
Definition: “Cell is the structural, functional and protoplasmic unit
of
Living organisms or cell is the basic unit of life”.
Q. Describe the kinds of microscope.

These are the instruments used to study the cellular organisms. There are
different kinds of microscopes which are as follows:
KINDS OF MICROSCOPES
1. Light Microscope: In which visible light is used as source of
illumination.
2. X-ray Microscope: In which short wave length X-rays are used
as source of illumination.
3. Electron Microscope: In which electron beam is used as source
of illumination. There are two types of
electron microscopes;
(a) Transmission Electron Microscope: In this type metal

filament or cathode emits the electron beam which pass
through the object resulting image is produce on a
photographic film.
(b) Scanning Electron Microscope: In this microscope

a very fine beam of electrons scans the surface of the
specimen, which is coated with thin metal layer. The metal
gives off secondary electrons that are collected by a detector
to produce an image on a TV screen.
Q. Give a comparison of light and electron microscope.
Light Microscope Electron Microscope
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Cheap to purchase and • Expensive to purchase and
operate. operate.
• Small and portable can be • Very large and must be
used almost anywhere. operated in special rooms.
• Unaffected by magnetic • Affected by magnetic field.
field. • Preparation of material is
• Preparation of material is lengthy and requires
relatively quick and simple, considerable expertise and
requiring only a little sometimes.
expensive. • Preparation of material may
• Material distorted by distort it.
preparation. • All images are black and white.
• Natural color of the
material can be observed. Advantages:
• Magnifies objects over 5,
Disadvantages: 00,000X.
• Magnifies object up to 2000X. • It is possible to investigate a
• Depth or resolution of field is greater depth of field.
restricted.
Q. Briefly describe the Magnification, Resolution and contrast.
When handling of microscope three adjustments are important for better
view;
• Magnification: It means increasing the object view according to
the magnifying power of microscope and can be
calculated by (Power of eye piece X Power of
object).
• Resolution: The minimum distance of the object to view
clearly is called resolution. The distance plays an
important role in the study of object.
• Contrast: It is important in identifying one component of
cell from another which is usually done by fixing
and staining the material.
Q. Describe the techniques use to isolate components of cell.
1. Fractionation: This method is used to determine the chemical

composition of cell by breaking the large number of cells in ice cold
environment usually in homogenizer.
2. Centrifugation: It is a method by which molecules and structures
of a solution as a result of fractionation are separated according to their
shape, size and density, through spinning by a device called
centrifuge.
Some other methods are Chromatography, Electrophoresis and

Spectrophotometery.
Q. Difference between prokaryote and eukaryote.

Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1. Cell size Mostly small (1-10µm). Mostly large (10-100µm).
2. Nucleus Nucleus not membrane Nucleus is membrane
3. Organelles bounded. bounded.
Present or not. Numerous types and
4.Tissue formation differentiated e.g.
5. Cell division Absent. Mitochondria, Golgi body etc.
6. Sexual system Fission, budding, no Present in many groups.
mitosis. Various means, associated
7.Motility organelle Unidirectional transfer of with mitosis.
8. Nutrition genes from donor to Bidirectional transfer
recipient. associated with meiosis.
Simple flagella. Cilia or flagella.
Principally absorption. Absorption, ingestion,
e.g. blue green algae, photosynthesis.
Bacteria e.g. protozoan to metazoans
Q. What are the major components of eukaryotic cell?
The typical eukaryotic cells contain three major parts, but 4th component
i.e. cell wall is only found in plant cells.
1. Plasma membrane.
2. Nucleus.
3. Cytoplasm and Cytoplasmic Organelles.
4. Cell Wall.
Q. Describe the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane.
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
In 1972 Singer and Nicholson proposed a model of plasma membrane in
which the lipid bilayer is retained as the core of the membrane and lipid
molecules in a fluid state capable of rotating and moving laterally with in the
membrane.
The protein associated with lipid bilayer can be divided into two groups.
(a) Integral protein (Intrinsic protein)
These are directly incorporated with in the lipid bilayer some of
these proteins are believed to provide a channel for water soluble
substances.
(b) Peripheral proteins (Extrinsic protein)
These are located entirely outside the lipid bilayer exhibit unloose
association with membrane surface.
These proteins are arranged as mosaics within the cell membrane.
Q. What are the passive transport methods of plasma membrane?
Passive transport
Def: “Use of a plasma membrane carrier protein to move particles
from a region of higher to lower concentration”.
• Diffusion
It occurs spontaneously few substances freely diffuse across plasma
membrane e.g. respiratory gasses.
• Osmosis
It maintains a balance between the osmotic pressure of the intracellular
fluid and that of interstitial fluid, known as Osmoregulation.
Q. What are the Active transport methods of plasma membrane?
Active transport
Def “Use of a plasma membrane carrier protein to move particles from
a region of lower to higher concentration; it opposes equilibrium and requires
energy”
• Endocytosis
Plasma membrane participates in the ingestion of food materials by
two methods
Phagocytosis In this process solid particles are ingested by cell.
Pinocytosis In this process the liquid material is taken in by
formation of vesicles inside.
• Exocytosis
In this process membrane fusion and the movement of material out
side the cell occurred.
Q. Write a note on nucleus.
Occurrence
The nucleus is centrally located and spherical cellular component.
The nucleus is found in all the eukaryotic cells of the animal and plant
cells.
Shape & Structure
The nucleus may be spherical, oval, lobed or elongated in shape. Size is
variable in various cells between 5 to 25µm. nucleus consists of three structures;
Nucleus has following components.
1. Nuclear membrane made up of lipoprotein.
2. Granular viscous nucleoplasm & chromatin network
(chromosomes).
3. Nucleolus is a central spherical body chemically composed of
ribosomal protein and ribosomal RNA.
4. Nucleus controls the growth, reproduction and the various
metabolic activities of the cell.
Q. Describe the functions of Nucleus.
Nucleus regulates growth and reproduction of cell. It controls various
metabolic activities of cell. Nucleus also contains heredity material DNA where
genes are placed and responsible for the characteristics of the whole organism.
Nucleolus provides the raw materials such as different kinds of rRNA’s and
ribosomal proteins for biogenesis of ribosomes.
Q. Describe the composition of cytoplasm.
The protoplasm out side the nucleus called cytoplasm. It has two distinct
parts outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm. Cytoplasm consists of several types
of organelles and a fluid matrix. These provide the cytoskeleton of the cell.
Cytoplasmic matrix
It is composed of various inorganic molecules such as water, salts of Na,
K and other metals and various organic compounds like CHO, lipids, proteins
and variety of enzymes.
Q. Write a note on endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
The Cytoplasmic matrix has a network of interconnecting tubules and
vesicles known as endoplasmic reticulum. These are of two types
(a)Granulated or rough ER with ribosomes on its outer surface and
present mostly in protein synthesizing cells such as mammalian
salivary glands and pancreas
(b) A granulated or smooth ER without ribosomes found in steroid
producing cells like adipose (fat cells), interstitial glycogen
producing cell (liver) and in the muscles cells
Function
Endoplasmic reticulum transports the necessary material within or
outside the cell and also provides structural support to the cytoplasm.
Q. Write a note on mitochondria.

MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondrion is a double membrane bound cytoplasmic organelle
present in all Eukaryotic cells. They are usually vesicles, rod lets like having 0.2
to 1.0µm diameter and about 10µm long.
Internal Morphology
One of the two membranes form outer boundary and the second
membrane forms inner irregular, incomplete partitions called cristae filled with
matrix having chemical compounds in it while on the cristae enzymes and co-
enzymes are located.
FUNCTIONS
• Mitochondria perform most important functions as oxidation,
dehydrogenation inside the cell.
• Mitochondria synthesize energy rich compound ATP, they are also
known as “power house of the cell”.
Q. Write a note on Golgibodies.

GOLGI BODIES (Dictyosomes)
These appear as a cluster of loose sac “Glandular Cells” and size about
0.5µm high and 1-3µm in length. Each organelle consists of following structures.
1. Cisternae These are three to seven flat, tubular or filamentous
parallel hollow bundles filled with fluid contents.
2. Tubules form the peripheral area of cisternae arise a complex
network of tubules.
3. Vesicles are small droplet like sacs which remain attached to tubules
at the periphery of the cisternae. These are smooth & coated in outer
shape.
4. Golgian Vacuoles These are large, specious rounded sac like
structures occurring at the distal ends of cisternae.
FUNCTIONS
1. Processing of secretory and membrane proteins.
2. Secretion of polysaccharides.
3. Formation of plasma membrane.
4. Formation of acrosomes of spermatozoa.
Q. Write a note on Lysosomes.

LYSOSOMES
The cytoplasm of animal cells contains many tiny spheroid or irregular-
shaped, membrane bounded vesicles known as lysosomes. These are enzyme
filled organelles originated by the Golgi body. These enzymes are kept separated
from cytoplasm by means of a membrane called tonoplast. Lysosomes are
generally present in animal cells only.
FUNCTIONS
1. Their function is the digestion of food material which comes in the
cell by Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis.
2. The Lysosomes of plant cells are membrane bounded storage
granules containing hydrolytic digestive enzymes.
3. They function as destroyers of foreign particles and worn out
cellular components but sometimes it causes a cell to destroy by
itself this process is called autophagy and lysosomes have been
referred as suicide sacs.
Q. Discuss the diseases caused by the abnormal functions of lysosomes.
Over 30 disorders have been reported out of them some are described in
the following table.
• Tay-sachs disease represents mental retardation, blindness death
by age 3,
• Gaucher’s disease represents liver and spleen enlargement, erosion
of long bones, mental retardation in infantile form only.
• Krabbe’s disease represents loss of myelin, mental retardation,
death by age 2.
Q. Briefly describe Plastids.

These are cytoplasmic organelles of plant cells and also found in some
protozoans like Euglena. Plastids are enclosed in a double protoplasmic
membrane. They perform most important biological activities as the synthesis of
food and storage of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. They contain DNA and
also capable of synthesize protein comparable to that of mitochondria.
Classification of plastids:
In 1885 A.F.W. Schimper classified the plastids and some of these are as
follows.
1. Chloroplast
• These are most occurring pigments in plants.
• It occurs mostly in green algae and higher plants.
• The chloroplast contains the pigment chlorophyll a and b and DNA
and RNA.
• These are greatly important in manufacturing of food by
photosynthesis.
Q. Discuss chloroplast as energy converting Organelle.
The chloroplasts are anabolic (biosynthetic) organelles of plant cells and
they perform the following functions for the cell.
Role of chloroplast in Photosynthesis: These are energy converting
molecules and have an ability to convert solar energy into chemical/ food energy
by the process of photosynthesis by the help of chlorophyll and its associated
proteins.
Mechanism: During photosynthesis chlorophyll absorb sunlight and
transfer its energy in to thylakoid membranes where it is use by ATP and other
energy carrier molecules. Later it diffuses by energy carriers at the site called
stroma, for synthesis of sugar from carbon dioxide.
Role of chloroplast in Protein synthesis: According to some recent

studies DNA of chloroplast codes for chloroplast mRNA, rRNA, tRNA and
ribosomal protein for the synthesis of proteins.
Q. Briefly describe the Peroxisomes and Glyoxysomes.

Peroxisomes:
Peroxisomes are another type of oxidative organelles of cells which use
molecular oxygen, but produce no ATP molecule. These are single membrane
bounded micro bodies having enzymes, use to form a toxic molecule hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) which is broken down immediately. These help in detoxification of
alcohol.
Glyoxysomes:
These are single layered microbodies having a granular stroma. Glyoxysomes
contain enzymes that metabolize some of the molecules involved in the
photosynthetic process and respiration through oxidation of fatty acid.
Q. Briefly describe the cytoskeleton of the cell.

Def. “ The cytoskeleton is a network of interconnected filaments and tubules that
extends from the nucleus to the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells”.
The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and causes the cell and its
organelles to move. The entire cytoskeleton network disappears and reappears
at various times in the life of a cell. It plays important role in the cell divisions.
Cytoskeleton contains three types of elements: actin filaments, intermediate
filaments and microtubules, which are responsible for cell shape and movement.
Q. Briefly describe the actin filaments/ microfilaments

Actin filaments are long, extremely thin fibers (about 7nm in diameter)
that occur in bundles or networks. The actin filaments contain two chains of
globular proteinic actin monomers twisted about one another in a helical
manner. In animals these are present in intestine and help in shorten and extend
of microvili.
In plant cells they form the tracks along which chloroplasts circulates or stream
in a particular direction.
Q. What is the role of intermediate filaments of cells in the body?

These are intermediate in size (8-11nm in diameter) between actin
filaments and microtubules. They are rope like made up of polypeptides. In the
skin and hair, these filaments, mechanically support the skin cells by its protein
keratin.
Q. Discuss the structure and function of Microtubules.

These are small hollow cylinders like about 25 nm in diameter and form
0.2-25 μm in length. Microtubules are made up of globular protein called
tubulin. Microtubules formation is control by centrosomes. These maintain
shape of the cell and acting as tracks along which organelles move. A single
microtubule consists of hundreds of thousands of tubulin subunit arranged in
13 columns are called protofilaments.
Q. Write a note on Ribosomes.

These are small particles composed of rRNA and proteins. These are found
in both prokaryotes and in eukaryotes free or attached with endoplasmic
reticulum.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits one large and one small these are
called Svedberg subunits. These are regarded as the centre for protein synthesis.
Q. Discuss the structure of Centrioles

These are short hollow cylinders with microtubules triplets ring having
nine sets of triplets with none in the middle. Each cylinder is of 0.2 micrometer
in diameter. During cell division the centrioles replicates and moves to opposite
side of the cell and thread like fibers begin to radiate from centrioles in all
directions called astral rays.
Q. Write down the role of vacuole in plant cell.

A vacuole is a large membranous sac like structure in the cytoplasm
surrounded by membrane called Tonoplast. Plant cells have large central
vacuole then animal cells filled with watery fluid that gives additional support to
the cell. Vacuoles store substances like sugar and salts in plants. They also
contain pigments for Colouration in plants and toxic molecules that help protect
a plant from predation herbivorous animals. Plant vacuoles contain hydrolytic
enzymes which causes lysis of cell after death of the cell.
Q. Describe the composition of cytoplasm.

The protoplasm out side the nucleus called cytoplasm. It has two distinct
parts outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm.
Cytoplasm consists of several types of organelles and a fluid matrix. These
provide the cytoskeleton of the cell.
Cytoplasmic matrix
It is composed of various inorganic molecules such as water, salts of Na,
K and other metals and various organic compounds like CHO, lipids, proteins
and variety of enzymes.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. Explain in detail the structure and functions of plasma membrane
and Nucleus.
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE
Plasma membrane or Plasma lemma is a living, ultra thin, elastic, and
porous, semi permeable membranous covering of the cell. Primarily it provides
mechanical support and external form to the protoplasm.
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMEBRANE

The plasma membrane composed of two layers of protein molecules and
two layers of lipid molecules which is also called phospholipids and interspersed
with proteins.
The phospholipids molecules in the plasma membrane are arranged in the
two parallel layers. Their nonpolar hydrophobic ends face each other where as
their polar hydrophilic ends are associated with carbohydrate and protein etc. It
also contains several types of lipids like cholesterol.
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

In 1972 Singer and Nicholson proposed a model of plasma membrane in
which the lipid bilayer is retained as the core of the membrane and lipid
molecules in a fluid state capable of rotating and moving laterally with in the
membrane.
The protein associated with lipid bilayer can be divided into two groups.
(a) Integral protein (Intrinsic protein)

These are directly incorporated with in the lipid bilayer some of these
proteins are believed to provide a channel for water soluble substances.
(b) Peripheral proteins (Extrinsic protein)
These are located entirely outside the lipid bilayer exhibit unloose
association with membrane surface.
These proteins are arranged as mosaics within the cell membrane.
Functions of Plasma Membrane

Passive transport
Def “Use of a plasma membrane carrier protein to move particles from a region
of higher to lower concentration”.
• Diffusion
It occurs spontaneously few substances freely diffuse across plasma
membrane e.g. respiratory gasses.
• Osmosis
It maintains a balance between the osmotic pressure of the
intracellular fluid and that of interstitial fluid, known as
Osmoregulation.
Active transport
Def “Use of a plasma membrane carrier protein to move particles from a region
of lower to higher concentration; it opposes equilibrium and requires energy” .
• Endocytosis
Plasma membrane participates in the ingestion of food materials by
two methods
Phagocytosis In this process solid particles are ingested by cell.
Pinocytosis In this process the liquid material is taken in by
formation of vesicles inside.
Exocytosis In this process membrane fusion and the movement of
material out side the cell occurred.
2. NUCLEUS
The nucleus is centrally located and spherical cellular component.
3. Occurrence
The nucleus is found in all the eukaryotic cells of the animal and plant
cells. Usually the nucleus remains located in the centre of the cell. Some times
its number varies from cell to cell.
4. Shape & Structure

The nucleus may be spherical, oval, lobed or elongated in shape. Size is
variable in various cells between 5 to 25µm. nucleus consists of three structures;
5. Nuclear membrane
Nucleus is bounded by two membranes of lipoprotein. Nuclear membrane is
perforated through which chemical substances passes like proteins, RNA etc.
6. Nucleoplasm & Chromosomes
Nucleus is filled by a transparent semisolid granular substance known as
Nucleoplasm. It contains many threads like coiled much elongated structures
known as chromatin fiber. During cell division these becomes thick and form
chromosomes having large molecule of DNA and proteins.
7. Nucleolus
It is conspicuous spherical body and chemically composed of large amount of
ribosomal protein and ribosomal RNA which is essential for protein synthesis
and cell division.
Functions of Nucleus
• It regulates growth and reproduction of cell
• It controls various metabolic activities of cell
• It contains heredity material DNA where genes are placed and
responsible for the characteristics of the whole organism.
• Nucleolus provides the raw materials such as different kinds of
rRNA’s and ribosomal proteins for biogenesis of ribosomes.
Q. Explain in detail the cytoplasmic organelles. (Any three may be asked

in exams)
Cytoplasmic Organelles
1) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

The Cytoplasmic matrix is traversed or crossed by a network of
interconnecting tubules and vesicles which extends from plasma membrane to
the nuclear membrane is known as endoplasmic reticulum.
Types of ER
There are two types of ER
(a) Granulated or rough ER
(b) A granulated or smooth ER
Occurrence
Smooth ER is found in steroid producing cells like adipose (fat cells), interstitial
glycogen producing cell (liver) and in the muscles cells. Granular ER is heavily
coated with ribosomes on its outer surface and present mostly in protein
synthesizing cells such as mammalian salivary glands and pancreas.
Morphology of ER
The membranes of ER is suppose to be originated by in- pushing of plasma
membrane in the matrix because chemically it is composed of lipoprotein like
plasma membrane the ER is having a single vast interconnectivity which
remains bounded by a single membrane.
Functions of ER
• ER transports the necessary material from exterior to the nucleus
or to the Cytoplasmic organelles.
• It provides mechanical support to the Cytoplasmic matrix.
• It serves as supporting platform to the ribosomes.
• It forms a frame work of cell with increased surface for various
metabolic reactions.
• It also helps in detoxification of harmful drugs storage and release
Ca ions.
• It contains various enzymes which perform various synthetic and
metabolic activities.
• ER forms the new nuclear envelope after each nuclear division.
2) MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria or chondriosomes are membrane bound cytoplasmic
organelles universally present in animals and plant cells.
External Morphology
They appear as minute granules, vesicles, rod lets, threads or strings
depending upon physiological conditions of the cell. Each mitochondrion is
approximately 0.2 to 1.0µm in diameter and about 10µm long.
Internal Morphology
There are two thin membranes which forms the boundaries inside of
mitochondrion. Both membranes are made up of lipids and proteins. The inner
membrane forms irregular, incomplete partitions called cristae. Interiorly the
mitochondrial matrix is having a number of chemical compounds in it while on
the cristae enzymes and co-enzymes are located.
FUNCTIONS
• Mitochondria perform most important functions as oxidation,
dehydrogenation inside the cell.
• Mitochondria synthesize energy rich compound ATP, they are also
known as “power house of the cell”.
• Heat production or thermogenesis in mammals which is the 55% of
the remaining 45% during oxidation of glucose inside mitochondria.
• Mitochondria also perform biosynthetic or anabolic functions like
synthesis of heame for hemoglobin, conversion of cholesterol to
steroid hormone in the adrenal cortex.
• Mitochondria have its own DNA by which these are capable to
undergo self reproduction by the division.
3) GOLGI BODIES (Dictyosomes)

This mysterious structure was discovered by an Italian scientist Golgi in
1898. Under Electron microscope, it appears as a cluster of loose sac especially
in “Glandular Cells” and size about 0.5µm high and 1-3µm in length. Each
organelle consists of central flattened plate like compartments called Cisternae
, interconnecting tubules, vesicles and golgian vacuoles.
Cisternae These are sac or cavity filled with fluid contents within a cell and
consists of three to seven flat, tubular or filamentous cisternae in parallel
bundles.
Tubules Form the peripheral area of cisternae arise a complex network of
tubules.
Vesicles These are small droplet like sacs which remain attached to tubules
at the periphery of the cisternae. These are of two types.
a) Smooth vesicles: These contain secretory material and budded off
from the ends of cisternal tubules within the net.
b) Coated vesicles: These are spherical with rough surface.
Golgian Vacuoles These are large, specious rounded sac like structures
occurring at the distal ends of cisternae.
FUNCTIONS
• Processing of secretory and membrane proteins.
• Secretion of polysaccharides.
• Formation of plasma membrane.
• Formation of acrosomes of spermatozoa.
4) LYSOSOMES
The cytoplasm of animal cells contains many tiny spheroid or irregular-
shaped, membrane bounded vesicles known as lysosomes. These are enzyme
filled organelles originated by the Golgi body. These enzymes are kept separated
from cytoplasm by means of a membrane called tonoplast. Lysosomes are
generally present in animal cells only.
FUNCTIONS
• Their function is the digestion of food material which comes in the
cell by Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis.
• The lysosomes of plant cells are membrane bounded storage
granules containing hydrolytic digestive enzymes.
• They function as destroyers of foreign particles and worn out
cellular components but some times it causes a cell to destroy by
itself this process is called autophagy and lysosomes have been
referred as suicide sacs
Lysosomal storage diseases

In 1965 W.H. Hers of Belgium explained the importance of lysosomes function
in human health he noted that absence of lysosomal enzyme, alpha-glucosidase,
could lead to the storage of undigested glycogen accumulate in lysosomes
causing swelling of the organelles and irreversible damage to the cell and tissues.
Over 30 disorders have been reported out of them some are described in the
following table.
Disease
- Tay-sachs disease - Mental retardation, blindness death by age 3,
- Gaucher’s disease - liver and spleen enlargement, erosion of long
bones, mental retardation in infantile form only.
- Krabbe’s disease - Loss of myelin, mental retardation, death by age 2.
5) Plastids:
These are cytoplasmic organelles of plant cells and also found in some
protozoans like Euglena. Plastids are enclosed in a double protoplasmic
membranes.
• They perform most important biological activities as the synthesis
of food and storage of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
• They contain DNA and also capable of synthesize protein
comparable to that of mitochondria.
Classification of plastids:
In 1885 A.F.W. Schimper classified the plastids and some of these are as
follows.
Chloroplast
• These are most occurring pigments in plants.
• It occurs mostly in green algae and higher plants.
• The chloroplast contains the pigment chlorophyll a and b and DNA
and RNA.
• These are greatly important in manufacturing of food by
photosynthesis.
Chloroplast as energy converting Organelles
The chloroplasts are anabolic (biosynthetic) organelles of plant cells and
they perform the following functions for the cell.
• Role of chloroplast in Photosynthesis: These are energy
converting molecules and have an ability to convert solar energy into
chemical/ food energy by the process of photosynthesis by the help
of chlorophyll and its associated proteins.
Mechanism: During photosynthesis chlorophyll absorb sunlight and transfer its
energy in to thylakoid membranes where it is use by ATP and other energy carrier
molecules. Later it diffuses by energy carriers at the site called stroma, for
synthesis of sugar from carbon dioxide.
• Role of chloroplast in Protein synthesis: According to some
recent studies DNA of chloroplast codes for chloroplast mRNA,
rRNA, tRNA and ribosomal protein for the synthesis of proteins.
Chromoplast
• These are coloured plastids of the plant cells.
• These contain variety of pigments like xanthophylls and carotene.
• These are responsible of various colours in flowers, fruits and other
colored parts except green.
Leucoplast
• The leucoplasts are the colourless plastids which store the food
material as carbohydrates lipids and proteins.
• These are develop in the absence of sunlight and are found in the
underground part of the plants.
Proplastids
• These are immature colourless plastids occurring in meristemetic
tissues of plants.
• They multiply and develop in to chromoplast or chloroplast or
leucoplast.
Peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes are another type of oxidative organelles of cells which
use molecular oxygen, but produce no ATP molecule.
• These are single membrane bounded microbodies having enzymes,
use to form a toxic molecule hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) which is
broken down immediately.
• These help in detoxification of alcohol.
Glyoxysomes
• These are single layered microbodies having a granular stroma.
• Glyoxysomes contain enzymes that metabolize some of the
molecules involved in the photosynthetic process and respiration
through oxidation of fatty acid.
6) Cytoskeleton:
Def. “ The cytoskeleton is a network of interconnected filaments and tubules that
extends from the nucleus to the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells”.
• The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and causes the cell and its
organelles to move.
• The entire cytoskeleton network disappear and reappear at various
times in the life of a cell.
• It plays important role in the cell divisions.
The cytoskeleton contains three types of elements: actin filaments,
intermediate filaments and microtubules, which are responsible for cell shape
and movement.
Actin filaments/ Microfilaments

• Actin filaments are long, extremely thin fibers (about 7nm in
diameter) that occur in bundles or networks.
• The actin filaments contain two chains of globular proteinic actin
monomers twisted about one another in a helical manner.
• In animals these are present in intestine and help in shorten and
extend of microvili.
• In plant cells they form the tracks along which chloroplasts
circulates or stream in a particular direction.
Intermediate filaments
• These are intermediate in size (8-11nm in diameter) between actin
filaments and microtubules.
• They are rope like made up of polypeptides
• In the skin and hair, these filaments, mechanically support the skin
cells by its protein keratin.
Microtubules
• These are small hollow cylinders like about 25 nm in diameter and
form 0.2-25 μm in length.
• Microtubules are made up of globular protein called tubulin.
• Microtubules formation is control by centrosomes.
• These maintain shape of the cell and acting as tracks along which
organelles move.
• A single microtubule consists of hundreds of thousands of tubulin
subunit arranged in 13 columns are called protofilaments.
Non membrane bound organelles
7) Ribosomes
These are small particles composed of rRNA and proteins. These are found
in both prokaryotes in Free State and in eukaryotes free or attached with
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits one large and one small
these are called Svedberg subunits on the basis of their discoverer
Svedberg.
• Ribosomes are regarded as the centre for protein synthesis.
• These are manufactured in the nucleolus and transferred to the
cytoplasm through nucleopores.
8) Centrioles
These are short hollow cylinders with microtubules triplets ring having
nine sets of triplets with none in the middle. Each cylinder is of 0.2 micrometer
in diameter.
• During cell division the centrioles replicates and moves to opposite
side of the cell and thread like fibers begin to radiate from centrioles
in all directions called astral rays.
9) Vacuoles
A vacuole is a large membranous sac like structure in the cytoplasm
surrounded by membrane called Tonoplast. Plant cells have large central
vacuole then animal cells filled with watery fluid that gives additional support to
the cell.
• Vacuoles store substances like sugar and salts in plants.
• They also contain pigments for Colouration in plants and toxic
molecules that help protect a plant from predation herbivorous
animals.
• In animals vacuoles contain hydrolytic enzymes including
proteases, ribonucleases and glycosidases.
Plant vacuoles contain hydrolytic enzymes which causes lysis of cell
after death of the cell.
Variety of Life
Short Question Answers
Q. What do we mean by Biological Classification? What is a character?
Early in human history, it was found useful to know in advance the
usefulness and harmfulness of living organisms including plant and animals.
These organisms could be sorted out and categorized on the basis of certain
specific characters.
Character:
A character can be defined as “Any attribute or descriptive phrase referring
to form structure or behavior of a specific organism for a particular purpose.”
ex. Petal length, Corolla Color of flower etc.
Q. Define Homology with examples.

Homology refers to the fundamental similarities of living organism’s
structure. That might be helpful to correlate them with each other from their
common point of origin and controlled by the same genes, For example the
flipper of a Whale, the wing of a Bat and arm of man may differ in function but
their basic structural pattern is same and these are highly specialized to
accommodate themselves in the particular environment.
Q. How Biochemistry help to establish evolutionary relationship among

animals? Other then morphological criteria, other techniques can be used not
only in classifying organisms but to establish evolutionary relationship such
techniques are Chromatography and Electrophoresis through which we can
compare the amino acid sequence in the protein of different organisms or the
order of bases in their DNA.
Q. How the fundamental split take place in the classification of

prokaryote and eukaryotes?
Cytology is the bases of classification that help to study the microscopic
features of cell. For ex. Bacteria and Cyanobacteria have a unique type of cell
structure they are put together in a Kingdom of their own and it is helpful to
make a fundamental split in the classification of prokaryote and eukaryotes.
Other example is no. of chromosomes in locus and grasshopper etc.
Q. Which taxonomic bases is the final tool for classification?

All the morphological biochemical properties and cytological characters of
an individual a species depend upon its genetic constitution. Genetics is the final
tool for classifying organisms.
Q. Define Species and the grades of biological classification.
Species A species is a group of organisms which have numerous
physical features in common and capable of interbreeding
and producing viable fertile offspring.
Genera Closely related species are grouped together & form genera.
Families Different genera grouped together form families.
Order Different families grouped together form order.
Classes Different order forms class.
Phyla Different classes join to from phyla.
Kingdom Phylum group together form a Kingdom.
Taxon Each grouping of organisms within the taxonomic hierarchy
is called taxon.
Q. What do we mean by Nomenclature?
The modern system of naming also derived from the scientist Linnaeus.
Some species had a one word name, others had two word names, and still others
had names consisting of long descriptive phrases. Linnaeus proposed two word
species name first the name of the genus and second a designation for that
particular species. This is called Binomial Nomenclature.
Q. Describe the five Kingdoms of classification.

Five kingdom classification was proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1961.
Kingdom Monera
In this kingdom, all living things having “Incipient Nucleus” (Nuclear
material is not bounded in a nuclear membrane) are included. They are generally
called Prokaryotes. Examples are Virus, Bacteria and Blue green Algae.
Kingdom Protista
These are microscopic acellular or unicellular Eukaryotes (Living beings
having complete nucleus). They may be single celled or colonial. Nutrition may
be Autotrophic or Holozoic. Examples are Protozoans like Amoeba, Paramecium
and single celled Algae like Euglena and Chlamydomonas.
Kingdom Mycetes (Fungi).
These are unicellular to multicellular Eukaryotic Thalloid, Heterotrophic
organisms. Multicellular fungi are filamentous, whole structure of them is called
Mycelium made up of Hyphae. Reproduction is generally asexual by means of
spores. Examples are Yeast, Moulds and Mushrooms.
Kingdom Plantae
These are Multicellular Eukaryotic Autotrophic (few heterotrophic) living
organisms generally having differentiated structures like root, stem and leaves.
Examples are all phanerogams and Cryptogams.
Kingdom Animalia
These are all Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic, multicellular animals (Metazoan)
which may be “sessile” or generally “motile”. Examples are Man, Monkey, Ant, Star
fish.
Q. What are the reasons for making five Kingdom classification?

Previously organisms were divided into two kingdoms the animal kingdom
and plant kingdom but researchers from time to time have been worked on
different group of organisms and found that classification cannot fulfill the
requirements of the whole living organisms because of following measures
concerns.
• The first concerned unicellular flagellates like Euglena and its
relatives which were included in Protozoa while these contain
chlorophyll & autotrophs or heterotrophs depending upon
conditions.
• Another problem with Fungi they lack chlorophyll and feeds
heterotrophically by absorption method and their cellular
structure differs from plants in several ways.
• Third problem concerns bacteria. Bacteria and Cyanobacteria
(formerly blue green algae) have prokaryotic cell structure, so they
are similar to each other but different from all eukaryotic
organisms.
Therefore if living organisms have to be divided into just two kingdoms,
probably prokaryote and eukaryotes would be the best.
Q. What are viruses?
Viruses are non cellular smallest organism and probably the most
primitive creature on earth. The word virus is a Latin word which means Poison.
A Russian scientist “Ivanowsky” discovered it as a living organism and a particle
in 1892 A.D. An American biologist “Stanley” isolated “Tobacco Mosaic Virus”
from infected leaves in the year 1935 A.D.
Unenveloped Plus-strand RNA Enveloped Plus-strand RNA Viruses
Viruses These all are parasitize animals, are
They act directly as mRNA after distinguished from the members of the
infecting a host cell, attaching to the preceding group by their lipid-rich
host’s ribosomes & being translated. envelops.
Unenveloped Plus-strand RNA Enveloped Plus-strand RNA Viruses
Viruses These all are parasitize animals, are
They act directly as mRNA after distinguished from the members of the
infecting a host cell, attaching to the preceding group by their lipid-rich
host’s ribosomes and being envelops.
translated.
Q. Describe some characteristics of viruses.

Virus has dual characters i.e. within host cell it is living, active and
replicating but outside the host. It is a dead crystal, completely inactive and may
remain so for centuries. Virus never grows and reproduces outside the host cells.
Therefore it is an “Obligatory Parasite”.
Q. What are the types of viruses?

Virus is a very tiny creature whose structure activities and types can only
be studied by means of an “Electron Microscope” with a magnification power
more than 0.1 million nanometer. Virus measures about 17-450 millimicrons.
According to the type of host, viruses are of three types namely:
1. Animal virus
2. Plant virus
3. Bacteriophage
Q. Describe the structure of a virus with reference to bacteriophage

virus.
Viruses are of different shapes i.e. spherical, Tetrahedral, Polygonal, Rod
shape, polyhedral or Tadpole shaped. Here, structure of a bacteriophage tadpole
virus is given as an example.
Example - Bacteriophage
Virus is neither animal nor plant therefore it is devoid of cell membrane
or cell wall. Externally it is covered with a rigid protein coat called “Capsid”. It is
broader at one end and narrower at the other. Broader end is called “Head” and
narrower end is called “Tail”. The inner cavity contains DNA which may consists
single or several genomes. The tail is also hollow internally; this cavity is called
“Core”. Tail is also composed of protein fibrils for movement and Antigenic
proteins for attachment with the host.
Q. Differentiate between unenveloped and enveloped Plus-strand RNA

Viruses.
Q. What are Minus-strand RNA Viruses.
They carry RNA strand complementary to the mRNA that carries the
genetic information of the appropriate mRNA, which then functions in the cell.
Ex. Rhabdo viruses.
Q. Define Viroids.
Viroids are infectious circular molecules of RNA that include from 250 to
400 nucleotides. Viroids lack capsids & have no proteins associated with them.
Q. Define small genome DNA viruses.
Some of them have single stranded DNA others have double stranded DNA
they are icosahedral and about 20 nanometer in diameter.
Q. what is the difference between lytic and lysogenic cycle of phage virus?
Lytic cycle Lysogenic Cycle

• In lytic phase phage viral DNA • Viral DNA combines with the
takes control of bacterial biochemical bacterial DNA without harming
activities by attaching itself with bacterial DNA.
bacterial DNA. • Viral and bacterial DNA
• Viral DNA along with bacterial replicates simultaneously.
DNA produce nucleic acids and • So a number of generation of
proteins required for viral “Replication.” bacteria carries viral DNA.
• Large numbers of viruses are • This mutual cycle is called
produced on expense of Bacteria. Lysogenic cycle.
• Newly formed viruses set free and • Sometimes the “guest” viral
attack other bacteria for a new cycle. DNA reactivates to start Lytic Cycle
Q. Name some viral diseases with their causes in animals.

Viral animal diseases:
Disease name Caused by

Poliomyelitis This is caused by Polio Virus and controlled by
vaccination.
Colds This is caused by Rhinoviruses. More then 200 viruses
that caused colds have been identified.
Encephalitis, These are caused by arboviruses (arthropod born
Dengue, yellow fever viruses).
AIDS This is caused by HIV belong to the group Retroviruses.
Discovered in 1985.
Rabies Caused by rhabdovirus
Measles, Mumps Caused by paramyxovirus.
Plant Disease
Q. How virus causes diseases in plants?
Plant Diseases
Viral infections in plants are the serious threats to the crops. These stunt
any plant growth and diminish crop yields.
Mode of transmission
Plants can be infected from any outer source through injured parts
or through insects this is called Horizontal transmission.
Some times plant inherits a viral infection from a parent this is
called vertical transmission.
Cure:
Agriculturist have not yet devised cure for most viral infections in plants.
They emphasized on breeding genetic varieties of crop plans that are relatively
resistant to certain viruses.
Q. What is AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)?
This is a disorder caused by HIV (Human immuno deficiency virus) in
which the body’s T4 lymphocyte cells are infected, in that the virus replicates
within the T4 cell and let them unaffected to fight invaders inside the body hence
body immune system break down and patient exposed to variety of diseases.
Q. What are the modes of transmission of HIV?

HIV can only survive in body fluids and is transmitted by blood or semen.
People can contract the disease through:
It passes from the infected partner to his/her unaffected partner
through sexual contact.
AIDS can be contracted by use of infected injections by means of
unsterilized needles and syringes by not only drug users but also
to the general public.
Blood transfusion by already infected with HIV.
Close contact between infected and non infected people through
cuts and open wounds has also been known to pass on the virus.
By an infected pregnant woman which can pass on the virus to her
baby through the placenta at birth or through breast milk during
suckling.
Q. What are the sign and symptoms of AIDS?

First sign is a short flu like illness followed by no further effects for
months or years.
Cause of death is commonly a rare type of pneumonia.
Many patients suffer from skin cancer known as Kaposi’s sarcoma.
Weight loss, fever, dementia, diarrhea, septicemia (blood poisoning
and other forms of cancer.
HIV infects brain cells in more then 50% cases causing dementia
and sudden death.
The brain shrinks, with a loss of memory and mental agility, and
behavioral changes occur.
Q. What are the drugs used for the treatment of AIDS?

Azidothymidine or Zidovudine was the best known drugs used
by 1987 which slows the progression of the disease.
Ribavarrin found to suppress the AIDS virus under lab condition.
Sumarin an antiparasitic drug has also shown encouraging
results inhibiting viral reproduction in host.
Q. Define Hepatitis and describe its types.

Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver. It may be due to viral infections,
toxic agents on drugs. It is characterized by jaundice, abdominal pain, liver
enlargement fatigue and some times fever.
Types of Hepatitis
Hepatitis A is transmitted by contact with faces from infected
individual it is caused by non enveloped RNA virus.
Hepatitis B is caused by unusual DNA virus.
It is estimates that people about 200 million around the world are
the carriers of hepatitis B this may be transmitted through skin
contacts blood transfusion and similar medical procedures.
Hepatitis C passes through blood from mother to child during
pregnancy and afterwards by sexual contact.
Q. What are the bases of classification of living organisms?
Living organisms are classified on the bases of homologous, comparative,
biochemistry, cytology and genetics.
Homology: It refers to the fundamental similarities of living organism’s

structure.
For ex. The flipper of a Whale is used for swimming, the wing of a Bat for flying
and arm of man for grasping. These organs may differ in function but their basic
structural pattern is same and these are highly specialized to accommodate
themselves in the particular environment Moreover, their same structure might
be originated from the common ancestors and controlled by the same genes.
Biochemistry: Other then morphological criteria, other techniques can be

used not only in classifying organisms but to establish evolutionary relationship
such techniques are Chromatography and Electrophoresis through which we
can compare the amino acid sequence in the protein of different organisms or
the order of bases in their DNA.
Cytology: Some times we use microscopic features of cell for classification.

For ex. Bacteria and Cyanobacteria have a unique type of cell structure they are
put together in a Kingdom of their own and it is helpful to make a fundamental
split in the classification of prokaryote and eukaryotes. Other example is no. of
chromosomes in locus and grasshopper etc.
Genetics: All the morphological biochemical properties and cytological

characters of an individual of a species depend upon its genetic constitution. It
is the final tool for classifying organisms.
Q. Describe in detail the classification of viruses.

Generally these are classified on the basis of morphology and nucleic acid
they contain which may be DNA or RNA. These groups are as follows.
1. Unenveloped Plus-strand RNA Viruses:
They act directly as mRNA after infecting a host cell, attaching to the
host’s ribosomes and being translated.
2. Enveloped Plus-strand RNA Viruses:
These all are parasitize animals, are distinguished from the members of
the preceding group by their lipid-rich envelops.
3. Minus-strand RNA Viruses:
They carry RNA strand complementary to the mRNA that carries the
genetic information of the appropriate mRNA, which then functions in
the cell. Ex. Rhabdo viruses.
4. Viroids:
Viroids are infectious circular molecules of RNA that include from 250 to
400 nucleotides. Viroids lack capsids and have no proteins associated
with them.
5. Double strand RNA viruses :
The reoviruses, which are double stranded, icosahedral RNA viruses.
6. Small genome DNA virus
Some of them have single stranded DNA others have double stranded
DNA they are icosahedral and about 20 nanometer in diameter.
7. Medium genome and large genome DNA viruses.
These are large genome double stranded DNA viruses.
8. Bacteriophage:
They are among the most complex viruses. Each of them is made up of
at least five separate proteins; a long DNA molecule is coiled within the
head.
Q. Explain in detail the life cycle of bacteriophage virus.

Bacteriophage means “bacteria eater”. The name is given due to the fact
that these viruses infect bacteria and live as their parasite.
Lytic Cycle
Phage virus attaches itself with the bacterial cell wall by means of “tail
piece” and secretes enzyme called Lysosomes, it dissolves the bacterial wall
through which DNA takes control of Bacterial DNA and its Biochemical activities.
In this “Master slave” relationship, viral DNA initiates Bacterial enzyme system
to produce nucleic acids and proteins required for viral “Replication.” Therefore
a large number of viruses are produced on expense of Bacteria, as a result
Bacteria is “Internally eaten” and finally disintegrates, Newly formed viruses set
free and attack other bacteria for a new cycle. Such a cycle is called Lytic cycle.
Lysogenic Cycle
In some instances, viral DNA combines with the bacterial DNA in such a
way that instead of “Master slave relationship” a “great host” relationship takes
place in which bacterial DNA is not harmed. When bacterial DNA replicates, viral
DNA also replicates simultaneously. So a number of generation can be produced
unharmed. This mutual cycle is called Lysogenic cycle.
Sometimes the “guest” viral DNA reactivates to star Lytic Cycle.
Q. Explain in detail the AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
with its transmission, symptoms, control and prevention.
This is a disorder in which the body’s T4 lymphocyte cells are infected, in
that the virus replicates within the T4 cell and let them unaffected to fight
invaders inside the body hence body immune system break down and patient
exposed to variety of diseases.
Transmission
HIV can only survive in body fluids and is transmitted by blood or semen.
People can contract the disease through:
Sexual contact
It passes from the infected partner to his/her unaffected partner through
sexual contact.
Through infected blood
AIDS can be contracted by use of infected injections by means of
unsterilized needles and syringes by not only drug users but also to
the general public.
Blood transfusion by already infected with HIV.
Close contact between infected and non infected people through
cuts and open wounds has also been known to pass on the virus.
By an infected pregnant woman which can pass on the virus to her
baby through the placenta at birth or through breast milk during
suckling.
Sign and Symptoms of disease:
Each year 1-2% people develop AIDS and 5-10% people develop AIDS
related symptoms each year.
First sign is a short flu like illness followed by no further effects for
months or years.
Cause of death is commonly a rare type of pneumonia.
Many patients suffer from skin cancer known as Kaposi’s sarcoma.
Weight loss, fever, dementia, and diarrhea, septicemia (blood
poisoning and other forms of cancer.
HIV infects brain cells in more then 50% cases causing dementia
and sudden death.
The brain shrinks, with a loss of memory and mental agility, and
behavioral changes occur.
Treatment
Azidothymidine or Zidovudine was the best known drugs used
by 1987 which slows the progression of the disease.
Ribavarrin found to suppress the AIDS virus under lab condition.
Sumarin an antiparasitic drug has also shown encouraging
results inhibiting viral reproduction in host.
Prevention
Use of clean and sterile needles if required.
Public awareness about the disease.
۩۩۩۩۩۩
Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera)
Short Questions Answers
Q. Briefly describe bacteria.
Introduction
Bacteria or Schizomycophytes were first discovered by Antoni Van Leeuwenhock
as the smallest and simplest known living creatures.
Occurrence
Bacteria are omnipresent i.e. they are present every where except five. They are
able to survive in extremes of environmental conditions i.e. below 0°C and up to
150°C.
Shape and Size
Bacteria are very small, nearly 0.2 to 2 in width and 2 to 10 in length.
Q. Describe the shapes of bacteria.

Bacteria are classified according to their shape as follows;
1. Cocci
These are spherical bacteria and they are non flagellate. If formed solitary (singly)
each one is called “Micro coccus”. If they are paired then they are called “Strepto
cocci” and if they form bunches or clusters they are called “Staphylococci.”
2. Bacilli
Oval or Rod shaped Bacteria are called “bacilli”. They may be micro, diplo,
strepto or staphylo bacilli.
3. Vibro or Coma Shape
These bacteria resemble english coma(,) in their shape. They are always found
singly.
4. Spirilla
These bacteria are spring or “Cork screw” shaped and are always solitary.
Q. Describe the composition of bacterial cell wall.

Each bacterium is enveloped in a cell wall as a protoplasmic covering just
behind the capsule. It is made up of a complex of sugar with amino acids or
sometimes contains “Chitin”. Cell wall is thick and rigid. In unfavourable
conditions, some of the bacteria enclose themselves in a polysaccharide capsule.
Capsule is an additional protective layer around the cell wall and found in some
bacteria. It is composed of polysaccharides and proteins.
Q. Describe the role of mesosome in bacteria.
The membrane of bacterial cell is inward to form a special structure, called

mesosome. The mesosome takes part in cell division, DNA- replication, and
secretions of enzymes, respiration and active transport of enzymes.
Q. What is the composition of bacterial cytoplasm?

It is the fluid ground substance, which fill the inner space of cell.
Cytoplasm appears granular containing “Ribosomes”. However endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria and Golgi body are absent. Few small vacuoles are
found scattered in the cytoplasm. They contain Glycogen particles as reserved
food. Genetic material or DNA is found in the centre of cell as concentrated mass
or strands called “Chromatin bodies.”
Q. What structures help bacteria in movement and reproduction?
Some of the bacteria are provided with cytoplasmic fibrous structures
called “flagella,” these are meant for locomotion. Pilli are fine, hollow, filament
like structures. These are not used in locomotion, but help in conjugation
process of reproduction.
Q. What are the modes of nutrition in bacteria?

According to the mode of nutrition, bacteria are of two types:
1. Autotrophic Bacteria
a) Photosynthetic Bacteria contain chlorophyll and prepare their own
food.
b) Chemosynthetic Bacteria use enzymes to catalyze food from different
compounds.
2. Heterotrophic Bacteria
a) Saprophytic Bacteria obtain food from dead organic material by decomposing
their complex compounds
b) Parasitic Bacteria obtain food by harming other organisms.
d) Symbiotic Bacteria live in association with another living being taking benefit
from him and providing the same in return
Q. Describe the types of locomotion in bacteria.

Usually bacteria moves by flagellary rotatory movement. According to the
movement the bacteria are of different types, such as
(1) Phototactic Bacteria: These bacteria move towards or away from light.
(2) Chemotactic Bacteria: These bacteria move towards or away due to the
presence of chemical.
(3) Magnetotactic Bacteria: These bacteria are able /to detect magnetic
fields of earth.
Q. What are the modes of asexual reproduction in bacteria?
A Sexual Reproduction in bacteria takes place by following methods.
(a) Fission
In fission bacteria first replicates their DNA and then the cytoplasm divides by
means of a middle constriction. It is the simplest and less time consuming
method.
(b) Endospore Formation

In unfavorable circumstances cytoplasm along with DNA shrinks and
accumulates at one side within the cell of bacteria. Later a cyst is formed
around cytoplasmic mass called “Endospore.” On return of favorable condition
cyst breaks and cytoplasm activates and enlarges to form new bacteria.
Q. Describe the sexual reproduction in bacteria.

It is not true sexual reproduction but exchange of DNA or genetic
recombination between bacteria. It can take place by means of following
methods:
(a) Conjugation
Definition:
“Transfer of DNA from one to another bacterium through a tube (conjugation
tube) is called “onjugation.”
(b) Transduction
Definition:
“Transduction is the process of recombination in which genetic material or DNA
of one bacterium is transferred to another bacterium through a bacteriophage
virus”.
This type of DNA recombination was discovered by Joshua Lederberg and Zinder
in 1952.
(c) Transformation
Definition:
“Bacteria can transform (i.e. undergo genetic change) by receiving genetic
information from some other bacteria and acquire his characters.”
A British Nobel prize winner bacteriologist “Fred Griffith” discovered the
phenomena of transformation of Genetic charters in bacteria.
Q. How bacteria become useful in Agriculture?

Bacteria living in the nodules over roots of Pea, Beans and other legumes
convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate and Nitrite fertilizer, similarly other
soil bacteria (generally called decomposes) convert dead plants and animal
bodies into simpler compounds. Both above-mentioned bacteria increase soil
fertility. Bacteria change nitrogen into its compounds like NO2 and NO3, this
process is called nitrogen fixation these compounds become part of plants food.
Q. What function bacteria perform in alimentary canal?

Certain Symbiotic bacteria live in the alimentary canal of herbivorous
where they produce live in the alimentary canal of herbivorous where they
produce Cellulase enzyme required for the hydrolysis of cellulose into glucose.
Q. How bacteria are used in the Industries?

Bacteria perform different functions in different industries such as
conversion of milk into curd and curd into cheese, ripening of tobacco leaves,
tea fermentation, tanning of skins into leather etc.
Q. Which diseases are caused by pathogenic bacteria?

A large number of diseases are caused by bacteria such as Furuncles, Sore
throat, Bronchitis, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Cholera and Typhoid etc. certain
plant diseases are also caused by bacteria such as fine blight of apple and pear,
back rot of cabbage, wild fine of tobacco.
Q. How can we control the spread of infectious bacteria?

The different methods to control the infectious micro-organisms are as
follows:
1. Infected persons should be treated properly by effective medicines.
2. Persons in a population should be treated by immunization and
vaccination.
3. In epidemic condition the infected persons should be kept in quarantine
to avoid the spread of infection to healthy persons.
4. At different possible stages the life cycle of pathogen should be disrupted,
so it can not cause further infection.
5. The host bodies of pathogen should be identified and treated well to
control the diseases.
6. By different ways knowledge and awareness about diseases and infection
of pathogen should be provided to the public.
7. Many methods should be provided to the public to kill pathogens like;
(a) High temperature treatment.
(b) By ultraviolet rays
(c) By the use of antibiotics
(d) By chemotherapy.
Q. What do we mean by Immunization and Vaccination? Explain.
The resistance against the infection by the pathogenic organisms is called
immunity. It can be developed by different ways. One method to develop
immunization is vaccination and active immunization. Vaccination is used to
control many diseases. A vaccine is either used orally e.g. Polio or taken into the
body by syringe e.g. Tetanus vaccine.
The procedure of vaccination is very effective and beneficial for human
being because it helps to control many dangerous diseases such as measles,
diphtheria. When large proportion of population is immune, then the disease
spreads poorly throughout the population.
Q. Describe the uses and misuses of antibiotics.

Antibiotics are the chemical substances which are used to kill
microorganisms that cause infectious diseases. These are produced by certain
microorganisms and prevent the activity of other microorganisms.
Use of Antibiotics:
1. Antibiotics are used against one or many types of bacteria.
2. These attack cell wall, plasma membrane, nuclear material and protein
synthesis in bacteria.
3. Antibiotics are also used in agriculture to kill different organisms. These
are also used in animal’s feed to provide growth promoting substances.
4.
Misuse of Antibiotics:
1. By the extensive use of antibiotics more resistance is developed in
pathogenic microorganisms, after that they cause more serious infection in
the body.
2. Antibiotics have many side-effects. Other organs of the body may be
damaged.
3. Antibiotics may react with human metabolism and in severe cases death
of person may occur.
4. Some antibiotics cause allergy in the body, such as Penicillin.
5.
Q. Classify bacteria on the basis of respiration.
According to the respiration there are two types of bacteria.
(1) Aerobes: These bacteria need oxygen for respiration.
(2) Anaerobes: These bacteria do not need O2 for respiration. These are of
different types.
(a) Obligate anaerobes: some bacteria killed in the presence of O2. these are
called obligate anaerobes.
(b) Facultative anaerobes: the bacteria which use O2 but also can respire
without it, they are called facultative anaerobes.
(3) Facultative bacteria: These bacteria respire with oxygen or with out it.
(4) Microaerophilic bacteria: These bacteria require little amount of oxygen for
their growth.
Q. Describe the stages or phases of growth.

In bacteria there are four phases of growth:
(1) LAG phase: This is inactive phase of bacteria. In this stage bacteria
prepare themselves for growth. The cells accumulate essential substances
such as water and proteins.
(2) LOG phase: The logarithmic phase is the period in which bacteria grow
very rapidly their metabolic activities are maximum.
(3) Stationary phase: After an active growth the bacteria face shortage of food,
pH changes and energy is less, so they try to maintain themselves. They also
start dying as a result of which their multiplication is equal to their death
rate. The number of cells is almost unchanged, so it is called stationary
phase.
(4) Death phase: when conditions are totally unfavourable, death occurs
rapidly than growing cells when death rate is faster than multiplication
rate, it is called death phase.
The factors which affect the bacterial growth are:

(1) Temperature (2) Available nutrients (3) Ionic
concentration
Q. Write a note on Nostoc (cyano bacteria/blue green algae).

Nostoc is a prokaryotic Thallophyte belonging to the kingdom Monera.
Nostoc is fresh water algae commonly found in ponds, lakes, ditches and pools.
Sometimes it also grows in damp soil. Nostoc is a unicellular plant, a number of
cells join to form beaded long filaments. Each filament is few inches up to few
feet long. A large number of filaments entangle in a gelatinous mass to form
colony. Its cytoplasm is differentiated into two regions, the outer Chromoplast
contains pigments like Chlorophyll, Xanthophylls, Phycocyanin etc. and the
inner called Centroplasm It is colourless and contains fragments of DNA while
true or complete membrane bounded nucleus is absent.
In each filament there are some larger colourless cells called heterocyst
are present. These cells convert atmospheric nitrogen into proteins and also
serve to store food and multiplication.
Q. Describe the asexual methods of reproduction in Nostoc.

Different methods of asexual reproductions are as follows.
(a) Hormogonia
The main filament breaks off from the Joints of Heterocyst and form
smaller fragments of filament each fragment is called Hormogonium.
Hormogonium grows in length by means of mitosis and form new filaments.
(b) Akinete
In unfavourable conditions, some of the Nostoc cells become larger and
thick walled and contain reserved food. These cells are called Akinetes with outer
exospore and inner endospore layer. On return of favourable conditions,
exospore bursts and endospore germinates to give rise to new filament.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION
Q1. Explain the structure of bacteria in detail.
Structurally, bacteria are almost similar. A typical bacillus is given as an

example.
Capsule
It is an additional protective layer around the cell wall and found in some
bacteria. It is composed of polysaccharides and proteins.
Mesosomes:
The membrane of bacterial cell is inward to form a special structure, called
mesosome. The mesosome takes part in cell division, DNA- replication, and
secretion of enzymes, respiration and active transport of enzymes.
Cell Wall
Each bacterium posses a cell wall as an outer covering. It is made up of a
complex of sugar with amino acids or sometimes contains “Chitin”. Cell wall is
thick and rigid. In unfavourable conditions, some of the bacteria enclose
themselves in a polysaccharide capsule.
Cell Membrane
It is also called “Plasma Membrane,” it surrounds the cytoplasm. It is
made up of lipo-protein; a complex of lipid and proteins. Cell membrane is
“Osmo-regulatory” and porous. It also performs respiration.
Cytoplasm
It is the fluid ground substance, which fill the inner space of cell.
Cytoplasm appears granular containing “Ribosomes”. However endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria and Golgi body are absent. Few small vacuoles are
found scattered in the cytoplasm. They contain Glycogen particles as reserved
food.
Incipient Nucleus
Being Prokaryote, Bacteria are devoid of membrane bounded complete
nucleus. They lack nucleolus and Nuclear membrane. Genetic material or DNA
is found in the centre of cell as concentrated mass or strands called “Chromatin
bodies.” Such type of incomplete nucleus is called “Incipient Nucleus.”
Flagella
Some of the bacteria are provided with cytoplasmic fibrous structures
called “flagella,” these are meant for locomotion.
Pilli
These are fine, hollow, filament like structures. These are not used in
locomotion, but help in conjugation process of reproduction.
Q2. Explain the nutrition in bacteria in detail.

According to the mode of nutrition, bacteria are of two types.
Bacteria capable to produce their own food material are regarded as Autotrophic
Bacteria. They are of two types:
(a) Photosynthetic Bacteria

These bacteria contain Bacterio chlorophyll and chlorobium-chlorophyll
and with the help of these pigments produce glucose and Glycogen by means of
photosynthesis.
(b) Chemosynthetic Bacteria
These bacteria contain different type of enzymes, which oxidize certain
food components or compounds anaerobically to obtain energy. The degraded
products are recycled and resynthesized into food.
Heterotrophic bacteria are of following three types:
(a) Saprophytic Bacteria

These bacteria obtain food from dead organic material by decomposing
their complex compounds like proteins, fats and carbohydrates into simpler
compounds like H 2 O, CO 2 , NH 3 and Nitrates.
(b) Parasitic Bacteria

These bacteria live on living hosts i.e. animals or plants and obtain their
nutrition from them and ultimately harm them by producing serious diseases.
Parasitic bacteria may be obligate or facultative parasites.
(c) Symbiotic Bacteria

These are the Bacteria and live in association with another living being
taking benefit from him and providing the same in return. Examples are
Rhizobium radiciols which live in nodules over roots of leguminous plants taking
shelter and food from these plants and produce and provide fertilizer in the form
of Nitrates.
Q3. Explain the reproduction in bacteria in detail.
Bacteria reproduce by two methods:

1. A sexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction
1. A Sexual Reproduction
It is of two main types which are explained below:
(a) Fission
It is the usual method of reproduction. Bacteria first replicate their DNA
and then the cytoplasm splits into two halves by means of a middle constriction.
It is the simplest and less time consuming method.
(b) Endospore Formation
It is the method of survival in unaffordable circumstances rather than
reproduction. In this method, cytoplasm along with DNA shrinks and
accumulates at one side within the cell of Rod Shape bacteria. Later on a hard
impervious “Cyst” is formed around cytoplasmic mass, the rounded confined
encysted mass is called “Endospore.” On return of favourable condition cyst
breaks and cytoplasm activates and enlarges to form new bacteria. Endospore
can survive for months without any harm to bacteria.
2. Sexual Reproduction
It is not true sexual reproduction but exchange of DNA or genetic
recombination between bacteria. It can take place by means of following
methods:
(a) Conjugation
Definition
“Transfer of DNA from one to another bacteria through a tube (conjugation
tube) is called Conjugation.”
(b) Transduction
Definition
“Transduction is the process of recombination in which genetic material
or DNA of one bacterium is transferred to another bacterium through a
bacteriophage virus.
This type of DNA recombination was discovered by Joshua Lederberg and
Zinder in 1952.
Transformation
A British Nobel prize winner bacteriologist “Fred Griffith” discovered the
phenomena of transformation of Genetic charters in bacteria. According to him:
“Bacteria can transform (i.e. undergo genetic change) by receiving genetic
information from some other bacteria and acquire his characters.”
Q4. Describe the detailed Economic Importance of bacteria.

Different type of bacteria not only causes diseases but some of the bacteria
are also economically important for us. Some useful and harmful bacteria are as
follows:
(a) Useful Bacteria
(i) Agricultural Bacteria

Bacteria living in the nodules over roots of Pea, Beans and other legumes
convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate and Nitrite fertilizer, similarly other
soil bacteria (generally called decomposes) convert dead plants and animal
bodies into simpler compounds. Both above-mentioned bacteria increase soil
fertility.
(ii) Medicinal Bacteria

Certain antibiotic drugs are also obtained from Bacteria.
(iii) Amino Acid and Protein Manufacturing Bacteria

Some important proteins and amino acids are also obtained from bacteria.
(iv) Symbiotic Bacteria of Alimentary Canal

Certain Symbiotic bacteria live in the alimentary canal of herbivorous
where they produce live in the alimentary canal of herbivorous where they
produce Cellulase enzyme required for the hydrolysis of cellulose into glucose.
(v) Industrial Bacteria
Bacteria perform different functions in different industries such as
conversion of milk into curd and curd into cheese, ripening of tobacco leaves,
tea fermentation, tanning of skins into leather etc.
(vi) Nitrogen fixing Bacteria:

Bacteria change nitrogen into its compounds like NO2 and NO3 , this process is
called nitrogen fixation.
(b) Harmful Bacteria
(i) Spoilage of Food
Every day a large quantity of food stuff like vegetables, fruits, meat, milk
are spoiled by ferments released by bacteria.
(ii) Pathogenic Bacteria
A large number of diseases are caused by bacteria such as Furuncles, Sore

throat, Bronchitis, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Cholera and Typhoid etc. certain
plant diseases are also caused by bacteria such as fine blight of apple and pear,
back rot of cabbage, wild fine of tobacco.
Q5. Explain in detail the structure and reproduction of cyano bacteria

(Nostoc/blue green algae).
Nostoc
“It is a prokaryotic Thallophyte belonging to the kingdom Monera.”
Occurrence
Nostoc is a fresh water algae commonly found in ponds, lakes, ditches and
pools. Sometimes it also grows in damp soil.
Structure
Nostoc is a unicellular plant, a number of cells join to form long filaments.
Each filament is few inches upto few feet long. A large number of filaments
entangle in a gelatinous mass to form colony.
Each filament is beaded in appearance and is always unbranched. It is
surrounded by a layer of Gelatin, which prevent filament from the rotting action
of water.
Structure of a Single Cell
Each cell is rounded in shape with a double cell wall, the outer thicker
gelatin coated wall is made up of cellulose and Pectin whereas inner layer is
composed of cellulose only. Cell membrane is absent.
Cytoplasm is differentiated into two parts, the outer cytoplasm contains
pigments like Chlorophyll, Xanthophyll, Phycocyanin etc mixed in the cytoplasm
and not contained in membrane bounded Plastids. This outer coloured
cytoplasm is called Chromoplasm. The inner cytoplasm is called Centroplasm. It
is colourless and contains fragments of DNA.
True or complete membrane bounded nucleus is absent, instead of it
incipient nucleus is present composed of fragments of DNA. There is no
membrane bounded organelle in cytoplasm.
Heterocyst
In each filament there are some larger colourless cells called heterocyst
are present. These cells convert atmospheric nitrogen into proteins and also
serve to store food and multiplication.
Nutrition
Nostoc contains chlorophyll therefore it is capable to manufacture its own
food material by means of Photosynthesis. Heterocyst also perform nitrogen
fixation for filaments.
Reproduction
Like other blue green algae, Nostoc also reproduces asexually. Different
methods of asexual reproductions are as follows.
(a) Hormogonia
The junctions of normal cells in filaments with Heterocyst are weak,
therefore filaments often break at these points forming smaller fragments of
filament, and each fragment is called Hormogonium. Hormogonium grows in
length by means of mitosis and form new filaments.
(b) Akinete
In unfavourable conditions, some of the Nostoc cells become larger and
thick walled containing reserved food. These cells are called Akinetes.
Each Akinete is surrounded by a thick layer, the outer wall is called Exospore
and the inner wall is called Endospore. On return of favourable conditions,
exospore bursts and endospore germinates to give rise to new filament.
۞۞۞۞۞
THE KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
Short Question And Answers
Q. Briefly describe the Kingdom Protoctista.

This kingdom contains eukaryotes that are having true nucleus. This
includes two groups, the algae and protozoan. Algae are found in the ocean,
fresh water and on land. These are of different types, like brown algae, red algae
etc. and important part of the producers in the ecosystem. Protozoans are
generally heterotrophic unicellular organisms and are a part of zooplanktons in
the oceans and fresh water. This kingdom also includes oomycota or oomycetes
which are now regarded as ancestors of fungi. The water molds and slime molds
both resemble to the fungi however their life cycle set them apart from fungi.
Water molds are well known for parasitizing both aquatic and terrestrial forms.
Q. Write a note on chlorella.

Introduction
It is fresh water algae found in reservoirs of stagnant water like ponds,
pools, ditches etc.
It has vast economic importance as an alternate source of food according to the
recent investigations and as an experimentation organism. It is of great economic
importance as recently an antibiotic called chlorellin useful for the control of
bacterial diseases has been prepared from the plant.
Structure
The body is unicellular, spherical and solitary. It contains a single nucleus
and a cup shaped chloroplast usually without a pyrenoid.
Reproduction
Reproduction is generally performed by aplanospores. This involves the
division of protoplast into 8-16 daughter protoplasts. Each daughter protoplast
secretes a wall to produce a nonmotile aplanospore. On release from the parent
cell each aplanospore forms a new vegetative cell. Zoospores and gametes are
unknown.
Q. Describe the structure of ulva.

Ulva is a multicellular, Eukaryotic thalloid algae commonly known as Sea-
Lettuce. Each thallus is a blade like wrinkled structure almost 20 to 30 cm in
length. The lower part of thallus remains attached with rocks by means of “Hold
Fast” having elongated cells. Thallus is composed of two layers of cells i.e. outer
epidermal layer of cells containing chlorophyll and an inner layer of cells i.e.
Medulla serving as storage tissue.
Q. How does the asexual reproduction takes place in Ulva?

It takes place by means of quadriflagellate zoospores produced by asexual
diploid (2n) plant called Sporophyte. Zoospores are produced in all cells of plant
by means of Meiosis. Usually each cell produces 8 – 16 zoospores. Each zoospore
on germination gives rise to a new haploid (n) plant.
Q. How does the asexual reproduction takes place in Ulva?
In ulva the haploid plants are developed called Gametophyte. They are
morphologically similar to Sporophyte except their number of chromosomes.
They produce two isomorphic gametophytes regarded as negative and positive
strains. Both gametophytes produce haploid gametes; these gametes are smaller
than the zoospores and biflagellate. Similar looking negative and positive
gametes or isogametes fuse to form a quadriflagellate zygote i.e. isogamy takes
place. The zygote after rest and repeated divisions gives rise to a new diploid
sporophytic plant.
Q. How alternation in generation takes place in ulva?

Sporophyte
In Ulva Sporophyte bears diploid number of chromosomes which is 26.
This plant develop spores by means of Meiosis, Each spore has haploid (n) or 13
chromosomes. On germination spores give rise to gametophyte plants which are
similar to Sporophyte in morphology but differ in the number of chromosomes.
Gametophyte
Gametophyte produces isogametes which fuse to form zygote having
Diploid (26) chromosomes. Zygote gives rise to zoospores which germinate to
form Diploid Sporophyte and thus whole cycle is repeated. In Ulva, Sporophyte
and Gametophytes are of the same morphology therefore, life cycle is called
Isomorphic alternation of Generation.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Q. Explain in detail the structure and reproduction in ulva.
Introduction
It is a multicellular, Eukaryotic thalloid algae commonly known as Sea-
Lettuce. Ulva is a marine algae which grows attached to rocks in intertidal pools.
It is a thallophytic algae which cannot be differentiated into root, stem or leaf.
Being an algae, it is autotrophic in nature.
Structure
Each thallus is a blade like wrinkled structure almost 20 to 30 cm in
length. The lower part of thallus remains attached with rocks by means of “Hold
Fast” having elongated cells. Thallus is composed of two layers of cells i.e. outer
epidermal layer of cells containing chlorophyll and an inner layer of cells i.e.
Medulla serving as storage tissue.
Reproduction (life cycle):
It is of two types namely:
(a) A sexual Reproduction
(b) Sexual reproduction
(a) A Sexual Reproduction
It takes place by means of quadriflagellate zoospores produced by asexual
diploid (2n) plant called Sporophyte. Zoospores are produced in all cells of plant
by means of Meiosis. Usually each cell produces 8 – 16 zoospores. Each zoospore
on germination gives rise to a new haploid (n) plant.
(b) Sexual Reproduction
The haploid plants of ulva called Gametophytes. Two similar looking
gametophytes are produces. They are also morphologically similar to Sporophyte
except their number of chromosomes. Two Isomorphic gametophytes are
regarded as negative and positive strains.
Both gametophytes produce haploid gametes; these gametes are smaller
than the zoospores and biflagellate. Similar looking negative and positive
gametes or isogametes fuse to form a quadriflagellate zygote i.e. isogamy takes
place. The zygote after rest and repeated divisions gives rise to a new diploid
sporophytic plant.
Alternation in Generation
Definition
“The phenomenon in which a plant completes its life cycle in two phases
i.e. haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte which come in an alternate
manner is called alternation of Generation.”
Explanation
In Ulva Sporophyte bears 2n i.e. Diploid Chromosomes which are 26. This
plant reproduces by means of spores produced by means of Meiosis, Each spore
bears haploid (n) or 13 chromosomes. On germination spores give rise to
Gametophyte plants which are similar to Sporophyte in morphology but differ in
the number of chromosomes.
Gametophytes produces isogametes which fuse to form zygote having
Diploid (26) chromosomes. Zygote gives rise to zoospores which germinate to
form Diploid Sporophyte and thus whole cycle is repeated.
In Ulva, Sporophyte and Gametophytes are of the same morphology therefore,
life cycle is called Isomorphic alternation of Generation.
FUNGI LIKE PROTOCTISTS
There are some organisms which are fungi like and included in this
kingdom Protoctista. These are non chlorophyllus
Q. Explain Phylum Protozoa with its classes and example of each.
General characteristics of Phylum Protozoa
• Habitat
Protozoa are generally found in aquatic environment and live in fresh and marine
water. During unfavorable conditions protozoa form cyst that can be dried and
transferred from one habitat to another.
• Body organization:
Small, usually microscopic organisms simplest and most primitive animals with
protoplasmic grade of body organization. Body unicellular containing one or
more nuclei which are monomorphic or dimorphic.
• Body symmetry
Body symmetry may be bilateral, radially, none or spherical.
• Body covering
Body bounded by pellicle or cell membrane some times exoskeleton is also found
in the form of shell.
• locomotor organelles
Locomotor organelles if present are finger like pseudopodia or whip like flagella
or hair like cilia or absent.
• Respiration
Respiration occur through general body surface.
• Excretion
Excretion through the general body surface but in forms through a temporary
opening in the ectoplasm or through a permanent pore called cytopyge.
• Reproduction
Reproduction commonly occurs by sexual or asexual means.
All the physiological activities are performed by a single cell.
There are about 30,000 species of Protozoa are recorded and this phylum
is divided in to five classes on the basis of locomotory organelles.
1. Class Flagellata ( Mstigophora)
2. Class Sarcodina (Rhizopoda)
3. Class Ciliata (Ciliophora)
4. Class Suctoria
5. Class Sporozoa
1. Class Flagellata ( Mstigophora)

These organisms are commonly called flagellates.
• Habitat
Organelles of locomotion in adults are flagella which are minimum 1 or
maximum 8 in numbers.
• Body covering
Body is covered by pellicle.
• Reproduction
They reproduce asexually by fission.
• Mode of life
They are mostly free living while some are parasites
• Autotrophs
Many members of this class have photosynthetic pigment chloroplast.
• Phylogeny
These are considered as the ancestors of different groups of plants and
animals.
Examples Trypanosoma, Euglena, Chlamydomonas, Trichomonas (six flagella)
etc.
2. Class Sarcodina (Rhizopoda)

• Habitat
They are usually found in fresh water reservoir
• Exoskeleton
Marine sarcodinians have shell as exoskeleton and their deposition in
the sea make layers called “Radiolarian Ooze or Globigerina Ooze”.
• Symmetry
These protozoans are asymmetrical.
• Body covering
Their have thin elastic cell membrane with projecting finger like irregular
locomotory structures called Pseudopodia, Lobopodia, Filopodia,
Axopodia or Reticulopodia.
• Mode of life
These organisms are free living or parasites.
• Nutrition
They obtain food by the process of Phagocytosis in which they engulf food
particles.
Example: Amoeba, Entamoeba, Actinophyrus
3. Class Ciliata (Ciliophora)
• Body covering
All organisms of this class posses ectoplasmic outgrowths cilia on their
pellicle (cell membrane) for locomotion.
• Cilia
The cilia are thousands in number.
• Nucleus
These organisms have micro and mega nucleus.
• Reproduction
They reproduce sexually by fission and asexually by conjugation.
• Nutrition
Nutrition is heterotrophic they usually have a cytostome or gullet for
ingestion of food.
Examples: Paramecium, Opalina, Balantidium.
4. Class Suctoria
• Body covering
These organisms are closely related to ciliates in young ones having cilia
on their cell membrane.
• Nucleus
Suctorians also have one micro and one macro nucleus and numerous
short cilia.
• Attachment
These organisms are stalked and sessile.
• Tentacles
With distal end bearing few to many toxic material secreting tentacles
which are used to paralyze their prey.
• Ciliature
Adults do not have any ciliature.
• Reproduction
Reproduction is asexual by budding.
Example: Acineta, Nyctotherus, Haltaria, Ephelota etc.
5. Class Sporozoa
• Mode of life
Most of these Protozoans are intracellular parasites and incapable of
active life outside their hosts.
• locomotion
The adults have no external organelles of locomotion. Cilia or flagella
may be present in their gametes.
• Fertilization
Fertilization of male and female gametes takes place after which many
spores are formed.
• Sporozoites
The spores are simple and contain one to many sporozoites which are the
infective stage of parasite.
Example Plasmodium, Monocystis etc.
Q. Explain in detail the Life cycle of plasmodium in Man and Mosquito

with labeled diagram.
Geographical Distribution.
Malarial parasites are found in all countries extending from 400S to 600N.
The tropical zone is endemic home for all malarial parasites.
Habitat.
Plasmodium is a digenic endoparasite protozoan passes its life cycle in to
two different hosts.
Primary host: A Man in which it passes its immature asexual infective stages.
Secondary host: A Female mosquito in which it passes its mature sexual
reproductive stages.
Life cycle in man
The malarial parasite asexual cycle in man is comprises of following stages.
Pre-erythrocytic phase:
It starts when a female anopheles mosquito bite a healthy man in order to
suck the blood then also transmit plasmodium infective spindle shaped
sporozoites which are present in the salivary glands of mosquito. These
sporozoites then enters in to liver parenchyma cells of man passes their
developmental stages and turned in to cryptozoites some of them reside in to the
liver cells while some enters in to blood RBC and called metacryptozoites.
Erythrocytic phase:
Each metacryptozoite modified in to trophozoite in RBC. As it grows in size
a central vacuole developed and the nucleus is pushed to one side this stage is
called signet ring stage. The trophozoite ingest the haemoglobin protein and
turned into amoeboid trophozoite. After this stage it becomes a rounded shizont
inside that it undergoes further division called schizogony and produces
merozoites.
Post-Erythrocytic phase:
Some merozoites produced in erythrocytic phase reach the liver cells and
undergo schizonic development while some remains inside the RBC and turned
in sexual forms this is known as post erythrocytic phase.
Gamogony:
In RBC merozoites becomes gamocytes; the male microgamocytes and
female macrogamocytes these forms does not divide and remain in the blood
until the mosquito bites and taken up along with blood.
Life cycle in Mosquito
Sexual life cycle of plasmodium is completed in the gut of female
Anopheles mosquito which comprises of the following stages.
Gametogony:
In this stage the gametocytes soon becomes gametes. A single male
gamocyte forms 6-8 sperms like flagellated motile microgametes and female
turned into a single non motile macrogamete.
Syngamy:
The newly developed gametes of the opposite sexes fused together to form
a zygote this process is called syngamy. The zygote becomes worm like Ookinete.
It penetrates the stomach wall to settle down just under the midgut here after
absorbing the nutrients it becomes rounded and encyst to form oocyst.
Sporogony:
In 6-7 days the nucleus of the oocyst divides and forms numerous slender
sporozoites by the process of sporogony. The cyst burst and the liberated
sporozoites migrate towards the salivary glands where they await transfer to a
human host.
Symptoms of Malaria:
The first symptom of malaria appears after few days of infection in man.
• The symptoms are nausea, loss of appetite, constipation and insomnia
soon headache, muscular pains, aches in the joints.
• The malarial patient feels fever suffers from shaking chill and sweating the
body temperature may rise as high as 106 0F.
Chapter 8
THE KINGDOM FUNGI
Short Question and Answers
Q. Briefly describe the Kingdom fungi.

The Kingdom Fungi includes fungi which are the most important
organisms, both in terms of their ecological and economic roles. These are non
chlorophyllus eukaryotic may be unicellular (e.g., yeasts) or multicellular
(most) organisms obtaining food by breaking down dead organic material. They
have a characteristic called nuclear mitosis in which nuclear membrane does
not break and spindle is formed within the nucleus. Fungi are found in a wide
variety of habitats, including terrestrial, marine and freshwater. About 100,000
species of fungi have been described.
Q. What is the role of fungi in an Ecosystem?

Most vascular plants could not grow without the symbiotic fungi, or
mycorrhizae, that inhabit their roots and supply essential nutrients. Other
fungi provide numerous drugs (such as penicillin and other antibiotics), foods
like mushrooms, truffles and morels, and the bubbles in bread, champagne, and
beer.
Fungi also cause a number of plant and animal diseases: in humans,
ringworm, athlete's foot, and several more serious diseases are caused by fungi.
Fungi are more chemically and genetically similar to animals than other
organisms, in having chitin in their cell wall instead of cellulose. Plant diseases
caused by fungi include rusts, smuts, and leaf, root, and stem rots, and may
cause severe damage to crops.
Q. Describe the structure of fungi.

• The study of Fungi is called Mycology. Most Fungi are Multicellular
Organisms.
• The body of a fungus consists of tiny filaments called Hyphae.
• Multicellular fungi body consist of a mass of interwoven hyphae called
a mycelium.
• The stalk of a mushroom is mycelium made of tightly packed hyphae.
• Hyphae are tiny tubes filled with cytoplasm and nuclei, the cell walls of
hyphae contain a complex polysaccharide a polymer of amino sugars
called chitin.
• The presence of chitin distinguishes cell walls of fungi from those of plants.
• Hyphae are the living, growing part of multicellular fungi.
• Some hyphae are divided by cross section segments or walls septa called
septate hyphae.
• The septa have holes through which cytoplasm and organelles can move
from segment to segment.
• The hyphae of species that do not have septa are called coenocytic.
• Most fungal cells are not flagellated but one group, the chytridiomycota,
has flagella.
• Fungi range in size from a single cell to an individual over 65 square
kilometers in size.
Q. Briefly describe yeast.

Fungi include Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms. Yeast are typical
Unicellular Fungi. Yeast Cells have a Cell Wall containing Chitin, a Cell
Membrane, a Nucleus, a Large Vacuole, and membrane-bound organelles. Yeast
are Eukaryotic organisms that undergo Cell Division usually by budding.
Q. Describe the fungal feeding strategies.
Fungi are basically chemoheterotrophs. They exhibit four nutritional
modes:
o Saprobes (Saprotrophs): feed on dead organic matter, as such they are
decomposers.
o Parasites: some live on the tissues of living organisms (e.g., ringworm
and jock itch are caused by parasitic fungi). Some of them are
obligate parasites these are host specific or facultative parasites
that can grow on their host as well as on artificial growth media.
o Symbionts: some live in mutualistic association with photosynthetic
organisms (e.g., lichens and mycorrhizae).
o Predators: some actively trap other organisms for food like some species
of Athrobotrys trap soil nematodes by forming constructing ring.
Q. What is the mechanism of feeding in fungi?

Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotes that obtain food by absorption. Most
of them are saprotrophic decomposers that break down the waste products and
dead remains of plants and animals and digest. Saprobic fungi anchor to the
substrate by modified hyphae, the rhizoid. Absorptive nutrition means that fungi
excrete hydrolytic enzymes to break-down complex organic molecules into
simple ones that can be absorbed. These are mainly decomposes cellulose and
lignin. In essence, most digestion takes place outside the fungal body.
Q. Describe the association in fungi.

Fungi form two key mutualistic symbiotic associations. These are
lichens and mycorrhizae.
1. Lichens
Def. “This is a symbiotic association between certain fungi (mostly
Ascomycetes and few Basidiomycetes) and photo autotrophs either green algae
or a cyanobacterium or some times both”.
The algal components reside inside the fungal hyphae and get protected
from strong light and desiccation while fungus obtains food from the algae. These
are vary in shape and forms and can be found in harsh places like bare rocks.
2. Mycorrhizae
Def. “This is the mutualistic association between certain fungi and roots
of vascular plants”.
In this association fungi present in the roots and directly absorb P, Zn, Cu and
other nutrients from the soil which are useful for better growth of plants while
plants provide organic carbon to fungal hyphae.
There are two main types of mycorrhizae.
Endomychorizae In which fungal hyphae penetrate only in to the cell wall.
Ectomychorizae in this association fungal hyphae does not enter the
cytoplasm of plant cells and grow between cell walls.
In any case, the presence of fungus gives the plant a greater absorptive
surface for the intake of minerals. The fungus also benefits from the association
by receiving carbohydrates form the plant.
Q. Describe the asexual reproduction in fungi.
Asexual reproduction
Asexual Reproduction in Fungi can occur in several ways. Some
unicellular fungi can reproduce by Mitosis like Budding in Yeast Cells. Most
fungi can grow from a small piece of Mycelium called Fragmentation. Most fungi
can reproduce asexually by haploid identical reproductive cells called Spores.
Each spore contains a nucleus and dehydrated cytoplasm surrounded by a
protected Coat. A spore is capable of developing into a new mycelium in a moist
nutritive environment. The reproductive structures of fungi that produce spores
are called fruiting bodies are basically of two types Sporangiophores and
Conidiophores.
Fungal Spores cannot move themselves, but spores are small and light and can
be dispersed by wind, animals, insects, or water. Fungal spores can be found
most everywhere.
Q. Describe the structure of Sporangiophore and Conidiophore.

Sporangiophore
Sporangiophores are specialized Hyphae that look like upright Stalks. On
top of the Sporangiophore is an enclosed Sac called a sporangium. Inside each
sporangium, Spores called sporangiospores are made. Rhizopus, bread mold, is
an example of Sporangiospores forming Fungus.
Conidiophore
Other Fungi form Spores called conidia, which are formed without the
Protection of an Enclosed Sac. Conidia are formed on top of a stalk-like
structure called a conidiophore. Penicillium, which produces Penicillin and
Cheese, is a Fungus that reproduces asexually by means of conidia.
Q. How sexual reproduction takes place in fungi?

Sexual reproduction
It involves the fusion of “male” [+ mating type] and “female” [- mating types]
hyphae. Fungi are unique in that syngamy takes place that means fertilization
of morphologically similar gametes.
Fertilization can be thought to consist of two steps the fusion of the cytoplasm
of the two cells and the fusion of the two nuclei. Fusion of the cytoplasm is
called plasmogamy, and fusion of the nuclei is called karyogamy. Plasmogamy
without karyogamy leads to a condition in which a hyphae contains two nuclei.
This is called a dikaryotic condition (dikaryon). Fusion of the nuclei is followed
by meiosis and the formation of haploid spores that germinate into other hyphae.
Q. Describe the Fungal Classification.

Fungi include four phyla or divisions. The four monophyletic phyla are:
Numb
Distinctive
er of Disease Economic
Division Examples Characteristi
Specie s Uses
cs
s
Black
About Formation of
Zygomycota bread Few None
600 zygospores
mold
Neurospor Formation of Powdery Food
a, yeasts, fine asexual mildews (morels,
Ascomycota 30,000
morels, spores; sexual of fruits, truffles);
truffles spores in asci; chestnut wine-,
hyphae blight, beer-, and
divided by Dutch bread-
perforated elm making
septa; disease, (yeasts)
dikaryons ergot
Sexual spores
Toadstools in basidia;
Food
, hyphae
Basidiomyco Rusts, (mushroom
25,000 mushroom divided by
ta smuts s)
s, rusts, perforated
smuts septa;
dikaryons
Deuteromyco
Fungi with no Ringwor
ta Cheeses,
25,000 Penicillin known sexual m,
(Fungi antibiotics
cycles thrush
Imperfecti)
Q. Describe the characters and reproduction in division Zygomycota.

• These are called sporangium fungi or common molds
• The zygomycetes, in phylum Zygomycota, are characterized by the
formation of sexual spores called zygospores.
• Zygomycota Includes molds & blights such as Rhizopus stolonifer
(bread mold)
• No septa in hyphae (coenocytic)
Reproduction in Zygomycota
• Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium & produces
sporangiospores
• Sexual reproductive spore produced and by conjugation when (+) hyphae
& (-) fuse is form zygote called zygosporangium.
• The zygosporangium immediately undergoes meiosis to form haploid cells
that develop into zygospores.
• Zygospores can endure harsh environments until conditions improve &
new sporangium develops.
Q. Describe the characters of division Basidiomycota.

• These are called club fungi includes mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs,
bracket fungi, shelf fungi, stinkhorns, rusts, & smuts.
• The hyphae are subdivided by perforated septa.
• The mycelium forms a diffuse mat, which may grow as large as 35
meters in diameter as in mushrooms.
• Their fruiting bodies are called Basidiocarp.
Q. Describe the structure of mushroom.

• Mushroom body is an example of Basidiocarp made up of stalk called
the stipe & a flattened cap
• Stipe may have a skirt like ring below cap called the annulus
• Gills are found on the underside of the cap & are lined with basidia
• Basidium – sexual reproductive structure that make basidiospores
• Basidiospores are released from the gills & germinate to form new
hyphae & mycelia
• Vegetative structures found below ground & include rhizoids (anchor
& absorb nutrients), hyphae, & mycelia
Q. Describe the sexual Reproduction in Basidiomycota.

• Sexual reproduction is initiated by the fusion of haploid hyphae to form
a dikaryotic mycelium. The dikaryotic mycelium may persist for years,
forming an elaborate structure
• Eventually, some of the nuclei fuse to form diploid nuclei that
immediately undergo meiosis. Under a mushroom cap, gills are seen
radiating out from the center.
• Fusion takes place between these gills, where many spores are produced
on tiny bulbs, or basidia.
• Basidiomycetes seldom reproduce asexually.
Q. Describe the characters of division Ascomycota.

• The ascomycetes are the largest division of fungi with some 30,000
species.
• The sac fungi include yeasts, powdery mildews, and many common blue-
green molds, as well as morels and truffles.
• Some ascomycetes, or sac-fungi are parasites, cause tree diseases, such
as Dutch Elm disease.
• In an ascomycete, the hyphae are divided by cross walls, or septa.
• Asexual spores called conidia form on the tips of specialized hyphae
called conidiophores
• Ascocarp – specialized hyphae formed by parent fungi during sexual
reproduction
• Asci are the sacs present within the ascocarp and form spores called
ascospores.
• Sac Fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Q. Describe the asexual and sexual reproduction in Ascomycota.

Asexual reproduction:
Asexual reproduction takes place by spores which are commonly formed
either singly or in chains at the tip of a very fine multinucleated specialized
hyphae called conidia (the Greek word for "dust"). An individual hyphae
segments into huge numbers of spores that are dispersed by wind, water, or
animals and under favourable conditions these develop in to new mycelium.
Sexual reproduction:
In Sexual reproduction male and female reproductive organs are produced
are called antheridia and archegonia respectively at the fungal hyphae. At the
time of fertilization archigonium provide a passage to the male nuclei for the
possible fusion with female nuclei this channel with beak like opening is called
trichogyne.
Q. Write a note on Ascus of Ascomycota.

The Ascus
Ascomycota fungi are distinguished from other fungi by a microscopic
sexual reproductive structure or zygote called an Ascus. An ascus is formed
when two hyphae conjugate. Inside the ascus, nuclei from the hyphae fuse and
develop into ascospores. The ascospores eventually are released from the ascus
and may travel at the radius of 30 centimeters distances on the wind.
Q. Describe the Ascocarp (Fruiting body) and its types of Ascomycota.
In division Ascomycota of fungi the asci are differentiated within a
structure that is made up of densely interwoven hyphae called ascocarp.
Ascus formation is usually occurs within a complex structure composed of
tightly interwoven hyphae - the "ascocarp". Within each ascocarp ascospore or
asci are produced that can germinate asexually and form a new hyphae. Many
ascocarps are macroscopic, and the only part of the fungi that most people ever
see. These are of three types.
1. An ascocarp may be open and more or less cup-shaped called an
"apothecium"
2. Ascocarp closed and spherical in shape called a "cleistothecium".
3. or flask shaped, with a small pore through which the ascospores escape
called a "perithecium".
The layer of asci is called the "hymenium", or hymeneal layer.
Q. Describe the reproduction and economic importance of Yeast.

Yeast is a group of unicellular fungi a few species of which are commonly
used to leaven bread and ferment alcoholic beverages. Most yeast belongs to the
division Ascomycota. More than one-thousand species of yeasts have been
described.
Reproduction in yeast:
Yeasts can reproduce asexually through budding or sexually through the
formation of ascospores. During asexual reproduction a new bud grows out of
the parent yeast when the condition is right, then after the bud reaches an adult
size, it separates from the parent yeast. Under low nutrient conditions, yeasts
that are capable of sexual reproduction will form ascospores. Yeasts that are not
capable of going through the full sexual cycle are classified in the
genus Candida.
Importance of Yeast:
Yeast physiology can be either obligatory aerobic or facultatively fermentative.
There is no known obligatory anaerobic yeast. In the absence of oxygen,
fermentative yeasts produce their energy by converting sugars into carbon
dioxide and ethanol (alcohol). In brewing, the ethanol is used, while in baking
the carbon dioxide raises the bread and the ethanol evaporates. Many food,
dairy, breweries and wineries have yeast present in large amounts in the
influent.
A few yeasts, such as Candida albicans can cause infection in humans. The
most commonly used yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which was
domesticated for wine.
Q. Describe the characters of division Deuteromycota.

A fourth group of fungi are the Deuteromycota. Among the 25, 000
species that have been described some are causes of diseases such as ringworm
and athletes foot, and in the production of penicillin, cheeses, and cyclosporin
(used in organ transplants).
• The group known as deuteromycetes is also called the “imperfect fungi.”
• Asexual reproduction is by means of conidiospores or may be lacking.
• Many of the parasitic fungi are classified into this group.
• This is a polyphyletic group that includes all fungi whose sexual
reproductive structure is not known.
• An example of a deuteromycete is Candida albicans, a dimorphic fungus
responsible for “yeast infections” in humans.
Q. Describe the Parasexual Cycle in Deuteromycota.

Parasexuality was first discovered by Pontecorvo and Roper (1952)
in Aspergillus nidulans. Parasexuality in fungi can be called genetic
recombination without meiosis. In the absence of meiosis during the life cycle of
imperfect fungi, recombination of hereditary properties and genetic variation still
occur by a mechanism called parasexuality. It includes the production of diploid
nuclei in a heterokaryotic, haploid mycelium that results from plasmogamy and
karyogamy; multiplication of the diploid along with haploid nuclei in the
heterokaryotic mycelium; sorting out of a diploid homokaryon; segregation and
recombination by crossing over at mitosis; and haploidization of the diploid
nuclei. Sexual and parasexual cycles are not mutually exclusive. Some fungi
that reproduce sexually also exhibit parasexuality. However imperfect fungi
reproduce asexually and exhibit parasexuallity. During the parasexual cycle, the
following events take place:
1. Formation
of heterokaryotic
mycelium
2. Occasional karyogamy
between two nuclei to form
diploid nuclei
3. Mitosis of 2N and 1N
nuclei.
Mitotic crossing over
during mitosis of some
diploid nuclei.
4. Haploidization (not
meiosis) of some diploid
nuclei.
Sorting out of new haploid
strains.
Descriptive questions and answers

Q. Describe in detail the economic importance of fungi.
Fungi and human disease

Fungi attack the tissues of living plants and animals and cause disease.
Fungal diseases are the major concern for humans.
• Mold Spores can cause mild to serious Allergies in some people, sniffling,
sneezing, and respiratory distress.
• Fungi may infect the skin, hair, nails, and tissues of the Body. Fungi on
the Skin can cause Athlete's foot or Ringworm.
• Fungi can cause Yeast Infections. Yeast is commonly found in the mouth,
intestines, and, in women, in the vaginal tract.
• Serious fungal diseases that involve the Internal Organs are often caused
by Dimorphic Fungi. If their Spores are Inhaled, they can cause severe
respiratory illness and spread to many organs.
• Some Mushrooms are Poisonous to Humans, Amanita mushroom "death
angel" or "destroying angle". They contain Extremely Dangerous Toxins.
• Other fungal poisons include the Aflatoxins, poisons produced by some
species of Aspergillus. Aflatoxins cause liver cancer. Fungi that make
aflatoxin may be found as contaminants in peanuts and in grains such as
corn and grain sorghum.
Ergotism is caused by eating bread made from pourle ergot- contaminated
rye flour. The poisonous material in the ergot causes nervous spasm,
convulsion, psychotic delusion and even gangrene.
FUNGI IN INDUSTRY
Many Fungi are Valuable Food sources for humans. Yeast, such as
Saccharomyces, is an important nutritional supplement because it contains
vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients.
• Mushrooms are an important Food. Agaricus (White Button), shiitake,
and portabella mushrooms are often found in grocery stores.
• In other places in the world, people prize the taste of Truffles and Morels,
which are Ascocarps found near the Roots of Trees.
• Fungi are used to produce Chemical Compounds that are important to the
food-processing industry such as Citric and Gluconic Acid. Citric Acid is
used in soft drinks and candies. Gluconic Acid is fed to chickens to
enhance the hardness of eggshells.
• Ashbya gossypii is a producer of Vitamin B2, an important nutritional
supplement.
FUNGI AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Most Fungi are either saprophytes or decomposers that break down and feed
on decaying organic material or dead organisms.
• Fungi obtain nutrients to absorb by secreting digestive enzymes onto the
food source. The enzymes break down, or digest, the food.
• Fungi work along with the Monerans and Protoctists to decompose the
waste and remains of plants and animals.
• When fungi secrete digestive enzymes into a food source, the Nutrients are
released to be used by the fungus and other organisms.
• The Nutrients are recycled and Returned to the Environment.
• Without decomposers, ecosystems would collapse, because many
organisms would not obtain enough nutrients to stay alive.
• One scientist estimated that a layer of organic debris about 12 miles thick
would now cover the earth if decomposition had never occurred.
• Many Fungi are Plant Pathogens that attack grain and fruit. Wheat Rust
is a Basidiomycetes that attacks wheat grains. Other Fungi can attack
food crops such as corn, beans, onions, squashes, and tomatoes.
===============================
Chapter 9
KINGDOM PLANTAE
Short questions and Answers
Q. Describe the characteristics of Plants.
“Plants are eukaryotic photosynthetic multicellular organisms adapted to
living on land in terrestrial or aquatic habitat and develop zygote into an
embryo”.
Characteristics of Plants
• The plant kingdom includes over 250,000 species.
• Plant cell have cell wall made up of cellulose and contain chlorophyll as
photosynthetic pigments for making their food by photosynthesis.
• They have a waxy cuticle on their outer surface for protection against
water loss.
• Some of them posses a substance lignin to harden the cell wall while
sporopollenin is another product to protect them from environmental
damages.
• Gametes produced within gametengia and zygote develops in to embryo
and retained and nourished with in the protective cells.
Q. Differentiate between Plants and Algae.

Plants Algae
1. Plants have true roots and Algae do not have such
leaf bearing shoots with structures.
flowers and fruits
2. All plants have Algae do not have modifications
modifications that protect that protect the gametes and
the gametes and zygote zygote from drying out.
from drying out.
3. Plants are adapted to land Algae are adapted to water
habitat including environment.
Q. terrestrial and aquatic
habitat.
Describe the classification of plants:
Plants are divided in to two groups.
1) Bryophyta 2) Tracheophyta
• Bryophytes are sub divided in to • Tracheophyta have five sub

three classes. divisions
• They are non vascular plant. • They are vascular plant
• Class Hepaticae (Liverworts) Subdivision Psilopsida (Psilopsids)

Class Musci (Mosses) Subdivision Lycopsida (Lycopsids)
Class Anthocerotae ( Subdivision Sphenopsida
Hornworts) (Sphenopsids)
• Body is thallaid (means the plant Subdivision Pterosida (Ferns)
body can not differentiate in root, Subdivision Spermopsida (Seed
stem and leaf. plants)
• Plants body is divide into root,
stem & leaf
Q. Describe the characteristics of Bryophytes.

Bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts) are small green plants
that reproduce by means of spores (or vegetatively) instead of seeds.
• There are about 20,000 species of Bryophytes are found throughout the
world.
• Most are only a few centimeters high, although some mosses attain a half
meter (20 in) or more.
• Although often small and inconspicuous, A remarkable adaptation of
bryophytes is their ability to remain alive for long periods without water,
even under high temperatures, then resume photosynthesis within
seconds after being moistened by rain or dew.
• Bryophytes have no roots but are anchored by slender threads called
rhizoids, which also play a role in the absorption of water and mineral
nutrients.
• They are sensitive indicators of air and water pollution, and play important
roles in the cycling of water and nutrients and in relationships with many
other plants and animals.
• They have multicellular sex organs, i.e. the gametes are enclosed by a
sterile jacket of cells .
• These are parenchymatous, not filamentous.
• They retain the zygote within the female sex organ and allow it to develop
into an embryo.
• They have cutin (a cuticle) on the plant and spores.
Q. Describe the alternation of generation in bryophytes.

All bryophytes show heteromorphic alternation of generation.
• A haploid gametophyte is a dominant generation containing rhizoids,
pseudostem and leaves.
• Male sex organs are called antheridia and female called archegonia
develop at the tips of stem which are always dioeceous.
• Antheridia mature before archegonia this phenomenon is called
Protoandry.
• Sperms of antheridia attract by archigonial secretion and swim towards
archegonia and fuses with the ovum in the venter to form diploid oospore.
• After repeated mitotic divisions embryo form a diploid sporogonium (a
sporophyte). It consists of foot, Seta and capsule.
• Within capsule a spore mother cell is present which divides meiotically
and produce haploid spores.
• Each spore develops in to filamentous body called protonema which forms
a gametophyte (haploid) to complete life cycle.
Q. What environment faced by the plant when they came on land?

Fossils records of the Silurian/ Devonian periods shows that plants
made changes in their structure for the survival on land habitat due to change
in environment in these eras for the following reasons.
1. Scarcity of water on land habitat as compare to marine habitat.
2. Carbon containing compounds are not available frequently on land.
3. Fluctuation of temperature on land habitat is much as the
temperature in sea.
Q. What were the adaptations adapted by plant to survive on land?

To overcome the environmental problems on land, land plants first
adopted themselves to amphibian habitat and later developed a complete
terrestrial form of life. Plants adapted the following characters for their survival
on land.
1. Rhizoids for water absorption
2. Conservation of water
3. Absorption of CO2
4. Heterogamy
5. Protection of reproductive cells
6. formation of embryos
Q. Describe the characters of Musci (Mosses)
Characteristics of Mosses
• About 10,000 species of mosses have been discovered
• These are usually radically symmetry.
• The gametophyte has a stem like axis with spirally arranged "leaves",
which are called phyllodes.
• Mosses attach to their substrate with multicellular rhizoids.
• Their body may be erect or prostrate.
• Moss "leaves" have a costa (midrib).
• Mosses are found in a range of habitats, although moist and shady
habitats are more common. Some mosses are found on rocks and in arid
location.
• Mosses are often epiphytes most water absorption is from the surface
cells of the moss plant. Like most Bryophytes, mosses can desiccate, or
dehydrate for long periods without permanent damage.
Q. Describe the characteristics of Hepaticae (Liverworts).

Liverworts are generally of two types;
1. Leafy liverworts (4,000-6,000 species) - predominately tropical also
called scale mosses.
2. Thallose liverworts (3,500 species) - these are further sub-divided
into simple and complex thalloids.
Characteristics
• May have a cuticle (especially the thallose liverworts)
• Flattened growth form often prostrate.
• Unicellular rhizoids on lower surface present.
• Upper surface smooth with pores for gas exchange.
• The sporophyte "sporangium" or capsule is simple.
• Spores released by hygroscopic elaters (hairs).
A common genus is Marchantia
Q. Describe the characteristics of Anthocerotae (Hornworts).
Characteristics
• Hornworts are less common than liverworts or mosses, with only about
100 species identified.
• Hornworts have round, small, thallose-like gametophytes which are
found in moist shaded soils. The gametophytes may be unisexual or
bisexual, depending on the species.
• The sporophyte is "horn-shaped", and grows from a basal sheath
beneath the surface of the gametophyte thallus. The sporophyte
continues to grow from a basal meristem, producing spores clustered
around a central stalk. The sporophyte tip splits releasing spores. Spores
continue to mature for some time, and the Sporophyte continues to split.
• Vegetative reproduction occurs in the hornworts by fragmentation
• Hornworts have just one chloroplast per cell, which is unique among the
true plants. One chloroplast per cell is common in many algae.
Q. Briefly describe the Tracheophytes.
This division of plants comprises of green plants having well developed

vascular system made up of tracheids, vessels and fibers. This group has five
divisions. Subdivision Psilopsida (Psilopsids), Subdivision Lycopsida (Lycopsids),
Subdivision Sphenopsida (Sphenopsids), Subdivision Pterosida (Ferns),
Subdivision Spermopsida (Seed plants). The woody tissue of trees and capillary
tubes for transporting water and sugars makes it possible for trees to reach a
great size.
Q. Describe the characteristics of Psilopsida.

Characteristics
• The subphylum Psilotophyta (Psilophyta or Psilopsida) represents the
most primitive vascular plants arose in the Silurian and Devonian about
395 mya and are characterized by the presence of tracheids, but they lack
true roots or leaves.
• The dominant plant in the alternation of generations is the sporophyte.
• These are simple dichotomously branching plants without leaves. Stems
contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis. There is a horizontal
stem with a primitive tissue arrangement having a central stele with xylem
surrounded by phloem.
• The epidermis has a cuticle and stomata. The upright stem connects to a
horizontal stem-like rhizome system that is anchored to the substrate
through rhizoids.
• There are no clearly-defined roots. There are also no true leaves; however
the stem is not smooth, it bears flaps of epidermis that are externally leaf-
like, but which contain no vascular tissue.
Q. Write a note on Rhynia.

Rhynia is a primitive plant appeared in Devonian period about 400
million years ago now extinct. The plant body consists of dichotomously
branched underground rhizome with rhizoids for absorption of water and
salts and erect aerial stem. The branches were green having terminal
sporangia.
Internally vascular tissues xylem with surrounding phloem is present.
These are surrounded by cortex. The outer layer is epidermis having
stomata.
Psilotum and Tmesipteris are having a sporophyte.
Q. Describe the evolution of leaf.

• It is assumed that a thorn like out growth (Enation) emerged on the
surface of the naked stem and with the growth vascular tissues are
also formed for the supply of water and support to the leave.
• Another assumption is that leaves were originated from the leafless
branching system of the primitive vascular plant.
• After that many veined leaf (megaphyllous) were originated providing
the forked branching system in the primitive plants.
• Later on the branching system became flat and spaces were filled in
by vascular tissues and looked like a web foot of duck.
Q. Describe the characteristics of Lycopsida
The Class Lycopsida includes the clubmosses. These plants are often
loosely grouped as the fern allies.
• The clubmosses are thought to be structurally similar to the earliest
vascular plants almost 10 milloion years ago after the first Psilopsida,
• They have small, scale-like leaves, homosporous spore borne in sporangia
at the bases of the leaves, branching stems (usually dichotomous), and
generally simple form. Dried spores of the common club moss, known
somewhat inaccurately as lycopodium, were used to produce flame-effects.
• Leaf-like structures are also seen in the dominant sporophyte generation
of some members of the Lycophyta. Initially these "leaves" are little more
than flaps of tissue growing out of the upright stems (like the enations of
Psilotum).
• The leaves acquire a vascular trace that constitutes a mid-rib and called
microphylls.
• These leaves are much simpler than the extensively-vascularized
megaphylls of ferns and higher plants, but the presence of vascular tissue
identifies them as true leaves.
Q. Write a note on Selaginella.
Selaginella is a primitive vascular plant belongs to the group Lycopsida.
It grows in damp places in the hills. It is slender, much branch plant. The stem
bears four rows of leaves. A scaly structure called ligule develops on the upper
surface of each leaf above its base. The root bearer region called rhizophora. In
Selaginella an important development is seen called Heterospory i.e. two types
of haploid spores are produced by meiosis in two different types of sporangia.
The spores germinate to form two types of gametophytes, both of which are
reduced in size.
Q. Describe the evolution of seed.
There are three steps involved in evolution of seed.
1. Origin of heterospory.
2. Development of integument for the protection of megasporangia.
3. Retention of the mature megaspores in the sporangia to develop female
gametophyte.
The seed formation started when plants produced two different types of
micro and megaspores which develop in to male and female gametophytes
respectively. This is called heterospory as it occurs in Selaginella. These
spores develop and protected in to two different sporangia which are also found
in club mosses, horse tails and ferns.
Later on in fern like plants some branch like structures are modified and
formed integument around the sporangia in carboniferous era during evolution.
Like wise in seed plants mega spores are protected in the sporangia and develop
in to active female gametophyte. The integument not only protects the seed but
also provides food to the female gametophyte.
Q. Describe the characteristics of Sphenopsida

Characteristics
 Three hundred million years ago in Devonian the Sphenopsids appeared
and during Carboniferous period these become flourished and then
decline.
 Most of them were small while some Paleozoic sphenophyts grew up to
thirty meters tall (nearly 100 feet).
 The earliest Sphenopsids that has been discovered is Pseudobornia ursina,
which grew up to 20 m tall with stems up to 60 cm thick.
 Today, the sphenophyts consist of only one genus, Equisetum commonly
called horse tails, with about thirty living species known worldwide.
• Sphenopsids possess true roots, stem and leaves.
• The stem hollow and jointed surrounded by scaly leaves.
• Spores are produced in cone like Strobilus situated terminally on
branches.
Q. Describe the characteristics of Pteropsida with reference to Ferns.

The Ferns (Division Pteropsida) were prominent plants from 360 until 200
mya, although even today they are common. Members of this group of seedless
vascular plants show the greatest species diversity.
• Ferns leaf is the megaphyll. The megaphyll is characterized by extensively
branched vasculature.
• The stem branching patterns is dichotomous - each branch being equal to
and symmetrical with the other.
• The end portions of a dichotomously branching system are called telomes.
It is thought that the complex megaphyll leaf structure arose when these
telomes became webbed.
If a sporangium is associated with the telome that ultimately becomes a
megaphyll, then that megaphyll would be a sporophyll (a sporangium-bearing
leaf). If there are two different sporangia involved (the heterosporous situation
with micro- and megasporangia) then there would be two types of sporophylls;
microsporophylls and megasporophylls.
Q. Describe the characteristics of Spermopsida

• These are generally called The Seed Plants.
• “Seed is a structure in which the embryo (the young sporophyte) is shed
from the parent plant, enclosed within a resistant coat, together with a
supply of food that aids its establishment”.
• Seed plants are those which reproduce via seeds while seed less plants
reproduce through spores.
• These plants appeared in the late Devonian but in carboniferous period
they replaced by Lycopsids and Sphenopsids.
• These plants are divided in to two groups.
i) The Gymnosperms (naked seed)
ii) The Angiosperms (open seed)
Q. Briefly describe the Gymnosperms.
The gymnosperms were the first seed plants appeared in late
Devonian periode and bear their ovules and seeds exposed on the plant
surface. This is in marked contrast to the more recent group of seed
plants, the flowering plants, which have their ovules sealed within the
flower and their seeds contained within a fruit. The name gymnosperm
describes this feature. It literally means naked seed.
Q. Describe the male cone of Pinus.
• The male cones are the reproductive organs of Pinus plant.
• Male cones of Pinus typically are found in clusters at the tips of lower side
branches and usually take several years to develop.
• In male cones, the modified leaves are called microsporophylls.
• Each microsporophyll bears a microsporangium in which the
microspores are produced.
• Inside the microsporangium, each microspore divides and “grows” to form
a four-celled male gametophyte, also known as pollen which contains
two sperm nuclei.
Q. Describe the female cone of Pinus.

• The female cones are the reproductive organs of Pinus plant.
• Female cones typically form higher up in the tree, and also usually take
several years to develop.
• Modified leaves/scales of female cones are called megasporophylls and
produce megaspores.
• Each scale or megasporophyll has two megasporangia or ovules where
megaspores can develop.
• Each ovule has a micropyle (pyle = gate, orifice), a small hole in the near
end of the ovule wall so the sperm can enter.
Q. Describe the development of female gametophyte of Pinus plant.

• Development of female gametophyte starts with the Meiotic division in
megaspore mother cell that gives a row of 4 haploid nuclei.
• Usually 3 degenerate the remaining one develops into the female
gametophyte or ovule.
• This germination and development of the female gametophyte takes up to
13 months, and occurs within the ovule.
• 11 mitotic divisions further occur before any cell walls separate the nuclei.
• At this time, 2 or more archegonia begin to differentiate at the micropylar
end.
• At this point the ovule consists of integuments, nucellus and
gametophyte.
• Gametophyte contains several archegonia, each with an egg cell.
• Archigonium consists of two part lower venter and upper neck.
• In the venter a large egg cell or female gamete is present that takes part in
fertilization.
Q. Describe the male gametophyte of Pinus.

• The pollen grain is separated from the archegonia by a layer of nucellus.
• It is through this nuclear material that the pollen tube grows, digesting it
as it grows.
• As it grows, the generative cell divides, forming stalk cell & body cell,
which then divides to form 2 sperm nuclei.
• A mature male gametophyte then contains a pollen tube, 2 sperm nuclei,
and several vegetative nuclei.
Q. Describe the characteristics of angiosperm
• The Angiosperms are the flowering plants, in which the seeds are enclosed
in a dry or fleshy fruit that develops from the ovary of the flower.
• Angiosperms are the most diverse and successful of plant groups with
well-developed vessels in the xylem and other adaptations to a variety of
land habitats.
• Angiosperms are divided into two subclasses: Dicotyledon and
Monocotyledon.
Dicotyledons Monocotyledons
• Dicotyledons have two seed • The Monocotyledons have
leaves (cotyledons) in the one seed leaf,
embryo. • Parallel leaf veins,
• netted, or branched, leaf • Flower parts in threes
veins • Fibrous root system
• Flower parts in multiples of • Stems without a vascular
four or five cambium and with scattered
• Root systems generally made vascular bundles.
up of a large primary root
(taproot) with branch roots
growing from it;
• Stems with vascular
cambium and with vascular
bundles arranged in a ring
Q. Briefly describe the structure of a flower.
• The leaf-like organs found along the outside of the flower are the sepals,
collectively called the calyx. The next whorl of floral parts inward is the
petals, collectively called the corolla.
• The sepals and petals together are sometimes called accessory floral parts
because they participate in reproduction only indirectly in that their
function is related to facilitating pollination.
• The next floral whorl inward is the stamens which are collectively referred
to as the androecium. Finally, the innermost floral part is the gynoecium
which is composed of carpals or pistil. Each pistil consists of an ovary at
its base a slender stalk called style arises from the ovary and ends
upwardly called stigma. Inside of the carpel an ovule present this contains
the egg.
• These last two whorls participate directly in sexual reproduction and are
called the essential floral parts.
Q. Describe the development of fruit in angiosperms.
The formation of fruit starts from the development of mature seeds and
fruits generally involve mitotic divisions of the nuclei and cells. Ovules mature
into seeds and the gynoecium matures into a fruit. Macroscopically, the petals
and stamens will usually wither and fall off leaving the ovary surrounded by the
sepals. By mitotic cell division and uptake of water resulting in cell expansion,
the young fruit increases greatly in size. The placenta will become very watery
filling the locule or spaces within the carpels.
The angiosperm fruit serves two important functions:
1. To protect the seeds during their maturation and

2. To effectively disperse the mature seeds. The chief agents in seed and
fruit dispersal are wind, water and animals.
Q. How vascular plants considered as successful group of land plants.
Vascular plants are the successful group on land because of well

adapted to the life on land by the following ways.
1. Gametophyte is reduced and well protected in the independent
sporophyte tissues.
2. Fertilization is not dependent on water. Male gametes are carried within
pollen grains and dispersed by wind or insects.
3. Flowering plants produce seeds and these remain in sporophyte plant.
4. These vascular plants are supported by xylem and sclerenchyma tissues.
Secondary growth takes place and these become trees or shrubs.
5. True roots are present in vascular plants to absorb soil water.
6. Plants are having water proof cuticle or cork to protect them from
desiccation.
7. The epidermis of aerial parts particularly leaves posses stomata for
efficient gaseous exchange.
Descriptive Question and answers

Q. Describe the plants adaptation to land habitat.
Fossils records of the Silurian/ Devonian periods shows that plants
made changes in their structure for the survival on land habitat due to change
in environment in these eras for the following reasons.
1. Scarcity of water on land habitat as compare to marine habitat.
2. Carbon containing compounds are not available frequently on land.
3. Fluctuation of temperature on land habitat is much as the temperature in
sea.
To overcome these problems, land plants first adopted themselves to

amphibian habitat and later developed a complete terrestrial form of life. Plants
adapted the following characters for their survival on land.

4. Heterogamy
6. formation of embryos

Plants produced Rhizoids which are thin, long hair like structures
attached on the lower surface of the plant body for absorption of water
from the soil.
Plant body of bryophytes called thallus which is many cells thick to
conserve water. Moreover the outer and uppermost layer of cells is
covered with cuticle to slower down the rate of transpiration..
Land plants need effective exchange of gases from the environment. In
bryophytes, on the upper surface of Marcantia thallus lies small pores
which open inside into air chambers containing photosynthetic cells
present in a large area. The CO 2 from air diffuses into the cytoplasm of
these cells and used in photosynthesis.
4. Heterogamy
Bryophytes produce two morphologically different gametes termed as
heterogametes, male gametes motile, flagellated or ciliated and female
gametes non motile contain reserve food material which is used after
fertilization for nourishing the embryo.

The male and female gametes of land plants are well protected by sex
organs called antheridia and archegonia respectively. These are
present on the apex of plant shoots along with hair like structures
called paraphyses which prevent from dryness.
6. Formation of embryos
Land plants develop embryo protected in archegonia by coverings from
desiccation and mechanical injury.
Q. Describe the Life cycle of Selaginella.
In Selaginella an important development is seen called heterospory i.e.
two types of haploid spores are produced by meiosis in two different types of
sporangia. The spores germinate to form two types of gametophytes, both of
which are reduced in size.
1. Microsporangia - Sporogenous cells go through meiosis to establish
haploid microspores. These cells later on produced by the mitotic divisions of a
given haploid nucleuses of a microspore establish an antheridium which
produces many swimming sperm cells. These are released only when the
microspore wall ruptures. The sperm need water to swim.
2. Megasporangia - Sporogenous cells go through meiosis to establish
haploid megaspores. These go through mitotic divisions within the spore coat
to establish a mass of food storing cells (representing the relictual vegetative
thallus), and a few archegonia, each of which contains an egg cell.
3. The megaspores are shed and their coats break open to expose the
archegonia. The sperm from the microspores that have been shed can then swim
to the archigonium and fertilize its egg. The diploid zygote then divides
mitotically to form an embryo and, eventually, the new sporophyte.
Q. Describe the life cycle of fern
Ferns have an alternation of generations involving haploid gametophytic
and diploid sporophytic phases.
The gametophyte generation of the fern begins with the production of haploid
spores in the sporangium. In the young sporangium, the diploid (2N) spore
mother cell undergoes meiosis and produces four haploid cells that divide
mitotically to form the mature spores.
The mature sporangium has special thickened cells along one side called
the annulus that react to changes in humidity. The spores are dispersed by the
rapid movement of the dehiscing sporangium which splits between two lip cells.
This young gametophyte has chloroplasts and continues to grow via mitotic
divisions an apical cell. Eventually, a large, heart-shaped prothallus is formed.
Sperm cells are formed in an antheridium and when released are
individually enclosed in "vesicles". On the underside (ventral) of the prothallus,
archegonia are frequently clustered around the apical notch as evidenced by the
protruding archegonial necks. Each archegonium contains a single egg that is
embedded in the prothallus. Water is required to allow the motile sperm to swim
to the opening of the archegonium (drawn there by a chemical attractant). At the
moment of fertilization, the nuclei of sperm and egg fuse and a diploid zygote is
formed. This begins the sporophytic generation again. The zygote divides
mitotically to form and embryo and eventually a tiny sporophytic plant.
Q. Describe in detail the life history of Pinus.

This genus requires three years for completion of life cycle. Pollination,
fertilization and maturation of seeds take place at different times. Pines are
heterosporous by having with megaspores and microspores borne in ovulate and
staminate cones respectively. The sporophyte bears two types of reproductive
structures referred to as male and female cones.
The Male cone

The “male” cones typically are found in clusters at the tips of lower, side
branches, and usually take several years to develop. In these cones, the modified
leaves are called microsporophylls. Each microsporophyll bears a
microsporangium in which the microspores are produced. Still inside the
microsporangium, each microspore divides and “grows” to form a four-celled
(four nuclei) male gametophyte, also known as pollen which contains two
sperm nuclei.
The Female cone
The female cones typically form higher up in the tree, and also usually
take several years to develop. Their modified leaves/scales are called
megasporophylls and produce megaspores. Each scale (megasporophyll) has
two areas (megasporangia or ovules) where megaspores can develop. Each ovule
has a micropyle (pyle = gate, orifice), a small hole in the near end of the ovule
wall so the sperm can enter.
Female gametophyte
Meiosis of megaspore mother cell gives a row of four haploid nuclei.
Usually three degenerate. The remaining one develops into the female
gametophyte. This germination and development of the female gametophyte
takes up to thirteen months, and occurs within the ovule. Eleven mitotic
divisions occur before any cell walls separate the nuclei. This is the free nuclear
stage. Cell walls will then begin to form. At this time, two or more archegonia
begin to differentiate at the micropylar end. At this point the ovule consists of
integuments, nucellus and gametophyte. Gametophyte contains several
archegonia, each with an egg cell. A micropylar chamber is beneath the
micropyle.
Pollination
Consists of transfer of pollen grain from the staminate cone to the ovulate
cone, by means of wind. Cross pollination aided by the fact that the staminate
cones are below the ovulate cones, thus the pollen has to travel some distance
before rising to the height of the ovulate cones. This occurs in early spring,
shortly after emergence of the ovulate cone. As pollen grains fall toward the axis
of the ovulate cone they come in contact with a sticky secretion from the ovule,
which aids in drawing the pollen into the micropylar chamber, near to the
developing gametophyte. Now the male gametophyte begins to germinate from
the pollen grain, i.e. pollen tube. Thus both male & female gametophytes develop
within the ovule, and are nourished by nucellus.
Male gametophyte
The pollen grain is separated from the archegonia by a layer of nucellus.
It is through this nuclear material that the pollen tube grows, digesting it as it
grows. As it grows, the generative cell divides, forming stalk cell & body cell,
which then divides to form 2 sperm nuclei.
A mature male gametophyte then contains a pollen tube, 2 sperm nuclei,
and several vegetative nuclei.
Fertilization
After about one year, the male & female gametophytes are mature, and
the pollen tube with sperm nuclei has reached the archegonia. At this time, the
contents of the male gametophyte are emptied directly into the egg cell. One of
the sperm nuclei fuses with the egg nucleus, the remaining sperm nucleus and
vegetative portions quickly disintegrate.
Embryo
The first step is the formation of a proembryo. The zygote nucleus divides
twice to give 4 free nuclei, which move to chalazal end of the egg cell. 2 more
mitoses result in four tiers of 4 cells. The 4 cells farthest from the micropyle
will form the embryo, while the remaining cells may form suspensor cells
which push the embryo deep into the gametophyte tissue toward chalazal end
gametophyte. continues to grow and store food for the developing embryo, and
for food reserves in the seed. Several embryos may form in a single seed, but
usually only one develops.
The mature embryo consists of several cotyledons, a shoot tip, a hypocotyl
and a radicle. The embryo & gametophyte are surrounded by two layers - 1.
dried nucellus or perisperm, 2. seed coat from ovule integument. The entire
structure is the seed. Seed maturity occurs about 12 months after fertilization.
Seeds may be dormant for many years. Some remain in cones until burned by
fire, others shed seeds readily.
Q. Describe the life cycle of an angiosperm

The angiosperm life cycle possesses the following advances over conifers:
• Reproductive structures are flowers rather than cones.
• Ovules embedded in female sporophylls rather than lying bare on the
surface
• Gametophyte still further reduced
• Double fertilization to produce a diploid triploid endosperm nutritive
material
• Seeds enclosed in fruits that develop from the ovary or related structures
The angiosperm life cycle begin with the development of the diploid
flower on the mature sporophyte plant.
• Within the anther microsporocytes develop and undergo meiosis to
produce haploid microspores.
• Each of these undergoes one mitotic division to yield a generative cell
and a tube cell.
• These together comprise the immature microgametophyte, or pollen
grain.
• The generative cell completes a second mitotic division to produce two
sperm nuclei. Inside the ovule a single megasporocyte develops,
undergoes meiosis, and produces four haploid megaspores.
• Three of these degenerate, while the fourth undergoes three mitotic
divisions to produce an eight-nucleate embryo sac, or mature
megagametophyte.
• Upon pollination, the pollen grain germinates on the stigma; a pollen
tube grows down the style and into the ovary via the micropyle.
• One sperm nucleus fuses with the egg to create a diploid zygote, while
the other sperm nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to produce the
nutritive, triploid endosperm.
• This process of double fertilization is unique to flowering plants. The
embryo develops inside the embryo sac, integuments of the ovule form a
protective seed coat around it, and the mature ovary forms a protective
fruit around the seed.
• Eventually the seed is shed from the fruit and the embryo temporarily
suspends development in order to overwinter.
• Upon receipt of the proper hormonal and environmental cues, seed
germination occurs and the embryo grows into a mature diploid
sporophyte which produces flowers to complete one cycle of the
alternation of generations.
Q. Describe the following families in detail.
Family Rosaceae
• It has about 100 genera and 2000 species, found growing allover the earth
213 species of about 29 genera are reported from Pakistan.
• Inflorescence: Variable solitary flowered to racemose and cymose cluster.
• Flowers: Bisexual and actinomorphic, hypogynus to epigenous.
• Calyx: Sometimes epicalyx is present sepals 5 free or fused.
• Corolla: Petals 5, or numerous in multiple of 5, free imbricate
rosaceous, large and showy and usually conspicuous.
• Androecium: Numerous stamens, sometimes only 5 or 10 free
usually bent inward in the bud state; anther small bilocular.
• Gynoecium: A simple pistil of 1 to numerous separate carpels,
united into a compound pistil, often adinate to the calyx tube; ovary
superior to inferior; ovules usually 2 or more per carpel; placentation basal
when the carpel is one or apocarpous, but axial when the carpels are many
and syncarpous; style simple, as many as the carpels, free or united,
stigma linear, spathulate or capitate.
• Diagnostic characters: Rosaceous corolla, stamens numerous,
polyandrous, monocarpellary or polycarpellary syncarpous may be
apocarpous.
• Economic Importance:
1. The members of this family are
important in temperate region for
fruits and ornamentals in homes,
parks and gardens.
2. They rank third in commercial
importance in the temperate zone
among the families of the flowering
plants.
3. The branches of Crataegus and
cotoneaster provide excellent walking sticks and wood. The wood of
Pyruspastia is used for making tobacco pipes.
4. In Asia their flower’s petals of common rose usually called gulabs are
used in making gulkand, and are also used in extraction of an essential
oil, rose oil, used as perfume when distilled with water the petals give
Rose-water or Ark-Gulab, which is used in eye disease, and for many
other purpose.
Familiar Plants:
Botanical names Common names
1. Pyrus malus Apple seb
2. Pyrus communis Pear Nashpati
3. Prunus Persia Peach Aru
4. Prunus amygdalus Almond Badam
5. Rosa indica Rose Gulab
Family Soalnacea
• It has about 2000 species belonging to about 90 genera found in tropical
and temperate regions. 52 species belonging to about 52 genera have been
reported from Pakistan.
• Inflorescence: Typically an axillary cyme or combination of
cymes some times helicoids, or axillary umbellate cymes.
• Flowers: Bisexual usually actinomorphic or weakly zygomorphic
bracteate or ebracteate, hypogynus, usually pentamarous.
• Calyx: 5 united sepals, usually persistent.
• Corolla: 5 united petals, corolla rotate tubular or infundibuliform.
• Androecium: 5 Stamens, polyandrous, epipetalous inserted on the
corolla tube and alternate with its lobes, filament usually of unequal
length.
• Gynoecium: Bicarpellary syncarpous, ovary obliquely placed,
superior bilocular or imperfectly tetra-
locular by false septum, style terminal,
simple or lobed, placentation axial, ovule
numerous.
•
• Diagnostic characters: Stem with
bicollateral vascular bundles, leaves
alternate becoming opposite near
inflorescence; stipules absent flower
actinomorphic pentamerous, stamen 5,
epipetalous ovary bi-locular, obliquely
placed, placentation axial, fruit berry or capsule.
• Economic importance:
1. These plants provide drugs and food while some are ornamental.
2. Potatoes were introduced in 1500’s and Ireland people were
completely dependent on it.
3. In 1700,s tomatoes were introduced to different parts of the world
mainly by Italian.
4. Capsicum spp. are rich in vitamin A and C and used as condiment.
5. Nicotiania tabacum the leaves of which are dried and made into
tobacco, which is used in making cigarettes.
Familiar Plants
Botanical names Common names
1. Solanum tuberosum Potato
2. Solanum melongena Brinjal
3. Lycopersicum esculentum Tomato
4. Capsicum anum Red-pepper
5. Datura alba Thorn apple
Legume Families
Fabaceae: Papilionaceae/ Pea family
• This family has about 9000 species belonging to 400 genera found
distributed to all parts of the world. 587 species of 82 genera have been
reported form Pakistan.
• Inflorescence: Racemose or solitary axillary.
• Flowers: Bisexual, zygomorphic, bracteate, pedicellate, hypo-to
perigynous.
• Calyx: Sepals, more or less united in a tube, mostly hairy.
• Corolla: Papilionaceous, Petals 5, the odd outer petal is large and
conspicuous and is called standard or vexillum, two lateral ones free called
wings and 2 anterior inner most that fuse to form a boat-shaped structure
called the keel or carina, descending imbricate.
• Androecium: 10 stamens, mostly diadelphous 9 fused to form sheath
round the pistil, while 10th posterior one is free.
• Gynoecium: A simple; style long, bent at its base flattened and hairy,
stigma simple.
• Floral formula:
• Diagnostic character: Papilionaceous corolla, 10 stamens, diadelphous,
monocarpellary.
1. The members of this family are the source of high-protein food, oil and
forage as well as ornamentals.
2. Pulses are belonging to this family which are the food of great economic
importance. Cicer aritinum (gram or thick pea vern. Channa), Pisum
sativum (Pea vern. Muttor), Lens esculanta (ver. Masure), Phaseolus
aureus (mung beans vern Mung) Phaseolus mung (vern. Mash or urd),
Phaseolus vulgaris (Kidney bean) all these pulses are rich in protein
content.
3. Many trees like Butea, Dildurgia of this provide excellent timber for
building, furniture and fuel.
4. The seed of Arachis hypogea Peanut or moong phalli are edible and also
used for extraction of peanut oil which after hydrogenation is used as
vegetable oil.
5. Indigo dyes are obtain form indigofera tinctoria (vern. Neel) and Butea
monosperma, yielding yellow dye from flowers.
6. Glycyrrhiza glabra is used as medicine for cough and cold, clitoria
termatea used against snake bite.
7. The red and white seeds of Abrus precatorious are used by jewelers as
weight called ratti.
8. Some of them are ornamental plants like Lathyrus, Lupinus, Clitoria,
Butea etc.
Familiar Plants:
Botanical names Common name
1. Lathyrus odoratus Sweet pea
2. Arachis hypogea Pea-nut
3. Cicer arietinum Gram
4. Dalbergia sisso Red wood
5. Pisum sativum Edible-pea
6. Sesbania aegyptica Sesbania
Mimosaceae: Acacia family
This family has about 3000 species belonging to 56 genera are found
growing in the world. 49 species of 11genera have been reported form
Pakistan.
• Inflorescence: Spike like a head or umbel rarely racemose or globose
umbels
• Flowers: Bisexual, Actinomorphic, bracteate, pedicellate, hypogynous.
• Calyx: Usually 5 Sepals, valvate, free or fused, corolla lobed
• Corolla: 5 petals, valuate, free or fused, corolla lobed.
• Androecium: 5 to numerous stamens, free monoadelphous, adinate to the
base of corolla; anther versatile often crowned by a deciduous gland.
• Gynoecium: A simple pistil of I carpel, ovary unilocular superior ovules
many placentation marginal, style long filiform, stigma terminal minute.
• Floral formula:
• Diagnostic character: Five fused sepals, 5 free or fused petals,
androecium or 10 monoadelphous monocarpellary.
1. These trees wood is used for construction purpose or for furniture or
as a fuel example Albizzia and Xylia.
2. Arabic gum is obtained from Acacia nilotica and A. Senegal Katha a dye
is obtained from Acacia catechu.
3. The tender leaves of Acacia nilotica are used as blood purifier.
4. Some common garden plants grown for their beautiful flowers Mimosa
pudica, Acacia melanoxylon.
5. Few species of Prosopis are planted in the arid zones for breaking the
wind pressure.
Chapter 10
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
(animals)
Q. Briefly describe kingdom Animalia.
All animals are members of the Kingdom Animalia, also called Metazoa.
Somewhere around 9 or 10 million species of animals inhabit the earth; the exact
number is not known and even our estimates are very rough. By far most species
of animals are insects, with groups such as mollusks and nematodes also being
especially diverse. This Kingdom does not contain the prokaryotes all members
of the Animalia are multicellular, and all are heterotrophs (that is, they rely
directly or indirectly on other organisms for their nourishment). Most ingest food
and digest it in their gastro-vascular cavity.
Q. What do we man by diversity and complexity?

Most animals shows variation in their characteristics all these variations
are leading towards diversity in living forms like, most animals are capable of
complex and relatively rapid movement compared to plants and other organisms.
Most reproduce sexually, by means of differentiated eggs and sperm. Most
animals are diploid, meaning that the cells of adults contain two copies of the
genetic material.
Organism’s complexity in body structure increases when they reach the
status of tissue level to organ level grade of body organization. Animals range in
size from no more than a few cells like microscopic parazoan Trichoplax to
organisms weighing many tons, such as blue whales (to 40 meters long and
weighs more than 160,000 Kg. Balaenoptera) and giant squid. Among these
extremes a huge range of animals differs not only in size but also in having no
organ to a highly specialized organ system.
Q. What are the developmental patterns in animals?

The development of most animals is characterized by distinctive stages,
including a zygote, formed by the product of the first few division of cells or
cleavage following fertilization called initially morula; a blastula, which is a
hollow ball of cells formed by the developing zygote; and a gastrula, which is
formed when the blastula folds in on itself to form a double-walled structure
with an opening to the outside, the blastopore.
Q. What is the cellular organization in animals?

Animal cells lack the rigid cell walls that characterize plant cells. The
bodies of most animals (all except sponges) are made up of cells organized into
tissues; each tissue specialized to some degree to perform specific functions. In
most, tissues are organized into even more specialized organs these are called
Eumatazoa (true Metazoans). Only Phylum Porifera is grouped in a separate
sub kingdom Parazoa because of lack of a proper tissue organization.
Q. What are diploblastic and triploblastic organisms?
Diploblastic Organisms:
Animals which develop two germinal layers ectoderm and endoderm are called
diploblastic organisms like Cnidarians.
Tripoblastic Organisms:
Animals in which three germinal layers ectoderm, endoderm and
mesoderm are formed called triploblastic organisms. Like annelids chordates
etc.
Q. Write a note on symmetry.
Symmetry
Symmetry is the overall shape of the body or regularity of figure e.g. frog
Planaria. Animals that have no plane of symmetry are said to be asymmetrical
e.g. sponges. There are two types of symmetry generally present on living
organisms.
a) Bilateral symmetry
When an animal have two identical halves of the body along any one
specific axis are called bilateral symmetrical e.g. Frog.
b) Radial Symmetry
A body which has one main axis around which body parts are arranged
and the organism can be divided in to identical halves in any plane that passes
through the main axis is called radially symmetrical e.g. star fish.
Q. Describe coelom and its types

Coelom is a body cavity which is of two types.
True Coelom
A body cavity which is formed by the displacement of mesodermal cells or
lined by mesodermal cells is called coelom e.g. form Annelids to Chordates
False Coelom
A body cavity which is not formed by the mesodermal cells is called
false coelom or Pseudocoelom e.g. Nematodes.
Acoelomates
These animals lack a body cavity e.g. Platyhelminthes.
Q. Describe the fate of blastopore.

Blastopore is the opening of embryonic stage which later form either
mouth or anus of the animal.
Coelomates are categorized in to two bases on the basis of fate of
blastopore.
Protosomes
In this group of organism’s blastopore eventually becomes the mouth of
adult. E.g. annelids, molluscs and arthropods.
Duterostomes
In this group of organism’s blastopore develops in to anus and second
openening later forms the mouth. E.g. Echinodermata and chordata.
Q. Write a note on phylum Porifera.

Sponges are a diverse group of sometimes common types, with about 5000
species known across the world. Sponges are sessile and primarily marine, but
around 150 species live in fresh water. Sponges have cellular-level organization,
meaning that that their cells are specialized so that different cells perform
different functions, but similar cells are not organized into tissues and bodies
are a sort of loose aggregation of different kinds of cells. Body wall diploblastic
with outer pinacoderm (dermal epithelium), inner choanoderm (gastral
epithelium) and gelatinous non-cellular mesenchyme in between; mesenchyme
consists of skeletal elements and free amoeboid cells, porocyte cells form pores.
They are supported by a skeleton made up of the protein collagen and
calcareous or siliceous spicules. Sponges capture food (detritus particles,
plankton, bacteria) that is brought close by water currents created by the
choanocytes. Food items are taken into individual amoeboid cells by
phagocytosis, and digestion occurs within individual cells.
All sponges are hermaphrodite but cross- fertilization is usually present.
Reproduction in sponges is by both sexual and asexual means. Asexual
reproduction is by means of external buds. Some species also form internal
buds, called gemmules, which can survive extremely unfavorable conditions that
cause the rest of the sponge to die.
Q. Describe the body forms in Cnidarians.

Cnidarians have two basic body forms, medusa and polyp.
Medusae,
These are umbrella-shaped bodies and tetramerous (four-part) symmetry
such as adult jellyfish. These are free-swimming or floating.. The mouth is
usually on the concave side, and the tentacles originate on the rim of the
umbrella.
Polyps,
These are tubular bodies and usually sessile. At one end body is attached
to the substrate, and a mouth (usually surrounded by tentacles) is found at the
other end. Polyps may occur alone or in groups of individuals; in the latter case,
different individuals sometimes specialize for different functions, such as
reproduction, feeding or defense.
Q. Write a note on Zooids in Cnidarians.

Cnidarians have specialized group of cells performing specific function
called Zooids, which are generally interdependent. There are three types of
Zooids present Dactylozooid: These are use for defensive or offensive purpose.
Gonozooid: These are use for reproduction.
Gastrozooid: These are use in digestion.
Q. Describe the Polymorphism in Cnidarians.

Polymorphism is common in Cnidarians which is “The occurrence of
species in two or more structurally and functionally different kind of Zooids is
known as polymorphism”. Or “When an organism is found in more then one
forms during its life cycle this phenomenon is called polymorphism.”
Q. Describe the structure of Cnidoblast in cnidarians.

Cnidoblasts are the specialized structures formed by epidermis and used
for defense, offence or to capture prey. These are found through out the
epidermis but specially on the tentacles. These are somewhat oval-shaped cell
contain nematocyst or stinging structure. The nematocyst is enclosed in a
rounded capsule consists of thread or a coiled tube containing spines and
stylets. The spines are more than 50 in numbers. In the nematocysts is a
poisonous toxin made of a mixture of protein and phenols. These are capable
even of penetrating human skin, sometimes producing a painful wound or in
extreme cases, death.
Q. Describe the structure of nematocyst in cnidarians.
Nematocyst is a chitinous non living structure present in the Cnidoblast.
Cnidoblast cells secrete a double walled chitinous capsule which has a lid or
operculum. One end of the capsule forms a tube lying coiled in the capsule with
a basal swelling with barbs and a long coiled thread which can be open and
closed at the tip. Inside the tube are some spines this whole structure is called
a nematocyst.
Q. Write note on phylum Platyhelminthes.

This phylum includes about 15000 species and these are generally called
flat worms because of their flat and soft body. Tissue-organ grade of body
organization the body cells form definite tissues and the tissues make up organs.
Triploblastic and organisms do not have any body cavity. These organisms are
bilaterally symmetrical. Dorsoventraly flattened body, mouth and gonopores
present on the ventral surface. Their size ranges form microscopic to several
meters. Adhesive structures like hooks, spines and suckers and adhesive
secretions are common in mouth of the parasitic forms. Digestive system
consists of branched intestine. Excretion and osmoregulation by flatworms is
controlled by "flame cells" or protonephridia. Flatworms lack a respiratory or
circulatory system; these functions take place by absorption through the body
wall.
Nonparasitic forms have a simple, incomplete gut; even this is lacking in
many parasitic species. Mostly monoecious or hermaphrodite with complex
reproductive system; Most flatworms can reproduce sexually or asexually.
Development may be direct or indirect. These are free swimming, commensals
or parasitic forms.
Examples; Taenia solium (tape worm) , Fasciola hepatica (liver
fluke) etc.
Q. Describe the parasitic adaptations in Platyhelminthes.

• Their thick body covers protect them against defense mechanisms of host
body.
• The spines, suckers and hooks developed for attachment and replace the
locomotory organs, which are not needed by parasitic animals.
• Alimentary canal is reduced, even absent as in Taenia, because of the
availability of the digested food from the host.
• Neurosensory organs are not developed due to their passive mode of life.
• Reproductive system is very much developed.
• Fertility rate is very high to cope with chances of danger from the defense
mechanism of the host body.
Q. Describe the characteristics of phylum Nematoda.
Nematodes are almost unbelievably abundant. One study reported around
90,000 individual nematodes in a single rotting apple. Another reported 236
species living in a few cubic centimeters of mud. The number of described
species is around 12,000, but too little attention has been paid to these animals
and the true number may be closer to 500,000.
• Size:
Their size ranging from microscopic to 9 meters. They are tubular and
pointed at both ends.
• Mode of living :
Many nematodes are free living and play critical ecological roles as
decomposers and predators on microorganisms. These are also parasites of
animals and plants.
• Body wall:
Body wall with non-living cuticle, acellular epidermis and longitudinal
muscle cell in four bands are present. No cilia; no circulatory and
respiratory system.
• Digestive system:
Digestive system completes with muscular pharynx and glands.
• Nervous system :
Nervous system with circumcentric ring and anterior and posterior nerves.
• Reproductive system:
Most nematodes are dioecious means both male and female are separate.
Development of fertilized eggs is usually direct.
• Fertilization:
Fertilization internal, developments usually direct. Enormous numbers of
eggs produced by the females.
These are grouped into two classes i.e. Phasmida and Aphasmida.
Examples ; Ascaris (round worm), Ancylostoma (Hook worm)
Q. Describe the segmentation in Annelids.

All members of the group are to some extent segmented, in other words,
made up of segments that are formed by subdivisions that partially transect the
body cavity. Segmentation is also called metamerism. Segments each contain
elements of such body systems as circulatory, nervous, and excretory tracts.
Metamerism increases the efficiency of body movement by allowing the effect of
muscle contraction to be extremely localized, and it makes possible the
development of greater complexity in general body organization..
Q. Describe the Advantages of segmentation and coelom.

• Segmentation increases flexibility allowing various parts of the body to
bend independently of the other parts.
• Increased flexibility enhances locomotory power.
• The coelom improves swimming or burrowing activities of the annelids by
serving as a hydrostatic skeleton.
• In many annelids coelom collects metabolic waste discharged by excretory
organs.
• It also provides space for maturation of eggs and sperms.
Q. Describe the economic importance of Annelids.

• Earthworms help farmers by continuously ploughing the soil and adding
nitrogenous waste into it thus making the soil more fertile.
• Chinese, Japanese and Indians use them in preparation of various fancy
medicines.
• They are also used as a fish bait, as a food of fish.
• These are also used in laboratory for dissections and other research
activities.
• Leeches are ectoparasites and suck foul blood from a patient.
• A few annelids are also carrier of some diseases.
Q. Describe the economic importance of Mollusca.

• Members of this phylum are used as food.
• Their shells are used as decorative.
• They secrete a mixture of calcium carbonate and protein is called Nacre
or mother of pearl which is deposited around foreign particle and form
pearl a precious jewelry item.
• Pearl culture industry is successfully run in Japan and China.
Q. Write a note on phylum Arthropoda.

Arthropoda is the largest phylum of the animal kingdom, and include
millions of species. Arthropods include an incredibly diverse group of taxa such
as insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions, and centipedes. There are far more
species of arthropods than species in all other phyla combined, and the number
of undescribed species in the largest assemblage of arthropods, the insects,
probably numbers in the tens of millions. Members of the phylum have been
responsible for the most devastating plagues and famines mankind has known.
Yet other species of arthropods are essential for our existence, directly or
indirectly providing us with food, clothing, medicines, and protection from
harmful organisms.
Q. What are the functions of jointed legs in Arthropoda.
Primitively, each body segment bears a pair of segmented (jointed)
appendages; in all living arthropods, many of these appendages are dramatically
modified or even lost. Jointed legs whenever present with varied functions. Like
swimming, digging, walking, capturing prey, jumping etc. in different species.
Q. What are the components of exoskeleton in arthropods.

The body is covered with an exoskeleton made up primarily of the protein
chitin; lipids, other proteins, and calcium carbonate also play a role. Exoskeleton
of chitinous cuticle that is shed at intervals this phenomena is called moulting
or ecdysis.
Q. Describe the metamorphosis in Arthropoda.

Def; “A process in which series of gradual changes occur which help to
transform larval forms in to adult forms are collectively known as
Metamorphosis.”
These changes are influenced by hormonal and physiological activities.
Metamorphosis is divided in to two types:
Complete Metamorphosis in which larva hatches out of the egg and
develops into adult by passing through the stage of pupa and in all these forms
do not resemble with the adult. Example Butterfly.
Incomplete Metamorphosis in which nymph hatches out of the egg and
develops into adult without passing through the stage of pupa and resemble
with the adult. Example Cockroach.
Moulting or Ecdysis: Insects shed their exoskeleton form time to time
and form the new one this mechanism of changing exoskeleton is called Moulting
or Ecdysis.
Q. Why insect are considered as successful group on land?

Insects are the most successful group of organisms, which are found in
allover the world, and in every habitat.
• These can bear the temperature ranging from –65 to 50C.
• These are adapted for any habitat du to various structural and
physiological modifications and social adaptations.
• Structural modifications include developed brain and sense organs,
developed mouth parts in accordance with the requirements of different kind of
food, a protective exoskeleton, development of wings and jointed appendages.
• Physiological modifications include the production of variety of digestive
enzymes high reproductive potential and metamorphosis which have collectively
increased their chances of survival even in the extreme environments.
• As social insects, they live in a co-ordinated society, which increases the
adaptability to the environment and enhances the chances of their survival.
Q. Describe the economic importance of insects.

Insects are incalculably valuable to man. Usually, we think of them in a
negative context. Insects eat our food, feed on our blood and skin, contaminate
our dwellings, and transmit horrible diseases. But without them, we could not
exist. They are a fundamental part of our ecosystem. A brief and incomplete list
of their positive roles would include the pollination of many, perhaps most higher
plants; the decomposition of organic materials, facilitating the recycling of
carbon, nitrogen, and other essential nutrients; the control of populations of
harmful invertebrate species (including other insects); the direct production of
certain foods (honey, for example); and the manufacture of useful products such
as silk and shellac.
Q. Describe the water vascular system of echinoderms.

Echinoderms have a water vascular system consisting of a network of
radial canals, which extend through each of the five extensions (arms or rays) of
the animal. The water vascular system opening, called a madreporite which
opens backward in to stone canal then ring canal and then five radial canals.
Each radial canal has lateral connections which lead to a tube foot, which may
be composed of three parts. Internally is the ampulla and externally is the podia.
At the end of the podia is usually a sucker.
Q. Describe the characters of phylum Chordata.
All chordates have the following features at some point in their life (in the
case of humans and many other vertebrates, these features may only be present
in the embryo):
• Pharyngeal slits - a series of openings that connect the inside of the throat
to the outside of the "neck". These are often, but not always, used as gills.
• Dorsal nerve cord - a bundle of nerve fibers which runs down the "back".
It connects the brain with the lateral muscles and other organs.
• Notochord - cartilaginous rod running underneath, and supporting, the
nerve cord.
• Post-anal tail - an extension of the body past the anal opening
• Body wall –triploblastic with three germinal layers: ectoderm endoderm,
mesoderm
• Body size - small to large, usually bilaterally symmetrical and
metamerically segmented
• Digestive system – complete with digestive glands.
Q. Describe the division of Chordata.

Phylum Chordata is divided into two groups on the basis of skull.
1) Acraniata or Protochordata and 2) Craniata or
Veretebrata
Group: Acraniata or Protochordata
1. All marine, small, primitive or lower chordates.
2. These organisms does not have skull.
3. Notochord does not transform into vertebral column.
Protochordata or Acraniata is divided into two subphyla.

a) Urochordata b) Cephalochordata
Group: Craniata or Vertebrata
1. Notochord (vertebral column), dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal gill
pouches, and postanal tail - all present at some stage of the life cycle or
at least in embryonic stages.
2. Integument basically of two layers, an outer epidermis and inner
dermis of connective tissues.
3. Notochord is replaced in jawed vertebrates by the vertebrae
composed of cartilage, bone or both.
Q. Describe the characteristics of Urochordata.

In this subphylum 1250 species of Tunicates are identified.
• The Urochordata, sometimes known as the Tunicata because these are
covered in a protective cover called Tunic and are commonly known as "sea
squirts."
• The body of an adult tunicate is quite simple, being essentially a sack with
two siphons through which water enters called incurrent or buccal siphon
and exits by excurrent siphon. Water is filtered inside the sack-shaped body.
• The pharynx is lined by numerous cilia whose beating creates a current of
water that moves into the pharynx and out the numerous gill slits.
• Many tunicates have a larva that is free-swimming and exhibits all
chordate characteristics: it has a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal
slits, and a post-anal tail. This "tadpole larva" will swim and it eventually
attaches to a hard substrate, it loses its tail and ability to move, and its
nervous system largely disintegrates this phenomenon is called retrogressive
metamorphosis. Some tunicates are entirely pelagic.
• Notochord and nerve cord only present in Tadpole larva.
Q. Describe the characteristics of subphylum Cephalochordata.

• In this subphylum about 23 species are identified in the genus
Branchiostoma, formerly called Amphioxus.
• These marine chordates are only a few centimeters long.
• They usually lie partly buried in sandy or muddy substrates with only
their anterior mouth and gill apparatus exposed.
• They feed on microscopic particles filtered out of the constant stream of
water that enters the mouth and passes through the gill slits into an atrium
that opens at the atriopore.
• The notochord extends from the tail to head and therefore these are called
Cephalochordata.
• Muscles are segmentally arranged and the dorsal hollow nerve cord is
present.
• Cephalochordates lack features found in most or all true vertebrates: the
brain is very small and poorly developed, sense organs are also poorly
developed, and there are no true vertebrae.
Today, amphioxus may be extremely common in shallow sandy
environments: at Discovery Bay, Jamaica, up to five thousand individuals per
square meter of sand have been reported. In some parts of the world, amphioxus
is eaten by humans or by domestic animals; they are important food items in
some parts of Asia, where they are commercially harvested.
Q. Describe the distinguishing features of Craniata or Vertebrata.
• The main features of chordates like notochord (vertebral column), dorsal
nerve cord, pharyngeal gill pouches, and postanal tail, all present at some
stage of the life cycle or at least in embryonic stages.
• Integument basically of two layers, an outer epidermis derived from the
ectoderm and inner dermis of connective tissues derived from mesoderm;
many modifications of skin among the various classes, such as glands,
scales, feathers, claws, horns and hair.
• Notochord is replaced in jawed vertebrates by the vertebrae composed of
cartilage, bone or both; distinctive endoskeleton consisting of vertebral column
with the cranium, visceral arches, limb girdles and two pairs of jointed
appendages is present.
• Muscular perforated pharynx.
• Many muscles attached to the skeleton to provide for movement.
• Complete digestive system is provided with large digestive glands, liver
and pancreas is present.
• Circulatory system consisting of the ventral heart (2-4 chambers); a
closed blood vessel system of arteries, veins and capillaries; blood fluid
containing red blood corpuscles with hemoglobin and white corpuscles.
• Well developed coelom filled with visceral organs.
• Excretory system consisting of paired kidneys provided with ducts to
drain waste to cloaca.
• Brain typically divided into five vesicles; 10 or 12 pairs of cranial nerves
usually with both motor and sensory functions; an autonomic nervous
system in control of involuntary functions of internal organs.
• Endocrine system of ductless glands scattered throughout the body.
• Nearly always separate sexes; each sex containing paired gonads with
ducts that discharge their products either into the cloaca or into special
openings near the anus.
• Body plan consisting typically of head, trunk and post-anal tail; neck
present in some, especially terrestrial forms.
Q. Describe the characteristics of sub phylum Agnatha (Jawless fishes)

Characteristics
• These fishes have Eel shaped body. They are not laterally compressed.
• Endoskeleton is made up of Cartilage.
• Cartilage is light weight, strong and flexible.
• 7 gill openings present posterior to the eyes.
• Ammocoetes is filter feeding, free swimming larval stage for lamprey
which lasts about 7 years; then they undergo a metamorphosis and
become an adult.
• They have only dorsal and caudal fins with a hypocercal tail.
• Sucker contains horny denticles (look like teeth) with a series of “teeth”.
• Very large notochord.
• Brain – large optic lobes, poorly developed cerebellum, ribbon like spinal
cord
closed circulatory system – 2 chambered heart.
Examples:
Lamprey, Hagfish
Q. Describe the characteristics of sub phylum Gnathostomata.

This is the large group of vertebrates in which both upper and lower jaws
are present though teeth may be present or absent. Gnathostomata are divided
in to two super classes Pisces and Tetrapoda.
• Vertically biting lower and upper jaws present and a number of dermal
teeth attached with bones.
• A paired pelvic fins or limbs situated just in front of the anus.
• Gill arches which lie internally to the gills and brachial blood vessels,
contrary to the gill arches of all jawless craniates, which are external to the
gills and blood vessels.
• A horizontal semicircular canal present in the inner ear
Q. Describe the characteristics of class Pisces.

• All the members of this class are aquatic with integumentary scales.
• They respire with gills counter current respiration give 85% O 2 from water.
• Circulatory system close and single circuit type.
• Sensory System consists of lateral line present on both lateral surfaces of
fishes that detects vibrations and movements in the water.
• Oviparous i.e. they lay eggs, except for Chondrichthyes.
• External fertilization except for Chondrichthyes
• Body covered by dermal scales and body provided with paired fins.
• About 25000 species known.
Q. Differentiate between Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes.

Class Chondrichthyes – Class Osteichthyes – Bony
Cartilaginous Fish – Sharks and fishes
Rays Ray finned fishes, Trout,
Bass
• Endoskeletal system made of • Skeletal system made of bone
cartilage. (osteocytes). Heavier and less
• Mouth situated on ventral side flexible than cartilage.
of the body. • Mouth situated interiorly.
• Tail is heterocercal. • Tail is Homocercal means both
• Gills are not covered by lobes are equal in length.
operculum. • Operculum flaps covering gills
• Scales are called Placoid which present. Fish moves these to draw
are tooth-like. water into its mouth and over the
• Most are Ovoviviparous i.e. gills.
internal fertilization with • Scales are dermal called
eggs retained in the oviducts. Cycloid.
• Oxygen the only nourishment • Swim Bladder to compensate
given. for additional weight of bone.
• Young or born alive. • Most are Oviparous - external
• Few sharks lay leathery-shelled fertilization occurs.
eggs.
• Males have claspers which are
used to inject sperm.
Q. Describe the characters of class Amphibia.

Class Amphibia includes the toads and frogs, salamanders.
• The class name Amphibia appropriately indicates that most of the
species live partly in fresh water and partly on land.
• There are several new features that adapted them for terrestrial life, such
as legs, lungs, nostrils connecting the mouth cavity, and sense organs that
can function in both water and air.
• Amphibians are ectotherms formerly called poikilotherms because they
maintain their body temperature by external sources. Like they borrow
themselves in the mud in winter season which is called hibernation and in
summer they do so again called aestivation.
• Class Amphibians are the lowest and earliest Tetrapoda, or land
vertebrates.
• Development of limbs in place of paired fins.
• Replacement of the gills by lungs
• Changes in the circulatory system to provide for respiration by the lungs
and skin.
• They have three chambered heart.
• Oviparous and egg without shell.
• Skin with out any external covering or exoskeleton.
• Larva must require aquatic habitat for development.
• Development by progressive and retrogressive metamorphosis.
Q. Describe the origin of Amphibia.

They undoubtedly derived from some fish-like ancestors called
Rhipidistian, possibly in Devonian (408-360 mya (million years ago)) times.
These are bony lobed fin fishes used to drag their bodies from pond to another
by their fins which later on become limbs.
Those amphibians were from a few inches to 15 feet in length, some live
in aquatic shallow and swampy stagnant water and some in terrestrial. Some of
the large types of Triassic era were permanently aquatic, and several had
degenerated to become limbless, like eels or snakes.
Salamanders appeared in the Cretaceous (144-65 mya) and were distinct
from earliest frogs, which appeared in the Triassic. Both show degenerative
trends in the skull by loss of bones.
A closest member of coelacanth fishes still live in the sea as a living fossil
in small numbers.
Q. Why Amphibians are considered as Unsuccessful land Vertebrates.

Amphibians are considered as unsuccessful on land because of the
following reasons.
• These are cold blooded animals they cannot bear the variation in
temperature on land which restrict their distribution.
• Their thin skin cannot prevent the continuous loss of water that causes
desiccation.
• Their eggs are small and without shell which cannot protect embryo on
land.
• A larva hatches out in early stages and immediately required water for
further development that may not be available all the time on land.
Q. Describe the characteristics of reptilians.

Characteristics of reptiles
• Reptilians include 5000 vertebrate species with dry skin which is covered
by epidermal scales. Reptiles have tough skin made of the protein keratin.
• Class Reptilia is made up of the first animals to produce amniotic eggs. In
this type of egg, the embryo develops in a fluid filled sac called an amnion.
This prevents the egg from drying out, and allowed the reptiles to live only
on land.
• Reptiles have scales or shell as exoskeleton.
• Reptiles periodically shed their skin in a process called molting.
• They have well-developed respiratory system with branched bronchial
tubes in their lungs.
• Reptiles are homodont and have teeth adapted for holding prey rather than
chewing it.
• Reptiles have good hearing and vision and a tongue is used for smell as
well as taste. The only disadvantage to reptiles is that they are ectothermic,
meaning they warm up by absorbing heat rather than generating their own
heat, like birds and mammals.
Q. Describe the past history of reptiles.

The Mesozoic Age (225- 70 mya) is also known as the age of the reptiles
because dinosaurs and other reptiles were the predominant animal during that
period. Most of those species became extinct about 65 million years ago after a
mass extinction possibly caused by a meteor or increased volcanic activity.
Brontosaurs 82 ft. long and 20 ft. high whereas Tyrannosaurs 60 ft. high and
most terrifying creature ever to roam the earth.
However, one lineage of dinosaurs became the birds, and an earlier
lineage led to the mammals, which also became more abundant after the age of
reptiles. Other reptiles became the current orders, which include Chelonia, the
turtles and tortoises, Crocodilia, the alligators and crocodiles, Squamata and
Sauria, the snakes, and Rhynchocephalia, assorted other reptiles.
Q. Why reptiles are considered as successful land vertebrates?

Reptiles are considered as successful on land because of the following
reasons.
• Reptiles are successful on land because most importantly they have
internal mode of fertilization and the amniotic egg permeable to gas but not for
water.
• Secondly they have tough exoskeleton of scales and plates which not only
protect body but also slow down the loss of water from the body.
• Kidneys are modified to retain water and excrete concentrated urine.
• They are more protected from predators by their appendages and venom.
• They have developed lungs to supply more oxygen for active muscular
activity.
Common reptiles are Sphenodon living fossil found in New Zealand.
Chelone mydas turtle found in Pakistan and crocodiles and venomous snakes
etc.
Q. Describe the characteristics of class Aves.

There are about 9000 species of birds found and their study is called
Ornithology while study of their nests are called Nidology. They range from a
2gms West Indies Humming bird to a 150 kg Ostrich. Birds are special they
are the only vertebrates with the ability to fly. In addition to aerodynamics,
birds must have a high surface- area-to-weight ratio and lots of power to fly.
Characteristics
• Body covered with feathers.
• Bones of the skeleton are thin, with air spaces.
• Forelimbs function as wings, not for grasping.
• Toothless beak.
• Body temperature is internally regulated.
• Heart is 4-chambered.
• They posses syrinx instead of larynx for producing sound.
• Fertilization internal and eggs large amniotic.
• Birds that have hooked beaks for tearing flesh are called raptors.
Q. Differentiate between Ratitae and Craniatae sub classes of Aves.

Modern birds are divided in to two groups.
1. Sub Class Ratitae
• These are flightless birds having sternum raft like without keel.
• Their wings are either vestigial or rudimentary and flight muscles are
poorly developed.
Example. Emu, Ostrich, Kiwi, Penguin.
2. Sub Class Craniatae
• These are flying birds having sternum with keel.
• Their wings and pectoral flight muscles are highly developed for flight.
Example: Sparrow, Pigeon etc.
Q. Describe the flight adaptations in birds.

Flight adaptations in birds
• Muscles
The massive pectoralis brings the wing down in its power stroke. The
supracoracoideus lifts the wing. These two muscles make up almost 35% of
the total body weight, providing lots of power.
• Feathers
Birds have an enormous number of feathers. Although they are light-
weight, they may weight up to twice as much as the bird's skeleton.
• Shape of the body
The stream lined spindle shaped body less resistance to air.
• Organ reduction (Loss of weight)
No birds have teeth. The hand and foot have only 3 fingers and toes, each
with only 1 or 2 phalanges. The fibula is degenerate and the caudal vertebrae
have decreased in number. There is no urinary bladder, no external sex organs,
and usually only one ovary.
• Wings
Primary flight feathers are found on the fingers bones of birds. The
secondary flight feathers are found on the fore arm. When birds are flying,
movement of the hand with its large primaries forms a figure eight or oval in the
air, the primary feathers providing the surface area for most of the propulsion.
• Metabolism (Maintenance of body temperature)
Birds have a very high rate of metabolism to produce the energy needed
for flight. Herbivorous species can digest berries and excrete waste from them in
15 to 30 minutes. Meat eaters can digest small mammals in 3 to 4 hours. This
high metabolic rate maintains a high body temperature. Body temperatures in
birds range from 38oC to 44oC, compared to mammals which range from 36oC
to 39oC.
• Circulation
The circulatory system of birds is very efficient. Their heart is 11/ 2 to 2
times larger than that of a equal-sized mammals. Smaller, highly active birds
have proportionately larger and more rapidly beating hearts than those of larger
birds. The heart rate ranges from 1000 beats per minute in a hummingbird to
about 400 beats per minute in a domestic chicken.
• Respiration
The respiratory system of birds makes up nearly 20% of the volume of the
body, compared to less than 10% in mammals. Birds remove about 31% of the
oxygen from inhaled air, while mammals remove only about 24%. The lungs of
birds are molded to the ribs. Since there is no diaphragm, aeration of the lungs
is accomplished by rib action alone.
• Bones
Many of a bird's skeletal bones are not solid. These bones are hollow and
have air spaces to reduce body weight and improve respiration. The breast bone
is very broad to anchor the pectoralis muscle. Rigidity of the skeleton is obtained
through the fusion of bones, the middle to lower vertebrae in particular.
• Cervical vertebrae
All birds, even small ones, have a large number of cervical vertebrae (13
to 25). These saddle-shaped vertebrae permit great flexibility, allowing the bird
to reach all parts of its body.
Q. Describe the characters of class Mammalia.

The Class Mammalia includes around 5000 species placed in around 26
orders. These are the most successful group living on land weighing from 2gms
pigmy shrew to a blue whale up to 160,000 kg which is 40m long.
• All mammals share three characteristics not found in other animals: 3
middle ear bones and outer pinna; hairs; and the production of milk by
modified sweat glands called mammary glands.
• Mammals have a muscular partition between thoracic and abdominal
cavity called diaphragm.
• All the mammals are viviparous i.e. they give birth to their babies.
Q. When mammals originate on earth?
• Mammals seem to be emerged in Mesozoic era from Therapsid reptiles
which are extinct and diversified and increased in number by the end of
Cretaceous period (Mesozoic era).
• They were small like rats and mice.
• They were nocturnal and live on trees as arboreal or burrowing.
• During Cenozoic era there were placental mammals established, so it is
called the Age of Mammals.
Descriptive questions and answers

Q. Describe in detail the characteristics of phylum Cnideria.
The Phylum Cnideria includes such diverse forms as jellyfish, hydra, sea
anemones, and corals. This phylum include about 9000 species and commonly
known as coelenterates.
• Body organization :
The cell-tissue grade of body organization with most of the cells scattered
and specialized for different functions and some forming a tissue, like a nervous
tissue or nerve net.
• Habitat :
All aquatic, some fresh water, but mostly marine.
• Mode of life :
Solitary or colonial, sedentary or free swimming.
• Symmetry :
Radial or bilateral symmetrical.
• Body Forms:
Cnidarians have two basic body forms, medusa and polyp.
Medusae, such as adult jellyfish, are free-swimming or floating. They
usually have umbrella-shaped bodies and tetramerous (four-part) symmetry.
The mouth is usually on the concave side, and the tentacles originate on the rim
of the umbrella.
Polyps, in contrast, are usually sessile. They have tubular bodies; one end
is attached to the substrate, and a mouth (usually surrounded by tentacles) is
found at the other end. Polyps may occur alone or in groups of individuals; in
the latter case, different individuals sometimes specialize for different functions,
such as reproduction, feeding or defense.
• Zooids :
Cnidarians have specialized group of cells performing specific function
called Zooids, which are generally interdependent. There are three types of
Zooids present Dactylozooid: These are use for defensive or offensive purpose.
Gonozooid: These are use for reproduction.
Gastrozooid: These are use in digestion.
• Polymorphism :
Polymorphism is common in Cnidarians which is “The occurrence of
species in two or more structurally and functionally different kind of Zooids is
known as polymorphism”. Or “When an organism is found in more then one
forms during its life cycle this phenomenon is called polymorphism.”
• Body wall
Body wall diploblastic with two or cellular layers outer epidermis and inner
gastrodermis with a gelatinous mesoglea with cells and connective tissue.
• Gastrovascular cavity :
The inner gastrovascular cavity often branched and divided by
mesenteries (septa) and with only one opening, the mouth: short and slender
tentacles encircle mouth.
• Nematocysts :
One or both body layers with peculiar stinging cell organelles, called
nematocysts present on tentacles. Hundreds or thousands of nematocysts may
line the tentacles or surface of the cnidarians. They are capable even of
penetrating human skin, sometimes producing a painful wound or in extreme
cases, death.
• Nervous system :
Nerve net of synaptic or non-synaptic pattern with diffuse conduction.
• Muscular system :
Muscular system consists of epithelial and endothelial muscle cells. In
some animals independent nerve fibers are present in the mesoglea.
• Digestion :
Digestion is intracellular as well as extracellular.
• Other systems :
Respiratory, circulatory and excretory systems are absent.
• Reproduction :
Reproduction in polyps is by asexual budding (polyps) or sexual formation
of gametes (medusa, some polyps). Cnidarian individuals may be monoecious or
dioecious. The result of sexual reproduction is a planula larva, which is ciliated
and free-swimming.
• Alternation of generations :
Life history commonly based upon alternation of generations or
metagenesis, in which “sexual, free medusoid generation alternates with an
asexual, sessile, usually colonial polypoid generation during life cycle”.
• Corals or Coral reefs :
Many polypoid Cnidarians secrete certain chemicals, which form a hard
but dead protective covering around them. These are called Corals or Coral reefs.
• Phylogeny :
Pylogeneticaly it is believed that the Cnidarians have evolved along one of
the three evolutionary lines from protoctists. No other phylum of animals is
thought to have evolved from Cnideria.
• Phylum Cnideria is divided into three classes, Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, and
Anthozoa.
Examples: Physalia, Aurelia, Sea anemone.
Classes
Class 1. Hydrozoa
• These are solitary and fresh water or mostly colonial and marine and free
swimming.
• Mesoglea noncellular.
Q. Describe the characters of phylum Annelida and its classes with their
examples.
Phylum Annelida
These are commonly called segmented worms. There are about 15000
species of annelids known.
Organ system level of body organization, organs group in to form systems.
• Habitat :
Mostly aquatic marine as well as fresh water; some terrestrial. Members
of the Phylum Annelida can be found throughout the world, in marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial environments. These are burrowing or tubicolous and
ecologically.
• Mode of living :
Sedentary or free living; some commensals and parasite. , they range from
passive filter feeders to voracious and active predators
• Symmetry :
Triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, Coelomates.
• Segmentation :
All members of the group are to some extent segmented, in other words,
made up of segments that are formed by subdivisions that partially transect the
body cavity. Segmentation is also called metamerism. Segments each contain
elements of such body systems as circulatory, nervous, and excretory tracts.
Metamerism increases the efficiency of body movement by allowing the effect of
muscle contraction to be extremely localized, and it makes possible the
development of greater complexity in general body organization.
• Body wall :
The body wall of annelids is characterized by being made up of both
circular and longitudinal muscle fibers surrounded by a moist, acellular cuticle
that is secreted by an epidermal epithelium. All annelids except leeches also
have chitinous hair-like structures, called setae, projecting from their cuticle.
Sometimes the setae are located on paddle-like appendages called parapodia..
• Digestive system :
Digestive system is a complete tube with mouth and anus.; digestion
occurs extracellular.
• Blood vascular system :
Digestive system closed type with blood vessels and many hearts;
respiratory pigments either hemoglobin or erythrocruorin dissolved in blood
plasma.
• Respiration :
Gases are exchanged through the skin, or sometimes through specialized
gills or modified parapodia.
• Excretory system:
Excretory system consisting of metamerically attached metanephridia.
• Nervous system:
Nervous system with a pair of cerebral ganglia (brain) and a double ventral
nerve cord bearing ganglia and lateral nerves in each segment.
• Sensory organs:
Annelids have some combination of tactile organs, chemoreceptors,
balance receptors, and photoreceptors; some forms have fairly well developed
eyes.
• Sexuality :
Mostly Hermaphrodite but in some animals sexes are separate; their larva is
called trochophore. Regeneration is common is commonly found in these
organisms.
Annelids are classified into three classes mainly on the basis of number
and type of locomotory organs.
Class Polychaeta
• Habitat :
Mostly marine, some are found in fresh water.
• Segmentation :
Segmentation is external and internal.
• Head :
Head distinct with eyes, palps and tentacles.
• Setae:
Setae present on parapodia.
• Clitellum:
Clitellum is absent.
• Sexes :
Sexes are separate, gonads temporary and in many segments.
• Larvae :
A Trochophore larva is present.
Example Neries, Aphrodite,
Class Oligochaeta
• Habitat :
Mostly terrestrial, some are present in fresh water.
• Segmentation:
Segmentation external and internal.
• Head :
Head is distinct, no tentacles are present on head.
• Setae:
Setae are few, parapodia is absent.
• Clitellum :
This is the reproductive segment which has genital openings. Setae are
present.
• Sexes :
Hermaphrodites; testes are present anterior to ovaries.
• Fertilization :
Fertilization external, development occurs directly.
Examples Earth worm, tubifex, lumbricus.
Class Hirudinea
• Segmentation :
Body with fixed number of segments (33-35); each segment subdivided
into annuli. Segmentation external; parapodia and setae absent.
• Suckers :
Both anterior and posterior ends of the body armed with suckers.
• Sexes :
Hermaphrodites with one male and female gonopores.
• Fertilization :
Fertilization occurs internally.
• Development:
Development usually direct without metamorphosis; eggs develop in
cocoons.
• Mode of life :
Generally ectoparasites and blood sucking mostly aquatic, largely fresh
water and some marine; some terrestrial and carnivorous.
Example; Leech, Piscicola (fish leech)
Q. Describe the characters of phylum Mollusca and its classes with their
examples.
Phylum Mollusca
Mollusca are soft-bodied animals about 50,000 species of living and
35,000 of fossil mollusca have so far been described. But recently the Phylum
Mollusca is made up of over 150,000 diverse species appearing very different but
sharing certain basic characteristics making the second largest phylum after
Arthropoda.
• Habitat:
These are found in Terrestrial or aquatic habitats.
Tissue-system grade of body organization. Triploblastic, Coelomates,
unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical.
• Body division :
Body divisible into head, mantle, foot and visceral mass.
• Shell:
Many mollusks have an external calcium carbonate shell, hanging over
the mantle that is actually produced by the mantle. Shell, when present, usually
univalve or bivalve, constituting an exoskeleton, internal in some.
• Coelom:
Coelom reduced and represented mainly by pericardial cavity, gonadial
cavity and kidney.
Digestive system, complete alimentary canal straight or coiled with a
digestive gland or liver; a rasping organ, the redula, usually present. The redula
allows the animal to scrape food from surfaces, especially the ocean floor, by
sliding back and forth.
• Circulatory system:
Circulatory system open type. But in some it is closed type with heart
having one or two sinuses and one ventricle; blood with amoebocytes and
haemocyanin.
• Respiration:
Respiration direct through general body surface or by gills or lungs or
both.
• Excretion:
Excretion by paired metanephridia (Kidneys).
• Nervous system:
Nervous system is based upon paired ganglia, connectives and nerves.
• Sense organs:
Sense organs include eyes, satatocysts and receptors for touch, smell and
taste.
• Sexuality:
Dioecious or monoecious; one or two gonads.
• Fertilization:
Fertilization external or internal; development direct or through free larval
forms.
• Mantle membrane:
Mantle a membrane, which is a fold of delicate tissue surrounding the
entire body. The mantle is also used in respiration, waste disposal, and sensory
reception.
• Larva :
Their larva is called Trochophore.
Phylum Mollusca is divided in to seven classes;
1. Aplacophora.
2. Polyplacophora
3. Monoplacophora
4. Scaphopoda
5. Cephalopoda
6. Pelecypoda/Bivalvia
7. Gastropoda
Only three classes will be discussed;
Class Gastropoda
(Gr. gaster, belly + podos, foot)
• Habitat:
Class Gastropoda are the largest group of mollusks, with between 40,000
and 75,000 species. These are also the only mollusks that live on land.
• Torsion:
It is a phenomenon in which coiling of body mass at 180-degree angle
occur in some.
• Head:
Well developed eyes, tentacles and redula present.
• Foot:
Foot is large and flat.
• Shell:
Shell present in some if present it is univalve and usually coiled.
Example Snails, slugs
Class Pelecypoda / Bivalvia
• Habitat:
Mostly marine, few are found in fresh water.
• Body:
Body enclosed in a bivalve shell and laterally compressed. These are
marine animals with a hinged shell divided into two halves
• Head :
Bivalves lack head, eyes jaws and redula.
• Foot:
Body often hatchet shaped and extending between mantle lobes.
• Feeding:
These bivalves use the hinges to take in food, and are also able to jet some
distance away by closing the hinged shell and squirting the water taken in out
of the mantle cavity. Mostly filter feeding.
• Sexuality:
Usually Dioecious, their larvae is called veliger or glochidium larva.
Example Unio, Mytilus.

Class Cephalopoda
• Habitat:
Class Cephalopoda includes marine and free swimming animals that differ
from other mollusks because they are built for speed and agility.
• Body:
Body elongated dorsoventraly and most either have an internal shell,
• Shell:
Shell external, internal or absent.
• Head:
Head is distinct and large with well-developed eyes and siphon. They have
large brains enclosed in cartilaginous brain cases and sense organs, redula
present.
• Foot:
Foot transformed as tentacles bearing suckers.
• Sexuality:
Dioecious; development usually occurs directly.
Example: Nautilus (shell external), Sepia (shell internal), Octopus (shell
absent).
Q. Describe the characters of Phylum Arthropoda and its classes with
their examples.
Phylum Arthropoda
• Habitat:
These animals can be found everywhere on earth wherever the life is
possible, even in the deep oil wells.
Organ system level of body organization. Triploblastic and metamerically
segmented.
• Symmetry :
These organisms are usually bilaterally symmetrical.
• Legs :
Primitively, each body segment bears a pair of segmented (jointed)
appendages; in all living arthropods, many of these appendages are dramatically
modified or even lost. Jointed legs whenever present with varied functions. Like
swimming, digging, walking, capturing prey, jumping etc. in different species.
• Exoskeleton:
The body is covered with an exoskeleton made up primarily of the protein
chitin; lipids, other proteins, and calcium carbonate also play a role. Exoskeleton
of chitinous cuticle that is shed at intervals this phenomena is called moulting
or ecdysis.
• Body division:
Body divisible in to head, thorax and abdomen; and often fused to form
cephalothorax.
• Coelom:
Coelom largely a blood filled haemocoel.
• Muscles:
Muscles mostly striated, usually capable of rapid contraction and helps in
movement.
Digestive system complete; mouth parts adapted for various mode of
feeding.
• Circulatory system:
Most of the body cavity is an open "haemocoel," or space filled loosely with
tissue, sinuses, and blood. The circulatory system is open and consists of a
heart, arteries, and the open spaces of the haemocoel.
• Respiration:
Respiration by gills, general body surface trachea or book lungs.
• Nervous system:
Nervous system with a dorsal nerve ring and a double ventral nerve cord.
• Sensory organs:
Sensory organs comprises of simple eyes (ocelli), compound eyes,
chemoreceptors.
• Reproductive system:
Most arthropods are dioecious and have paired reproductive organs
(ovaries, testes). Fertilization is internal in most but not all groups. Most lay
eggs, and development often proceeds with some form of metamorphosis.
• Excretory organs:
Excretory organs are green glands or malphigian tubules.
• Sexes:
Sexes usually separate; paired reproductive organs with ducts.
• Fertilization:
Fertilization usually inside the body; oviparous or ovoviviparous.
• Development:
Development direct or indirect by metamorphosis with one to many larval
stages; parthenogenesis is found in some animals.
Class Merostomata:
• Habitat:
Aquatic or marine.
• Abdominal appendages:
Five or six pairs of abdominal appendages as gills.
• Abdomen:
Abdomen ending in a sharp telson.
• Eyes:
Lateral compound eyes are present.
• Cephalothorax:
Cephalothorax with convex, horseshoe shaped carapace.
• Mouth:
Mouth is surrounded by many small palates.
• Respiration:
Respiration by book lungs.
Example: Limulus(king crab)
Class Arachnida :
• Habitat:
Terrestrial or aquatic.
• Respiration:
Respiration by gills, trachea or book lungs.
• Excretion:
Excretion by coxal glands and malphigian tubules.
• Sexuality:
Dioecious; mostly oviparous; they do courtship before mating.
• Sting:
Some of them are large and posses a sting at the end of their abdomen.
• Feeding:
They are predators.
• Silk gland:
They posses a silk gland that secrete a protein that on exposure to air and
form silk. threads used in building nests and webs for trapping the preys.
Examples: Scorpion, Spider .
Class Crustacea:
• Body:
Body is divided in to cephalothoracic and abdominal portions.
• Body division:
Head and thorax fused to form a cephalothorax, which is covered by a
single plate of exoskeleton, called carapace.
• Appendages:
Appendages often biramous which are used for walking, swimming and
feeding.
• Respiration:
Respiration by gills.
• Head:
Head with 5 segments with 2 pairs of antennae, a pair of mandibles and
2 pairs of maxillae.
• Sexes:
Sexes usually separate.
• Feeding:
Some of them are parasite e.g. Sacculina.
Examples: Prawn, crabs
Class Myriapoda:
• Body segmentation:
Body segmented elongated and cylindrical and divisible in to head and
trunk.
• Legs:
In each body segment one or two pairs of legs are present.
• Genital openings:
Genital openings are midventral.
• Habitat:
Usually found in dark and damp places.
• Feeding:
Carnivour and bear a poisonous appendage to paralyze prey.
Example Millipede, Centipede.
Class Insecta:
• Habitat:
They are found in almost every habitat in the biosphere.
• Body division:
Body divisible in to Head, Thorax and Abdomen.
• Head:
Head composed of 6 fused segments, thorax of 3 segments, and abdomen
not more then 11 segments.
• Head appendages:
Head bears antenna, compound eyes and mouthparts adapted for
different mode of feeding.
• Thorax:
Thorax with three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings.
• Reproductive genitalia:
Reproductive genitalia are present on the last abdominal segments.
• Respiration:
Respiration by trachea opening to outside through spiracles.
• Sexes:
Sexes are separate.
• Fertilization:
Fertilization internal.
• Metamorphoses:
Metamorphoses is present in most of the species. But direct development
is also found.
• Excretion:
Excretion through malphigian tubules.
• Social behavior:
Social behavior is very well developed.
• Mode of living:
These are parasite; pest and some of them are beneficial to human being.
Examples: Cockroach. Butterfly.
Q. Describe the characters of phylum Mollusca and its classes with their
examples.
Phylum Echinodermata
Echinoderm is a group of about 6000 species of marine animals. But
recently Echinodermata has approximately 7000 described living species and
about 13,000 extinct species known from the fossil record. This phylum is the
largest without any freshwater or terrestrial forms.
• Habitat:
Except for a few species which inhabit brackish waters, all echinoderms
are benthic organisms found in marine environments. Echinoderms inhabit
depths ranging from shallow waters at tide lines to the deep sea.
Organ system grade of body organization. Triploblastic, Coelomates and
radially symmetrical; often pentamarous.
• Body shape:
Body unsegmented with globular, star like, spherical, discoidal or
elongated shape.
• Body surface:
Head absent, five symmetrical radiating areas and five interradii mark
body surface. Pedicellaria are the spinous structures produced by the
skeleton,. Found mainly in echinoids and asteroids. They may be used to
capture prey, clean, or hold items to disguise from predators.
• Endoskeleton:
An internal skeleton is present throughout members of the phylum.
Ossicles, which make up the skeleton, are below an outer dermal layer.
The skeletal and muscular arrangement varies among groups.
• Water vascular system:
Echinoderms have a water vascular system consisting of a network of
canals.
• Reproduction:
Echinoderms are mainly having separate sexes (dioecious), with
exceptions among the asteroids, holothurians and ophuroids.
• Primary Diet:
carnivore, (scavenger, molluscivore, eats non-insect
arthropods); omnivore; planktivore; detritivore, filter-feeding.
• Alimentary canal:
Alimentary canal straight or coiled.
• Nervous system:
Nervous system with out brain but with nerves.
• Excretory organs:
Excretory organs are present.
• Development:
Usually dioecious, fertilization external; development indirect through free
swimming larvae bipinnaria.
• Regeneration:
Regeneration is commonly found in these organisms.
This Phylum is divided in to five classes
Asteroidea, Holothuroidea, Ophuroidea, Crinoidea and Echinoidea
Q. Describe the characters of craniata or vertebrata with its classes

and example of each.
Sub phylum Vertebrata
• The main features of chordates like notochord (vertebral column), dorsal
nerve cord, pharyngeal gill pouches, and postanal tail - all present at some
stage of the life cycle or at least in embryonic stages.
• Integument basically of two layers, an outer epidermis and inner dermis.
• Notochord is replaced in jawed vertebrates by the vertebrae.
• Muscular perforated pharynx.
• Many muscles attached to the skeleton to provide for movement.
• Complete digestive system is provided with large digestive glands, liver
and pancreas is present.
• Circulatory system consisting of the ventral heart (2-4 chambers); a
closed blood vessel system of arteries, veins and capillaries; blood fluid
containing red blood corpuscles with hemoglobin and white corpuscles.
• Well developed coelom filled with visceral organs.
• Excretory system consisting of paired kidneys provided with ducts to
drain waste to cloaca.
• Brain typically divided into five vesicles; 10 or 12 pairs of cranial nerves
usually with both motor and sensory functions; an autonomic nervous
system in control of involuntary functions of internal organs.
• Endocrine system of ductless glands scattered throughout the body.
• Nearly always separate sexes; each sex containing paired gonads with
ducts that discharge their products either into the cloaca or into special
openings near the anus.
• Body plan consisting typically of head, trunk and post-anal tail; neck
present in some, especially terrestrial forms.
This group is divided into two sub-phyla
1) Agnatha 2) Gnathostomata
Sub phylum: Agnatha – Jawless fish
These fishes have Eel shaped body. They are not laterally compressed.
Endoskeleton is made up of Cartilage. 7 gill openings present posterior to the
eyes. The only vertebrate parasites
Examples Lamprey, Hagfish
Sub phylum: Gnathostomata
This is the large group of vertebrates in which both upper and lower jaws
are present though teeth may be present or absent. Gnathostomata are divided
in to two super classes Pisces and Tetrapoda.
Super Class Pisces

• Respire with gills.
• Single circuit circulatory system.
• Sensory system consists of lateral line that detects vibrations and
movements in the water.
• Excrete by kidneys to regulate ion and water balance.
• Oviparous - lays eggs, except for Chondrichthyes.
• External fertilization except for Chondrichthyes
• Body covered by dermal scales and body provided with paired fins.
• About 25000 species known.
• This class include Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) and
Osteichthyes (bony fishes)
Examples Ray finned fishes, Trout, Bass, Dog fish.
Class Amphibia
• It includes the toads and frogs, salamanders.
• The class name amphibia indicates that most of the species live partly in
fresh water and partly on land.
• Amphibians are ectotherms.
• Class Amphibians are the lowest and earliest Tetrapoda, or land
vertebrates.
• Replacement of the gills by lungs.
• Incomplete double circuit circulatory system present due to three
chambered heart.
• Respiration takes place by the lungs, buccal cavity and skin.
Class Reptilia
• Reptilians include 5000 vertebrate species with dry skin which is covered
by epidermal scales.
• Reptiles have tough skin made of the protein keratin.
• These are the first animals to produce amniotic eggs. The embryo
develops in a fluid filled sac called an amnion. This prevents the egg from
drying out, and allowed the reptiles to live only on land.
• Reptiles periodically shed their skin in a process called molting.
• Reptiles have teeth adapted for holding prey rather than chewing it
because most species in this class swallow their prey whole.
• Reptiles have good hearing and vision and a tongue is used for smell as
well as taste. Reptiles are ectotherms
Class Aves
There are about 9000 species of birds found and their study is called
Ornithology while study of their nests are called Nidology
• Body covered with feathers
• Bones of the skeleton are thin, with air spaces
• Forelimbs function as wings, not for grasping
• Toothless beak
• Body temperature is internally regulated
• Heart is 4-chambered
• They posses syrinx instead of larynx for producing sound.
• Fertilization internal and eggs large amniotic.
• Birds that have hooked beaks for tearing flesh are called raptors.
Modern birds are divided in to two groups.
Sub Class Ratitae
• These are flightless birds having sternum raft like without keel.
• Their wings are either vestigial or rudimentary and flight muscles are
poorly developed.
Example. Emu, Ostrich, Kiwi, Penguin.
Sub Class Craniatae

• These are flying birds having sternum with keel.
• Their wings and pectoral flight muscles are highly developed for flight.
Example: Sparrow, Pigeon etc.
Class Mammalia
The Class Mammalia includes around 5000 species placed in around 26
orders. These are the most successful group living on land weighing from 2gms
pigmy shrew to a blue whale up to 160,000 kg which is 40m long.
• All mammals share three characteristics not found in other animals: 3
middle ear bones and outer pinna; hairs; and the production of milk by
modified sweat glands called mammary glands.
• Mammals have a muscular partition between thoracic and abdominal
cavity called diaphragm.
• All the mammals are viviparous i.e. they give birth to their babies.
• Mammals have hair. Adults of some species lose most of their hair, but
hair is present at least during some phase of the development of all species.
Mammalian hair, made of a protein called keratin.
• Mammals are called heterodont and thecodont because of differentiated
teeth i.e. incisors, canines, premolars and molars which are fixed in the gums;
teeth are replaced just once during an individual's life (this condition is called
diphyodonty, and the first set is called "milk teeth).
Now class Mammalia is divided in to three sub classes.
Prototheria, Metatheria and Eutheria
Sub-Class Prototheria (Egg laying mammals):
• These are oviparous or egg laying mammals also called monotrems and
mainly found in Australian region.
• Body covered by hairs and spines. Muzzle or snout produced in to beak.
External ear absent.
• Mammary glands without nipples situated in a temporary mammary
pouch of female which develops during breeding season on the abdomen for
feeding of newly hatched immature young.
• They are considered to be a connecting link between reptiles and
mammals.
Example: Echidna, Duck billed platypus.
Sub class Metatheria (Pouched mammals)
• This sub class include 250 species almost found in Australia and are
called marsupials.
• These are viviparous as they give birth to live young ones. Their eggs
retained and fertilized inside the body of female.
• Body furry, i.e. covered with soft hairs. External ear lobes or pinna are
well developed.
• Mammary glands with nipples and situated in a permanent ventral
abdominal mammary pouch of female which is called marsupium.
Examples: Kangaroo, Koala bear, Opossums.
Sub class Eutatheria (Placental mammals)
• This sub class includes about 95% of the mammals widespread in almost
every habitat on the earth.
• These are viviparous and their embryo retain inside mother in the uterus
of mother by a special organ called placenta for nutrition and respiration while
wastes discharges into mothers circulation.
• Embryonic membranes amnion, chorion and allantoise are present.
• These are herbivore, omnivore and carnivore.
Examples: Horses, Donkeys, Monkeys, Humans etc.
Chapter #11
BIOENERGETICS
Short Question and answers
Q. What do we mean by bioenergetics?

Living organisms utilize energy as their fuel which is obtain through
sunlight in plants and other organisms get this energy by eating plants.
This capturing and transfer of energy from one energy level to another
energy level in a living system and utilization in biochemical activities is
called bioenergetics.
Q. Describe ATP as an energy molecule.

Food of living organism contains organic molecules, on degradation these
molecules release energy in the form of ATP which is the common energy
currency of the cell and used in different types of reactions. ATP is a
nucleotide composed of the base adenine and sugar ribose and three
phosphate group. It is called a highly energy rich compound because a
phosphate group is easily removed and during this process released
energy is about 7.3 Kcal / mole in the cell.
ATP plays several endrogenic reaction such as synthesis of protein, lipids,
carbohydrates, active transport etc. in exergonic reactions like anaerobic
glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, it also play its role and act as
co-enzyme.
Q. What is Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some bacteria, and some
protistans use the energy from sunlight and CO 2 , H 2 O and chlorophyll to
produce sugar, which cellular respiration converts into ATP, the "fuel"
used by all living things and oxygen is released.
We can write the overall reaction of this process as:
6H 2 O + 6CO 2 ----------> C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
The electromagnetic spectrum.
Q. Describe the chlorophyll and accessory pigments for light

absorption in plants.
A pigment is any substance that absorbs light. The color of the pigment
comes from the wavelengths of light reflected. Chlorophyll, the green
pigment common to all photosynthetic cells, absorbs all wavelengths of
visible light except green, which it reflects to be detected by our eyes. The
empirical formula of chlorophyll a is C 55 H 72 O 5 N 4 Mg and chlorophyll b
C 55 H 70 O 6 N 4 Mg.
All photosynthetic organisms (plants, certain protistans,
prochlorobacteria, and Cyanobacteria) have chlorophyll a. Accessory
pigments absorb energy that chlorophyll a does not absorb. Accessory
pigments include chlorophyll b (also c, d, and e in algae and protistans),
xanthophylls, and carotenoids (such as beta-carotene). Chlorophyll a
absorbs its energy from the Violet-Blue and Reddish orange-Red
wavelengths, and little from the intermediate (Green-Yellow-Orange)
wavelengths. Carotenoids and chlorophyll b absorb some of the energy in
the green wavelength.
Numerous chlorophyll a, b and carotenoid molecules are organized along
with other pigments called photosystem which has light gathering
“antenna complex”. When light photon strikes this complex the amount of
energy quanta travel through the pigments and reaches a specific
chlorophyll a in the region of photosystem called reaction centre where the
light reaction begins. Excessive light can damage chlorophyll. Some
carotenoids can accept light energy from chlorophyll this function is
known as photoreception.
The molecular structure of chlorophylls.
Q. Describe the role of light in photosynthesis.
• The light energy (quanta) is inversely proportional to the wavelength.

I.e. longer wavelengths have less energy than do shorter ones.
• The absorption spectrum of light energy is different in plant
pigments.
• Light energy is captured by the light harvesting complexes and
transferred to the chlorophyll molecules of reaction centers.
• Light energy first absorbed by chlorophyll a molecule in a reaction
center that causes the change in its electron energy potential from
ground state to excited state .
• Blue light has more energy then red light in light spectrum.
• Red light energy causes to raise an electron to excited state-I and
blue light to excited state-II though red light is enough to initiate
chemical reactions.
• Movement of energy with in the thylakoid is very rapid and with in
nanoseconds it is disbursed.
Q. Describe the role of water in photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is a reduction and oxidation process.

• The H+ ion of water releases by splitting of water molecule and
combines with CO 2 to reduce it to sugar.
• Oxygen atom forms O 2 molecules.
• Therefore water provides H+ ion and e- necessary for the reduction
step leading to assimilation of CO 2 .
Q. Describe the role of CO 2 in photosynthesis.
• CO 2 is inevitable for the photosynthetic products i.e.

carbohydrates.
• C 3 plants directly incorporate CO 2 in to phosphorylated sugar.
• Increase in the concentration of CO 2 increases the rate of
photosynthesis.
Q. Describe the Stages of Photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is a two stage process.
1. Light Reaction
2. Dark reaction
The first process is the Light

Dependent Process (Light
Reactions), requires the direct
energy of light to make energy
carrier molecules that are used in
the second process. The Light
Independent Process (or Dark
Reactions) occurs when the
products of the Light Reaction are
used to form C-C covalent bonds
of carbohydrates presence of light
is not necessary, while the energy carriers from the light process are
present. The Light Reactions occur in the grana and the Dark Reactions
take place in the stroma of the chloroplasts.
Light Reactions
In the Light Dependent Processes (Light Reactions) light strikes
chlorophyll a in such a way as to excite electrons to a higher energy state.
In a series of reactions the energy is converted (along an electron transport
process) into ATP and NADPH. Water is split in the process, releasing
oxygen as a by-product of the reaction. The ATP and NADPH are used to
make C-C bonds in the Light Independent Process (Dark Reactions).
In the Light Independent Process, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is

captured and modified by the addition of hydrogen to form carbohydrates.
The incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic compounds is known as

carbon fixation. The energy for this comes from the first phase of the
photosynthetic process.
Photosystems are arrangements of chlorophyll and other pigments

packed into thylakoids. Four major groups are present in the thylakoid
Photosystem I(PSI), Photosystem II(PSII), the cytochrome b/f complex and
ATPase complex. Mobile electron carriers which transport the excited
electrons between the complexes are plastoquinone (PQ), Plastocyanin
(PC) and Ferridoxin (FD). Many Prokaryotes have only one photosystem,
Photosystem II (so numbered because, while it was most likely the first
to evolve, it was the second one discovered). Eukaryotes have
Photosystem II plus Photosystem I. Photosystem I uses chlorophyll a,
in the form referred to as P700. Photosystem II uses a form of chlorophyll
a known as P680. Both "active" forms of chlorophyll a function in
photosynthesis due to their association with proteins in the thylakoid
membrane.
Electron transport
• At first light photon hits and transfer its energy to chlorophyll a

molecule of Photosystem II (P680) which becomes activated.
• The excited electron of Photosystem II (P680) is transferred to a
series of electron acceptors(generally called redox reactions)first
Phaelophytin, then plastoquinone (PQ) which is associated with Fe ions
then Cytochrome complex then Plastocyanin which is a copper
containing protein and finally reaches at the chlorophyll P700 of
Photosystem I this chlorophyll also absorb light energy.
• From the chlorophyll a, P700 the electron is transferred to Fe+3 in
one of the Fe-S proteins, called Ferridoxin reducing substrate (FRS). It is
the primary acceptor of Photosystem I.
• From Ferridoxin reducing substrate (FRS) the electron is
transferred to the Ferridoxin (Fd). It is an iron containing protein.
• Form Ferridoxin the electron is transferred to NADP. The NADP is
reduced to NADP+H+ at the side of stroma of the membrane.
Photophosphorylation is the process of converting energy from a light-

excited electron into the pyrophosphate bond of an ADP molecule. This
occurs when the electrons from water are excited by the light in the
presence of P680. Light energy causes the removal of an electron from a
molecule of P680 that is part of Photosystem II. The P680 requires an electron,
which is taken from a water molecule, breaking the water into H+ ions and
O-2 ions. These O-2 ions combine to form the diatomic O 2 that is released.
The electron is "boosted" to a higher energy state and attached to a primary
electron acceptor, which begins a series of redox reactions, passing the
electron through a series of electron carriers, eventually attaching it to a
molecule in Photosystem I. Light acts on a molecule of P700 in Photosystem
I, causing an electron to be "boosted" to a still higher potential. The
electron is attached to a different primary electron acceptor (that is a
different molecule from the one associated with Photosystem II).
The electron is passed again through a series of redox reactions, eventually

being attached to NADP+ and H+ to form NADPH, an energy carrier needed
in the Light Independent Reaction. The electron from Photosystem II
replaces the excited electron in the P700 molecule. There is thus a
continuous flow of electrons from water to NADPH. This energy is used in
Carbon Fixation.
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Cyclic Electron Flow occurs in some eukaryotes and primitive

photosynthetic bacteria. No NADPH is produced, only ATP. In this process
chlorophyll a (P700) of Photosystem I absorb energy form the sun light. This
occurs when cells may require additional ATP, or when there is no NADP+
to reduce to NADPH. In Photosystem II, the pumping to H ions into the
thylakoid and the conversion of ADP + P into ATP is driven by electron
gradients established in the thylakoid membrane.
Dark Reaction
Carbon-Fixing Reactions are also known as the Dark Reactions (or Light
Independent Reactions) these do not require light and may take place in
day and night. The Calvin Cycle occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts
(where would it occur in a prokaryote?). Carbon dioxide is captured by
the chemical ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). RuBP is a 5-C chemical. Six
molecules of carbon dioxide enter the Calvin Cycle, eventually producing
one molecule of glucose. The reactions in this process were worked out
by Melvin Calvin (shown below).
The first steps in the Calvin cycle.
The first stable product of the Calvin Cycle is phosphoglycerate (PGA), a

3-C chemical. The energy from ATP and NADPH energy carriers
generated by the photosystems is used to attach phosphates to
(phosphorylate) the PGA. Eventually there are 12 molecules of
glyceraldehyde phosphate (also known as phosphoglyceraldehyde or
PGAL, a 3-C), two of which are removed from the cycle to make a
glucose. The remaining PGAL molecules are converted by ATP energy to
reform 6 RuBP molecules, and thus start the cycle again. Remember the
complexity of life, each reaction in this process, as in Kreb's Cycle, is
catalyzed by a different reaction-specific enzyme.
C-4 Pathway
Some plants have developed a preliminary step to the Calvin Cycle

(which is also referred to as a C-3 pathway), this preamble step is known
as C-4. While most C-fixation begins with RuBP, C-4 begins with a new
molecule, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a 3-C chemical that is converted
into oxaloacetic acid (OAA, a 4-C chemical) when carbon dioxide is
combined with PEP. The OAA is converted to Malic Acid and then
transported from the mesophyll cell into the bundle-sheath cell, where
OAA is broken down into PEP plus carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
then enters the Calvin Cycle, with PEP returning to the mesophyll cell.
The resulting sugars are now adjacent to the leaf veins and can readily
be transported throughout the plant.
The capture of carbon dioxide by PEP is mediated by the enzyme PEP

carboxylase, which has a stronger affinity for carbon dioxide than does
RuBP carboxylase When carbon dioxide levels decline below the
threshold for RuBP carboxylase, RuBP is catalyzed with oxygen instead
of carbon dioxide. The product of that reaction forms glycolic acid, a
chemical that can be broken down by photorespiration, producing
neither NADH nor ATP, in effect dismantling the Calvin Cycle. C-4
plants, which often grow close together, have had to adjust to decreased
levels of carbon dioxide by artificially raising the carbon dioxide
concentration in certain cells to prevent photorespiration. C-4 plants
evolved in the tropics and are adapted to higher temperatures than are
the C-3 plants found at higher latitudes. Common C-4 plants include
crabgrass, corn, and sugar cane. Note that OAA and Malic Acid also have
functions in other processes, thus the chemicals would have been
present in all plants, leading scientists to hypothesize that C-4
mechanisms evolved several times independently in response to a similar
environmental condition, a type of evolution known as convergent
evolution.
Photorespiration.
We can see anatomical differences between C3 and C4 leaves.
Leaf anatomy of a C3 (left) and C4 (right) plant.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
In Eukaryotic Cells, the reaction of Aerobic Respiration occur
Inside MITOCHONDRIA. The Krebs cycle takes place in the
Mitochondrial Matrix, and the Electron Transport Chain is located
in the Inner Membrane.
Life is driven by energy. The ways that organisms use energy and many
are varied, all of life's energy ultimately has the same beginning: the sun.
Plants, algae, and some bacteria harvest the energy of sunlight by the
process of photosynthesis, thus converting radiant energy to chemical
energy. These organisms, along with a few others that use chemical
energy in a similar way, are called autotrophs (self-feeders). All
organisms live on the energy produced by these autotrophs. Those that
do not have the ability to produce their own food are called heterotrophs
(fed by others). At least 95 % of the kinds of organisms on earth - - all
animals, all fungi, and most protists and bacteria - are heterotrophs;
most of them live by feeding on the chemical energy fixed by
photosynthesis.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION EQUATION:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY RELEASED

(ATP)
7. Cellular Respiration takes place in TWO STAGES.
STAGE 1 - Cellular Respiration begins with a Biochemical Pathway

called GLYCOLYSIS, that takes place in the Cells Cytosol, yields a
relatively Small amount of ATP and does not require oxygen.
STAGE 2 - The Second Stage of Cellular Respiration is

called OXIDATIVE RESPIRATION, and follows Glycolysis. Oxidative
Respiration takes place within the Mitochondria. This is far more
effective than Glycolysis at recovering energy from food molecules.
Oxidative respiration is the method by which plant and animal cells get
the majority of their energy.
There are two types of cellular

respiration: aerobic (presence
of oxygen) and anaerobic
(absence of oxygen) respiration
or fermentation.
1. Because they operated in the

Absence of Oxygen, the
FERMENTATION PATHWAYS are
said to be ANAEROBIC
PATHWAYS.
2. If OXYGEN is PRESENT, the

products of Glycolysis ENTER
the PATHWAYS of AEROBIC RESPIRATION.
Aerobic Respiration produces a much Larger Amount of ATP, up to 20
times more ATP produced.
GLYCOLYSIS
1. Both types of pathways begin with Glycolysis.
2. Glycolysis is a pathway in which One Six-Carbon Molecule of
GLUCOSE is Oxidized to Produce Two Three-Carbon Molecules
of PYRUVIC ACID OR PYRUVATE.
3. The word "GLYCOLYSIS" means "The Splitting of Glucose". In a
series of Ten Reactions, a molecule of Glucose is split into Two identical
smaller molecules, each called PYRUVIC ACID or PYRUVATE.
4. GLYCOLYSIS is the process by which glucose is converted to pyruvic
acid, and some of its energy is released.
5. Glycolysis occurs in the CYTOSOL OF THE CELL.
6. Whether or not Oxygen is present, Glycolysis splits (by oxidation)
glucose into three-carbon molecules of pgal. pgal is then converted to
three-carbon pyruvic acid.
7. Glucose is a Stable molecule that DOES NOT Break down Easily.
8. For a Molecule of Glucose to undergo Glycolysis, a Cell must First

"SPEND" ATP to energize the Glucose Molecule. The ATP provides
the Activation Energy needed to begin Glycolysis.
9. Although ATP (ENERGY) is used to begin Glycolysis, the reactions that
make up the process eventually produce a net gain of two atp
molecules.
10. Glycolysis is followed BY THE BREAK

DOWN OF PYRUVIC ACID.
11. Like other Biochemical Pathways,

Glycolysis consists of a series of Chemical
Reactions. These reactions can be condensed
into FOUR MAIN STEPS: (Figure 7-2)
STEP 1 - TWO Phosphates are attached to

Glucose, forming a NEW Six-Carbon
Compound. The Phosphate Groups come
From TWO ATP, which are Converted to ADP.
STEP 2 - The Six-Carbon Compound

formed in Step 1 is SPLIT into TWO Three-
Carbon Molecules of PGAL.
STEP 3 - The TWO PGAL Molecules are

Oxidized, and each Receives a Phosphate
Group Forming Two NEW Three-Carbon
Compounds. The Phosphate Groups are
provided by Two molecules of NAD+ forming
NADH.
STEP 4 - The Phosphate Groups added in

Step 1 and Step 3 are Removed from the Three-Carbon
Compounds. This reaction produces Two molecules of Pyruvic
Acid. Each Phosphate Group is combines with a molecule of ADP to
make a molecule of ATP. Because a total of Four Phosphate Groups
were Added, four molecules of atp are produced.
TWO ATP Molecules were used in Step 1, but FOUR are Produced in Step
4. Therefore, Glycolysis has a NET YIELD of TWO ATP Molecules for
every Molecule of Glucose that is converted into Pyruvic Acid. What
happens to the Pyruvic Acid depends on the Type of Cell and on whether
Oxygen is present.
FERMENTATION
1. In the Absence of Oxygen, Some Cells can Convert Pyruvic Acid into
other compounds through Additional Biochemical Pathways that also
Occur in the Cytosol.
2. The Combination of Glycolysis PLUS these Additional Pathways are known

as FERMENTATION.
3. The chemical reactions that release energy from food molecules in he

absence of oxygen are also called anaerobic respiration.
4. There are TWO TYPES of Anaerobic Respiration or Fermentation:

LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION AND ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION.
5. During the processes of Fermentation no additional atp is synthesized.
6. lactic acid fermentation is the process that pyruvic acid is converted to lactic
acid.
7. Lactic Acid involves the Transfer of TWO Hydrogen atoms from NADH
and H+ to Pyruvic Acid. In the process, NADH is Oxidized to form NAD+
which is needed to Keep Glycolysis Operating.
8. Lactic Acid Fermentation by Microorganisms plays an Essential role in

the manufacture of Food Products such as YOGURT and CHEESE.
9. certain animal cells, including our muscle cells convert pyruvic acid to lactic
acid.
10. during exercise, breathing cannot provide your body with all the
oxygen it needs for aerobic respiration. when muscles run out of oxygen,
the cells switch to lactic acid fermentation.
11. This process provides your muscles with the energy then need during
exercise.
12. The side effects of Lactic Acid Fermentation is Muscle Fatigue, Pain,
Cramps, and you feel Soreness.
13. Most Lactic Acid made in the muscles diffuse into the bloodstream,
then to the LIVER, where it is converted back to PYRUVIC ACID When
Oxygen becomes Available.
14. alcoholic fermentation converts pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and ethanol
(ethyl alcohol).
15. Bakers use Alcoholic Fermentation of YEAST to make Bread.
16. As Yeast Ferments the Carbohydrates in dough, CO2 is produced

and trapped in the dough, causing it to rise.
17. When the dough is baked the Yeast Cells Die, and the Alcohol
Evaporates, You cannot get drunk from eating bread!
18. Alcoholic Fermentation is used to make wine, beer, and the ethanol
added to gasoline to make gasohol.
19. The fact that alcohol is used to power a car indicated the amount of
Energy that remains in the Alcohol Molecules.
ENERGY YIELD
1. Energy is Measured in units of kilocalories (kcal). One kilocalorie EQUALS

1,000 calories (cal).
2. Scientist have calculated that the Complete Oxidation of a Standard
Amount of Glucose releases 686 kcal.
3. The kcal released from Glucose during Glycolysis only has the
Efficiency of 3.5%. (Formula page 131)
4. It's clear that the Anaerobic Pathways are NOT Very Efficient in transferring
Energy.
5. The Anaerobic Pathways provide enough Energy for many present-day

Organisms. Most of these are UNICELLULAR, and those that
are Multicellular are Very Small. All of them have Limited energy
Requirements.
6. Larger Organisms have a much Greater Energy Requirements that

CANNOT BE Satisfied by the Anaerobic Pathways.
7. Large Organisms, including yourself, meet their Energy Requirements

with the More Efficient Pathways of Aerobic Respiration.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
In most cells, the Pyruvic Acid that is produce in glycolysis does not
undergo fermentation. Instead, if Oxygen is available, Pyruvic Acid
enters the pathway of Aerobic Respiration, or Cellular Respiration that
requires Oxygen. Aerobic Respiration produces nearly 20 times as much
ATP as is produced by glycolysis alone.
OVERVIEW OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION
1. Aerobic Respiration has TWO Major STAGES: THE KREBS CYCLE

and the ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN.
2. The break down of pyruvic acid in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic
respiration.
3. Aerobic respiration takes place inside the cell's mitochondria

("power house").
4. During aerobic respiration, ATP is produced in two pathways

known as the krebs cycle and the electron transport chain.
5. The series of oxidation reactions that make up the second phase of

aerobic respiration is called the krebs cycle.
6. The krebs cycle is a biochemical pathway that breaks down acetyl

CoA, producing ATP, H, and carbon dioxide.
7. In Prokaryotes the reactions of the Krebs cycle take place in

the Cytosol of the Cell.
8. In EUKARYOTIC CELLS, these reactions take place in

the MITOCHONDRIA.
9. The Pyruvic Acid that is produced in glycolysis Diffuses across the
Double Membrane of a Mitochondrion and enters the MITOCHONDRIAL
MATRIX, the Space Inside the Inner Membrane of a
Mitochondrion. (Figure 7-5)
10. When Pyruvic Acid enters the Mitochondrial

Matrix, it Reacts with a molecule called COENZYME
A to form ACETYL COENZYME A,
abbreviated acetyl CoA. CO2, NADH, and H+ are
produced in this reaction. (Figure 7-6)
11. During the process from glycolysis through the

krebs cycle, one glucose molecule yields four atp,
ten nadh and two fadh2.
12. The energetic electrons in the molecules of nadh

and fadh2 that are formed during the krebs cycle
are used to make ATP in a series of reactions known
as the electron transport chain.
13. Most of the atp produced during aerobic respiration is made by the
electron transport chain.
THE KREBS CYCLE
1. The Krebs cycle is a biochemical pathway that breaks down Acetyl

CoA, producing CO2, H+, NADH, FADH2, and ATP.
2. The reactions that make up the cycle were identified by Hans Krebs
(1900-1980), a German-British biochemist.
3. The Krebs cycle has FIVE Main Steps. ALL Five Steps occur in the
Mitochondrial Matrix.
STEP 1 - A Two-Carbon Molecule of Acetyl CoA Combines with a Four-

Carbon Compound, OXALOACETIC ACID (AHKS-uh-loh-SEET-ik), to
Produce a Six-Carbon Compound CITRIC ACID.
STEP 2 - Citric Acid Releases a CO2 Molecule and a Hydrogen Atom to Form
a Five-Carbon Compound. By LOSING a Hydrogen Atom with its Electron,
Citric Acid is OXIDIZED. The Hydrogen atom is transferred to NAD+,
REDUCING it to NADH.
STEP 3 - The Five-Carbon Compound Releases a CO2 Molecule and a

Hydrogen Atom, forming a Four-Carbon Compound. NAD+ is reduced to
NADH. A Molecule of ATP is also Synthesized from ADP.
STEP 4 - The Four-Carbon Compound Releases a Hydrogen Atom to form

another Four-Carbon Compound. The Hydrogen is used to Reduce FAD
(Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide) to FADH2, a Molecule similar to NAD+ that
Accepts Electron during Redox Reactions.
STEP 5 - The Four-Carbon Compound Releases a Hydrogen Atom to

REGENERATE OXALOACETIC ACID, which keeps the Krebs cycle
operating. The Hydrogen Atom Reduces NAD+ to NADH.
4. In Glycolysis one Glucose Molecule produces TWO Pyruvic Acid Molecules,

which can then form TWO Molecules of Acetyl CoA.
5. One Glucose Molecule causes TWO Turns of the Krebs cycle.
6. The Two Turns produce SIX NADH, TWO FADH2, TWO ATP, and FOUR CO2
Molecules.
7. The CO2 is a WASTE PRODUCT that Diffuses out of the cells and is given
off by the organism.
8. The BULK of the Energy released by the Oxidation of Glucose still has NOT
been transferred to ATP. Only FOUR Molecules of ATP - TWO from Glycolysis
and TWO From the Krebs cycle.
9. 10 Molecules of NADH and the 2 FADH2 Molecules from the Krebs cycle
DRIVE the Next Stage of Aerobic Respiration - The Electron Transport Chain.
10. That is Where MOST of the Energy Transfer from Glucose to ATP Actually
Occurs.
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
1. The ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN makes up the Second Stage of Aerobic

Respiration.
2. In EUKARYOTIC CELLS the Electron Transport chain LINES the INNER

MEMBRANE of the Mitochondrion, the inner membrane has many long folds
called CRISTAE.
3. In Prokaryotes, the Electron Transport Chain LINES the CELL

MEMBRANE.
4. ATP is produced by the Electron Transport Chain when NADH and FADH2
RELEASES Hydrogen Atoms, REGENERATING NAD+ and FAD, which return to
the Krebs Cycle to be reused. (figure 7-8)
5. The electrons in the hydrogen atoms from NADH and FADH2 are at a High
Energy Level.
6. These High Energy Electron are PASSED Along a Series of Molecules. As the
move from Molecule to Molecule, the Electrons LOSE some of their Energy.
7. The Energy they LOSE is used to PUMP Protons of the Hydrogen Atoms from
the Mitochondrial Matrix to the other side of the Inner Mitochondrial
Membrane.
8. The Pumping builds up a High Concentration (A Concentration Gradient) of

Protons in the space Between the INNER and OUTER Mitochondrial
Membranes.
9. The Concentration Gradient of Protons Drives the Synthesis of ATP by

Chemiosmosis.
10. ATP Synthase (enzyme) Molecules are located in the Inner Mitochondrial
Membrane. The ATP Synthase MAKES ATP from ADP as Protons move down
their Concentration Gradient into the Mitochondrial Matrix.
THE ROLE OF OXYGEN
1. ATP can be synthesized by Chemiosmosis only if Electrons continue to move

from molecule to molecule in the Electron Transport Chain.
2. Oxygen SERVES as the FINAL Acceptor of Electrons. By Accepting

Electrons from the last molecule in the Electron Transport Chain, Oxygen
allows additional electrons to pass along the chain. Allowing ATP to continue
to be synthesized.
3. Oxygen also accepts Protons that were once part of the Hydrogen Atoms
supplied by NADH and FADH2. By combining with both Electrons and
Protons, Oxygen forms WATER:
O2 + 4E- + 4H+
2H2O
ENERGY YIELD
1. Through Aerobic Respiration a

Maximum Yield of 38 ATP
Molecules can be
PRODUCED. (Figure 7-9)
A. 2 - Glycolysis
B. 2 - Krebs cycle
C. 34 - Electron Transport
Chain
2. The actual number of ATP

Molecules generated through
Aerobic Respiration varies from Cell
to Cell.
3. Most Eukaryotic Cells Produce

only about 36 ATP Molecules per
Glucose Molecule.
4. If a cell produces 38 ATP Molecules the Efficiency would be 66%.
Energy flow through the Ecosystem.

The existence of living world depends upon the flow of energy and
circulation of materials through the ecosystem. The energy is required for the
performance of all the life activities. The forms of energy available in an
ecosystem are radiant energy, heat energy, chemical energy, and mechanical
energy.
Sun as a source of energy.

• Sunlight travels as electromagnetic waves and about 40% is
reflected back from clouds and other 15% is absorbed by ozone layer and
is converted to heat energy by the atmosphere.
• Remaining 45% reaches to earth, of which a small fragment i.e. is
absorbed by green plants while rest is reflected and dispersed.
Unidirectional Flow of energy and its subsequent losses.

• The energy is captured by plants and is stored in the form of
potential energy in foodstuffs. These are known as producers and
represent the trophic level in the ecosystem.
• The energy stored by plants is passed through the community or
ecosystem in a series of steps of eating and being eaten. This is known
as food chain.
• If we consider that one square meter of an ecosystem receives
3000 calories of light energy , half of it is utilized by plants and convert 1
to 5% in to food energy and rest passes out as heat in the atmosphere.
This is called primary productivity.
• Thus only 15 to 75 calories are transferred to consumers of
various levels.
• Further loss takes place due to respiration and only 10% of it i.e.
1.5calories reaches to secondary consumers. Thus at each trophic level
there is ten time reduction in availability of energy.
Diagram
Trophic levels
“Each successive level of nourishment as represented by the links of the
food chain is known as trophic level”.
• The plants are the producers consider as first trophic level.
• The herbivores feed on plants and they are known as primary
consumers and included in second trophic level.
• The third trophic level constitute of carnivores which feed upon
secondary consumers.
• The secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers which
are also carnivores hence they form fourth trophic level.
• And finally these all consumers after death are eaten by
decomposers which are as sparotrophs in this way they form 4th and 5th
trophic level.
Ecological pyramids
Ecological pyramids represent the trophic structure and also the trophic
function of an ecosystem. It is a diagrammatic representation of trophic
levels. These may be three general types.
1. Pyramid of number: In such pyramid the more abundant species
form the base of pyramid and the less abundant species remain near
the top.
2. Pyramid of biomass: This pyramid indicates the decrease or
gradual reduction in biomass at each trophic level from the base to
apex.
3. Pyramid of energy: It indicates the total energy at each trophic
level of the food chain and loss of energy and material takes place as
the processes of assimilation and growth are not 100% efficient.
Diagrams
The Efficiency of Energy flow and its significance:

The efficiency of energy flow in an ecosystem depends upon productivity of
an ecosystem
• Energy accumulated by plants or the producers in an ecosystem is
called Primary productivity.
• The total energy produced during photosynthesis is the Gross
primary production (GNP).
• The energy left after respiration and stored as organic matter in
the producers is the Net primary production (NPP).
The average efficiency of energy transfer from plants to herbivores is
about 10 percent and from animal to animal is about 20 percent.
Advantages of short food chains:

It has been observed that there is a loss of energy at each energy level due
to the decrease in biomass. There fore longer food chains like food web
consume large amount of energy loss in form of heat is greater as compared
to short food chains and short food chains are helpful in providing food for
larger populations while food webs or longer food chains sustained lesser
population.
Chapter 12
NUTRITION
Q. Why do organisms need nutrition?
All the living organisms require energy and materials to build up and
regulate their body functions. For this purpose they obtain food and utilize
it according to their needs this process is known as nutrition. To get these
activities done living organisms have to synthesize new protoplasm and
oxidize the high energy organic compounds. This requires:
1. Synthesized energy rich compounds or raw material required to

synthesize protoplasm.
2. The oxygen used in cellular respiration.
Q. What is autotrophic nutrition?

“When living organisms prepare organic substances from available
inorganic raw material taken form their surrounding”.
There are two types of autotrophic nutrition.
i) Phototrophic nutrition. ii) Chemotrophic nutrition
Q. Write a note on Phototrophic nutrition.

Phototrophic nutrition
“The organism which has ability to utilize radiant energy to make their
own food in the presence of CO 2, H 2 O as raw materials and by the help of
chlorophyll is called phototrophic organisms and this process is called
phototrophic nutrition”.
This type of nutrition is found in plants and bacteria. Minerals like N 2 , P,
S, and Mg etc. are also required to produce different molecules.
a) Phototrophic nutrition in Plants:

The green plants require chlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘b’ to absorb the light
energy and synthesize energy rich compounds carbohydrates.
CO 2 + H 2 O-----------> C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 + H 2 O
b) Phototrophic nutrition in Bacteria:
Bacteria also synthesize food by photosynthesis. They do posses
chlorophyll that differs from plant chlorophyll. The purple sulphur
photosynthetic bacteria contain bacteriochlorophyll and
carotenoids as photosynthetic pigments while green sulphur
bacteria contain chlorobium chlorophyll.
These bacteria usually grow in springs where (H 2 S) hydrogen

sulphide gas is present and they utilize H 2 O instead of O 2 . Hydrogen
combines with CO 2 to form CH 2 O whereas sulphur and water
produced as by products.
H 2 S + CO 2 -----------> (CH 2 O) n + H 2 O + S
There are non sulphur purple and brown bacteria found in the mud
and stagnant water. They contain bacteriochlorophyll pigment. They
use organic hydrogen donors whereas sulphur is not the by product
in their case.
Q. Describe the Chemotrophic nutrition.

“When organisms use inorganic substances to produce energy for
the synthesis of carbohydrates in the absence of light is called
Chemotrophic nutrition”. These organic compounds are ammonia,
nitrates, nitrites, ferrous ions, H 2 S and number of metallic and non
metallic mateials. Chemosynthetic organisms are mainly bacteria e.g.
Ammonia using bacteria.
NH 4 + 3O 2 ----------------> 2NO 2 + 2H 2 O + 4H + energy
Another bacterium oxidizes nitrites (NO 2 ) to nitrates.

2NO 2 + O 2 -----------------> 2NO 3 + energy
Q. Describe the important mineral obtained from the soil in

Plants.
Minerals are essential because;

1. Must be required for completion of life cycle
2. Must be involved in some aspect of metabolism as part of a molecule,
enzyme cofactor, ion for water balance, etc.
3. No other element can substitute for it
14 of the essential elements are obtained as soil minerals. These are

divided into two groups, based on the quantity required by plants,
macroelements (macronutrients) and microelements (micronutrients).
Macroelements:
P (phosphorus), K (potassium), N (nitrogen), S (sulfur), Ca (calcium),
Mg (magnesium) all except Ca have some fairly direct role in
photosynthesis specific roles:
Microelements:
Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), B (boron), Mn (manganese), Mo
(molybdenum), Fe (iron), Cl (chlorine), Ni (nickel). In general,
micronutrients act as enzyme activators.
Q. What is the importance of nitrogen in plants?

Nitrogen element is found in the form of nitrates or ammonium salts
in plants. It becomes a part of proteins nucleotides, nucleic acids and
many other organic compounds synthesis. Low supply of nitrogen causes
pale yellow leaves due to loss of chlorophyll called chlorosis. Cell division
and cell enlargement is inhibited.
Q. What is the importance of Phosphorus in plants?
Phosphorous is taken by plants in the form of soluble phosphates

such as H 3 PO 4 and HPO 4 . It is an essential element involved in the
formation of cell membrane as phospholipids, nucleic acids, co-enzymes
(NAD and NADP) and organic molecules such as ATP and other
Phosphorylated products. It is important in the energy transfer reaction in
oxidation-reduction processes. Cambial activity is affected in the absence
of Phosphorous.
Q. What is the importance of Potassium in plants?
Potassium is abundantly distributed fixed in soil. Its compounds are

readily available for plants. It is important for opening and closing of
stomata. It acts as activator for enzymes involved in synthesis of peptide
bond and carbohydrate metabolism. Due to deficiency of potassium leaf
colour becomes dull or bluish green and irregular chlorosis occurs and
necrotic areas appear of the tip and margin of the leaf.
Q. What is the importance of Magnesium in plants?
Magnesium is present in the soil in water-soluble, exchangeable and

fixed form and is present in primary mineral. Its carbonates are similar to
calcium and held in the soil. It is a constituent of chlorophyll and form
green pigment. It carries phosphorus by the time of formation of high oil
contents seed which contain lecithin compound. It is transferred from
older tissue to younger tissue when its deficiency occurs and reutilized in
growth processes. Magnesium is important for the synthesis of fats and
metabolisms of carbohydrates and phosphorus. In the absence of Mg
severely affected leaves may wither and shed or abscises without the
withering stage. Defoliation may severely occur.
Q. Describe the saprophyte plants.
Saprophyte plants
“Plants that break up complex dead organic food material into simple
compound and use them for their growth and development are called
saprophytes”.
• Total saprophytes are totally dependent on dead organic matter.
• Partial saprophytes fulfill their nutritional requirements partially on
dead organic matter.
There are some examples found among flowering plants like Neothia
(bird’s net or orchid) and Monotrapa (Indian pipe), the roots of these plants
form a mycorrhizal association with the fungal mycelium to help in the
absorption process.
Q. Write a note on carnivorous plants.

These plants have leaves modified to trap small animals (insects),
digest their prey (the soft tissues), and absorb small organic molecules to
fulfill their nitrogen or protein requirment. The carnivorous plants use a
variety of features to attract insects: color, scent, nectar reward. These are
the same features found in flowers to attract pollinators. These plants
have;
• Glands for secretion and absorption
• Leaf modifications: common among plants. Even the parts of flowers
(petals, sepals, pistils, stamens) are modified leaves.
• Rapid movements. Some plants, like the sensitive plant, have rapid leaf
movements that startle insects.
• So the plant features found in carnivorous plants aren't unique to them.
However, the carnivorous plants have put the features together in such
a way that they can catch, digest, and absorb prey. There are about
400 species are known.
Examples: Venus flytrap, Bladderwort, Aldrovanda, Pitcher plant,
Sundew, Butterwort
Q. Describe the modes of heterotrophic nutrition in animals.
“It is a mode of nutrition in animals in which they are dependent upon

other organisms, plants or animals for complex already prepared organic
food”.
There are different modes of heterotrophic nutrition in animals;
Saprotrophic nutrition involves feeding off the bodies of decaying
organisms. Some forms of bacteria and fungi feed in this way.
Parasitism is concerned with feeding off other living organisms.
Detritivore animals feed upon decomposing material like earth worm
Predator animals capture and kill their prey.
Carnivour animals feed only on meet.
Omnivores feed upon meat as well as vegetables.
Filter feeders are those organisms which extract organic compounds form
water and use as food.
Fluid feeders suck up body fluid like mosquito.
Q. Describe the holozoic nutrition.

It is the process of heterotrophic nutrition. “The intake of complex,
non-diffusible food is taken in and digested in to smaller diffusible
molecules which can be absorbed and assimilated is known as
holozoic nutrition”.
The holozoic nutrition consists of following steps.
• Ingestion: Intake of food by different modes.
• Digestion: It is a process of breaking down of food in to molecules small
enough for body to absorb. Digestion perform by two methods;
• Mechanical digestion: Breakdown of food into smaller sized
particles usually performs in mouth and stomach.
• Chemical digestion: Enzymatic digestion of macromolecules
into smaller sub-units performs in the GIT.
• Absorption: Movement of digested food from digestive system to
circulatory system and eventually in the cells.
• Assimilation: The utilization of the absorbed food molecules by the
body to provide energy and materials for tissue building.
• Elimination/Egestion: Release of undigested food from digestive tract
Q. What is the importance of digestion?

It is a process by which large complex insoluble organic food
substances are broken down in to smaller simple soluble molecules by the
help of enzymes. Digestion is the most important process through which
complex molecules are broken down in to simple compounds which can
diffuse in to the body and converted in to smaller molecules. These
molecules are the source of obtaining energy and getting raw material for
the growth and development of the body.
Q. Describe the types of digestive systems.

The digestion is of two types, extracellular and intracellular.
• The extracellular digestion takes place out side the cells, but within the
digestive tract. The intracellular digestion occurs inside the cells.
• The Intracellular digestion in food vacuoles – occurs within the cells and
is aided by enzyme from lysosomes, e.g. Paramecium, Amoeba, Porifera
(sponges)
• Digestion in gastrovascular cavities is also called sac like digestive
system which consists of mouth as a single opening which opens in to
large sac-like body- e.g. Hydra, Porifera - involves both intracellular and
extracellular digestion, one opening to the sac.
• Digestion in alimentary canal is considered as the tube like digestive
system (complete digestive tract): digestion is mostly extracellular,
specialized structures along tube, e.g. for storage-stomach, crop,
intestine-chemical digestion, gizzard-mechanical digestion, has 2
openings - mouth and anus. examples: earthworms, mollusks, insects,
vertebrates.
Q. How does the ingestion takes place in animals?

• It is a process of taking food directly by phagocytosis or the mouth in to
the body.
• Phagocytosis occurs in the protozoans, in which food is taken in either
through pseudopodia or through ciliary action.
• Metazoans take food through mouth which is the opening for alimentary
canal.
• Microphagus feeders like filter feeders swing their limbs with bristles to
move water with food particles towards them which they take in.
• Mytilus gets food by the movement of cilia present on the gills causes a
current of water towards inhalant siphon and leave via an exhalent
siphon.
• Water contains food particles, which get stuck with the mucus. This
trapped food is then swept by the cilia towards the mouth.
• In Macrophagus feeder ingestion is performed by tentacles or arms
which capture the prey as in Physalia or rasping organ radula which
scraps the algae in gastropod mollusks. fluid feeders have modified
mouth parts for piercing and sucking.
Q. Where the absorption and assimilation of food takes place in

animals?
Absorption
In protozoans digested food is directly diffuse in to the cytoplasm and
circulated by cyclosis. While in metazoans food absorbed from the
intestine and circulated to all the parts of the body through blood and
lymph.
Assimilation
Finally the digested food is utilized within the cells either to provide energy
or materials to be incorporated into the body.
Q. Describe the process of nutrition in Amoeba.
Nutrition in amoeba
Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic microorganisms. The amoebae
move by means of pseudopodia. Many of them obtain their food by holozoic
nutrition characterized by direct feeding on microbial cells such as
bacteria. "It has been estimated that one species of amoeba requires
40,000 bacteria per cell division. Amoeba are usually found near the
surface of the soil in the upper 6 inches. Warm, moist, and organically
rich soil encourage a high bacterial population. Amoeba tolerates a range
of pH, with a preference for acidity and is capable of encysting when
conditions are unfavorable.
Mechanism of feeding in Amoeba

Amoeba engulfs food by its pseudopodia in the form of food cup later
on that becomes a food vacuole.
• In the next step lysosomes act upon food vacuole to break it into simpler
compounds by their secretion of enzymes Proteases, amylases and
lipases.
• The digestive vacuole now decreases in size water withdrawn and first
become acidic (pH 5.6) and then becomes alkaline (pH 7.3).
• Soluble food particles are passed into the numerous fine canals
radiating from the digestive vacuole and absorbed in to the cytoplasm
this process is called micropinocytosis.
• The digested food circulates into the cytoplasm through cyclosis and
assimilated in to new cytoplasm.
• The undigested food is egested out by exocytosis at the rear end.
Q. Describe the process of nutrition in Hydra.

Nutrition in Hydra
Hydra is a macrophagus feeder and feed upon small aquatic animals
like crustaceans, small annelids, and insect larvae. The digestion is both
extracellular and intracellular takes place.
Mechanism of feeding
• Hydra paralyzes its prey by the nematocysts located on the tentacles.
• The tentacle then bend over its mouth and enter the in to the digestive
tract for digestion.
• The body cavity having glandular and flagellated musculoepithelial cells
secrete proteolytic enzymes for extracellular digestion. While hydra ca
digest fats and some carbohydrates as well.
• Extracellular digestion completed in about four hour.
• The semi digested food particles are engulfed by the phagocytic action
of the flagellated cells where they are completely digested.
• The undigested food is egested out from the mouth.
Q. Describe the process of nutrition in Planaria.

Nutrition in Planaria
Planaria is a carnivorous worm which feed upon small worms,
crustaceans, snails and remains of dead animals.
Mechanism of feeding
• When food comes in contact with planaria by it slimy secretion
produced by the mucous glands the pharynx is protruded out through
the mouth and seizes the prey.
• Mechanical and chemical digestion starts in the pharynx.
• Pharynx opens into the intestine which consists of three branches, an
anterior and two laterals.
• Numerous branching blindly ended diverticula arise from the intestine
and penetrate in to the tissues.
• The digested food is then diffused into the mesenchyme cells which help
in the distribution
• Undigested food is egested out through the mouth.
Q. Describe the process of nutrition in Cockroach.
Nutrition in Cockroach
Cockroaches are omnivorous and can eat any kind of plant or
animal organic matter. It eats dead insets and even its own cast of cuticle.
Digestive organs of Cockroach

The digestive system is tubular and consists of tubular alimentary
canal and associated salivary glands. Digestion starts from mouth which
have following appendages.
1. Labrum 2. Labium
3. Mandibles (one pair) 4. Maxillae (one pair)
5. Hpopharynx
The alimentary canal consists of the following portions
Pharynx A small tube behind the mouth and bends backward in to
oesophagus.
Oesophagus This portion passes through the thorax and dilates in
to crop.
Crop It is a large dilated thin walled pear-shaped organ opens in to
gizzard.
Gizzard It is a round, thick walled bag, its lining has six teeth like
thickenings. The portion from pre-oral cavity to gizzard is
known as fore gut or stomodeum.
Mid gut Behind the gizzard a tubular mid gut or mesentron lies and
from the anterior end eight finger like hepatic caeca arises
Hind gut The mid gut connected with the hind gut or proctodaeum
which has a cuticular ectodermal lining, it has a short tubular
ileum or small intestine followed by a long colon which ends
in to broad rectum and opens by an anus.
Malphigian
tubules At the junction of mid gut and hind gut a large number of fine
yellow thread like malphigian tubules arises which are
concerned with the excretion.
Salivary
Glands These are present in a pair one on each side of the crop in the
thorax.
Mechanism of Digestion:
The maxillae pick up the food and mandibles start chewing. In the
preoral cavity food is mixed with saliva. Here salivary amylase acts upon
carbohydrates and simple sugar is absorbed by the crop. Remaining food
comes in to the gizzard where it is crushed and filtered. Small food
particles pass to the mid gut where enzymes produced by hepatic ceacum
digest the fats and proteins. Digested food is absorbed in the mesentron
and the remaining food stays in the rectum which absorbs and conserves
the water form the undigested food before expelling out the feaces.
Q. Describe the salient features of human digestive
system.
1. Human digestive tract is complete and complex.

2. Each part of the digestive system has a specific function.
3. Digestion of food in humans is an extracellular process.
4. Enzymes are secreted into the digestive tract by nearby glands
which never contain food themselves.
5. Digestion requires a cooperative effort by production of hormones
and actions of nervous system.
Q. Describe the human dentition.
. Human dentition has many specializations because humans are
omnivores. Humans are diphodont because they have two sets of teeth,
deciduous or milk teeth and Heterodont because they have four different
types of teeth incisors, canines, premolar and molar.
Thecodont because teeth are embedded in the gums.
Humans have 32 permanent teeth consisting of 8 incisors for cutting and
biting, 4 canines for tearing meat, 8 premolars and 12 molars for grinding
and crushing the food.
Human dental formula (I 2/2, C 1/1, PM 2/2, M 3/3) x 2 = 32.
Q. Write a note on human salivary glands.

There are three pairs of salivary glands in human mouth that
secretes about1.5 dm3 saliva daily.
The Parotid glands lie at the base of the pinnae.
The Sublingual glands at the base of the tongue and
The Submandibular glands at the base of the lower jaw.
Saliva contains 95% water, some mucous, lysozyme enzyme and
salivary amylase. Amylase begins starch digestion which is converted in
to maltose is common end product.
Q Describe the composition and secretion of gastric gland.

Gastric glands lie in the stomach fundus region and its secretion
called gastric juice. They contain three types of cells;
1. Mucus secreting cells secreting thick layer of mucus that protects the
wall of stomach and first part of duodenum from HCl and pepsin
2. Zymogen cells secreting pepsinogen.
3. Oxyntic cells which secrete dilute HCl having a pH 1.5 to 2.5.
This collective secretion is known as gastric juice.
Q. Describe the composition of pancreatic juice.

Pancreatic juice secreted by pancreas and contains the following:
1) Sodium bicarbonate [NaCO3] that neutralizes acidity of chyme; pH
of small intestine is slightly basic;
2) Pancreatic amylase that digests starch to maltose
3) Trypsin and other enzymes that digest protein to peptides;
4) Lipase that digests fat droplets to glycerol and fatty acids.
Q. How the digestive secretions are controlled?

1. Gastrin is produced by cells in gastric glands of stomach wall;
stimulates gastric glands and increases gastric motility; its secretion is
stimulated by a meal rich in protein.
2. Secretin is produced by cells in duodenal wall; stimulates pancreas
to secrete fluids rich in NaCO3 into duodenum; secretion is stimulated
by acid chyme.
3. Cholecystokinin (CCK) produced by duodenal wall stimulates
pancreas to increase pancreatic juice and liver to increase output of
bile; causes gallbladder to release bile; secretion is stimulated by fats.
4. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) from duodenal wall inhibits gastric
gland secretion and stomach motility.
Q. Describe the functions of Pancreas.
Pancreas lies deep within abdominal cavity, just below stomach,

and rests on posterior abdominal wall.It is an elongated and somewhat
flattened organ. As an endocrine gland, it secretes glucogon and insulin
hormone into bloodstream. As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic
juice.
1) Pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate that neutralizes acidic
chyme.
2) Digestive enzymes digest carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Q. Describe the functions of liver.
Liver is a large glandular organ that fills the top of abdominal cavity, just
below diaphragm. Liver has numerous functions:
1) It detoxifies blood by removing and metabolizing poisonous
substances.
2) It makes plasma proteins including albumin and fibrinogen.
3) Liver destroys old red blood cells; converts hemoglobin to bilirubin
and biliverdin in bile.
4) It produces bile stored in gallbladder before entering duodenum to
emulsify fats.
5) It stores glucose as glycogen; breaks down glycogen to maintain
constant blood glucose concentration.
6) Liver produces urea from amino groups and ammonia.
7) Amino acids can be converted to glucose but deamination (removal
of amino groups) must occur.
8) Using complex metabolic pathway, liver converts amino groups to
urea.
9) Urea is most common human nitrogenous waste it is transported by
blood to kidneys.
Q. Describe the nutritional disorders.

Malnutrition:
“Deficiency or excess of one or more nutrients over a long period of time
called malnutrition”.
Undernutrition:
“The deficiency of nutrients is known as undernutrition’. It is a prolem of
underdeveloped countries.
Preventive measures for undernutrition:

• Breast feeding should be started immediately after birth and continued
up to 2 years.
• Complementary feeding must be started at 6 months of life
• Proper hygienic conditions
• Complete vaccination
• Good diet according to weight.
Over nutrition:
“Excess of nutrients is called over nutrition”. It is a problem of developed
countries.
Preventive measures for over nutrition.

• Calories should be taken according to weight
• Exercise
• Physical activities
• Avoid overeating
• Avoid fatty diet
• Avoid sweats and chocolates, cakes and pastries.
Overweight and obesity:

“It is a condition in which there is an excessive amount of body fat
accumulates”.
Causes:
• Imbalance between energy intake and expenditure
• Familial
• Endocrine disease
• Increased eating tendency
• Drugs e.g. (Steroid)
Effects:-
a) Cardiovascular diseases
b) Hernia
c) Gall stones
d) Diabetes
e) Anxiety and depression
f) Decreased life expectancy
Preventive measures:-
• Take calories according to age, sex, weight and job.
• Do exercise like walking, jogging, swimming
• Intake of green vegetables and fruits
• Avoid fatty food, cold drinks, Alcohol, Sweets, cakes etc.
Q. Describe the psychological nutritional disorders.
Anorexia Nervosa:
“It is a psychological condition in which there is loss of appetite occurs. It
is characterized by refusal to eat”. It occurs in girls and young women.
Bulimia Nervosa:
“It is characterized by recurrent bouts of binge eating, lack of self-control
overeating during binges”.
It occurs exclusively in adult women.
Q. Describe the parasitic nutrition in animals.

Parasitic Nutrition:
“Parasitism is an association between two living organisms of different
species in which one organism gets benefited while other is at loss.” This
relation may also be called as metabolic dependence.
The benefited partner is called parasite and the partner is at loss is called
host.
• The parasites which live on the surface of host are called ectoparasites.
• Parasites live with in the host are called endoparasite.
• Parasites live permanently with in the host are called obligatory
parasite.
• The Facultative parasite lives with in the host and after the death of
the host continue to feed as saprotrophs on the dead body.
Q. Name some parasitic diseases of man.
Viral diseases: Influenza, Rabies, yellow fever, poliomyelitis,

measles etc.
Bacterial diseases: Tuberculosis, typhoid, Cholera, Plague, Tetanus,
Leprosy etc.
Fungi diseases: Mostly dermatophytes cause ring worm disease,
Athlete’s foot and other skin disease.
Protozoan disease: Malaria, Trypanosomiasis, Leishmaniases,
Amoebiasis, etc.
Helminth diseasesTaeniasis by Taenia solium or T.seginata, Ascariases by

Ascaris, Enterobiasis by Enterobius vermicularis,
filariasis by Filarial worm etc.
Descriptive Question and answers

Q. Describe the role of some important mineral nutrients and their
deficiency symptoms.
Nitrogen (N): This element is found in the form of nitrates or

ammonium salts
Importance:
• It becomes a part of proteins nucleotides, nucleic acids and many other
organic compounds synthesis.
Deficiency symptoms:
1. Low supply of nitrogen causes pale yellow leaves due to loss of
chlorophyll called chlorosis.
2. Cell division and cell enlargement is inhibited.
3. Rate of respiration is affected.
4. Some plants leaves turn purple or red due o the Anthocyanin
pigment e.g. tomato and apples leaves.
5. Plants become short and their leaves remain dormant which
adversely affect cereal crops.
6. Prolonged dormancy and early senescence including leaf falls.
Phosphorous (P): Phosphorous is taken by plants in the form of soluble

phosphates such as H 3 PO 4 and HPO 4 .
Importance:
• It is an essential element involved in the formation of cell membrane as
phospholipids, nucleic acids, co-enzymes (NAD and NADP) and organic
molecules such as ATP and other Phosphorylated products.
• It is important in the energy transfer reaction in oxidation-reduction
processes.
1. Cambial activity is affected.
2. Tillering of crop plant is reduced.
3. Dormancy is prolonged.
4. Growth is affected and dead necrotic patches appear on leaves,
petioles and fruits.
5. Variable colours develop e.g. plate green in Pisum, olive green in
Phaseolus.
6. Causes accumulation of carbohydrates
7. Thickening of tracheal cells are reduced a phloem differentiation
becomes incomplete.
Pottasuim (K):
Potassium is abundantly distributed fixed in soil. Its compounds are
readily available for plants.
Importance:
• It is important for opening and closing of stomata.
• It acts as activator for enzymes involved in synthesis of peptide bond
and carbohydrate metabolism.
• Leaf colour becomes dull or bluish green.
• Irregular chlorosis occurs and necrotic areas appear of the tip and
margin of the leaf.
• Plant growth stunted with the shortening of internodes and grains
production is reduced.
• Lamina of plant leaf curled backward towards the under surface or roll
forwarded towards the upper surface.
Magnesium:
Magnesium is present in the soil in water-soluble, exchangeable and
fixed form and is present in primary mineral. Its carbonates are similar to
calcium and held in the soil.
Importance:
• It is a constituent of chlorophyll and form green pigment.
• It carries phosphorus by the time of formation of high oil contents seed
which contain lecithin compound.
• It is transferred from older tissue to younger tissue when its deficiency
occurs and reutilized in growth processes.
• Magnesium is important for the synthesis of fats and metabolisms of
carbohydrates and phosphorus.
• Chlorosis occurs.
• Severely affected leaves may wither and shed or absciss without the
withering stage. Defoliation may severely occur.
• Leaves, sometimes, develop necrotic spots.
Q. Describe the heterotrophic mode of nutrition in plant.

Plants which can not prepare their own organic molecules and
dependent for the molecular requirement on outside sources are called
heterotrophic plants.
These are generally categorized in to following types
1. Parasites 2. Saprophytes 3. Carnivorous
1. Parasites
These plants develop hair like out growth called haustoria which
penetrate into host tissues for absorbing nutrients requirements.
• Obligate or total parasites are those which depend for their nutrition
entirely on other living organisms.
• Facultative or partial parasites depend partially on other living
organisms.
Parasitic Angiosperms
These are classified in to following types:
• Partial stem parasite
• Total stem parasite
• Partial root parasites
• Total root parasite
I. Partial stem parasite

• Loranthus has thick green leaves, woody stem and developed
haustorial system.
• It can synthesis some of its food with the help of nutrients and water
absorbed from the host plant through haustoria.
• The seeds get stuck up to the stem of the host plant and germinate,
sending its haustoria in the tissue of the host plant.
• Other examples are Bauhinia, Viscum, Cassytha filiformish which
suck up nutrients from the vascular tissues of the host plant.
II. Total stem parasite

• Plant like Cuscuta (Amer-bail) is a common parasite which attacks
stem of many herbs, shrubs and trees.
• They penetrate haustoria inside the tissues of host. The xylem of
parasite comes in contact with the xylem and phloem with the
phloem of host tissues and sucks the nutrients.
• The host dies off due to exhaustion.
III Partial root parasite

• Sandal wood tree is the example of this parasite.
• Its seedling can grow for a year but not so independently.
• Within a year these roots attack the plant of neighboring trees and
absorb nutrients.
IV Total root parasite

• Orobanche is the example of this category which attacks the roots of
plants belonging to the families Cruciferae and Solanaceae.
• Cistanche is another example which attack the roots of Clatropis,
Striga and also parasite on the roots of sugarcane.
• It is commonly found on Sorghum or Jowar crop.
Saprophytes
“Plants that break up complex dead organic food material into simple
compound and use them for their growth and development are called
saprophytes”.
• Total saprophytes are totally dependent on dead organic matter.
• Partial saprophytes fulfill their nutritional requirements partially
on dead organic matter.
There are some examples found among flowering plants like Neothia
(bird’s net or orchid) and Monotrapa (Indian pipe), the roots of these
plants form a mycorrhizal association with the fungal mycelium to help
in the absorption process.
Carnivorous Plants
These plants have leaves modified to trap small animals (insects),
digest their prey (the soft tissues), and absorb small organic molecules to
fulfill their nitrogen or protein requirement. These plants have glands for
secretion and absorption, leaf modifications. Even the parts of flowers
(petals, sepals, pistils, stamens) are modified leaves. Examples of some
plants are as follows.
Venus flytrap
When Insect touches trigger on leaf surface. The underside of the
leaf rapidly enlarges. This causes the leaf to rapidly fold shut on the insect.
Once the insect has been digested, the upper side of the leaf grows. This
opens the leaf again and resets the trap.
Pitcher plant
The leave forms a cone. A solution of digestive enzymes is at the base of
the cone. Insects fall into the cone, drown, and are digested.
Q. Explain in detail the carnivorous plants.
Carnivorous Plants
These plants have leaves modified to trap small animals (insects), digest
their prey (the soft tissues), and absorb small organic molecules to fulfill
their nitrogen or protein requirment. The carnivorous plants use a variety
of features to attract insects: color, scent, nectar reward. These are the
same features found in flowers to attract pollinators. These plants have;
• Glands for secretion and absorption
• Leaf modifications: common among plants. Even the parts of flowers
(petals, sepals, pistils, stamens) are modified leaves.
• Rapid movements. Some plants, like the sensitive plant, have rapid leaf
movements that startle insects.
• So the plant features found in carnivorous plants aren't unique to them.
However, the carnivorous plants have put the features together in such
a way that they can catch, digest, and absorb prey. There are about
400 species are known. We generally categorized in to two types
• Active trappers move to catch prey.

• Passive trappers use sticky secretions and pitfalls to catch prey.
Venus flytrap
These are Active trapper. When Insect touches trigger on leaf surface.
The underside of the leaf rapidly enlarges. This causes the leaf to
rapidly fold shut on the insect. Once the insect has been digested, the
upper side of the leaf grows. This opens the leaf again and resets the
trap.
Bladderwort
Active trapper. Aquatic. A bladder is under tension. Aquatic critter
(usually insect larva) brushes against trigger at mouth of the bladder.
The bladder opens, a vacuum pulls in the larva, along with a lot of
water. Once the larva is digested, the water is removed from the
bladder, and the trap is reset.
Aldrovanda
Active trapper. A rootless aquatic plant with floating stem. It has
reosettes of modified leaves, which have two lobed mobile lamina
having teeth at the margin and sensitive jointed hairs and stalked gland
on the surface.
Pitcher plant
Passive trapper. The leave forms a cone. A solution of digestive
enzymes is at the base of the cone. Insects fall into the cone, drown,
and are digested.
Sundew
Passive trapper. Sticky, stalked glands cover the leaves. Insects get
stuck and can't get away. Slowly, the stalks fold over the insects.
Eventually, the entire leaf can curl around the insect. By having the
leaf in close contact with the insect, you have more efficient digestion
and uptake of nutrients.
Butterwort
Passive trapper. Flat sticky glands on leaf surface. Insects get stuck.
Slowly, the leaf will curl around the insect for improved digestion and
nutrient uptake.
Q. Explain in detail the human digestive system.

Human Digestive system
The process of digestion in humans starts from the mouth.
Human Mouth
1. Human dentition
Human dentition has many specializations because humans are
omnivores. Humans are diphodont because they have two sets of teeth,
deciduous or milk teeth and heterodont because they have different
types of teeth embedded in the gums hence called Thecodont. Humans
have 32 permanent teeth consisting of 8 incisors for cutting and biting, 4
canines for tearing meat, 8 premolars and 12 molars for grinding and
crushing the food.
Human dental formula (I 2/2, C 1/1, PM 2/2, M 3/3) x 2 = 32
2. Salivary glands
Food is chewed in the mouth and mixed with saliva. Three pairs of
salivary glands secrete about 1.5 dm3 saliva daily by way of ducts into the
mouth. The Parotid glands lie at the base of the pinnae, Sublingual
glands at the base of the tongue and the Submandibular glands at the
base of the lower jaw. Saliva contains; 95% water, some mucous, lysozyme
enzyme and salivary amylase is enzyme that begins starch digestion;
maltose is common end product.
3. Tongue:
Food is manipulated by a muscular tongue with touch and pressure
receptors. Taste buds are located primarily on tongue but also on the
surface of the mouth; chemical receptors are stimulated by chemical
composition of food. Food is chewed and mixed with saliva to form a bolus
in preparation for swallowing.
The Pharynx and the Esophagus

Digestive and respiratory passages come together in pharynx, and then
separate. During swallowing, path of air to lungs could be blocked if food
entered trachea. Epiglottis covers opening into trachea as muscles move
bolus through pharynx into esophagus. Esophagus is a muscular tube
that moves swallowed food to stomach by peristalsis.
The Stomach
Stomach has three regions anterior cardiac region having mucous

glands, middle region the fundus which has gastric glands and contain
three types of cells Mucus secreting cells, Zymogen cells secreting
pepsinogen and oxyntic cells which secrete dilute HCl having a pH 1.5 to
2.5. This collective secretion is known as gastric juice. Stomach stores a
liter of partially digested food from continual eating. Gastric juice is
produced by cells of gastric glands. Walls of the stomach contract
vigorously and mix food with juices secreted when food enters. Gastric
juice contains hydrochloric acid and another digestive substance,
pepsin. This acid kills most bacteria and other microorganisms. Low pH
also stops activity of salivary amylase and promotes activity of pepsin.
Pepsin is a hydrolytic enzyme that acts on proteins to produce peptides.
A thick layer of mucus protects wall of the stomach and first part of
duodenum from HCl and pepsin. Stomach contents, a thick, soupy
mixture, are called chyme. At base of the stomach is a narrow opening
controlled by a sphincter (a circular muscle valve) When the sphincter
relaxes, chyme enters duodenum; a neural reflex causes the sphincter to
contract closing off the opening. Duodenum is first part of the small
intestine. The sphincter relaxes and allows more chyme to enter the
duodenum.
Small Intestine
Human small intestine is a coiled muscular tube about three meters long.
It has mucous membrane lining with ridges and furrows; surfaces are
covered by villi. Villi are finger-like projections whose surface cells are
covered by microvilli. Microvilli are minute projections, a brush border,
of surface cells of intestinal villi these increases effective surface area of
small intestine.
Duodenum:
As chyme enters duodenum, proteins and carbohydrates are partly
digested; no fat digestion occurs. Additional digestion is aided by
secretions from liver and pancreas. Bile is a secretion of liver temporarily
stored in gallbladder before sent to duodenum. Bile contain bile salts, bile
pigments and water. Bile salts help in emulsification of fat.
The bile pigments are bilirubin (red) and biliverdin (green) these are
excretory product s and produced by the breakdown of hemoglobin in
liver.
This increases fat digestion by increasing surface area of fat globules
exposed to enzymes.
Pancreatic juice secreted by pancreas under the stimulation of another

hormone called secretin secreted from duodenum and contains the
following:
1) Sodium bicarbonate [NaCO3] that neutralizes acidity of chyme; pH of
small intestine is slightly basic.
2) Pancreatic amylase that digests starch to maltose.
3) Trypsin enzyme which is activated by enterokinase and digest protein
to peptides.
4) Chymotrypsin converts casein (milk proteins) in to short chain amino
acids.
4) Lipase that digests fat droplets to glycerol and fatty acids.
Epithelial cells of villi produce intestinal enzymes attached to

plasma membrane of microvilli. Intestinal secretions complete digestion of
peptides and sugars; peptides are digested by peptidases to amino acids;
and maltose from the first step in starch digestion is converted by maltase
to glucose. Large molecules of carbohydrates, proteins and fats are broken
into small molecules absorbed by villi.
Absorption by Villi
Small intestine is specialized for absorption by the huge number of villi

that line the intestinal wall. Each villus contains blood vessels and a
lymphatic lacteal. Lacteal is lymphatic vessel in an intestinal villus that
aids in absorption of fats. Sugars and amino acids enter villi cells and are
absorbed into bloodstream. Glycerol and fatty acids enter villi cells;
reassembled into fat molecules, they move into lacteals. Absorption
involves diffusion and active transport requiring expenditure of cellular
energy.
Large Intestine
1. Large intestine is region following the small intestine.

2. It has four parts: cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
3. Appendix is a finger-like projection extending from cecum, a blind
sac at junction of small and large intestine.
4. The colon is the largest part and has three regions, ascending colon,
transverse colon and descending colon.
4. 1.5 liters of water enter digestive tract daily from drinking; another
8.5 liters enter from various secretions. About 95% of this total liquid is
reabsorbed by small intestine; remainder by cells of colon.
5. Large intestine functions in ion regulation, absorbing inorganic salts
plus vitamin K produced by intestinal bacteria.
Anus and Egestion:
Large intestine that terminates at the anus, an external opening and

contain undigested food called feces. Feces consist of 75% water and 25%
solid matter. One-third of the solid matter is intestinal bacteria.
Remainder is undigested wastes, fats, organic material, mucus, and dead
cells egested out from intestinal lining. Two spinchter surround the anus
an internal one o smooth muscles under the control of autonomic nervous
system and an outer one of striated muscles controlled by the voluntary
nervous system.
Accessory Organs
Pancreas
Pancreas lies deep within abdominal cavity, just below stomach, and rests
on posterior abdominal wall.It is an elongated and somewhat flattened
organ. As an endocrine gland, it secretes glucogon and insulin hormone
into bloodstream. As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice.
1) Pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate that neutralizes acidic
chyme.
2) Digestive enzymes digest carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Liver is a large glandular organ that fills the top of abdominal cavity, just
below diaphragm. Liver has numerous functions:
1) It detoxifies blood by removing and metabolizing poisonous substances.
2) It makes plasma proteins including albumin and fibrinogen.
3) Liver destroys old red blood cells; converts hemoglobin to bilirubin and
biliverdin in bile.
4) It produces bile stored in gallbladder before entering duodenum to
emulsify fats.
5) It stores glucose as glycogen; breaks down glycogen to maintain
constant blood glucose concentration.
6) Liver produces urea from amino groups and ammonia.
7) Amino acids can be converted to glucose but deamination (removal of
amino groups) must occur.
8) Using complex metabolic pathway, liver converts amino groups to urea.
9) Urea is most common human nitrogenous waste it is transported by
blood to kidneys.
Q. Explain in detail the disorders of Gastro-Intestinal tract.
Diarrhea
“Rapid movement of fecal matter through large intestine resulting in
loose motions”.
Causes of Diarrhea
Enteritis: it is caused by virus or bacterial infection of intestinal
tract
Cholera: It is caused by bacteria called “Vibrio Cholera.
There is passage of large quantity of water in stools called Rice

Water Stools.
Psychogenic Diarrhea it is caused by nervous tension.
Prevention:
• Proper hand washing
• Proper disposal of waste
• Drinking of boiled water
• Proper cocking of food
• Proper washing of food and vegetables
• Proper hygienic conditions
• Good dietary habits
Dysentery:
“Acute inflammation of large intestine characterized by Diarrhoea
with blood and mucus in stool.
Causes:
Shigella: Bacterial infection
Entamoeba histolytica: A Protozoan infection.
Constipation:
Def. “infrequent passage of hard stool”
Causes:
• Irregular bowel habit
• Inhibition of defecation reflexes
• Lack of fibre diet
• Lack of fluid intake
• Gastrointestinal disorders
Preventive measures:
• Regular bowel habits
• Diet rich in fibres e.g. fruits and vegetables
• Plenty of water drinking
Piles:
“These are dilated veins occurring in relation to anus”. Also known as
haemorrhoids.
Types:
a) External:these are covered by skin
b) Internal These are covered by anal mucous membrane
Causes:
Constipation
Prevention:
Avoid constipation
Dyspepsia:
“Epigastric discomfort occur by following meals”.
Causes:
• Peptic ulcer
• Gastritis
• Gall stones
• Alcohol
• Pregnancy
• Anxiety, Depression
Symptoms:
• Heart burn
• Flatulence (heavy abdomen)
• Anorexia (loss of appetite)
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Abdominal pain
Non ulcer or functional Dyspepsia:-

“Persistent dyspepsia for which no cause can be identified”.
Cause:
Motor dysfunction of alimentary tract.
Peptic ulcer:
“Mucosal ulceration near acid bearing regions of gastrointestinal tract”.
Sites:
1) Duodenum: in first portion
2) Stomach
3) Oesophagus
4) Jejunum
Causes:-
• Impairment of mucosal defense system
• Helico bacter pylori infection (bacterial infection)
• Hereditary
• Excessive secretion of acid and pepsin
• Stress, Anxiety
Preventive measure:
1) Avoid cigarette smoking
2) Avoid Aspirin
3) Avoid Alcohol
Food Poisoning:
It is also called Gastroentritis. It may be caused by
• Infective:- due to Virus , Bacteria or protozoa
• Non infective: due to allergy.
Symptoms:
• Vomiting
• Diarrohea
It occurs with in the 48 hours of consumption of contaminated food

or drink.
Causes:
• Salmonella infection (most commonly occurring bacteria)
• E.coli infection
• Vibrio infection
• Bacillus infection
Source of infection:
• Domestic fowl from defrosted or uncooked chicken and uncooked
or raw eggs.
============================
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS
Like other living organisms, animals also exchange gases with their environment
during respiration. They take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide continuously
through their moist, RESPIRATORY surfaces.
Respiratory gases move across moist, respiratory surface by diffusion, the
concentration gradient of gases play important role in mechanism of gaseous
exchange. Oxygen is consumed and carbon dioxide is liberated constantly due
to concentration gradient.
The respiratory gases are passed across the respiratory surface by dissolving in
water. Moreover, respiratory surface must be large enough in relation to the
volume of that animal for efficient gas exchange.
Properties of Respiratory Surfaces (Conditions for Respiration):

Respiratory surface of animals bears following properties.
 Permeable Respiratory Surface:

Respiratory surface should be permeable in order to diffuse in and diffuse
out of gases.
 Larger Respiratory Surface:
Respiratory surface should be as larger as possible. Larger the respiratory
surface, greater exchange of respiratory gases would occur.
 Wet and Moist Respiratory Surface:
The respiratory surface should be wet and moist, in order to binds
molecules of respiratory gases.
 Thin Respiratory Surface:

The respiratory surface should be thin and richly supplied with blood.
Respiratory surface in animals depends upon:
 The structure
 Habitat and
 Activity of animal.
In order to maintain greater surface to volume ratio for efficient gas exchange
animals have evolved different adaptations in their respiratory surface.
In unicellular organisms, gas exchange occurs over the entire surface area
(plasma membrane).
[
Respiratory Organs of Aquatic And Terrestrial Animals:

 Respiratory Organs of
Hydra:
Hydra is multicellular animal
with tissue level of organization,
but has no organs. Its means
there is no specific respiratory
organ in Hydra. And exchange
of gases take place through
general body surface i.e.
Ectodermal cells and
endodermal cells by the process
of DIFFUSION.
 The Ectodermal cells, exchange gases with external water.
 While endodermal cells exchange respiratory gaseous with water
that comes within gastro vascular cavity.
 Respiratory Organs of Earth Worm:

The scientific name of earth worm is Pheritima posthuma, it is belong to
phylum “Annelida” and class “Oligochaeta”.
The earthworm has no specialized respiratory organs. It uses its wet skin
as respiratory surface. Its moist skin offers enough surface area for
efficient gas exchange.
Mechanism of Respiration:
- Its blood consist homeoglobin , hence it is responsible for gaseous

transportation
- O 2 + CO 2 dissolve in the blood. O 2 goes to the tissue and CO 2 goes to the
skin from where it goes to air.
- In order to keep the skin moist, earthworm has to live in damp soil.
- The moisture is absorbed by mucous secreted from the goblet glands in
the skin of earth worm.
- Due to larger size and complexity of the body of earthworm, distribution
of respiratory gases from skin to each cell of the body and vice versa
posses a problem since diffusion alone cannot distribute gases rapidly to
distant cells within the animal.
- So the earthworm has developed a blood vascular system, which can
efficiently and rapidly transport respiratory gases within the body.
Respiratory Organs of Cockroach:
Cockroach and all insects has specialized organs for respiration, the respiratory
organs known as TRACHEAE.
Tracheal System:
Tracheae with association of spiracles and TRACHEOLES form a respiratory
system called TRACHEAL SYSTEM.
1. Tracheae Tracheal system consists of number of internal tubes called

TRACHAE.
2. SPIRACLES: Tracheae open outside the body through minute slit like
pores known as spiracles. There are Ten (10) pairs of spiracles on lateral
side of the cockroach. Two pairs in thoracic segment and eight pairs in
first eight Abdominal segments. Spiracles are opened or closed by valves.
3. Tracheoles: These are fluid filled fine branches, in which spiracles are
open. Tracheoles, finally end as blind, and attached directly with the cells
of tissue.
Respiratory Mechanism:
The cockroach takes in air directly from the atmosphere into the tracheae
through spiracles. Oxygen diffuse directly into the cells of tissue, through
tracheoles.
The removal of CO 2 depend upon blood plasma, through body surface via cuticle:
- Cockroach takes air from abdomen spiraches and at this time all abdominal
spiraches are opened and gases goes to the tracheols , were O 2 release and
CO 2 take up back to the air in the tracheds.
- At this time all abdominal spirahes closed and abdomen contract.
- All gases goes to thoracic region where thoracie spiraches are open and gases
exhales.
O2 O2 TRACHEAE O2 TRACHEOLES O2
TISSUE CELLS
EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
CO2 CUTICLE CO2 CO2 BLOOD PLASMA CO2

BODY SURFACE
Mechanism of Respiration in Cockroach-flow diagram.

Respiratory System of Fish:

Respiratory organs in fish are GILLS. Each gill is a highly vascularized structure.
Gills are covered by operculum.
Structure of Gills:
Gills are composed of Gill filaments, Gill bar and Gill lamellae.
i. Gill filaments: Gill filaments are “V” shaped; hundred in numbers,

arranged in two rows.
ii. Gill bar: Gill bars are long, curved cartilage or bones, which support to
filaments. Gill bars also known as Gill Arch.
iii. Gill lamellae: Each gill filament is folded to form numerous plate like
lamellae. Lamellae increase the surface area of the gills each lamella is provided
by a dense network of blood capillaries.
Mechanism of Respiration (in fish)

Water with oxygen contents is drawn into mouth for approaching the Gills. The
concentration of oxygen in water is low that’s why the fish must use considerable
energy to ventilate its gills. In the capillaries of each lamella, blood flows in
opposite direction to the movement of water across the gills. This is known as
counter current flow of water and blood, this phenomenon enhance the
exchange of gaseous between water and Gills. i.e. counter current flow is very
effective as it enables the fish to extract up to 80 % - 90% of the oxygen from
water.
Hence the oxygenated blood flow in the efferent artery which goes to body.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS OF FROG:

Respiratory organs of frog are:
i. Skin
ii. Buccal cavity and
iii. Lungs.
That’s why there are three method of respiration found in frog, which are known
as
i. Cutaneous respiration
ii. Bucco - pharyngeal respiration, and
iii. Pulmonary respiration, respectively.
 Cutaneous Respiration:
The gaseous exchange through the skin is known as cutaneous
respiration.
 Bucco-Pharyngeal Respiration:
The gaseous exchange through, thin and vascularized lining of the buccal
cavity is called Bucco-pharyngeal respiration.
 Pulmonary Respiration:
Exchange of gases through lungs is known as pulmonary respiration.
a. Structure of Lungs:
Frog has evolved vascularized, paired outgrowths from the lower part of
pharynx known as LUNGS. Lungs are simple sacs almost like balloon. The
inner surface of lungs, is increased by thin walled air chambers – known
as ALVEOLI. The inner surface of alveoli is supported with network of
blood capillaries. Thus alveoli act as the site of exchange of gases.
Each lung is connected to outside by the system of tubes, each tube is

known as BRONCHUS.
b. Mechanism of Pulmonary Respiration:

Mechanism of pulmonary respiration can be divided into two step. The
INHALATION (INSPIRATION) and EXHALATION (EXPIRATION).
Inhalation (Inspiration):
The intake of air known as INHALATION (INSPIRATION). In frog inhalation does
in two steps.
 The frog draws air into the buccal cavity by lowering its bucco-pharngeal
floor. During this process, it opens the nares and closes the glottis. (Fig #
1)
 Then with the nostrils closed and glottis opened, it raises the
buccopharyngeal floor, thus pushing the air into the lungs. (Fig # 2). ( This
type of ventilation does not allow the lungs to be completely emptied or
refilled by air, hence termed as incomplete ventilation.)
Exhalation (Expiration):
The removal of consumed air out of the lungs is called exhalation or expiration
during the exhalation the nostrils and glottis become open. Air expelled form the
lungs by their elastic recoil and abdominal pressure (Fig # 3).
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF BIRDS:

The respiratory organs in bird are lungs.
Lungs: are comparatively small and compact and internally sub-divide into
parabronchi.
Parabronchi: are numerous, small, highly vascularized thin membranous
channel (tubes).
Functions:
i. Parabronchi serve as respiratory surface for gaseous
exchange.
ii. Parabronchi are responsible for continuous flow of air in one
direction (unidirection).
Air Sacs: Birds have 8 – 9 thin walled, non-

muscular, non-vascular, sac like out growth of
lungs known as air sacs.
Functions:
i. Air sacs work as bellows that ensure the
unidirectional flow of air. Undirection flow of air
is known as complete ventilation.
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION:
Birds take two breaths to move air
completely through the system of air sacs and
lungs.
 The first breath draws fresh air into the posterior air sacs of the lungs.
 The second breath pushes the first breath into anterior air sac then out
of the body.
Where it passes through lung, each air sec empty into the lungs as O 2 is
required.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF MAN:

The respiratory system of man consists of air passage ways and a pair of lungs.
A. Air Passage Ways:

Air passage ways consists of:
(i) External nares (external nostrils)
(ii) Nasal cavity
(iii) Internal nares (internal nostrils)
(iv) Pharynx
(v) Glottis
(vi) Larynx
(vii) Trachea
(viii) Bronchi
(ix) Bronchioles
(x) Lungs
i. External nares (External nostrils):

Atmospheric air enters into a pair of openings called external nares
(nostrils), which leads into nasal cavity.
ii. Nasal Cavity:

Nasal cavity is lined internally by:
(a) Ciliated epithelium

(b) Mucous secreting cells
(c) Hairs
(d) Sensory cells of smell.
Thus the air drawn in becomes warm, moist and filtered.

iii. Internal nares (nostrils):
The nasal cavity leads into internal nares (nostrils), while internal nares
leads into pharynx.
iv. Pharynx:
Pharynx is a muscular passage lined with mucous membrane. It is a
common passage for food as well as air.
v. Glottis:
Pharynx leads air into LARYNX through an opening called GLOTTIS.
Glottis is guarded by epiglottis.
vi. Larynx:
Larynx or sound box is a small chamber. It consists of a pair of vocal cords
for producing sound. Larynx leads the air into trachea.
vii. Trachea:
Trachea is a wind pipe (air duct) lies in thoracic cavity. It bears C – shaped
cartilage rings, which prevent it from collapsing. Its internal lining is
ciliated and bears mucus secreting GOBLET CELLS. Due to mucus and
upward beating of cilia, dust particles and germs always pushed outside
the trachea into the oesophagus through pharynx.
viii. Bronchi:
Trachea at its lower end, bifurcate into two smaller branches called
bronchi (singular = bronchus). Each bronchus leads the air into lung of
its side. Bronchi are also supported by C – shaped cartilage rings.
ix. Bronchioles:
When the smaller bronchi attain a diameter 1 mm or less then they are
called bronchioles. Each bronchus in lungs, divided and re-divided into
many bronchioles.
x. Lungs:
Eeach bronchioles finally opens into an air sac in lungs.
B. Lungs:
Lungs are paired, soft spongy and highly vascularized structures. The right lung
is partitioned into three lobes while the left lung into two lobes.
Lungs are situated in the thoracic cavity. The walls of thoracic cavity is formed
of:
 inter-costal muscles  12 pairs of ribs
 vertebral column and  sternum bone
The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdomen by a muscular partition called
DIAPHRAGM.
Each lung is enclosed by two, thin membranes known as PLEURAL
MEMBRANES, within the pleural membranes, there is a fluid filled, narrow cavity
called PLURAL CAVITY. This fluid acts as a lubricant.
Inside each lung, each bronchiole terminates at a tiny, hollow sac-like alveiolar
duct contaning a number of air sacs or ALVEOLI. The alveoli are considered as
the RESPIRATORY SURFACES of lungs. A single alveolus is composed of single
layer of epithelial cells with a slightly larger diameter then the blood capillary.
Each alveolus is surrounded by extensive network of blood capillaries. Alveoli is
the site of exchange of respiratory gases.
It has been estimated that both lungs contain about 700 million alveoli with a
surface area equal to that of tennis court or 20 times the body’s entire skin
surface.
BREATHING IN MAN:
A process of taking in and giving out of air from the atmosphere upto the
respiratory surface and vice versa is called breathing.
In man (mammals) breathing is termed as NEGATIVE PRESSURE BRETHING; In
this kind of breathing, air is drawn into the lungs due to negative pressure i.e. decrease
in pressure in thoracic cavity as compared to atmospheric pressure.
MECHANISM OF BREATHING:
Process of breathing consists of two phases.
 Inspiration (Inhalation):
The intake of air is known as inspiration or inhalation. During inspiration
the volume of thoracic cavity increase by the following events.
(a) Contraction of external intercostals muscles and relaxation of internal

intercostals muscles moves the ribs and sternum outward and upward.
(b) Contraction of diaphragm, makes diaphragm flat, and moves it downward.
When the volume of chest cavity is increased, and a negative pressure is

developed inside the thoracic cavity and ultimately in the lungs, so the air form
the outside rushes into the lungs.
Inspiration is energy consuming process.
Expiration (Exhalation):
Letting out of air is known as expiration / exhalation. During expiration
the volume of thoracic cavity decrease by following events.
(a) Relaxation of external intercostal muscles, and contraction of

internal intercostals muscles, moves the ribs and sternum inward
and downward.
(b) Relaxation of diapharagm, makes diaphragm dome shaped and

also moves it upward.
When the volume of chest cavity decreased, lungs are compressed, so the air
along with water vapours is exhaled outside through respiratory passage.
Expiration is a passive process.
RATE OF BREATHING / CONTROL OF BREATHING:

The breathing rate of man is 15 – 20 breathe per minutes.
There are two types of breathing control.
 Voluntary Control:
Some time we can hold our breath for a short time or can breathe faster
and deeper at our will. This is termed as VOLUNTARY CONTROL.
 Involuntary Control:
Mostly, rate of breathing controlled automatically, this is termed as
INVOLUNTARY CONTROL.
MECHANISM OF INVOLUNTARY BREATHE CONTROL:
Involuntary breathe control is maintained by co-ordination of respiratory and
cardiovascular systems.
 Increase concentration of CO 2 and H+ in blood increase the rate of
breathing.
 The concentration of CO 2 and H+ are monitored by CHEMORECEPTORS
known as :
(a) – Aortic: situated in Aorta.
(b) – Carotid bodies: situated in carotid arteries.
 The concentration of CO 2 and H+ also detected by medulla oblongata, by

two ways.
i. Concentration in blood.
ii. Concentration in cerebro-spinal fluid.
If CO 2 and H+ concentration become increased in blood or cerebro –spinal fluid,

the medulla oblongata sends impulses to intercostal muscle to breathe fastly
and deeply.
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY TRACT:
 Lung Cancer:
Smoking is the main causative agent of lung cancer (carcinoma). Lung
cancer can get any person, unless He is active smoker or passive smoker.
How lung cancer develops?
The lung cancer develops by following mechanism.
i. As the smoke passes through the respiratory passage, its toxic contents like
nicotine, so 2 etc, cause gradual loss of cilia of epithelial cells of respiratory
passage.
ii. So, that dust and germs are settled inside the lungs.
iii. Later, cells with abnormal nuclei appear in the thickened epithelial lining,
which start dividing rapidly without following normal cell cycle.
Iv Finally, these cells with abnormal nuclei break the thickened epithelial
lining and penetrate into the other tissues causing cancer.
 Emphysema:
It is lung disease in which Alveoli gradually deteriorate become bad and
non-functional) Hence, it is degenerative disease.
How emphysema develops?
i. When some toxic substance such as nitrogen oxides, sulfer-di-oxide are
constantly inhaled the emphysema develops.
ii. Such toxic substance decrease the elasticity of lungs.
iii. With the passage of time, the Alveoli become ruptured and lungs become
harder.
iv. So, the tissues of body are supplied less and less oxygen. Such as brain
tissue.
Sign and symptoms
(a) Victim’s breathing becomes labored day by day.
(b) Victim become depressed, irritable and sluggish (inactive).
 Asthma
It is respiratory tract disorder in which breathlessness attacks occur again
and again and it is supplemented by audible chesty whistling sound
(wheezing) when breathing out.
Causative agents
1) Asthma caused by external factors, like pollens, dust, animal fur, common
cold, cough smoke, etc.
2) Heridity is also a major factor.
Effects of Asthma
In severe case, Asthma may be fatal.
 Tuberculosis (T.B)
It is infectious disease and caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis it was once
major killer disease of human.
Sign and symptoms:
 coughing  blood in sputum  pain in chest
 shortness of breath,  fever  sweating at night
 weight loss and  poor appetite.
Transmission of T.B:
T. B passed from person to person in air-borne droplets produced by coughing
or sneezing.
Effect:
T.B can cause death.
TRANSPORT OF GASES IN MAN:

Transport of gases in man, influences by following factor:
 Oxygen and Carbon dioxide carrying capacities of blood.
 Lung capacities.
 Role of heamoglobin and Myoglobin.
 Oxygen and Carbon dioxide carrying capacities of blood:

Blood have concentrated quantity of oxygen is known as oxygenated blood. It
is bright red in color.
Blood have concentrated quantity of carbon dioxide is called Deoxygenated

blood. It is dark radish in color, and appears bluish through the skin.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchange in Alveoli of lungs by diffusion. Blood
returning form the tissues is deoxygenated blood. Due to its higher concentration
of carbon dioxide (respiratory by product.), co 2 diffuses from the tissues into the
blood, which is brought in lungs. while in lungs, due to greater concentration of
co 2 in blood, it moves out into alveoli where its concentration is lower.
While in the case of oxygen, the oxygen concentrated in alveoli, thus oxygen
diffuse from the Alveoli into blood, and blood goes to the level of tissue.
High concentration Low concentration

Of Co2 of Co2
Low concentration High concentration

BLOOD Of O2 ALVEOLIof O2
Alveolar permeable membrane
 Lung Capacity:
The total lung capacity of an adult human being is about 5 liters (5000
cm ) of Air.
3
Tidal volume:
“The volume of air moved in and out of the lungs during a single normal
respiratory cycle is known as tidal volume.
During normal breathing (respiratory cycle) a person takes in and gives
out air approximately half of a liter (450 – 500 cm3). This is only about 10
% of total capacity of lungs. And this is also known as tidal volume.
Vital Capacity:
“The maximum volume of Air that can be inspired and expired due to
extra-deep breath is known as vital capacity.
The average vital capacity of lungs is 4 liters.
Residual Volume
“After a complete expiration the remaining volume of air in lungs termed
as residual volume.
 Role of Haemoglobin and Myoglobin:
Haemoglobin:
Hemoglobin is an iron containing protein, is a respiratory pigment, present in
the red blood corpuscles of vertebrates.
Each hemoglobin molecule has 4 iron containing groups called Heme.
Hemoglobin (Hb) binds to oxygen to form a loose compound called oxy-
hemoglobin. Each hemoglobin molecule binds up to 4- oxygen molecules. Since
there are about 280 million Hb molecules in each R.B.C. so each R.B.C. is
capable of carrying more than a billion molecules of oxygen.
Myooglbin:
Myoglbin is also a protein, but smaller than hemoglobin, found in muscles. It
can bind to oxygen more tightly than hemoglobin. It gives red color to muscles.
Transports Of Oxygen:
In the transport of oxygen Hemoglobin and Myoglobin are involved. Each
hemoglobin molecules has 4- iron containing groups called heme. Actually the
1- molecules of oxygen binds with each iron reversibly. Nearly all oxygen carried
by blood is bound to Hb.
Thus, due to Hb, blood could carry 70 times more oxygen than plasma. Hb binds
to oxygen to form a lose compound called oxy-hemoglobin. It is carried to the
tissues where due to low concentration of oxygen in tissue, oxy-hemoglobin
dissociates releasing oxygen. Which enters in tissue. The whole process can be
represented by the following equation.
Hb(O2 )4
Lungs
Hb + 402
Tissue (Oxyhaemoglobin)
Transport of CO 2 :
Carbon dioxide transport by three ways:
A. CO 2 Transportation by Hemoglobin:
Partial (35%) transportation of carbon dioxide from tissue to Alveoli is done by

Hemoglobin. CO 2 due to its higher concentration in tissues diffuses out into the
blood, and it combines with amino group of hemoglobin to form a molecule called
carbaminohaemoglobin. In Alveoli, it breaks and carbon dioxide diffuses out
into Alveoli.
B. CO 2 transportation by water of R.B.C.:
By this way 60 % carbon dioxide transport,

−
CO2 + H 2 O Carbonic anhydrase HCO3 + H +
Carbonic anhydrase
Carbonic anhydrase −
H 2 CO3 HCO3 + H +
Carbonic anhydrase
− Carbonic anhydrase
HCO3 + Na + NaHCO3
Carbonic anhydrase
C. CO 2 transportation by water of plasma:
By this way 5% carbon dioxide transport.
CO 2 + H 2 O H 2 CO 3
H 2 CO 3 HCO 3 + H+
HCO 3 + K4 KHCO 3
===========
Chapter 14
TRANSPORT
Short questions
Q. What are the levels of transport occur in plants?
Land plants require a transport system because unlike their
aquatic ancestors, photosynthetic plant organs have no direct
access to water and minerals.
Three levels of transport occur in plants:
1. Uptake of water and solutes by individual cells.
2. Short-distance cell-to-cell transport at the level of tissues and
organs.
3. Long-distance transport of sap in xylem and phloem at the
whole-plant level.
Q. How does plants uptake and transport water and minerals

form the soil.
There are certain processes involved in the uptake of minerals and
water from the soil. These are Diffusion, Facilated diffusion,
Osmosis, Imbibition and active transport.
Q. What do we mean by active and passive transport of
solutes?
Active and passive transport of solutes

The plasma membrane’s selective permeability controls the
movement of solutes between a plant cell and the extracellular fluids.
Solutes may move by passive or active transport.
Passive transport occurs when a solute molecule diffuses across a
membrane down a concentration gradient.
o In this process no direct expenditure of energy incurred by
the cell.
o In passive transport the proteins embedded in the cell
membrane may increase the speed of solutes to cross.
Active transport occurs when a solute molecule is moved across a
membrane against a concentration gradient.
o Active transport is an energy requiring process.
o The proton pump is an active transporter important to
plants.
Q. Write a note on Diffusion.
Definition: “The movement of molecules from the region of

higher concentration to the region of lower concentration is called
diffusion”.
Explanation: Diffusion is spontaneous and no energy is required in
this process. It increases with the increase in temperature. It occurs
due to the change in concentration of ions or molecules between the
two mediums i.e. liquids and gases. Diffusion occurs till the
equilibrium is established between two environments of different
concentration.
In living cell molecules diffuses freely through a cell membrane
like CO 2 , O 2 and fat soluble molecules etc till the concentration
equalizer.
Q. What do we mean by facilitated diffusion?
Definition: “The movement of molecules or ions across the cell

membrane through certain specific proteins is called facilitated
diffusion”.
Explanation:
• The selective permeability of a plant cell’s plasma membrane
controls the movement of solutes between the cell and the
extracellular solution.
• Molecules tend to move down their concentration gradient, and
when this occurs across a membrane it is called passive transport
and occurs without the direct expenditure of metabolic energy by the
cell.
• Transport proteins embedded in the membrane can speed
movement across the membrane.
• Some intrinsic proteins bind selectively to a solute on one side
of the membrane and transport certain large molecules like glucose
and charged particles membrane on the opposite side.
Q. Describe the process of osmosis.

Definition: “Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of
high water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane to a
region of low water concentration”.
OR
"Osmosis is the passage of water from a dilute solution through a
semi-permeable membrane to a more concentrated solution.
Explanation
Semi-permeable membranes are very thin layers of material. Cell
membranes will allow small molecules like Oxygen, water, Carbon
Dioxide, Ammonia, Glucose, amino-acids, etc. to pass through. Cell
membranes will not allow larger molecules like Sucrose, Starch,
protein, etc.
Experiment for Osmosis:

If we have a ‘U’ shaped tube with one side filled with water and other
side with sugar solution these sides are marked as A and B
respectively.
1. These two liquids are held separated by a semi permeable
membrane. Water molecules are free to pass across the cell
membrane in both directions, but more water will come into the side
B and the level of sugar solution will rise.
2. The raised level of sugar solution shows the movement of
water molecules from the region of higher concentration to lower
concentration through semi permeable membrane.
Q. What are the consequences of osmosis in plant cell?

• Plant cells always have a strong cell wall surrounding them.
When the take up water by osmosis they start to swell, but the cell
wall prevents them from bursting.
• Plant cells become "turgid" when they are put in dilute
solutions. Turgid means swollen and hard. The pressure inside the
cell rises; eventually the internal pressure of the cell is so high that
no more water can enter the cell. This liquid or hydrostatic pressure
works against osmosis.
• Turgidity is very important to plants because this is what
make the green parts of the plant "stand up" into the sunlight.
• Turgidity of guard cells also helps in maintaining the opening
of stomata.
• Osmosis helps to transport the mineral salts through out the
plant body.
Osmosis results in the net uptake or loss of water by the cell and
depends on which component, the cell or extracellular fluids, has the
highest water potential.
Q. Define and briefly explain the active transport.
Definition
“The movement of molecules or ions across the cell membrane
against the concentration gradient is called active transport”. Active
transport requires cell metabolic energy ATP.
Explanation:
Active transport in animals:
• In animals nerve impulses are carried by sodium potassium
pump which is an example of active transport mechanism. In nerve
cells K+ concentration is much greater then Na+ inside while out side
Na+ is higher then K+. Even then nerve cell pumps Na+ out and K+ in
against the concentration gradient.
• In the intestine the cells transport glucose in to the blood from
lower to higher concentration.
Active transport in Plants:
• The translocation of nutrients through Phloem is an active
transport mechanism. In source leaves the concentration of sucrose
in sieve elements and companion cells is much greater then of
mesophyll cells which mean sucrose is transported against the
concentration gradient.
Q. Define and briefly explain Imbibition.
Definition:
“The swelling up of hydrophilic substances (water loving) by
absorption of water is known as imbibition.”
Explanation:
• The swelling of dry seeds in water and the wrapping of wooden
framework during the rainy season are the common examples of
Imbibition.
• In plant cells, the primary and secondary cell walls are made
of pectic substances and cellulose imbibe the large quantities of
water.
Q. Describe the water status in plants.
Water is the important constituent of the cellular matrix and plays

vital role in biochemical reactions in living organisms. The growing
tissue in plants (leaves, root tips) retains 80 to 90% water while the
woody parts of trees have 45 to 60% water by weight. Water serves
as the solvent which transports minerals and dissolved
carbohydrates throughout the plant. Water is continually supplied to
the plants by different mechanisms of transportation like Diffusion,
Osmosis, and Active transport.
• Diffusion moves water from the region of high water
concentration to lower water concentration. Bulk flow of water occurs
due to pressure differences.
• Osmosis helps water to move across the differentially
permeable membrane. It depends upon certain factors like chemical
potential of water or water potential, osmotic potential of two
separating solution and pressure potential across the membrane and
cell wall.
Q. Describe the term Water Potential.
Definition: Water potential is the difference between the free energy

of water molecules in pure water and energy of water in any other
system".
Or
"The free energy of water that is a consequence of solute
concentration and applied pressure; physical property predicting
the direction of water flow".
It is basically the amount of free chemical energy present in water that

represents a potential for performing work. All living things require a
continuous input of free energy. In the case of water movements this
free energy is involved in water flow. The unit of chemical potential is
energy per mole of a substance (joules per mole)
According to plant physiologist water potential is the difference
between the free energy of water molecules in pure water and energy of
water in any other system.
Q. What are the factors that effect water potential?

The free energy of water is expressed in pressure unit such as
megapascals and symbolised by Greek letter psi ‘’ (MPa; IMPa=9.87
atmosphere).
Water potential is a relative quantity and depends upon
concentration , pressure and gravity. This relation may be written as
 = * + f (concentration) + f (pressure) + f (Gravity)
Where * is the water potential at standard state, while the others are
the effects of these factors on water potential.
Pure water has been assigned the value of water potential 0 MPa.
Addition of solute particles lowers the mole fraction
Q. What are the principal uses of water potential?
The concept of water potential has two principal uses.

• First, the water potential is the quantity that governs the
direction of water flow across cell membrane. Specifically the
difference in water potential (Δ) across a membrane is the driving force
that leads to transport of water by osmosis.
• The second important use of water potential is as a measure of
water status in plant. Water deficits leads to inhibition of plant growth
and photosynthesis as ell as some other effects.
Q. What is the impact of water potential in the leaf?
Evaporation from the leaf sets up a water potential gradient

between the outside air and the leafs air spaces. The gradient is
transmitted into the photosynthetic cells and on to the water-filled
xylem in the leaf vein.
Q. What are the components of water potential?
Water potential has two components:

1. Pressure Potential: The physical component of water
potential created by pressure or tension (suction)
2. Osmotic potential: The component of water potential
created by solutes; the tendency to move because of osmosis.
Therefore, water potential can be lowered either by decreasing

pressure, or by adding solutes. In either case, water will be drawn
into area from areas with a higher water potential.
Q. Describe the osmotic potential or solute potential.
The solution of two different concentrations is having a pressure in

response to maintain the concentration gradient equilibrium when
a semi permeable membrane is placed in to the solution is known
as Osmotic pressure.
Definition: "The propensity of a solution of different

concentration to diffuse in another if these are separated by a
semi permeable membrane is known as osmotic potential.
Osmotic potential decreases with the increase of osmotic
concentration and vice versa. Water moves from the solution of
high osmotic potential to the solution of low osmotic potential under
constant temperature and pressure.
Osmotic potential or solute potential is represented by Ψ s which shows
the measure of change in water potential due to the presence of solute
molecules. It is usually found negative. In solution, it is a negative
quantity and equals to the negative of osmotic pressure π i.e. = s —
π.
Water potential is also called pressure potential and symobilized
by p . It is identical to pressure P; which is defined as the hydrostatic
pressure in excess of atmosphere pressure.
Q. Describe the cell water relations in plants.

There are fo1lowing components essential for the cell water relation in
plants.
• Cell wall: This is the outer most covering of the plant cell
made up of cellulose and pectin. It is non living
• Cytoplasm: It forms protoplasm along with nucleus and
consists of numerous membrane bound organelles.
• Vacuoles: These are membrane (tonoplast) bound structures
filled with cell sap; a solution of salts and organic acid and sugar.
Explanation:
• The solutes particles concentration known as solute
potential Ψs inside the cell minimizes the water potential ‘Ψ’ of cell
sap.
• When a cell is placed in high water potential solution water
moves toward vacuoles by passing through tonoplast and cell
membrane.
• Vacuoles filled with water develop internal hydrostatic pressure
encountered by cell wall this is known as pressure potential Ψp.
• When this pressure becomes high the cell wall fully stretched
and cell unable to take any water is said to be turgid.
• Plant biologists have adapted to show the plant water relations
by following equation.
Ψ = Ψs + Ψp
Osmotic (solute) and turgor (pressure) potential sum to equal the
total water potential:
Q. Describe the process of P1asmolysis and Deplasmolysis.
P1asmolysis
When plant cells are placed in concentrated sugar solutions they
lose water by osmosis and they become "flaccid"; this is the exact
opposite of "turgid" and they are said to be plasmolysed. Plasmolysis
is a process in which a cell starts exosmosis when it is kept in a
highly concentrated solution (hypertonic solution), as a result of
which its protoplasm shrinks and cell is called plasmolysed cell.
When plant cells are placed in a solution which has exactly the same
osmotic strength the cells they are in a state between turgidity and
flaccidity. We call this incipient plasmolysis. "Incipient" means
"about to be".
Deplasmolysis
When a plasmolysed cell is placed in a solution having less
concentration than that of the cell sap (hypotonic solution),
endosmosis takes place i.e. the water enters the cell, as result of this
process the protoplasm again retains its original position, it is
known deplasmolysis.
Q. How water and minerals are taken up in plants?
Water is essential in the body of plant. It brings about a number of

plant activities. Mineral salts are also absorbed along with water by
the roots of plant from the soil. The maximum absorption takes place
in root-hair zone which is situated 1-10 cms behind the root tip.
From the roots the water flows through the whole plant body in redial
direction is called Lateral transport. Absorption of water from the
surface takes place by following structures.
Q. What are the pathways of water movement in plants?

There are three pathways of water movement, by which water is
reached to the xylem vessels.
1. Cell to cell path way
2. Symplast path way
3. Apolast pathway
Q. Describe the Cell to cell pathway of water in plants.
Cell to cell pathway

In this mechanism the water enters the root hairs from the soil due
to the difference concentration. From root hairs the epidermal cells,
then it moves from cell to cell across the cell wall and cell membrane
by osmosis.
Q. Describe the Symplast pathway of water in plants.
Symplast pathway
In the cortical cells of root the cytoplasm of one cell is connected with
the cytoplasm of another cell through the pores of cell walls. These
cytoplasmic connections through the pores are called
plasmodesmata. When water and solutes are moved through these
plasmodesmata, it is known as symplastic pathway. In this pathway
the water is cross only through the plasma membrane of root hairs.
Q. Describe the Apoplast pathway of water in plants.
Apoplast pathway
The cell walls of epidermal cells and cortical cells form a continuous
system of water flow. Their walls are hydrophilic, so soil solution
moves freely through extracellular pathway provided by continuous
system of cell walls is called apoplast pathway.
The inner layer of cortex is endodermis. It has a waxy belt, called
casparian strip, acts as a check point, so water and minerals can not
pass through the endodermis and this can not enter the xylem via
apoplast i.e. the extracellular pathway, at this stage symplast pathway
helps in the movement of solution. From endodermal cells the water
flows into pericycle and then into xylem cells by osmosis via symplast
and apoplast.
Q. Describe the process of ascent of sap.

Definition: "The upward movement of water from roots to the
leaves or transpiring surfaces against the force of gravity is known
as ascent of sap".
Plants ascent sap in short herbs to long 90 meters tree through
specialized
structures known as Vessels and Tracheids.
Q. Describe the characters of Vessels and Tracheids.
Vessels
• These are elongated tube like thick walled structures consist
of dead cell on maturity.
• Their diameter is about 20htm to 70Am (0.7 mm).
• Vessels walls are perforated and connected with each other
by their end for the upward movement of water.
• These provide the long route of water from roots up to leaves
about 10 times faster then Tracheids.
• Vessels are of different types like Annular, Spiral, Scalariform,
Reticulate and Pitted.
Tracheids
• These are thick walled and about 30 [cm in diameter and
several mm in length.
• These are having angular walls and smaller then vessels.
• They are tapered at both ends and connected by these
ends.
• These are dead with thick, lignified, perforated walls. Their
small holes are called pits.
• These pits help in transportation of water and minerals freely
from one tracheid to another.
• These are the only water conducting ducts in ferns ad
conifers.
Q. What do we mean by root pressure?
Root Pressure
When transpiration is low, active transport of ions into the xylem
decreases the stele's (the root stele is basically everything
surrounded by the endodermis primarily the xylem and the
phloem) water potential and causes water to flow into the stele.
This osmotic water uptake increases pressure which forces fluid
up the xylem this is called root pressure.
Q. What is TACT mechanism?
Water Movement in xylem takes place through TACT
Mechanism. Four important forces combine to transport water
solutions from the roots, through the xylem elements, and into the
leaves. These TACT forces are:
• Transpiration
• Ad he sio n
• Co he sio n
• Tension
Q. Define transpiration and describe the structure of

guard cell.
Transpiration
Definition: "The loss of water through aerial parts of plant is called
transpiration".
Structure of guard cells

A stoma is a physical gap between two special epidermal cells called
guard cells. When a pair of guard cells is turgid (full of water) they
bow in such a way as to increase the gap (stoma) between them. If
the plant experiences water deprivation it will wilt. To compensate
the guard cells become flaccid and the stoma is closed. The
structure of guard Cells explains why they bow apart when turgid.
1. The two guard cells are fused at their ends.
2. The inner cell walls which form the stoma are thicker than
the outer walls.
3. Cellulose microfibrils are oriented radially rather than
longitudinally.
Stomata are more concentrated on the bottom of leaves. The water
loss prevented by waxy cuticle on the leaf surface.
Q. How Stomata open and dose
The opening and closing of stomata depends upon turgidity of guard

cells. Water enters the central vacuole by osmosis and increases
the turgor pressure. The following factors involve in stomatal
changes.
Factors trigger the Change of shape in guard cells

1. Increase in blue light at dawn - a blue light sensitive
receptor activates proton pumps and turgor pressure increases and
causes opening of stomata. When darkness comes the guard cells
consume a carbohydrate which decreases the osmotic potential
resulting exosmosis and closing of stomata. Light also stimulates the
photosynthetic production of ATP
2. Absence of CO2 - Decrease of CO2 in leaf air spaces due to
photosynthesis in the mesophyll causes opening of stomata. High
temperature increases CO, in leaf air spaces due to increased
respiration causes closing of stomata.
3. Circadian rhythms - All eukaryotic cells have chemical
based metabolic clocks entrained to the day-night cycle. A common
24 hour biological clock is responsible circadian rhythms (circa,
about - dies, day)
4. Concentration of K+ ion- In clay time K+ is actively
transported by guard cells. Turgor pressure increases because of a
negative water potential due to an inflow of potassium ions (K+) the
cell becomes hypertonic to its environment. Then water comes
inside the epidermal cells by osmosis. Reversible uptake of K+ ions
takes place because of the membrane potential created when H+ are
actively pumped out of the cell - consuming ATP. The cell's interior
becomes negative compared to the surroundings. Water flows out of
guard cells causing them to become flaccid which result the closure
of stomata.
Q. Describe the factors affecting rate of transpiration.
Factors Affecting Transpiration

• Light: Rate of transpiration increases when plant more
exposed to light because it warms the leave and stimulates the
opening of stomata.
• Temperature: Transpiration increases due to the high
temperature. Water molecules kinetic energy increases resulting rapid
evaporation of water molecules from the cells occur that impacts the
opening and closing of stomata.
• Wind: During high velocity wind transpiration increases
because more water vapours readily removed and the surrounding of
plant is replaced by fresh dry air.
• Humidity: Whenever humidity increases in the surrounding
it lowers the rate of transpiration. This is because of slow diffusion of
water from leaf to the surrounding. When surrounding is dry the
situation inverse.
• Soil Water: Sufficient amount of water fasten the rate of
transpiration and vice versa. High concentration of salts in the soil
increases the osmotic pressure of soil, it reduces the absorption of
water it also decreases the rate of transpiration.
Q. Describe the Advantages and Disadvantages of

Transpiration.
Advantages of Transpiration
• It supplies water for photosynthesis
• Transports minerals from the soil to all parts of the plant
• Cools leaf surfaces some 10 to 15 degrees by evaporative
cooling
• Maintain the plant's shape and structure by keeping cells
turgid
• Assist in mineral transfer from roots to shoots,
• Evaporative cooling-reduces risk of leaf temperature becoming
too high for enzymes to function.
• If transpiration exceeds delivery of water by xylem, plants
wilt.
• Plants can adjust to reduce risks of wilting.
• Regulating the size of stomatal openings also reduces
transpiration
Disadvantages of Transpiration
• Excessive transpiration causes death of a plant.
• During unfavourable season in order to reduce the rate of
transpiration plants shed their leaves.
• Certain plants modified their leaves in to spines ur scales to
minimize the rate of transpiration that ultimately reduces the
photosynthetic area which lowers the photosynthetic products.
Q. What do we mean by translocation of organic solutes?
Definition
"The transport of the products of photosynthesis by phloem to the
rest of the plant is called Translocation".
Explanation
In angiosperms, sieve-tube specialized cells of phloem that function
in translocation. Sieve-tube cells (Phloem) are arranged end-to-end
forming long sieve tubes. Porous cross walls called sieve plates are
in between the membranes and allow water to move freely along the
sieve tubes. Phloem sap contains primarily sucrose, but also
minerals, amino acids and hormones.
The phloem transport is also referred as source to sink
transport
Q. Define source-to-sink transport.

Phloem sap movement is not unidirectional; it moves through the sieve
tubes from source to a sink organs.
• Source: An organ of a plant where sugar is produced by
photosynthesis or by the breakdown of starch (usually leaves)
• Sink: An organ of a plant that consumes or stores sugar (growing
parts of plant, fruits, non green stems and trunks, and others).
Q. What do we mean by phloem loading and unloading?
There are steps involve in the movement of photosynthetic products with

in the leaf.
• Sucrose produced in the cytosol of mesophyll cells (source) of leaf
and translocated into sieve-tubes before it can be translocated to a sink
this step is called Phloem loading.
• Sucrose in sieve elements moved away from the source tissues
to the long distance sink reservoirs this process ids termed as phloem
unloading.
Q. What is pressure flow or mass flow Hypothesis (Munch

Hypothesis)?
The accepted mechanism needed for the translocation of sugars from

source to sink is called the pressure flow hypothesis. Phloem
translocation or Pressure Flow Hypothesis was proposed by Ernest
Munch in 1930 according to him "The flow of solution in the sieve
elements is driven by a pressure gradient is produced due to
differences in osmotic pressure between sources and sink”.
Q. How the materials are transported in Hydra?
Transportation in Hydra:
“The transportation of materials occurs in hydra by diffusion
through general body surface”.
Mechanism: - hydra lives in aquatic habitat. Water enter in to its
gastro vascular cavity by mouth for distribution and digestion of
substances all these materials like digested food, oxygen, CO2 and
metabolic waste are transported by diffusion are waste expelled
from the body cavity by mouth.
Q. How the materials are transported in Planaria?
Planaria:
In Planaria the gaseous exchange takes place by diffusion while
digested food is transported to the body cells in inside the
specialized intestine.
Q. What is Circulatory System? Describe its characteristics.
Circulatory system
“A System serves for mass flow and exchange of materials with
in the specific channels in the body called Circulatory system”.
The higher level living organisms immensely require a circulatory
system due to the development of coelom to transport the metabolic
products within the body which included food material and toxic
materials.
General characteristics of a Circulatory system:

• The circulatory system must consists of coelomic fluid i.e.
blood or lymph
• The body fluid is pumped by a specialized organ like heart.
• The blood travels along the tubes called blood vessels.
• It has one way valves to keep the medium flowing in one
direction.
Q. Describe the types of circulatory system:

There are generally two types of circulatory systems
i) Open type Circulatory System:

• When the blood and interstitial fluid circulates within the
open body cavities (sinuses) and bathes the surrounding tissues is
called open type circulatory system.
• The body cavity called haemocoel filled in with blood is
known as haemolymph.
• The blood pressure is never high in open type circulatory
system because heart is weakly muscular and blood is in large
spaces.
ii) Closed type Circulatory System:

• When the blood consists of cells and plasma is pumped
by hart into a system of blood vessels is called closed type
circulatory system.
• The blood flow through vessels and remain separate from
the interstitial fluid.
• The blood pressure is high in closed type circulatory
system because heart is strong muscular pumping organ to push
blood in to blood vessels.
Q. Differentiate the features of circulatory system of

cockroach and earth worm.
Main features Cockroach Earth worm

1. Type Open type Closed type
2. Circulation Blood flow Blood flows

through hollow through closed
open chambers blood vessels.
called sinuses.
3. Contact of Surrounding
blood The surrounding tissues are not in
tissues are contact with
bathed with blood.
4. Body cavity blood.
5. Intersitial fluid The coelom is not The coelom is

large large.
6. Distribution Blood and Blood and

of blood. interstitial fluid interstitial fluid
are mixed are separate.
together.
7. vessels Fairly controlled
It is poorly and is adjustable.
controlled
Dorsal and
ventral blood
8. Flow of blood. A single dorsal vessels run above
vessel runs and below the
midorsally from alimentary canal
head to the from anterior to
9. Hearts posterior end. posterior ends.
Forward in dorsal
vessel and
Forward in dorsal backward in
10. Veins and vessel. ventral vessel.
capillaries
11. Blood Modified circular
vessels
Modified connecting the
12. Transport posterior part of dorsal and
dorsal aorta ventral vessel in
having thirteen 7th, 9th, 12th, 13th
chambers. segment.
Q. Present
Absent Red, haemoglobin
Colorless, having is dissolved in
no haemoglobin. plasma.
It transports, It transports
digested food and digested food,
excretory excretory
products but no products as well
gases. as gases.
Define the Pulmonary and Systemic circulation.
Pulmonary Circulation
When deoxygenated blood enters in to the right side of the heart to
pump in to the lungs for the oxygenation it is called pulmonary
circulation.
Systemic Circulation
When oxygenated blood enters in to the left side of the heart to be
distributed to all parts of the body is called systemic circulation.
The type of circulation included both systemic and pulmonary
circulation is known as Complete Double Circulation.
Q. Describe the characteristics of single circuit, incomplete

double circuit and complete double circuit circulation in
Animals
Single Circuit circulation plan (Fish)
• Blood flows in one direction and the heart never receives
oxygenated blood for pumping.
• Heart consists of one atrium and one ventricle.
• From aorta the venous blood passes in to the afferent brachial
arteries in to the gills for oxygenation.
• Oxygenated blood runs through efferent brachial arteries and
distributed to the all parts of the body.
Incomplete Double circuit circulation plan (Amphibians &

Reptiles)
• Bloods comes in to heart form two different ways but oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood mix in the ventricle.
• Heart consists of two atrium and one ventricle.
• The deoxygenated blood comes in to the right atrium by vanacava
and goes into the lungs for oxygenation by pulmonary vein.
Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Birds and
Mammals
Heart is Heart is three Heart is tri- Heart is four
simply two chambered chambered chambered
chambered and consists but ventricle with two atria
and atrium of two atria is divided by a and two
receives the and one false septum ventricles
blood through ventricle. which is oxygenated
veins and Right atrium complete in blood
drained the receives crocodilians. circulates
blood in to the deoxygenated through left
conus from the body side and
arteriosus and and left deoxygenated
pumps in to atrium blood through
the body. oxygenated left side.
blood from the These
lungs and organisms
these two have complete
types of blood double circuit
get mixed in circulation.
ventricle to
some extent.
• The oxygenated blood from the lungs comes in left atrium and
distributed throughout the body by arteries.
Complete double circuit circulation plan (Birds & Mammals)

• Blood comes in to heart from two different ways and does not
mix auricles and ventricles are separated by septum.
• The right side of heart receives deoxygenated blood and left
side receives oxygenated blood.
• Deoxygenated blood goes to lungs for oxygenation and
returns bask to heart by pulmonary circulation.
• Oxygenated blood distributed form heart to all parts of the
body and hence it is called double type of circulation except lungs
by systemic circulation.
Q. Give a comparison of evolution of heart in vertebrates.

During the evolution of heart there are many changes takes place in
different organisms.
Q. Define Blood and describe the composition of blood.

Blood
“Blood is a viscous, red fluid connective tissue, comprising colorless
plasma in which the blood corpuscles float”.
Blood corpuscles: These are the blood cells which form the
remaining 45% of the blood. They are of two types; red blood cells
and white blood cells.
Plasma
Blood is a connective tissue in which the matrix is plasma. It
constitutes of about 55% of blood and
Platelets
These are irregular cell fragments, non-nucleated, produced within
the bone marrow. They help in blood clotting. These cells are
produced at the rate of 200 billion a day, and the bloodstream carries
more than a trillion.
Q. Describe the composition of blood plasma.

Plasma of blood composed of following constituents.
Water 92%
Inorganic ions Na, Ca, K, Mg, Cl, HCO3,
HPO4, SO4.
Gases O2, CO2
Protein albumin, globulins,
fibrinogens
Organic nutrients Glucose, fats, phospholipids,
amino acids, etc.
Nitrogenous waste Urea, ammonia, uric acid
products
Q. Regulatory Hormones, enzymes.
substances
Describe the characteristics of Red blood corpuscles
(Erythrocytes).
Red blood corpuscles (Erythrocytes).

• These are biconcave, non nucleated circular plate-like cells.
• Their average diameter is 7-8 micron.
• There are about 4 to 6 million RBCs per mm3 in the whole
blood and each of these contains about 200 million hemoglobin
molecules.
• They contain respiratory pigment hemoglobin which is an
iron bound protein for the attachment of oxygen.
• These are formed in bone marrow and destroy in 120 days
in liver or spleen. The iron retained and rest passed as bile pigment
bilirubin and biliverdin.
• Blood contain an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase which
plays a role in CO 2 transport.
Q. Describe the characteristics of White blood corpuscles

(Leukocytes).
White blood corpuscles (Leukocytes)

• These are nucleated irregular cells, larger but less numerous
than the R.B.Cs with only 7,000-8,000 cells per mm3.
• They are formed in bone marrow, spleen, thymus and lymph
nodes.
• They have a short life and are destroy with in a few 20-30 hrs.
• These are constituted of Granular leukocytes and agranular
leukocytes.
Q. Describe the types and functions of leukocytes.
Granular leukocytes Function

Size
Neutrophils Phagocytize primarily bacteria
9-12µm Phagocytize and destroy antigen-
Eosinophils antibody complexes
9-12µm Congregates in tissues; release
histamine when stimulated.
Basophils
9-12µm
Agranular leukocytes Function
Size
Lymphocytes Produce antibodies in blood and
8-10µm lymph
Monocytes Become macrophage-phagocytize
12-20µm bacteria and viruses
Q. Describe the functions of blood.
Functions of Blood
1. Transport of Nutrition: Blood transports digested food,
water and other substances from alimentary canal to the various
parts of the body.
2. Transport of waste substances: From the tissues to the
excretory organs for their discharge.
3. Transport of metabolic by-products: form the area of
production to other parts of the body.
4. Transport of hormones: from the endocrine glands to the
target organs.
5. Distribution of body heat: to maintain a uniform body
temperature.
6. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide: oxygen is
transported from te lungs to all the parts of the body and carbon
dioxide form the cells to the lungs for removal.
7. Defence against Diseases: By phagocytosis of WBCs germs
are engulfed and digested.
8. Protection against its own loss: By clotting, making a clot
over the injured part.
Q. Write a note on disorders of blood.
The disorders of blood are as follows.

Leukemia
• It is the disorder about increased number of leucocytes in
the blood.
• They obstruct normal blood cell formation in the bone
marrow.
• This cause death most often causes hemorrhage or
infection.
Causes:
• Ionizing radiation, cytotoxic drugs, retroviruses, genetic etc.
Thalassaemia
• In this disorder abnormal type of hemoglobin are produced.
• It mostly occurs when a person is homozygous. These
persons either unable to synthesize hemoglobin or produces in
small amount.
• It is common in children resulting enlargement of kidneys.
Causes:
• Heredity
• Failure to synthesize beta chains.
Q. Write a note on cardiac cycle.
Cardiac Cycle:
“The sequence of events which take place during the completion of
one heart beat is called cardiac cycle”. During heart beat heart
contract and relaxed. The resting period of heart is known as diastole
and the period of contraction is known as systole. The events in
cardiac cycles are as follows:
• The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the
vanacava and left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
• When blood comes in the atria these contracts simultaneously
and blood drained in to the ventricles this event is known as atrial
systole.
• Then immediately ventricles contract this event is termed as
ventricular systole. These movements of the blood are controlled by
valves.
• The volume of blood pumped per minute by the left ventricle
into the systemic circuit is called cardiac output.
Q. Describe the events takes place during heart beat.
Heart Beats
• A human heart beats 72 times per minute at rest and
produce audible sounds.
• When ventricle contract (Systole) blood rushes against the
closed AV valves. This produces the first sound LUB.
• This causes the high pressure of blood in the aorta and tends
to force some blood back towards the ventricles (Diastole) which
closes the aortae valves. This impact of the back flow against the
valves causes the second heart sound DUP.
• One complete systole and diastole lasts for about 0.8
seconds.
• A defect in one or more of the heart valve causes a
condition known as heart murmur, in which hissing sound is
produced.
Q. Define the following.
1) S-A Node 3) Blue babies

2) Pace Maker 4) Artificial Pace Maker.
S-A Node
The contraction of the heart stimulates by a S-A Node situated in a
region of right atrium. It is a vestige of sinusvenosus and consists
of cardiac muscles and few motor nerve endings.
Pace Maker:
S-A node initiates the heart beat and it is also known as pace
maker because it stimulates the contraction of heart muscles.
A-V Node:
It is located near the S-A node and stimulated by the S-A node by
the difference of 0.15 seconds. Its excitation travels all parts of the
ventricle, due to which contraction in ventricles occur.
Artificial Pace Maker:

It is an artificial electronic device that supplies electrical impulses to
the heart to maintain the heart beat at a regular rate. It is place in
the chest beneath the skin in replacement of SAN if not functioning
properly.
Blue Babies:
In medical sciences it is also known as cyanoses. In this abnormality
hemoglobin is reduced and skin becomes bluish. It is mostly caused
by cyanotic heart disease in which atrial septum defect (ASD),
ventricular septum defect (VSD) and persistent ductus arteriosus
occur.
Q. What are the types of blood vessels?
Blood Vessels
Closed vessels through which blood circulates within the body are
known as blood vessels. These are of following types.
1) Arteries
2) Veins
3) Capillaries
Q. Describe the characteristics of arteries.

Arteries
• These blood vessels carry blood from heart to other parts of
the body.
• They carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery.
• Arteries are thick walled to bear the pressure of blood
exerted by the heart.
• These vessels consist of three layers. The outer tunica
externa composed of connective tissues having collagen fibers, the
middle layer tunica media and the inner tunica interna.
• These are elastic with narrow lumen, pulsatile and
maintain the blood flow by their semilunar valves.
• The smaller arteries are known as arterioles contain
sphincters at their capillary ends which regulate the flow of blood.
Q. Describe the characteristics of Veins.

Veins
• These blood vessels bring blood to the heart from other
parts of the body.
• They carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein.
• Veins are thin walled and semilunar valves present that
prevent the backward flow of blood.
• These vessels also consist of three layers. The outer tunica
externa composed of connective tissues having collagen fibers, the
middle layer tunica media and the inner tunica interna.
• These are less elastic and less muscular with wide lumen.
• The flow of blood is less pulsatile and low.
• The smaller veins are known as venule contains sphincters
at their capillary ends which regulate the flow of blood.
Q. Describe the characteristics of capillaries.

Capillaries
• The capillaries are the extremely narrow (7-10 micron in
diameter), thin walled microscopic vessels.
• Their walls consist of a single layer of endothelium, which
presents very little resistance to the diffusion of dissolved substances
in or out.
• Material exchange only by diffusion or active transport.
• The nitrogenous waste is filtered through the capillaries in to
the excretory tubules for discharge.
Q. Write a note on blood pressure.

Blood Pressure
“Blood pressure is the hydrostatic force exerted by the blood
against unit area of the vessel wall”.
It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). The well known
apparatus for blood pressure measurement is known as
sphygmomanometer. When the arterioles are constricted
(vasoconstriction) the blood pressure rises; when they are dilated
(Vasodialation), the blood pressure falls. Blood pressure during
systole of the ventricle is about 120mm Hg and 80 mm Hg during
diastole. This is expressed as a B.P. of 120/80. The difference
between systolic and diastolic pressure is called pulse pressure.
Blood Flow
Blood flow through the vessels in uneven speed in large arteries it is
fast and in capillaries it flows slowly, permitting the exchange of
materials between the blood and interstitial fluid.
Q. Briefly describe the Lymphatic System.

The lymphatic system defends the body from foreign invasion by
disease causing agents such as viruses, bacteria, or fungi. The
lymphatic system consists macroscopically of: the bone marrow,
spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, and a few
other organs.
The lymph system contains a network of vessels that assists in
circulating body fluids. These vessels transport excess fluids away
from interstitial spaces in body tissue and return it to the
bloodstream. Lymphatic vessels prevent the backflow of the lymph
fluid. They have specialized organs called lymph nodes which filter
out destroyed microorganisms.
Q. Describe the components of Lymphatic system.
The components of lymphatic system are Lymph, Lymph capillaries,

vessel, and Lymph Glands/Nodes.
Lymph.—Lymph, found only in the closed lymphatic vessels, is a
transparent, colorless, or slightly yellow, watery fluid of specific
gravity about 1.015; it closely resembles the blood plasma, but is
more dilute. When it is examined under the microscope, leucocytes
of the lymphocyte class are found floating in the transparent fluid.
Lymphatic Capillaries.—The complex capillary plexuses which

consist of a single layer of thin flat endothelial cells lie in the
connective-tissue spaces in the various regions of the body to which
they are distributed and are bathed by the intercellular tissue fluids.
Lymphatic Vessels.—The lymphatic vessels are delicate, and

transparent that the fluid they contain is readily seen through them.
They have some internally valved constrictions, which give them a
knotted or beaded appearance. Lymphatic vessels have been found
in nearly every organ of the body which contains blood vessels.
Lymph Glands/Nodes.—The lymph glands are small oval or bean-

shaped bodies, situated in the course of lymphatic and lacteal vessels
so that the lymph and chyle pass through them on their way to the
blood.
Q. Describe the structure of lymph gland
Structure of Lymph Glands/Nodes.

A lymph gland consists of
(1) A fibrous envelope or capsule.
(2) Quantity of lymphoid tissue occupying these spaces without
completely filling them.
(3) A free supply of blood vessels and
(4) The afferent and efferent vessels communicating through the
lymph paths in the substance of the gland.
Q. Write a note on functions of lymphatic system.
Functions of lymphatic system

1. Drainage system:
It provides ways to transport water and plasma proteins that have
dropped away from the blood vessels and poured back to
circulation. Without which death occur in 24 hrs.
2. Defense of the body:

Any foreign organisms are removed by macrophages residing in the
lymph nodes.
3. Absorption and delivery of fats:

Lymph capillaries called lacteals absorb fats in intestinal villies and
delivered to the blood circulatory system.
Q. Define Edema and describe its causes.
Edema
“It refers to increased fluid in the interstitial tissues spaces or
body cavities”.
It may be localized or systemic.
Causes of Edema
• Congestive heart failure
• Malnutrition (most common cause)
• Lymphatic obstruction e.g. filariases.
• Rena insufficiency
• Hypertension
• Angiogenesis (formation of blood vessels)
Q. Write a note on Atherosclerosis.
Atherosclerosis
“It denotes thickening and loss of elasticity of arterial walls”. It is a
slowly progressive disease of arteries characterized by formation of
atheromatous plaques (deposition of cholesterol in vessel lumen)
which cause narrowing of lumen impairing blood flow.
Histology
It consists of
a) Superficial fibrous cap made of smooth muscles cells,
Leucocytes and dense connective tissue extracellular matrix.
b) Beneath the cap, there is a “necrotic core”. This contains dead
cells, lipids, cholesterol, foam cells, plasma proteins, proliferating
blood vessels in the periphery.
Causes:
Increasing age, Male, Family history, Hypertension, Hyperlipidemia
(high cholesterol, high triglycerides), Cigarette smoking, Diabetes,
Obesity, Physical inactivity, Stress etc.
Effects
It can cause “Angina Pectoris”. In which patient presents with
severe pain in the chest radiating towards left shoulders, arms or
jaws. It occurs due to decreased blood supply to heart because of
atherosclerosis in coronary artery.
Q. Describe Hypertension.
Hypertension
“Sustained high blood pressure is known as hypertension.” It is
also known as silent killer. If the systolic blood pressure is above
140 and the diastolic blood pressure is about 90 at least two
readings on separate occasion is considered hypertension.
Q. Write a note on Myocardial infarction (Heart attack).
“Acute ischemic necrosis (death of the part of heart muscles) of an

area of myocardium is known as myocardial infarction”. This is also
known as heart attack.
Explanation: when an area of heart muscle is deprived of oxygen
and nutrients due to impairment of blood supply as a result of
coronary thrombosis are embolism, that area is died and heart
muscles is necrosed or infracted.
Q. What is immune system define immunity.
Immune System
Immune System, group of cells, molecules, and organs that act
together to defend the body against foreign invaders that may cause
disease, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The health of the body
is dependent on the immune system's ability to recognize and then
repel or destroy these invaders.
Immunity:
"The ability to resist microorganisms, their toxins if any, foreign
cells, and abnormal cells of the body is termed as immunity".
Q. What are the components of immune system?
The components of immune system are as follows:

• Macrophages
White .blood cells are the mainstay of the immune system. Some
white blood cells, known: as macrophages, play a function in innate
immunity by surrounding, ingesting, and destroying invading
bacteria and other foreign organisms in a process called
phagocytosis.
• Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells whose function is to
identify and destroy invading antigens. Some lymphocytes mature
in the bone marrow and are called B lymphocytes. Other
lymphocytes, called T lymphocytes, or T cells, mature in the thymus
gland
• Antigen Receptors
Each lymphocyte, as it matures, makes an antigen receptor that is,
a specific structure on its surface that can bind with a matching
structure on the antigen like a lock and key.
• Antigen-Presenting Cells
When, an antigen enters a body cell, certain transport molecules
within the cell attach themselves to the antigen and transport it to
the surface of the cell, where they "present" the antigen to T
lymphocytes.
Q. What are the types of immune system?
The immune system can be divided into two functional divisions.

(1) Innate immune system and (2) Adaptive immune system
Innate Immune System

Innate, or nonspecific, immunity is the body's first and second,
generalized line of defense against all invaders. Innate immunity is
furnished by barriers such as skin, tears, mucus, and saliva, as well
as by the rapid inflammation of tissues that takes place shortly after
injury or infection.
Adaptive Immune System
This is the third line of defense which comes in to play
simultaneously with the second line of defense. This comprises of B
and T lymphocyte or cells which comes from bone marrow and
thymus gland respectively.
Q. What includes in the first and second line of defense in the

body?
• The skin and mucous membrane with their secretions are the
first line of defense which stops majority of the infectious
microorganisms.
• When microorganisms intrude inside the body they
encountered a second line of defense comprises of phagocytes,
antimicrobial proteins and inflammatory response.
Q. What are the functions of natural killer cells?
Natural Killer cells

These are small population of lymphocytes, distinctly different
from the lymphocyte involved in the adaptive defense
mechanisms. They secrete a cytolytic substance called perforin
that disintegrate, destroy the infected cell. These cells also
secrete chemical that enhance the inflammation.
Q. What are the functions of Adaptive Immune System?
The adaptive immune system mounts two types of attacks termed

as
1) Humoral immunity and 2) Cell mediated immunity
Humoral Immunity:
"Immunity provided by the antibodies secreted in the circulatory
system by B cells is termed as humoral immunity". This is
particularly helpful in bacterial invasion. Infection is cured by the
some of the B cells called plasma cells which secrete antibodies in
to the circulation.
Cell Mediated Immunity (CMI):
"This includes the second family of lymphocytes called T cells, which
do not secrete antibodies". They mediate immunity by killing
infected cells, and aiding in inflammation. This is important in the
defense against tumor cells and fungi and parasites.
Q. What are cytokines and interferons?

Cytokines (Lymphokines)
T cells synthesize and secrete polypeptides called cytokines that

enhances certain cellular responses to antigens. Cytokines
interleukin I and II stimulate and proliferate T cells repectively.
Certain cytokines shut off the immune response. Other cytokines
like colony stimulating factors (CSF’s) stimulates the production of
leukocytes in the red bone marrow, causes B cells to grow and
mature and activate macrophages.
Interferons
Interferons are hormone like polypeptides that certain cells
produce including lymphocytes and fibroblasts. Interferons inhibit
viral multiplication and increase the activity of the natural killer
cells. Once released from the virally infected cells, interferon binds
to receptors on uninfected cells, stimulating them to synthesize
proteins that block replication of a variety of viruses.
Q. What are primary and secondary immune responses?
Primary Immune Response
The first exposure of an antigen to the immune system elicits
formation of clones' effector cells to develop specific immunity.
This response of the immune system is termed as primary
immune response. Beginning from the infection to the
development of maximum effector cells takes about 5 to 10 days.
Secondary Immune Response
If re-infection occurs by the same pathogen the immune system
respond quicker in 3 to 5 days with the help of immunological
memory of the immune system this is called secondary immune
response. This response is bases upon the long lasting memory cells
produced with the short lived effecter cells of the primary immune
response
Q. Describe the active and passive immunity.
Active Immunity
"Immunity acquired by own immune response is called active
immunity if it is the consequence of a natural infection". It can be
acquired by artificially by vaccination. In this case it is said to be
Artificial Active Immunity.
Passive Immunity
"If antibodies transferred to one person were derived from another
of the same species it is termed as passive immunity". Fro example,
a pregnant woman passes some of her antibodies to her fetus
through placenta.
Passive immunity can also be transferred artificially by introducing
antibodies. It can be derived from those animals or human beings
which are immune to that disease and then termed as Artificial
Passive Immunity. For example rabies is treated in man by injecting
antibodies derived from persons who have been already vaccinated
against rabies.
Q. Define Immunization.
Immunization
Immunization is a process of inducing immunity as a preventive
measure against the certain infectious disease. The incidence of a
number of diseases (e.g. diphtheria, measles. etc.) has declined
dramatically since the introduction of effective immunization
programmers.
Q. Describe the mechanism of ascent of sap through root
pressure theory and Transpiration Pull.
Root Pressure: A Mechanism to "Push" Xylem Sap Up the Plant

When transpiration is low, active transport of ions into the xylem
decreases the stele's (the root stele is basically everything
surrounded by the endodermis primarily the xylem and the
phloem) water potential and causes water to flow into the stele.
This osmotic water uptake increases pressure which forces fluid
up the xylem this is called root pressure.
• Water passively flows into the roots, pushing the water up
against gravity
• Water that reaches the leaves due to root pressure is often
forced out, causing a beading of water upon the leaf tips known as
guttation (exudation of water droplets at leaf margins opening
called hydathodes).
• In most plants, however, root pressure is not the primary
mechanism for transporting the xylem
• Root pressure is not the major mechanism driving the
ascent of xylem sap. It can not keep up with transpiration and it
can only force water up a few meters.
Transpiration Pull (A dhes ion -Cohesion-Tension theory)

Water Movement in Xylem through TACT Mechanism
Four important forces combine to transport water solutions from
the roots, through the xylem elements, and into the leaves. These
TACT forces are:
• Transpiration
• Ad he sio n
• Co he sio n
• Tension
Transpiration involves the pulling of water up through the xylem of
a plant utilizing the energy of evaporation and the tensile strength
of water.
Adhesion is the attractive force between water molecules and other
substances. Because both water and cellulose are polar molecules
there is a strong attraction for water within the hollow capillaries of
the xylem.
Cohesion force within xylem gives it a tensile strength equivalent
to that of steel is the attractive force between molecules of the same
substance. Water has an unusually high cohesive force again due to
the 4 hydrogen bonds each water molecule potentially has with any
other water molecule. It is estimated that water's cohesive wire of
similar diameter.
Tension can be thought of as a stress placed on an object by a
pulling force. This pulling force is created by the surface tension
which develops in the leaf air spaces. In other words, as the water
surface becomes more curved tension increases. According to
Campbell "Tension is a negative pressure i.e. a force that pulls
water from locations where the water potential is greater." The bulk
flow of water to the top of a plant is driven by solar energy since
evaporation from leaves is responsible for transpiration pull.
Q. Describe the translocation of organic solutes.
Definition
"The transport of the products of photosynthesis by phloem to the
rest of the plant is called Translocation".
Explanation
In angiosperms, sieve-tube specialized cells of phloem that function
in translocation. Sieve-tube cells (Phloem) are arranged end-to-end
forming long sieve tubes. Porous cross walls called sieve plates are
in between the membranes and allow water to move freely along the
sieve tubes. Phloem sap contains primarily sucrose, but also
minerals, amino acids and hormones.
The phloem transport is also referred as source to sink
transport
Source-to-sink transport
Phloem sap movement is not unidirectional; it moves through the sieve
tubes from source to a sink organs.
• Source: An organ of a plant where sugar is produced by
photosynthesis or by the breakdown of starch (usually leaves)
• Sink: An organ of a plant that consumes or stores sugar (growing
parts of plant, fruits, non green stems and trunks, and others).
Sugar flows from source to sink

• Source and sink depend on season. A tuber is a sink when stock
pilling in the summer, but its a source in the spring.
• The sink is usually supplied by the closest source.
• Direction of flow in phloem can change, depending on locations
of source and sink.
Phloem loading and unloading
There are steps involve in the movement of photosynthetic products with
in the leaf.
• Sucrose produced in the cytosol of mesophyll cells (source) of leaf
and translocated into sieve-tubes before it can be translocated to a sink
this step is called Phloem loading.
• This occurs with in the vein of a leaf and called short distance
transport and solutes travels only two or three cell diameter.
• In some plant species, the sugar may move through the symplast
from mesophyll cells to sieve members.
• Sucrose in sieve elements moved away from the source tissues
to the long distance sink reservoirs this process ids termed as phloem
unloading.
• In some plants, sucrose is unloaded from phloem by active
transport. While in other species diffusion moves the sucrose from the
phloem into the cells of the sink.
• Both symplastic and apoplastic routes may be involved.
• The source and sink may be reversed depending on the season, or
the plant's needs. Sugar stored in roots may be mobilized to become a
source of food in the early spring when the buds of trees, the sink, need
energy for growth and development of the photosynthetic apparatus.
Q. Describe the mechanism of phloem translocation.

OR
Q. Describe the pressure flow or mass flow Hypothesis (Munch
Hypothesis).
The accepted mechanism needed for the translocation of sugars from

source to sink is called the pressure flow hypothesis. Phloem
translocation or Pressure Flow Hypothesis was proposed by Ernest
Munch in 1930 according to him "The flow of solution in the sieve
elements is driven by a pressure gradient is produced due to
differences in osmotic pressure between sources and sink”.
Explanation
• As glucose is made at the source (by photosynthesis) it is
converted to sucrose (a dissacharide). The sugar is then moved into
companion cells and into the living phloem sieve tubes by active
transport. This process of loading at the source produces a hypertonic
condition in the phloem.
• Water in the adjacent xylem moves into the phloem by osmosis.
As osmotic pressure builds the phloem sap will move to areas of lower
pressure.
• At the sink osmotic pressure must be reduced. Again active
transport is necessary to move the sucrose out of the phloem sap and
into the cells which will use the sugar converting it into energy,
starch, or cellulose. As sugars are removed osmotic pressure
decreases and water moves out of the phloem.
• Phloem sap flows up to 1 meter per hour, too fast for just
diffusion or cytoplasmic streaming. The flow is by a bulk flow
(pressure-flow) mechanism; buildup of pressure at the source and
release of pressure at the sink causes source-to-sink flow.
Mechanism:
• At the source end, phloem loading causes high solute
concentrations.
• Water potential decreases, so water flows into tubes creating
hydrostatic pressure.
• Hydrostatic pressure is greatest at the source end of the tube.
• At the sink end, the water potential is lower outside the tube
due to the unloading of sugar; osmotic loss of water releases
hydrostatic pressure.
• Xylem vessels recycle water from the sink to the source.
Q. Explain the structure and function of Human Heart.
The human heart is the most powerful organ in the circulatory

system. It works continuously like a muscular pump and keeps the
blood in circulation.
Shape and position:

The heart is conical in shape and is located between the lungs
directly behind the sternum.
Structure:
Heart is covered by a double layered membrane called Pericardium
filled with pericardial fluid and consists of four chambers. Two upper
thin walled atria and two lower thick walled ventricles. Two large
veins, superior and inferior vana cava enter the right atrium and two
pairs of pulmonary veins; open in to the left atrium. Similarly two
large arteries emerge out. One from the right ventricle and
pulmonary aorta and the other from the left ventricle, Systemic aorta.
Atriums:
Internally, the right atrium is separated by a ventricle through inter-
atrial septum. The right atrium opens in to the right ventricle by an
aperture guarded by a tricuspid valve. The atrium opens into the left
ventricle by the aperture guarded by a bicuspid valve. Semilunar
valve guards the emergence of the pulmonary and systemic aorta.
These valves prevent backward flow of blood and allow it to move in
forward direction.
Ventricles:
The right and left ventricles are also separated by a thick muscular
inter-ventricular septum. The walls of the ventricles have papillary
muscles for the attachment of delicate fibers chordea tendinae which
are attached to the cusps of the valves. These fibers do not let the
valves open back into the atria when the ventricles contract. The left
ventricle is narrower then the right ventricle because of more
muscular walls and it has to pump the blood into the lungs only
(pulmonary circulation) while the left ventricle pump the blood to the
entire body (systemic circulation).
Path of blood in the heart:

• The anterior vanacava and the inferior vanacava carrying
deoxygenated blood enter the right atrium.
• The right atrium sends blood through an atrio-ventricular valve
to the right ventricle.
• The right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary
semilunar valve in to the pulmonary trunk and the pulmonary
arteries to the lungs.
• The pulmonary veins carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs
enter the left atrium.
• The left atrium sends blood through an atrio-ventricular valve
to the left ventricle.
• The left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar
valve into the body proper.
Q. Explain in detail the Cardiovascular Disorders (CVD).

“Diseases of heart blood vessels and circulation are termed as
Cardiovascular disorders”.
a) Atherosclerosis:
“It denotes thickening and loss of elasticity of arterial walls”.

It is a slowly progressive disease of arteries characterized by
formation of atheromatous plaques which cause narrowing of
lumen impairing blood flow.
Atheromatous Plaques: - “It is a raired yellowish white intimal

lesion protruding into vessel lumen”. It is also called Atheroma.
Major Causes:
• Increasing age, Male, Family history, Hypertension
• Hyperlipidemia (high cholesterol, high triglycerides)
• Cigarette smoking, Diabetes
Minor causes:
• Obesity, Physical inactivity, Stress, Alcohol
• High Carbohydrate intake, Post menopausal estrogen deficiency
• Low density Lipoprotein (LDL).
Effects:
It can cause “Angina Pectoris”. In which patient presents with
severe pain in the chest radiating towards left shoulders, arms or
jaws. It occurs due to decreased blood supply to heart because of
atherosclerosis in coronary artery.
a) Hypertension:
“Sustained high blood pressure is known as hypertension.” It is
also known as silent killer. If the systolic blood pressure is above
140 and the diastolic blood pressure is about 90 at least two
readings on separate occasion is considered hypertension.
Causes:
• Heredity, High intake of salts in the diet, Alcohol,
Smoking
• Obesity, Kidney disorders, Adrenal glands disorder
Effects:
• Stroke, Heart attack, Atherosclerosis
b) Thrombus Formation:
“When atheromatous plaques destroy endothelium of blood vessels,
platelets start adhering to site of injury causing clot formation
which block blood vessel.”
Effects:
It impairs blood supply to related organ. Due to lack of oxygen and
nutrients, function of organ is deranged.
Embolus: - “If a clot dislodges from its site of origin and travels in
blood stream, called embolus”.
c) Coronary Thrombus:
“Narrowing of one of coronary arteries due to thrombus formation
is called coronary thrombosis”. It impairs blood supply to heart
muscles so cutting oxygen and nutrients, thus that portion become
necrosed and finally infracted.
Effects:
Myocardial infarction (Heart attack)
d) Myocardial infarction----Heart attack

“Acute ischemic necrosis (death of the part of heart muscles) of an
area of myocardium is known as myocardial infarction”. This is also
known as heart attack.
Explanation:
When an area of heart muscle is deprived of oxygen and nutrients
due to impairment of blood supply as a result of coronary
thrombosis or embolism, that area is died and heart muscles are
necrosed or infracted.
e) Stroke and prevention

“Damage to part of brain due to blockage of its blood supply or
rupture of blood vessels”.
Effects:
It causes impairment of
• Sensations
• Movement
• Any function controlled by that part of brain.
Prevention of Stroke
• Keep blood pressure at normal range.
• Avoid smoking, much salt and fat intake.
• Exercise should be made regularly.
• Make life easy and tension free.
Haemorrhage:
“It is defined as the escape of blood from the vessels”. The massive
accumulation of blood within a tissue is called haematoma.
Prevention of heart diseases:

Heart diseases can be presented by following measures:
• Keeping blood pressure normal through proper diet.
• Weight reduction
• Reduction in Alcohol use
• Stop smoking
• Salt restriction
• Avoid stress
• Avoid fatty diet (like cake, pastries).
• Use of cocking oil not ghee
• Daily brisk walking of at least thirty minutes
• Daily exercises.
Q. Describe the innate immune system in detail
The immune system can be divided into two functional divisions.
(1) Innate immune system and (2) Adaptive immune system
Innate Immune System

Innate, or nonspecific, immunity is the body's first, generalized line of
defense against all invaders. Innate immunity is furnished by
barriers such as skin, tears, mucus, and saliva, as well as by the
rapid inflammation of tissues that takes place shortly after injury or
infection. These innate immune mechanisms hinder the entrance
and spread of disease but can rarely prevent disease completely.
It comprises of following defense lines
• First line of Defense (Skin and Mucous Membranes)
The skin mucous membrane with their secretions are the first line of
defense which stops majority of the infectious microorganisms. While
most of which can enter through the mucus membranes that lines
the. digestive, respiratory and urino-genital tracts however these
areas are protected by mucous membranes.
• Second Line of Defense (Lysozyme, Gastric Juice etc)
When microorganisms intrude inside the body they encountered a

second line of defense; comprises of phagocytes, antimicrobial
proteins and inflammatory response.
(a) Phagocytes: These are certain type of WBC which can ingest,
internalize and destroy the particles including infectious agents.
These are Neutrophils, Monocytes which can be developed in to
macrophage and called antigen presenting cells. Some other WBCs
are called natural killer cells that destroy virally infected cells of the
body by releasing specific proteins which causes lysis of the cell.
(b) Antimicrobial Proteins: These are mainly lysozyme,
complement proteins and interferons.
• Lysozyme: Is an enzyme present in tears, saliva and mucus
secretion and cause lysis of bacteria.
• Complement Proteins: Serve as chemoattrants for
macrophages and promote phagocytosis of bacteria.
• Interferons: These are secreted by virally infected cells or some
lymphocytes to induce a state of antiviral resistance in uninfected
tissues of the body.
(c) Inflammation: It is the body's reaction to an injury or by
the entry of microorganisms. It is characterized by redness, heat,
swelling and pain in the injured tissues. At the site of injury
phagocytes eat up microorganisms dirt, cell debries etc. forming
pus.
(d) Natural Killer cells: These are small population of
lymphocytes, distinctly different from the lymphocyte involved
in the adaptive defense mechanisms. They secrete a cytolytic
substance called perforin that disintegrate, destroy the infected
cell. These cells also secrete chemical that enhance the
inflammation.
Q. Describe in detail the Adaptive Immune System.

Adaptive Immune System
This is the third line of defense which comes in to play
simultaneously with the second line of defense. This comprises of B
and T lymphocyte or cells which comes from bone marrow and
thymus gland respectively.
The foreign proteins or organism in side the body are consider as
antigen and immune system respond to antigen by antibodies
which are lymphocytes and soluble proteins.
The adaptive immune system mounts two types of attacks termed
as
2) Humoral immunity and 2) Cell mediated immunity
Humoral Immunity:
"Immunity provided by the antibodies secreted in the circulatory
system by B cells is termed as humoral immunity". This is
particularly helpful in bacterial invasion.
• The antibody serves as antigenic receptor to which antigen
attaches and form antigen-antibodies complex.
• B cells divide and enlarged and form Plasma cells (effector
cells) which secrete antibodies into the circulation that help to
eliminate that particular antigen.
• A plasma cell is an antibody factory it has a huge golgi
apparatus and at the peak of infection plasma cell may produce 2000
antibody molecules a second.
• Some of the effector cells do not secrete antibody and called
memory cells and preventing the body for re-infection.
• Moreover antibodies neutralize the toxins released by bacteria
and also cause agglutination of the microorganisms.
Cell Mediated Immunity (CMI):

"This includes the second family of lymphocytes called T cells, which
do not secrete antibodies". They mediate immunity by killing
infected cells, and aiding in inflammation. This is important in the
defense against tumor cells and fungi and parasites. Cells
contribute in this immunity are;
Helper T cells (T h ), Cytotoxic T cells (Tc), Suppressor T cells (Ts)

and Memory T cells (T m ).
(a) Helper T cells (T h ) identify the site of action of antigen by

its own "Major Histo-compatibility complex (MCH) Class II (molecules
on the surface of macrophage or B cells). These cells stimulate B cells
to produce antibodies. A type of T h CD 4 is the prime target of HIV.
MCH class II antigens occur on the surface of antigen presenting
cells, thymus cells, and activated T cells.
(b) Cytotoxic T cells (Tc) recognize a combination of antigenic
fragment and surface maker molecules called MHC Class I. Class I
antigens are within cell membranes of all body cells except red blood
cells. Tc recognizes nonself antigens that cancerous cells or virally
infected cells display on their surfaces near MHC protein. Tc cells
binds with antigen, proliferate and releases a protein called perforin
that destroy the cancerous and virally infected cells.
(c) After the infection is conquered, another group of T cells
called suppressor T cells (Ts) seems to shut off the immune
response in both B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
(d) Memory T cells (Tm) are among the many T cells produced
upon the initial exposure to an antigen, but they include only those
cells not responding to the antigen at that time. These cells provide
for a no-delay response to any future exposure to the same antigen,
with immediate differentiation into cytotoxic T cells.
(e)
==============
ZOOLOGY-I
1) Though enzymes are mostly proteins, certain molecules of RNA also function as enzymes
and are called
(Enzymes, RNA enzymes, Ribozymes, Nucleozymes)
2) conjugated enzymes showing complete activity are termed

(holoenzymes, apoenzyme, coenzyme, cofactor)
3) which of the following could be a co-factor for the enzyme

(CoA, FAD, Vitamin B derivative, Ca ion)
4) Non-competitive inhibitor binds to the ____ site of enzyme

(active, allosteric, both, none)
5. When one molecule of Glucose is combined with fructose it forms.

(a) Maltose (b) Galactose (c) Lactose (d) Sucrose
6. Unsaturated fatly acids are those compounds having.
(a) No double bonds (b) Double bonds (c) Double & triple bonds (d) All
7. Mucoids are another name of
(a) Nucloproteins (b) Lipoproteins (c) Glycolipids (d) Glycoprotein
8. Which of the following is an activator of Carbonic Anhydrase.
(a) Mn +2 (b) Mg+2 (c) Zn+2 (d) Fe+2
9. Parathion are inhibitors of enzymes in:
(a) Muscular system (b) Nervous system (c) Respiratory system (d) Digestive system
10. Globigerina Ooze belongs to:
(a) Suctoria (b) Sarcodina (c) Ciliata (d) Sporozoa
11) Chains of amino acid are held together in Insulin by
*Peptide bond *Glycosidic bond *Disulphide bridge *H–bond
12) At low concentration of substrate the reaction rate is directly proportional to the
*Enzyme available *pH *Amount of substrate available *Temperature
13) Highest molecular weight carbohydrate among the following is
*Glucose *Cellulose *Fructose *Sucrose
14) Which of the following is incorrectly matched
*sponges --- no tissue *Cnidaria--- gastro-vascular cavity
* flat worm--- hooks and suckers * earth worm---tube within a tube
15) Medreporite is a component of(Digestive system of starfish,Water vascular system of
echinoderms, Excretory system in cockroach, Excretory system of echinoderms)
16) Pick the odd one out (Gastric hcl activates pepsin, Secretin from the duodenum causes
secretion of pancreatic trypsinogen, Trypsinogen is activated to trypsin by enterokinase,
Secretin is released due to alkalinity of duodenum)
17) The stimulus for peristalsis is ___ (Food, distension, water, nervous system)
18) Which of the following statement is true regarding digestion of fats (It begins in the
mouth, It occurs in the stomach due to acidic ph, Action of lipase on fats require prior
ZOOLOGY-I
emulsification by bile, Fats are digested by means of enzymes coming from the stomach)
19) There are ___ pairs of spiracles in the ___ system of cockroach
(10---tracheal, 10---lungs, 10---gills, 08---tracheal)
20) Emphysema increases the residual volume of lung at the expence of (Total lung
capacity, tidal volume, Vital capacity, all of these)
21) Hb carries ____ times more O2 than water (60, 70, 80, 100)
22) All are true regarding arteries except (There lumen is narrower than that of vein, They
carry blood towards the heart, Pulmonary artery carries deO2 blood, There wall is
thicker than that of vein and they have a pulse)
23) Heart pumps only deO2 blood in which of the following animal groups (Fishes, birds,
reptiles, amphibians)
24) Life span of an erythrocyte is approx ___ days (30, 60, 90, 120)
25) A/c to key lock theory, Which of the following behave as lock: a) Enzyme b) Substrate
c) Inhibitor d) Co-enzyme
26) Cells of Endoderm of sponges are:
(a) Porocytes (b) Amoebocytes (c) Pinacocytes (d) Choanocytes
27. Filariasis is caused by:
(a) Ascasis (b) Wuchereria (c) Ancyclostoma (d) Flat worm
28. Which of the following is Peacock worm:
(a) Neries (b) Earthworm (c) Leech (d) Sabella
29. Which of the following is not a fish:
(a) star fish (b) Silver fish (c) Cuttle fish (d) All
30. Chewing and lapping type of mouth parts are found in:
(a) Cockroach (b) mosquito (c) Honeybee (d) Housefly
31. Mammals are evolved from which group of Reptiles:
(a) Sphenodon (b) Therapsida (c) Thecodont (d) None of these
32) Notochord lies between ___ & ____
(nerve cord---gut; nerve cord---vertebral column; vertebral column---gut; muscles and
bony skeleton)
33) The pigment that gives red color to muscles is
(haemoglobin, myoglobin, keratin, melanin)
34) The heart of following group of animals never receive oxygenated blood
(fishes, amphibians, mammals, birds)
35) Blood does not transport gases in which of the following animal
(fishes, frog, earthworm, cockroach)
36) Carboxy haemoglobin is formed
*When carbon dioxide combines with amino groups
*When carbon dioxide combines with amino groups of haemoglobin
*When carbon dioxide combines with amino groups oxyhaemoglobin
*When carbon dioxide combines with oxygen
37) Psychological disorder in which loss of appetite occur is:
(a) Malnutrition (b) Anorexia (c) Bulimia (d) Piles
38) Which of the following movement pattern is correctly paired; In expiration:

ZOOLOGY-I
(a) Ribs out and diaphragm down (b) Ribs in and diaphragm down (c) Ribs out and
diaphragm up (d) Ribs in and diaphragm up
39) Which of the following is false regarding repiratory system of birds
(Lungs are internally subdivided into numerous parabronchi,
Birds have 8 to 9 air sacs in addition to lungs,
Bird must take 2 breaths to move air completely through the system,
Ventilation in birds is incomplete type)
40) Estrogen is an example of:
a) Terpense b) Steroids c) Carotenoids d) Phospholipid
41) Nitrogenous bases combine with which carbon of Pentose sugar:
a) 5th b) 1st c) 3rd d) 4th
42) Which of the following is commonly known as ‘cerebrosides’:
a) Glycoprotein b) Nucleoprotein c) Glycolipids d) Lipoproteins
43) The pesticides DDT and PARATHION are inhibitors of key enzymes in the ___ system
(Nervous, cardiac, Digestive, vascular)
44) regarding integrated disease management and biological control, all statements are true
except
(interplanting limits the spread and control infections,
Weed parasites are reduced through crop rotation,
Biological pest control involves exposing them to predators and parasites,
None are false)
45) Each Hb molecule can bind with how many O2 molecules: (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 1
46) . Most of the WBC’s of blood are: (a) Eosinophills (b) Lymphocytes (c) Basophils (d)
Neutrophils
47) Aqua culture is another name of:
a) Cloning b) Forming c) Asexual reproduction d) Hydroponics
48) Which of the following statement is false regarding blood flow
(Blood flows through vessels at uneven speed,
Flow is much faster in arteries than capillaries,
As blood leaves capillary bed to pass into veins, it speeds up again,
Blood flow through capillaries is fastest than in other vessels)
49) which of the following is false regarding immunity
(humoral immunity is antibody mediated via B cells, cell mediated immunity is due to T
lymphocytes, rabies vaccine is an eg of artificial passive immunity, generally vaccines are
a sort of natural active immunity)
50) which of the following statement is true
(difference b/w systolic and diastolic pressure is called blood pressure, blood flows much
faster in capillaries as compared to arteries, hypertension is mean arterial pressure
greater than 110 mm Hg under resting condition, massive accumulation of blood in tissue
is called thrombus)
51) which of the following statements is false regarding immune sustem
( skin and mucous membranes form the 1st line of defence,
Iannate immune response is the 2nd line of defence
Adaptive immune response forms the 4th line of defence,
ZOOLOGY-I
Innate immune responce comprises of phagocytic, antimicrobial and inflammatory
activity)
52) Which of the following statement is false regarding CVDs?
(Atherosclerosis is a disease of the tunica intima that loses its elasticity,
Hypertension is mean BP>110 corresponding to BP Of >135/90
Thrombus (clot ) in the coronary artery or carotid artery leads to myocardial infarction and
stroke respectively,
Smoking, tension and sedentary lifestyle provides protection against CVDs)
53) what diffentiating points are true for cell mediated and humoral immunity
(Specific. And non specific,
Presence of memory cell in one and not in other,
T cell and b cell mediated,
Early and delayed onset)
54) which of these is an eg of artificial passive immunity
(Colustrum, rabies vaccine, passage of antibodies from,mother during delivery, all of
these)
55) Which of these is an eg of artificial active immunity

(Rabies vaccine, polio vaccine, colustrum, from mother to baby)
56) Regarding innate and adaptive immune response, which of the following is true
(Innate response is rapid and very specific,
Adaptive response is rapid and nonspecific,
Adaptive response is of slow onset but specific,
Innate response is slow onset and nonspecific)
57) Cyanosis accurs in all of the following conditions except
( VSD, ASD, Persistent Ductus Arteriosus, atherosclerosis)
58) True about phagocytes
(Eg include monocytes and neutrophils,
neutrophils are also called antigen presenting cells
Macrophages present the antigen along with the cell surface markers MHC to B cell
T cells do require antigen presentation by the phagocytes)
59) Lymphatic system comprises of the followingin sequence
(Lymph, lymphatics, lymph nodes, ducts draining them to vein
Lymph nodes, lymphatics, lymph , ducts draining them to vein
Lymphatics, lymph, mph nodes, ducts draining them,to vein
ducts draining lymphatics to veins, lymph, lymphatics, lymph nodes)
60) Delay of conduction from SA node to AV node isapproximately ___ seconds
(0.8, 0.15, 1, 60)
61) In cockroach, bolus of food gets enclosed within a thin chitinous yube secreted by
(Pharynx, crop, gizzard, hepatic caeca)
62) Which of the following statement is false regarding respiratory sytem of fishes?
(The donot require energy to ventilate its gills,
Gas exchange in fishes is facilitated by countercurrent flow of water and blood,
Each gill is composed of 2 rows of hundreds of filaments, arranged in v shape,
ZOOLOGY-I
Filaments are arranged around gill bar or gill arch)
63) In Aminoacid if R-group is replaced by CH3:
a) Alanine b) Serine c) Glycine d) Arginine
64) The only organism among the following to perform positive pressure ventilation is
(Fishes. Birds, amphibians, mammals)
65) Percentage of Nitrogen by weight in human body.
a) 1% b) 0.3% c) 9% d) 3.3%
Regarding cardiovascular disorders
(Atherosclerosis results in narrowing of vessels,
Myocardial infarction

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First Year 1 Biology

Q. Define biology. Explain its branches.

Each branch is sub divided into following branches:

Q. What does kingdom Monera include?

Q. What organism Kingdom Protoctista include?

Q. Describe Kingdom Mycetes (Fungi).

Q. Define and describe Kingdom Plantae.

Q. Define Kingdom Animalia.

Q. Describe the levels of biological organization.

CELL AND ORGANELLES

ORGAN AND ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL:

Q. Describe the broader level of biological organization.

BROADER LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Q. Describe the emergence of life on earth by the help of geological

TIME PERIODE OF LIFE ORIGINATION: 2.5 Billions years ago approx.

LIFEORGANIZATION: Acellular as the consequences of gradual

Q. Describe the association among living organisms.

Organisms developed from acellular to multicellular by the process

Q. Write a note on Hydroponics.

Q. Describe phyletic lineage in view of evolution.

Phyletic lineage is an unbroken series of species, which are arranged in

Q. Define cloning. Describe the method and importance of cloning.

• POLLUTION: “This referred to as the unwanted physical or

• DEFORESTATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION: Cut down the

Q. What do we mean by biological control and disease management?

DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q. Explain biological method in detail.

Some of the applications of the biology in the medical sciences are as

• IMMUNIZATION AND VACCINATION:

First antibiotic Penicillin was isolated from a fungus, called penicillium

This technique is also useful for the diagnosis of diseases. This

• INCREASE OF FOOD PRODUCTION:

It helps to get information about structure and formation of biochemical

Q. Briefly describe the Chemical Composition of Cell.

Q. Name the biological molecules present in living organisms.

Q. Describe the chemical nature of water.

Q. Why water is considered as a best solvent?

Q. Water act as amphoteric molecule. How?

Q. Classify the primary types of organic molecules.

Q. Describe the synthesis of large molecules by condensation.

Q. Describe the breaking of large molecules by Hydrolysis.

Q. Briefly describe Carbon element.

Q. Define a functional group and their linkages.

Q. Write a note on Protein.

Q. Describe the functions of Protein.

Q. Briefly describe the structures of protein.

Q. Write a note on Monosaccharides.

Q. Define Oligosaccharides with examples.

Q. Describe Polysaccharides with example

Q. Give a comparison of Starch, Glycogen and Cellulose.

Starch Glycogen Cellulose

Q. Describe the functions of carbohydrates

Q. Briefly describe lipids.

Q. Write a note on Acylglycerol.

(a) Saturated Acylglycerol

(b) Unsaturated Acylglycerol

Q. Briefly describe waxes.

Q. Write a note on Phospholipids

Q. Describe the properties of Terpenoids.

Q. Describe few characters of Steroids.