GPB 1.

1: INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY (1+1=2)

for

First Semester B.Sc (Hons.) Agri.

 LECTURE: 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING WORLD, DIVERSITY AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

INTRODUCTION LIVING WORLD:

Biology is the science of life forms and living processes. The living world comprises an
amazing diversity of living organisms. Early man could easily perceive the difference between
inanimate matter and living organisms. Early man deified some of the inanimate matter (wind,
sea, fire etc.) and some among the animals and plants. A common feature of all such forms of
inanimate and animate objects was the sense of awe or fear that they evoked. The description of
living organisms including human beings began much later in human history. Societies which
indulged in anthropocentric view of biology could register limited progress in biological
knowledge. Systematic and monumental description of life forms brought in, out of necessity,
detailed systems of identification, nomenclature and classification. The biggest spin off of such
studies was the recognition of the sharing of similarities among living organisms both
horizontally and vertically. That all present day living organisms are related to each other and
also to all organisms that ever lived on this earth, was a revelation which humbled man and led to
cultural movements for conservation of biodiversity. In the following chapters of this unit, you
will get a description, including classification, of animals and plants from a taxonomist’s
perspective.
Born on 5 July 1904, in Kempten, Germany, ERNST MAYR, the Harvard University
evolutionary biologist who has been called ‘The Darwin of the 20th century’, was one of the 100
greatest scientists of all time. Mayr joined Harvard’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences in 1953 and
retired in 1975, assuming the title Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology Emeritus. Throughout
his nearly 80-year career, his research spanned ornithology, taxonomy, zoogeography, evolution,
systematics, and the history and philosophy of biology. He almost single-handedly made the
origin of species diversity the central question of evolutionary biology that it is today. He also
pioneered the currently accepted definition of a biological species. Mayr was awarded the three
prizes widely regarded as the triple crown of biology: the Balzan Prize in 1983, the International
Prize for Biology in 1994, and the Crafoord Prize in 1999. Mayr died at the age of 100 in the year
2004. How wonderful is the living world! The wide range of living types is amazing. The
extraordinary habitats in which we find living organisms, be it cold mountains, deciduous forests,
oceans, fresh water lakes, deserts or hot springs, leave us speechless. The beauty of a galloping
horse, of the migrating birds, the valley of flowers or the attacking shark evokes awe and a deep
sense of wonder.
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 The ecological conflict and cooperation among members of a population and among
populations of a community or even the molecular traffic inside a cell make us deeply reflect on –
what indeed is life? This question has two implicit questions within it. The first is a technical one
and seeks answer to what living is as opposed to the non-living, and the second is a philosophical
one, and seeks answer to what the purpose of life is. As scientists, we shall not attempt answering
the second question.

WHAT IS LIVING?
When we try to define ‘living’, we conventionally look for distinctive characteristics
exhibited by living organisms. Growth, reproduction and ability to sense environment are unique
features of living organisms. One can add a few more features like metabolism, ability to self-
replicate, self-organise, interact and emergence to this list. Let us try to understand each of these.
All living organisms grow. Increase in mass and increase in number of individuals are twin
characteristics of growth. A multi-cellular organism grows by cell division. In plants, this growth
by cell division occurs continuously throughout their life span. In animals, this growth is seen
only up to a certain age. However, cell division occurs in certain tissues to replace lost cells.
Unicellular organisms also grow by cell division. One can easily observe this in in vitro cultures
by simply counting the number of cell under the microscope. In majority of higher animals and
plants, growth and reproduction are mutually exclusive events. One must remember that increase
in body mass is considered as growth. Non-living objects also grow if we take increase in body
mass as a criterion for growth. Mountains, boulders and sand mounds do grow. However, this
kind of growth exhibited by non-living objects is by accumulation of material on the surface. In
living organisms, growth is from inside. Growth, therefore, cannot be taken as a defining
property of living organisms. Conditions under which it can be observed in all living organisms
have to be explained and then we understand that it is a characteristic of living systems. A dead
organism does not grow.
Reproduction, likewise, is a characteristic of living organisms. In multi-cellular
organisms, reproduction refers to the production of progeny possessing features more or less
similar to those of parents. Invariably and implicitly we refer to sexual reproduction. Organisms
reproduce by asexual means also. Fungi multiply and spread easily due to the millions of asexual
spores they produce. In lower organisms like yeast and hydra, we observe budding. In Planaria
(flat worms), we observe true regeneration, i.e., a fragmented organism regenerates the lost part
of its body and becomes, a new organism. The fungi, the filamentous algae, the protonema of
mosses, all easily multiply by fragmentation. When it comes to unicellular organisms like
bacteria, unicellular algae or Amoeba, reproduction is synonymous with growth, i.e., increase in
number of cells. We have already defined growth as equivalent to increase in cell number or
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mass. Hence, we notice that in single-celled organisms, we are not very clear about the usage of
these two terms – growth and reproduction. Further, there are many organisms which do not
reproduce (mules, sterile worker bees, infertile human couples, etc). Hence, reproduction also
cannot be an all-inclusive defining characteristic of living organisms. Of course, no non-living
object is capable of reproducing or replicating by itself.
Another characteristic of life is metabolism. All living organisms are made of
chemicals. These chemicals, small and big, belonging to various classes, sizes, functions, etc., are
constantly being made and changed into some other bio-molecules. These conversions are
chemical reactions or metabolic reactions. There are thousands of metabolic reactions occurring
simultaneously inside all living organisms, be they unicellular or multi-cellular. All plants,
animals, fungi and microbes exhibit metabolism. The sum total of all the chemical reactions
occurring in our body is metabolism. No non-living object exhibits metabolism. Metabolic
reactions can be demonstrated outside the body in cell-free systems. An isolated metabolic
reaction(s) outside the body of an organism, performed in a test tube is neither living nor non-
living. Hence, while metabolism is a defining feature of all living organisms without exception,
isolated metabolic reactions in vitro are not living things but surely living reactions. Hence,
cellular organisation of the body is the defining feature of life forms.
Perhaps, the most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organisms is
this ability to sense their surroundings or environment and respond to these environmental stimuli
which could be physical, chemical or biological. We sense our environment through our sense
organs. Plants respond to external factors like light, water, temperature, other organisms,
pollutants, etc. All organisms, from the prokaryotes to the most complex eukaryotes can sense
and respond to environmental cues. Photoperiod affects reproduction in seasonal breeders, both
plants and animals. All organisms handle chemicals entering their bodies. All organisms
therefore, are ‘aware’ of their surroundings. Human being is the only organism who is aware of
himself, i.e., has self-consciousness. Consciousness therefore, becomes the defining property
of living organisms.
When it comes to human beings, it is all the more difficult to define the living state. We
observe patients lying in coma in hospitals virtually supported by machines which replace heart
and lungs. The patient is otherwise brain-dead. The patient has no self-consciousness. Are such
patients who never come back to normal life, living or non-living?
In higher classes, you will come to know that all living phenomena are due to underlying
interactions. Properties of tissues are not present in the constituent cells but arise as a result of
interactions among the constituent cells. Similarly, properties of cellular organelles are not
present in the molecular constituents of the organelle but arise as a result of interactions among
the molecular components comprising the organelle. These interactions result in emergent
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properties at a higher level of organisation. This phenomenon is true in the hierarchy of
organisational complexity at all levels. Therefore, we can say that living organisms are self-
replicating, evolving and self-regulating interactive systems capable of responding to external
stimuli. Biology is the story of life on earth.
Biology is the story of evolution of living organisms on earth. All living organisms –
present, past and future, are linked to one another by the sharing of the common genetic material,
but to varying degrees.

DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD:

If you look around you will see a large variety of living organisms, be it potted plants,
insects, birds, your pets or other animals and plants. There are also several organisms that you
cannot see with your naked eye but they are all around you. If you were to increase the area that
you make observations in, the range and variety of organisms that you see would increase.
Obviously, if you were to visit a dense forest, you would probably see a much greater number
and kinds of living organisms in it. Each different kind of plant, animal or organism that you see,
represents a species. The number of species that are known and described ranged between 1.7-1.8
million. This refers to biodiversity or the number and types of organisms present on earth. We
should remember here that as we explore new areas, and even old ones, new organisms are
continuously being identified.
As stated earlier, there are millions of plants and animals in the world; we know the
plants and animals in our own area by their local names. These local names would vary from
place to place, even within a country. Probably you would recognise the confusion that would be
created if we did not find ways and means to talk to each other, to refer to organisms we are
talking about.
Hence, there is a need to standardise the naming of living organisms such that a
particular organism is known by the same name all over the world. This process is called
nomenclature. Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is
described correctly and we know to what organism the name is attached to. This is
identification.
In order to facilitate the study, numbers of scientists have established procedures to
assign a scientific name to each known organism. This is acceptable to biologists all over the
world. For plants, scientific names are based on agreed principles and criteria, which are provided
in International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). You may ask how animals named.
Animal taxonomists have evolved International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The
scientific names ensure that each organism has only one name. Description of any organism

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should enable the people (in any part of the world) to arrive at the same name. They also ensure
that such a name has not been used for any other known organism.
Biologists follow universally accepted principles to provide scientific names to known
organisms. Each name has two components – the Generic name and the specific epithet. This
system of providing a name with two components is called Binomial nomenclature. This
naming system given by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by biologists all over the world.
This naming system using a two word format was found convenient. Let us take the example of
mango to understand the way of providing scientific names better. The scientific name of mango
is written as Mangifera indica. Let us see how it is a binomial name. In this name Mangifera
represents the genus while indica, is a particular species, or a specific epithet. Other universal
rules of nomenclature are as follows:
1. Biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics. They are Latinised or
derived from Latin irrespective of their origin.
2. The first word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component
denotes the specific epithet.
3. Both the words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or
printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin.
4. The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet
starts with a small letter. It can be illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica.

Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological
name and is written in an abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates that this
species was first described by Linnaeus.
Since it is nearly impossible to study all the living organisms, it is necessary to devise
some means to make this possible. This process is classification. Classification is the process by
which anything is grouped into convenient categories based on some easily observable
characters. For example, we easily recognise groups such as plants or animals or dogs, cats or
insects. The moment we use any of these terms, we associate certain characters with the organism
in that group. What image do you see when you think of a dog ? Obviously, each one of us will
see ‘dogs’ and not ‘cats’. Now, if we were to think of ‘Alsatians’ we know what we are talking
about. Similarly, suppose we were to say ‘mammals’, you would, of course, think of animals with
external ears and body hair. Likewise, in plants, if we try to talk of ‘Wheat’, the picture in each of
our minds will be of wheat plants, not of rice or any other plant. Hence, all these - ‘Dogs’, ‘Cats’,
‘Mammals’, ‘Wheat’, ‘Rice’, ‘Plants’, ‘Animals’, etc., are convenient categories we use to study
organisms. The scientific term for these categories is taxa. Here you must recognise that taxa can
indicate categories at very different levels. ‘Plants’ – also form a taxa. ‘Wheat’ is also a taxa.
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Similarly, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’, ‘dogs’ are all taxa – but you know that a dog is a mammal and
mammals are animals. Therefore, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’ and ‘dogs’ represent taxa at different
levels.
Hence, based on characteristics, all living organisms can be classified into different taxa.
This process of classification is taxonomy. The external and internal structures, along with the
structure of cell, development process and ecological information of organisms are essential and
form the basis of modern taxonomic studies. Hence, characterisation, identification, classification
and nomenclature are the processes that are basic to taxonomy. Taxonomy is not something new.
Human beings have always been interested in knowing more and more about the various kinds of
organisms, particularly with reference to their own use. In early days, human beings needed to
find sources for their basic needs of food, clothing and shelter. Hence, the earliest classifications
were based on the ‘uses’ of various organisms. Human beings were, since long, not only
interested in knowing more about different kinds of organisms and their diversities, but also the
relationships among them. This branch of study was referred to as systematics. The word
systematics is derived from the Latin word ‘Systema’ which means systematic arrangement of
organisms. Linnaeus used Systema Naturae as the title of his publication. The scope of
systematics was later enlarged to include identification, nomenclature and classification.
Systematics takes into account evolutionary relationships between organisms.

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES:
Classification is not a single step process but involves hierarchy of steps in which each
step represents a rank or category. Since the category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement,
it is called the taxonomic category and all categories together constitute the taxonomic
hierarchy. Each category, referred to as a unit of classification, in fact, represents a rank and is
commonly termed as taxon (pl.: taxa).
Taxonomic categories and hierarchy can be illustrated by an example. Insects represent a
group of organisms sharing common features like three pairs of jointed legs. It means insects are
recognisable concrete objects which can be classified, and thus were given a rank or category.
Can you name other such groups of organisms? Remember, groups represent category. Category
further denotes rank. Each rank or taxon, in fact, represents a unit of classification. These
taxonomic groups/ categories are distinct biological entities and not merely morphological
aggregates.
Taxonomical studies of all known organisms have led to the development of common
categories such as kingdom, phylum or division (for plants), class, order, family, genus and
species. All organisms, including those in the plant and animal kingdoms have species as the
lowest category. Now the question you may ask is, how to place an organism in various
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categories? The basic requirement is the knowledge of characters of an individual or group of
organisms. This helps in identifying similarities and dissimilarities among the individuals of the
same kind of organisms as well as of other kinds of organisms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:
1. Definite size & shape: All living organisms have a definite shape and size which may
change, while no-living matters are formless.
2. Organisation: Living organisms have different organs systems to perform various
functions in the body in coordinated manner.
3. Growth and development: All living organisms show growth and development.
4. Reproduction: Reproduction leads to generate of new individuals for survival on the
earth.
5. Metabolism: The chemical reactions are continuously going in to the cells called
metabolism (e.g. Anabolism & Catabolism).
6. Homeostasis: All living organisms keep themselves stable by maintaining their internal
conditions in order to continue their metabolic processes known as Homeostasis.
7. Consciousness: Response and Sensitivity (Irritability)
8. Healing & Repairing: Heal wounds & Repairs broken parts
9. Excretion: Useless and harmful waste products as a result of metabolism are thrown out
from body.
10. Adaptations: An organism makes to adjust well and suit to its way of life.
11. Evolution: Living things gradually get modified into new varieties/spices/races with time
due to natural selection.
12. Death: Death is the ultimate termination of functional life.

SUMMARY
The living world is rich in variety. Millions of plants and animals have been identified
and described but large number still remains unknown. The very range of organisms in terms of
size, colour, habitat, physiological and morphological features make us seek the defining
characteristics of living organisms. In order to facilitate the study of kinds and diversity of
organisms, biologists have evolved certain rules and principles for identification, nomenclature
and classification of organisms. The branch of knowledge dealing with these aspects is referred to
as taxonomy. The taxonomic studies of various species of plants and animals are useful in
agriculture, forestry, industry and in general for knowing our bio-resources and their diversity.
The basics of taxonomy like identification, naming and classification of organisms are
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universally evolved under international codes. Based on the resemblances and distinct
differences, each organism is identified and assigned a correct scientific/biological name
comprising two words as per the binomial system of nomenclature. An organism
represents/occupies a place or position in the system of classification. There are many
categories/ranks and are generally referred to as taxonomic categories or taxa. All the categories
constitute a taxonomic hierarchy.

QUESTIONS:
1. Why are living organisms classified?
2. Why are the classification systems changing every now and then?
3. What different criteria would you choose to classify people that you meet often?
4. What do we learn from identification of individuals and populations?
5. Given below is the scientific name of Mango. Identify the correctly written name.
Mangifera Indica
Mangifera indica
6. Define a taxon. Give some examples of taxa at different hierarchical levels.
7. What are the characteristic features of life?

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 LECTURE: 2

ORIGIN OF LIFE, EVOLUTION AND EUGENICS

The origin of life is a scientific problem which is not yet solved. There are plenty of
ideas, but few clear facts. The Miller's 1953 experiment showed that abiotic synthesis of organic
molecules is possible.
It is generally agreed that all life today evolved by common descent from a single
primitive life form. We do not know how this early form came about, but scientists think it was a
natural process which took place perhaps 3,900 million years ago. This is in accord with a
philosophy called naturalism.
When we look at stars on a clear night sky we are, in a way, looking back in time. Stellar
distances are measured in light years. What we see today is an object whose emitted light started
its journey millions of year back and from trillions of kilometres away and reaching our eyes
now. The universe is very old – almost 20 billion years old. Huge clusters of galaxies comprise
the universe. Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust. Considering the size of universe,
earth is indeed a speck.
The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of universe. It talks of a singular
huge explosion unimaginable in physical terms. The universe expanded and hence, the
temperature came down. Hydrogen and Helium formed sometime later. The gases condensed
under gravitation and formed the galaxies of the present day universe. In the solar system of the
milky way galaxy, earth was supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years back. There
was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia released
from molten mass covered the surface. The UV rays from the sun broke up water into Hydrogen
and Oxygen and the lighter H2 escaped. Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form
water, CO2 and others. The ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain, to
fill all the depressions and form oceans. Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of
earth, i.e., almost four billion years back.
Some scientists believe that life came from outside. Early Greek thinkers thought units of
life called spores were transferred to different planets including earth.
‘Panspermia’ is still a favourite idea for some astronomers. For a long time it was also
believed that life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud, etc. This was the
theory of spontaneous generation. Panspermia is the idea was suggested by Arrhenius, and
developed by Fred Hoyle, that life developed elsewhere in the universe and arrived on Earth in
the form of spores. This is not a theory of how life began, but a theory of how it might have
spread.

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 Louis Pasteur by careful experimentation demonstrated that life comes only from pre-
existing life. He showed that in pre-sterilised flasks, life did not come from killed yeast while in
another flask open to air, new living organisms arose from ‘killed yeast’. Spontaneous generation
theory was dismissed once and for all. However, this did not answer how the first life form came
on earth. Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first form of life could have
come from pre-existing non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and that formation
of life was preceded by chemical evolution, i.e., formation of diverse organic molecules from
inorganic constituents.

Alexander Oparin (right) in the laboratory Francis Galton was an early eugenicist

The conditions on earth were – high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
containing CH4, NH3, etc. In 1953, S.L. Miller, American scientist had created similar conditions
in a laboratory scale (Figure 2.1).

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 Figure 2.1 Diagrammatic representation of Miller’s experiment:

He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 and water vapour
0
at 800 C. He observed formation of amino acids. In similar experiments others observed,
formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats. Analysis of meteorite content also revealed
similar compounds indicating that similar processes are occurring elsewhere in space. With this
limited evidence, the first part of the conjectured story, i.e., chemical evolution was more or less
accepted. We have no idea about how the first self replicating metabolic capsule of life arose.
The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back. They would have
been giant molecules (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharides, etc.). These capsules reproduced their
molecules perhaps. The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000 million
years ago. These were probably single-cells. All life forms were in water environment only. This
version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces from
non-living molecules are accepted by majority. However, once formed, how the first cellular
forms of life could have evolved into the complex biodiversity of today is the fascinating story
that will be discussed below.

EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS – A THEORY

Conventional religious literature tells us about the theory of special creation. This theory
has three connotations.
1. All living organisms (species or types) that we see, today were created as such.
2. The diversities were always the same since creation and will be the same in future also.
3. Earth is about 4000 years old. All these ideas were strongly challenged during 19th century.

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 Based on observations made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle
round the world, Charles Darwin concluded that existing living forms share similarities to
varying degrees not only among themselves but also with life forms that existed millions of years
ago. Many such life forms do not exist anymore. There had been extinctions of different life
forms in the years gone by just as new forms of life arose at different periods of history of earth.
There has been gradual evolution of life forms.
Any population has built in variation in characteristics. Those characteristics which
enable some to survive better in natural conditions (climate, food, physical factors, etc.) would
outbreed others that are less-endowed to survive under such natural conditions. Another word
used is fitness of the individual or population.
The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive fitness.
Hence, those who are better fit in an environment, leave more progeny than others. These,
therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by nature. He called it natural selection and
implied it as a mechanism of evolution. Let us also remember that Alfred Wallace, a naturalist
who worked in Malay Archepelago had also come to similar conclusions around the same time.
In due course of time, apparently new types of organisms are recognisable.
All the existing life forms shares similarities and share common ancestors. However,
these ancestors were present at different periods in the history of earth (epochs, periods and eras).
The geological history of earth closely correlates with the biological history of earth. A common
permissible conclusion is that earth is very old, not thousands of years as was thought earlier but
billions of years old.

EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION:

Evidence that evolution of life forms has indeed taken place on earth has come from
many quarters. Fossils are remained of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks. Rocks form
sediments and a cross-section of earth's crust indicates the arrangement of sediments one over the
other during the long history of earth. Different-aged rock sediments contain fossils of different
life-forms who probably died during the formation of the particular sediment. Some of them
appear similar to modern organisms (Figure 2.2).

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 Figure 2.2 A family tree of dinosaurs and their living modern day counterpart organisms
like crocodiles and birds

They represent extinct organisms (e.g., Dinosaurs). A study of fossils in different

sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they existed. The study showed that
life-forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time-spans.
Hence, new forms of life have arisen at different times in the history of earth. All this is called
paleontological evidence. Do you remember how the ages of the fossils are calculated? Do you
recollect the method of radio-active dating and the principles behind the procedure?
Comparative anatomy and morphology shows similarities and differences among
organisms of today and those that existed years ago. Such similarities can be interpreted to
understand whether common ancestors were shared or not. For example whales, bats, Cheetah
and human (all mammals) share similarities in the pattern of bones of forelimbs (Figure 2.3b).
Though these forelimbs perform different functions in these animals, they have similar
anatomical structure – all of them have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges
in their forelimbs. Hence, in these animals, the same structure developed along different
directions due to adaption to different needs. This is divergent evolution and these structures are
homologous. Homology indicates common ancestry. Other examples are vertebrate hearts or
brains. In plants also, the thorn and tendrils of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita represent homology
(Figure 2.3a).
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 Figure 2.3 (a) Example of homologous organs in Plants

Homology is based on divergent evolution whereas analogy refers to a situation exactly

opposite. Wings of butterfly and of birds look alike. They are not anatomically similar structures
though they perform similar functions. Hence, analogous structures are a result of convergent
evolution - different structures evolving for the same function and hence having similarity. Other
examples of analogy are the eye of the octopus and of mammals or the flippers of Penguins and
Dolphins. One can say that it is the similar habitat that has resulted in selection of similar
adaptive features in different groups of organisms but toward the same function: Sweet potato
(root modification) and potato (stem modification) is another example for analogy.
In the same line of argument, similarities in proteins and genes performing a given
function among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry. These biochemical similarities
point to the same shared ancestry as structural similarities among diverse organisms (Figure
2.3b).
Figure 2.3 (b) Example of homologous organs in Animals

Man has bred selected plants and animals for agriculture, horticulture, sport or security.
Man has domesticated many wild animals and crops. This intensive breeding programme has
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created breeds that differ from other breeds (e.g., dogs) but still are of the same group. It is
argued that if within hundreds of years, man could create new breeds, could not nature have done
the same over millions of years?
Another interesting observation supporting evolution by natural selection comes from
England. In a collection of moths made in 1850s, i.e., before industrialisation set in, it was
observed that there were more white-winged moths on trees than dark-winged or melanised
moths. However, in the collection carried out from the same area, but after industrialisation, i.e.,
in 1920, there were more dark-winged moths in the same area, i.e., the proportion was reversed.
The explanation put forth for this observation was that ‘predators will spot a moth against
a contrasting background’. During post-industrialisation period, the tree trunks became dark due
to industrial smoke and soot. Under this condition the white-winged moth did not survive due to
predators, dark-winged or melanised moth survived. Before industrialisation set in, thick growth
of almost white-coloured lichen covered the trees - in that background the white winged moth
survived but the dark-coloured moth were picked out by predators. Do you know that lichens can
be used as industrial pollution indicators? They will not grow in areas that are polluted. Hence,
moths that were able to camouflage themselves, i.e., hide in the background, survived (Figure
2.4).

Figure 2.4: Showing white - winged moth and dark - winged moth (melanised) on a tree
trunk (a) In unpolluted area (b) In polluted area

(a) (b)
This understanding is supported by the fact that in areas where industrialisation did not
occur e.g., in rural areas, the count of melanic moths was low. This showed that in a mixed
population, those that can better-adapt, survive and increase in population size. Remember that
no variant is completely wiped out. Similarly, excess use of herbicides, pesticides, etc., has only
resulted in selection of resistant varieties in a much lesser time scale. This is also true for
microbes against which we employ antibiotics or drugs against eukaryotic organisms/cell. Hence,
resistant organisms/cells are appearing in a time scale of months or years and not centuries. These
are examples of evolution by anthropogenic action. This also tells us that evolution is not a direct

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process in the sense of determinism. It is a stochastic process based on chance events in nature
and chance mutation in the organisms.

WHAT IS ADAPTIVE RADIATION?

During his journey Darwin went to Galapagos Islands. There he observed an amazing
diversity of creatures. Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin’s Finches
amazed him. He realised that there were many varieties of finches in the same island. All the
varieties, he conjectured, evolved on the island itself. From the original seed-eating features,
many other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to become insectivorous and
vegetarian finches (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5 Variety of beaks of finches that Darwin found in Galapagos Island

This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a
point and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
Darwin’s finches represent one of the best examples of this phenomenon. Another example is
Australian marsupials. A number of marsupials, each different from the other (Figure 2.6)
evolved from an ancestral stock, but all within the Australian island continent. When more than
one adaptive radiations appear to have occurred in an isolated geographical area (representing
different habitats) one can call this convergent evolution.

17
 Figure 2.6 Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
Evolution by natural selection, in a true sense would have started when cellular forms of
life with differences in metabolic capability originated on earth.
The essence of Darwinian Theory about evolution is natural selection. The rate of
appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span. Microbes that divide fast have
the ability to multiply and become millions of individuals within hours. A colony of bacteria (say
A) growing on a given medium has built in variation in terms of ability to utilise a feed
component. A change in the medium composition would bring out only that part of the
population (say B) that can survive under the new conditions. In due course of time this variant
population outgrows the others and appears as new species. This would happen within days. For
the same thing to happen in a fish or fowl would take million of years as life spans of these
animals are in years. Here we say that fitness of B is better than that of A under the new
conditions. Nature selects for fitness. One must remember that the so-called fitness is based on
characteristics which are inherited. Hence, there must be a genetic basis for getting selected and
to evolve. Another way of saying the same thing is that some organisms are better adapted to
survive in an otherwise hostile environment. Adaptive ability is inherited. It has a genetic basis.
Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.
Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian
Theory of Evolution (Figures 2.7 and 2.8). Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive

18
radiation in evolving into varieties of such placental mammals each of which appears to be
‘similar’ to a corresponding marsupial (e.g., Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolfmarsupial).

Figure 2.7: Placental mammals and Australian marsupial

Even before Darwin, a French naturalist Lamarck had said that evolution of life forms
had occurred but driven by use and disuse of organs. He gave the examples of Giraffes who in an
attempt to forage leaves on tall trees had to adapt by elongation of their necks. As they passed on
this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generations, Giraffes, slowly, over the
years, came to acquire long necks. Nobody believes this conjecture any more.
Is evolution a process or the result of a process? The world we see, inanimate and
animate, is only the success stories of evolution. When we describe the story of this world we
describe evolution as a process. On the other hand when we describe the story of life on earth, we
treat evolution as a consequence of a process called natural selection. We are still not very clear
whether to regard evolution and natural selection as processes or end result of unknown
processes.
It is possible that the work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin.
Natural selection is based on certain observations which are factual. For example, natural

19
resources are limited, populations are stable in size except for seasonal fluctuation, members of a
population vary in characteristics (in fact no two individuals are alike) even though they look
superficially similar, most of variations are inherited etc. The fact that theoretically population
size will grow exponentially if everybody reproduced maximally (this fact can be seen in a
growing bacterial population) and the fact that population sizes in reality are limited, means that
there had been competition for resources. Only some survived and grew at the cost of others that
could not flourish. The novelty and brilliant insight of Darwin was this: he asserted that
variations, which are heritable and which make resource utilisation better for few (adapted to
habitat better) will enable only those to reproduce and leave more progeny. Hence for a period of
time, over many generations, survivors will leave more progeny and there would be a change in
population characteristic and hence new forms appear to arise.

MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION:
What is the origin of this variation and how does speciation occur? Even though Mendel
had talked of inheritable 'factors' influencing phenotype, Darwin either ignored these
observations or kept silence. In the first decade of twentieth century, Hugo deVries based on his
work on evening primrose brought forth the idea of mutations – large difference arising suddenly
in a population. He believed that it is mutation which causes evolution and not the minor
variations (heritable) that Darwin talked about. Mutations are random and directionless while
Darwinian variations are small and directional. Evolution for Darwin was gradual while deVries
believed mutation caused speciation and hence called it saltation (single step large mutation).
Studies in population genetics, later, brought out some clarity.

HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE:
In a given population one can find out the frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene or
a locus. This frequency is supposed to remain fixed and even remain the same through
generations. Hardy-Weinberg principle stated it using algebraic equations. This principle says
that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to generation.
The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called
genetic equilibrium. Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
Individual frequencies, for example, can be named p, q, etc. In a diploid, p and q
represent the frequency of allele A and allele a. The frequency of AA individuals in a population
is simply p2. This is imply stated in another ways, i.e., the probability that an allele A with a
frequency of p appear on both the chromosomes of a diploid individual is simply the product of
the probabilities, i.e., p2. Similarly of aa is q2, of Aa 2pq. Hence, p2+2pq+q2=1. This is a
binomial expansion of (p+q)2. When frequency measured, differs from expected values, the
20
difference (direction) indicates the extent of evolutionary change. Disturbance in genetic
equilibrium, or Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium, i.e., change of frequency of alleles in a population
would then be interpreted as resulting in evolution.
Five factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. These are gene migration
or gene flow, genetic drift, mutation, genetic recombination and natural selection. When
migration of a section of population to another place and population occurs, gene frequencies
change in the original as well as in the new population. New genes/alleles are added to the new
population and these are lost from the old population. There would be a gene flow if this gene
migration, happens multiple times. If the same change occurs by chance, it is called genetic drift.
Sometimes, the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of population that
they become a different species. The original drifted population becomes founders and the effect
is called founder effect.
Microbial experiments show that pre-existing advantageous mutations when selected will
result in observation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this would result in Speciation.
Natural selection is a process in which heritable variations enabling better survival are enabled to
reproduce and leave greater number of progeny. A critical analysis makes us believe that
variation due to mutation or variation due to recombination during gametogenesis, or due to gene
flow or genetic drift results in changed frequency of genes and alleles in future generation.
Coupled to enhance reproductive success, natural selection makes it look like different
population. Natural selection can lead to stabilisation (in which more individuals acquire mean
character value), directional change (more individuals acquire value other than the mean
character value) or disruption (more individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of
the distribution curve) (Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8 Diagrammatic representation of the operation of natural selection on different
traits: (a) Stabilising (b) Directional and (c) Disruptive

21
A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION:
About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth. The
mechanism of how non-cellular aggregates of giant macromolecules could evolve into cells with
membranous envelop is not known. Some of these cells had the ability to release O 2. The reaction
could have been similar to the light reaction in photosynthesis where water is split with the help
of solar energy captured and channelized by appropriate light harvesting pigments. Slowly
single-celled organisms became multi-cellular life forms. By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates
were formed and active. Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya. Sea weeds and few
plants were existed probably around 320 mya. We are told that the first organisms that invaded
land were plants. They were widespread on land when animals invaded land. Fish with stout and
strong fins could move on land and go back to water. This was about 350 mya. In 1938, a fish
caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which was thought to be extinct. These
animals called lobefins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land and water. There
are no specimens of these left with us. However, these were ancestors of modern day frogs and
salamanders. The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry
up in sun unlike those of amphibians. Again we only see their modern day descendents, the
turtles, tortoises and crocodiles. In the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of different shapes
and sizes dominated on earth. Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form
coal deposits slowly. Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like
reptiles probably 200 mya (e.g. Ichthyosaurs). The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs.
The biggest of them, i.e., Tyrannosaurus rex was about 20 feet in height and had huge fearsome
dagger like teeth. About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. We do not
know the true reason. Some say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of them evolved
into birds. The truth may live in between. Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized. Mammals were
viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother’s body. Mammals were more
intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least. When reptiles came down mammals took over
this earth. There were in South America mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit,
etc. Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were
overridden by North American fauna. Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of
Australia survived because of lack of competition from any other mammal.
Lest we forget, some mammals live wholly in water. Whales, dolphins, seals and sea
cows are some examples. Evolutions of horse, elephant, dog, etc., are special stories of evolution.
You will learn about these in higher classes. The most successful story is the evolution of man
with language skills and self-consciousness.

22
 Rough sketches of the evolution of life forms, their times on a geological scale are
indicated in (Figure 2.9 and 2.10).
Figure 2.9 A sketch of the evolution of plant forms through geological periods

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN:

About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were existing. They were
hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees. Ramapithecus was more man-like while
Dryopithecus was more ape-like. Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia
and Tanzania (Figure 2.11). These revealed hominid features leading to the belief that about 3-4
mya, man-like primates walked in eastern Africa. They were probably not taller than 4 feet but
walked up right. Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands.
Evidence shows they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit. Some of the bones
among the bones discovered were different. This creature was called the first human-like being
the hominid and was called Homo habilis. The brain capacities were between 650-800cc. They
probably did not eat meat. Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the next stage, i.e., Homo
erectus about 1.5 mya. Homo erectus had a large brain around 900cc. Homo erectus probably ate
meat. The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near east and central Asia

23
Figure 2.10 Representative evolutionary history of vertebrates through geological period

between 1,00,000-40,000 years back. They used hides to protect their body and buried their dead.
Homo sapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed into distinct races.
During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern Homo sapiens arose. Pre-historic cave
art developed about 18,000 years ago. Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human
settlements started. The rest of what happened is part of human history of growth and decline of
civilisations.
Figure 2.11: A comparison of the skulls of adult modern human
being, baby chimpanzee and adult chimpanzee. The skull of
baby chimpanzee is more like adult human skull than adult
chimpanzee skull.

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EVOLUTION OF ANGIOSPERMS:
(General Evolutionary Trends in Angiosperms)

Basic Evolutionary Trends:

Different groups of angiosperms, reveal different lines of evolution. Many of the trends
are recognised from comparative studies of living and fossil plants during attaining diversity.
General trends in evolution of angiosperms include:
Evolution of Vegetative Structures:
Flowering plants are enormously variable in their vegetative structures but the earliest
ones and their living representatives are mainly shrubs or trees and all living gymnosperms are
woody. It is likely that herbaceous plants are derived from woody forms originally, but some
woody plants, including monocot trees, may be secondarily evolved from herbaceous plants.
There is difference of opinion about evolution of leaf structure, phyllotaxy, stomatal apparatus
etc. of angiosperms.

Evolution of Floral Structures:

The earliest flowering plants have flowers which were simple and tiny up to 3 mm long,
hermaphrodite or unisexual with no sepals and petals (some have a bract, one or three stamens
and/or one carpel). During the course of early evolution, active adaptive radiation, i.e. their
spread and diversification through the Cretaceous period, parallel to other seed plant groups,
resulted in appearance of some other living families. Outer whorls of flower became
differentiated early on, the outermost whorl, referred to as calyx even if there is only one whorl,
probably evolving from bract and when there are two different whorls, the inner whorl is referred
to as the corolla, but some probably evolved from a second whorl of sepals, others from stamens
losing their anthers and becoming organs purely for attracting insects. Some water lilies and
nympheoids (Nymphaea) have intermediate organs, stamens with flattened coloured filaments
between the fertile stamens and larger entirely sterile petals. Cultivated double flowers such as of
roses have some stamens replaced by petals. Transitional stages of converting fertile stamens to
fully developed petals can be seen in many flowers, e.g., Rosa and Nymphaea. One main early
line of evolution was towards a fix number in each whorl, often five in dicots (rarely four) and
three in the monocots, making the flowers radially symmetrical. i.e. actinomorphic.
There was a specialisation for pollination, by beetles along one line of evolution
including magnolias, and by wind along other line leading to the catkin-bearing trees. The insect-
pollinated group had hermaphrodite flowers of, at first increasing, size and complexity through
later insect-pollinated flowers were smaller. By the end of Cretaceous period, many families with
actinomorphic insect-pollinated flowers had appeared, such as buttercups, pinks and heathers.

25
The wind-pollinated group retained small unisexual flowers, with few parts borne in
inflorescences, usually with male and female on the same plant (monoecious), although such
breeding system includes less than five per cent of living species, such as oaks, beeches, birches,
hazels etc.
At the end of Cretaceous and beginning of the Tertiary period (between 75 and 50 mya),
there was a second and much larger adaptive radiation which witnessed the increasing dominance
of angiosperms and the appearance of the majority of modern plant families. This was closely
associated with the adaptive radiation of specialist insect pollinators and leaf feeders-the
butterflies and moths, long tongued flies and bees. Innovation included the fusion of the lower
parts of the petals and/or the sepals into a tube and fusion of the carpels, zygomorphic flowers
appeared, usually facing sideways rather than upwards and with lower petal or petals forming a
lip as a landing platform for insects, Some plants, such as members of thyme family, have fused
petals and zygomorphic flowers. These were adaptations for specialised insect pollination and at
least in part serve to exclude other visitors. Adaptations for pollination by birds or bats appeared
later, mainly derived from specialist-pollinated flowers,
The general processes involved in attaining adaptive radiation, i.e. the spread and
diversification of angiospcrrns, included fusion of different floral parts, reduction in floral parts,
change in symmetry (actinomorphy to zygomorphy), elaboration (in number of flowers) and
remoration (evolutionary retrogression). The main trends are outlined in the table below.

Evolutionary Trends in Flowers from the End of Cretaceous to the Early Tertiary (Many
trends occurred in parallel in different families; some also happened in reverse).
1. Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry
2. Separate petals Fused petals
3. Large number of floral parts Fixed small number of floral parts
4. Large flowers Small flowers
5. Carpels inserted above the petals Carpels inserted below the petals
6. Carpels free Carpels fused
7. Flowers as pollen as food rewards Flowers as nectars as food rewards
8. Pollination by unspecialized insects Pollination by specialized bees/ butter
flies / moths, long tongued flies / birds or
bats
9. Insect pollinated species, Unisexual flowers
hermaphrodite flowers
10. Insect pollinated species Wind pollinated species

26
 Aggregation of flowers in inflorescence is an adaptative trend in many angiosperm
families but it has taken an extreme specialisation in daisy family (Asteraceae) in which there are
often two different forms of flower in each inflorescence, the whole aggregation, sometimes of
more than 100 flowers, resembling a single flower (capitulum inflorescence).
A few flowers exhibit extreme specialisation in their pollination. For example, in many
orchids, each flower needs a single visit for the successful formation of hundreds of seeds, so
they become highly selective in the species that they use. Some tropical species have a long spur
growing out of the back of the flower with nectar at its base, which only moths with long thin
tongues can reach. The European bee orchid group and a few other groups of orchids in other
parts of the world, have flowers that resemble the female bee, both in appearance and in scent,
each orchid species (e.g. Ophrys) resembling a different bee; they are visited and successfully
pollinated by the males of that bee species. The figs, a large group of tropical trees and stranglers,
have flowers in an inverted inflorescence with flowers opening into a central cavity, surrounded
by a solid mass-hypanthodium. The inflorescence can only be penetrated by small wasps through
a whole at the tip. The wasps lay their eggs, grow and mate in the inflorescence before collecting
pollens and dispersing to another fig. Plant and wasps are totally independent but a kind of
interdependence is seen in Yucca and moth. Such cases substantiate the parallel evolution of
insects and flowers.
More generalised flowers, much more common than the specialists, particularly among
the dominant vegetation, are usually pollinated either by wind or by a range of insects and
sometimes birds as well. Pollinating insects (and animals) can vary manifold in number from
year to year and place to place, so specialisation to one or a few species can be risky.
Specialisation for wind pollination, has nearly always involved a reduction in size and
number of floral parts. Some families are nearly all wind-pollinated, e.g. grasses, but wind-
pollinated species occur in numerous, mainly insect-pollinated families and have evolved many
times. Evolution in the reverse direction, from wind to insect-pollination, has rarely occurred.

Evolution of Fruits and Seeds

There occurs some controversy over which fruit type is primitive. Fossil evidence gives
few clues, but it is likely that the early fruits were fleshy, as many of the representatives of
primitive groups have fleshy fruits, sometimes with outgrowths from the seed (an aril). Trends in
the evolution of fruits have gone in many directions-towards larger or smaller fruits or seeds and
towards dry dehiscent fruits. But main trend appears to have been for a reduction in size and in
number of seeds per fruit. There has been parallel evolution of fruit types in many plant families,
i.e., evolution along similar paths in unrelated groups.

27
 Primitive seeds are likely to have been fairly large and rich in endosperm features
retained in some specialised large-seeded plants such as coconuts. The small seeds, mainly filled
by embryo, seen in many families, are likely to be derived. Some of the most successful families
such as grass family (Poaceae) and daisy family (Asteraceae) have one-seeded fruits, but another
large family, the Orchidaceae have many hundreds or thousands of tiny seeds per pod, although
with very poor germination percentage.

EUGENICS:
It is a set of beliefs and practices that aims at improving the genetic quality of a group of
individuals.
Francis Galton was an early eugenicist, coining the term itself and popularizing the
collocation of the words "nature and nurture". Eugenics became an academic discipline at many
colleges including the British Eugenics Education Society in 1907 and American Eugenics
Society in1921.
Edward M. Miller claims that, Eugenic policies could also lead to loss of genetic
diversity, in which case a culturally accepted "improvement" of the gene pool could very likely—
as evidenced in numerous instances in isolated island populations —result in extinction due to
increased vulnerability to disease, reduced ability to adapt to environmental change, and other
factors both known and unknown.
In the past, eugenics had more to do with sterilization and enforced reproduction laws.
Now, in the age of a progressively mapped genome, embryos can be tested for susceptibility to
disease, gender, genetic defects, and alternative methods of reproduction such as in vitro
fertilization are becoming more common.

SUMMARY
The origin of life on earth can be understood only against the background of origin of
universe especially earth. Most scientists believe chemical evolution, i.e., formation of
biomolecules preceded the appearance of the first cellular forms of life. The subsequent event as
to what happened to the first form of life is a conjectured story based on Darwinian ideas of
organic evolution by natural selection. Diversity of life forms on earth has been changing over
millions of years. It is generally believed that variations in a population result in variable fitness.
Other phenomena like habitat fragmentation and genetic drift may accentuate these variations
leading to appearance of new species and hence evolution. Homology is accounted for by the
idea of branching descent. Study of comparative anatomy, fossils and comparative biochemistry
provides evidence for evolution. Among the stories of evolution of individual species, the story
of evolution of modern man is most interesting and appears to parallel evolution of human brain
and language.

28
 QUESTIONS
1. Explain antibiotic resistance observed in bacteria in light of Darwinian selection theory.
2. Find out from newspapers and popular science articles any new fossil discoveries or
controversies about evolution.
3. Attempt giving a clear definition of the term species.
4. Try to trace the various components of human evolution (hint: brain size and function, skeletal
structure, dietary preference, etc.)
5. Find out through internet and popular science articles whether animals other than man has
self-consciousness.
6. List 10 modern-day animals and using the internet resources link it to a corresponding ancient
fossil. Name both.
7. Practise drawing various animals and plants.
8. Describe one example of adaptive radiation.
9. Can we call human evolution as adaptive radiation?
10. Using various resources such as your school Library or the internet and discussions with your
teacher, trace the evolutionary stages of any one animal say horse.
11. Differentiate between homology and analogy.
12. What are the basic principles of Darwin’s theory of evolution?
13. Enlist the evolutionary trends in flowers.
14. Define eugenics.
15. Explain natural selection in Europe during industrialization with proper example.
16. Explain the significance of Miller’s experiment.

******************

29
 LECTURE: 3

INTRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT

Taxonomic studies require a perfect knowledge of technical terms for description and
identification of the plants. Following are some commonly used terms and their meanings.

HABITAT AND HABIT

 Habitat: The immediate environment occupied by an organism (plant), eg. aquatic or
terrestrial.
 Habit: The general external appearance of a plant, e.g. herbs, shrubs or trees.
 Habitat form: A plant showing some typical features but can be related to the place where it
is growing, such as dwarfing under adverse environment.
 Annual: A plant completing its life cycle in a single season, i.e., from seed to germination,
reproduction and death, e.g. Anagalis.
 Ephemeral: A plant which completes its life cycle in a very short time, say within some
weeks, e.g. Chenopodium.
 Biennial: A plant which completes its life cycle in two seasons, e.g. radish (Raphanus
sativus).
 Perennial: A plant which grows for several years.
 Herb: A plant which has no persistent parts above the ground, e.g. Chenopodium,
Ranunculus, Fumaria etc.
 Shrub: A woody short plant (less than thirty feet) in which side shoots are well developed, so
that there is no trunk, e.g. Lantana.
 Tree: A tall woody perennial plant with a well-marked trunk, e.g. Eucalyptus, Mangifera,
Tectona etc.
Forms of Trees may be:
(i) Caudex-rnain trunk straight, unbranched and columnar, bearing crown of leaves, e.g. Cocos
nucifera (fig. 14.1A).
(ii) Excurrent-rnain trunk keeps on growing but bears lateral branches in acropetal order,
giving a conical shape to the tree, e.g. Polyalthia (fig. 14.1 B).

30
 Fig. 3.1 Types of trees. A-caudex, B-excurrent, C--deliquescent and D-culm.

(iii) Deliquescent-canopied spreading habit due to suppressed apical

bud and dominant lateral buds, e.g. Mangifera and Ficus (fig. 3.1C).
Culms: Grass-like strong stem with distinct nodes (solid) and
internodes (hollow), may look-like tree, as in bamboo (fig. 3.1 D).

Weak forms
Creeper: Plants with stem growing along the surface of the ground and
rooting at its node, e.g. Hydrocotyle asiatica (fig. 3.2 A) and Ipomoea batatas.

Fig. 3.2 Weak forms of plants. A-creeper (Hydrocotyle), B-procumbent (Basel/a) and
C-decumbent (Lindenbergia).
Trailor: A plant which trails over the ground surface by its weak, prostrate and slender stem. A
trailer may be : (i) procumbent, i.e., trailing flat on the ground, e.g. Basella (fig. 3.2B), or (ii)
decumbent. i.e., trailing on the ground to some distance and then straightens upright. e.g.
Lindenbergia (fig 3.2C) and Portulaca or (iii) diffuse, i.e., trailers growing in all directions, e.g.
Boerhaavia.

31
Climber: A plant with weak stem which climbs by taking support of neighbouring objects. A
climber may be:
(I) Stem Climbers
Twiners, i.e. Climbing by twinning around its support, e.g. Ipomoea quamaclit (Fig. 3.3A) or
Dolichos lablab (Fig. 3.3B)

Fig. 3.3

(II) Tendril Climbers. Climbing by formation of special wire-like structures twining around to
seek support. A tendril may be formed by (i) the leaf, e.g. Lathyrus (Fig. 3.4A), (ii) the stem
apex or axillary branch, e.g. Vitis and Passiflora (Fig. 3.4B, C).

Fig. 3.4

32
 (iii) The petiole. E.g. Clematis (Fig. 3.4D,) (iv) the leaf tip, e.g. Gloriosa (Fig. 3.4E) or by
(v) the inflorescence axis, e.g. Antigonon (Fig. 3.4F)

(III) Root Climbers: Climbing by the formation of adventitious roots arising from the nodes,
e.g. Piper betle and P. Longum (Fig 3.5).

Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6

(IV) Scramblers or Hook Climbers: Climbing by the formation of hooks (e.g. Artabotrys)
(Fig. 3.7A). or curved prickles (e.g. Rosa) (Fig. 3.7B) and Lantana (Fig. 3.7C)

Fig. 3.7

(V) Adhesive Climbers. Climbing by the formation of adhesive discs, either by the
tendrils as in Ampelopsis (fig. 3.6) or by the climbing roots, e.g. Hedera helix (ivy).
(VI) Lianas. Climbing by twinning woody and stout stems which hang down by thick
ropes, e.g. Tinospora, Hiptage, Quisqualis etc.

33
Epiphyte: A plant growing on another plant, but not deriving any food from it- It grows on other
plant lo gel only mechanical support, e.g. most orchids.
Parasite: A plant living on another organism (or plant) and extracts food from it (called host),
e.g. Cuscvta.

QUESTIONS

1. Define habitat, habit and habitat form.

2. Differentiate between tree, herb and shrub.
3. Differentiate between epiphytes and parasites.
4. Enlist the different forms of trees with example for each.
5. Enlist the waek forms of plant with example for each.

34
 LECTURE: 4

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION

(A) PLANT NOMENCLATURE

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANT NOMENCLATURE

Definitions: Assignment of definite names to plants is called plant nomenclature.
In the present botanical world, the nomenclature involves the principles governed by
rules formulated and adopted by International Botanical Congresses. The rules developed by IBC
are listed formally in a code called International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Voss et al,
1983), abbreviated as ICBN. The major goal of ICBN is to provide one correct name for each
taxon.
Taxa (singular, taxon) are the taxonomic groups of any rank. The ascending hierarchy of
taxa includes species, genus, family, order, class and division.

Who is a Nomenclaturist?
A nomenclaturist is a taxonomist who assigns names to new taxa, determines the right
names for old taxa according to the rules of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and
finalizes the right name for a specimen according to an established system of classification.

Why is Nomenclature Needed?

Imagine for a few moments about the state of affairs if there are no names for all the
things we see, make or handle. How strange and chaotic the life would be in such a condition?
The entire business affairs of the world would stop, and practically there will be no "give and
take'' of knowledge. It would also be impossible for all of us to communicate our feelings to
others. Practically, the life would stop. Therefore, nomenclature for everything is needed.

COMMON NAMES AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Vernacular or common names are made up of words from the native language of the
country or the region. They may vary in different countries as well as in different regions of the
same country. They may be Portuguese words in Portugal; Spanish in Spain; English in England,
U.S.A. and Australia; and Hindi, Bangla, Oriya or Tamil, etc. in U.P., West Bengal, Orissa and
Tamilnadu, respectively. 'Papita', 'Kela', 'Gazar' and Tamatar, of India are known in U.S.A. as
papaya, banana, carrot and tomato, and by other names in Spain. There is therefore no
international uniformity in common names.

35
 On the other hand, scientific names which are based mainly on Latin language have
international uniformity. By the name Saccharum officinarum, all botanists of the world would
understand that it is sugarcane.
Jones and Luchsinger (1987) have stated that common names present five major problems men-
tioned in the following table:
S. No. Common Names Scientific Names
1. These are not universal. They vary in These are universal and are recognised
different languages. throughout the world.
2. They do not provide information They provide information regarding
indicating these relationships.
generic and family relationships.
3. A well-known plant may have hundreds A well-known plant has only one
of common names. scientific name.
4. Sometimes, two or more plants have the Two or more plants always have
Same common name. different scientific names.
5. Many species do not have any common All known plants have a scientific
names. name.
The scientific name of a plant consists of two separate words. The first word designates the genus
of the organism and the second word designates the species. Details of this two-name system
were first given by Linnaeus (1753) in his famous binomial system of nomenclature.

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
What is Binomial Nomenclature?
In the earlier days plant names were long and descriptive e.g. in the herbal of Clusius (1383) a
species of willow is named Salix pumila angustifolia altera. Then, in 1623, Gaspar Bauhin
(1560-1624) devised a plan of adopting two names for each plant in his Pinax Theatri Botanici.
But it was Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), the great Swedish naturalist, to whom the actual credit
goes for devising and methodically employing the binomial system of nomenclature. Linnaeus
employed this system in the first edition of his Species Plantarum in 1753. According to this
system the scientific name of a plant consists of two Latin or latinized words: (1) The first is the
name of the genus, i.e. generic name or generic epithet, and (2) the second is the name of the
species, i.e. specific epithet. For example, the botanical name of sugarcane is Saccharum
officinarum. The first word (Saccharum) designates the genus of the plant and the second word
(officinarum) designates the species of this genus.

36
Generic Name
It is always a noun, and written with a capitalised initial letter and the remainder small. The
generic name is also always singular in number. It may have following types of origin:
1. Several generic names may be in honour of the names of well-known persons, e.g.
Theophrasta in honour of Theophrastus and Candollea in honour of A.P. de Candolle.
2. They may be descriptive, with reference to some common characteristics of the included
species, e.g. Cercocarpus (coiled fruit), Xanthoxylum (yellow wood), etc.
3. They may be of poetic or mythological origin, e.g. Theobroma (god's food).
4. They may also be the aboriginal name of the plants, e.g. Betula and Quercus which were
the old Greek names for Birch and Oak.
Specific Epithet
According to the 1983 recommendations of the International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature (Voss, et al, 1983), all specific epithets be written with a small initial letter. But if
the specific epithet is derived from common names, or from former generic names, or from a
person's name, the initial letter of the epithet may be a capital letter. In the typed or handwritten
matter, both the specific epithet and generic names should be underlined. They should be printed
in italics or boldface. The authority, written after the specific epithet, is never underlined.
The specific epithet is often an adjective. According to Article 23 of ICBN, a specific epithet (i)
may be a name in honour of a person, or (ii) may be derived from a geographical location, 01 (iii)
may originate from an old common name, or (iv) may be derived from some characteristics of the
plant, or (v) it may also be named arbitrarily.
Authority
The name of the species is incomplete if it is not followed by full or abbreviated name(s)
of the author(s). For example, Pyrus malus is incomplete. The complete name is Pyrus malus L.
where L. is abbreviated for Linnaeus. Citation of the full or abbreviated form of the author is
necessary because this will verify the date or time of the first valid publication of the name of a
particular taxon.

INTERNATIONAL CODE OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE (ICBN)

What is ICBN?
The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) is the set of rules and
recommendations dealing with the formal botanical names mat are given to plants. Its main aim
is that each taxon or taxonomic group of plants has only one correct botanical name and that is
accepted throughout the world. Two main principles of ICBN are listed below:

37
 1) Priority is the guiding principle in botanical nomenclature; The ICBN sets the formal
starting date of plant nomenclature at 1 May, 1753, which is the publication date of
Species Plantarum by Linnaeus.
2) Each botanical name is fixed to a taxon by a type, which is almost invariably dried plant
material usually deposited and preserved in a herbarium.
Very few hard rules of ICBN apply above the taxonomic rank of family. Each new edition of
ICBN supersedes the earlier editions and is retroactive back to 1753.

Who can Change ICBN?

The ICBN can only be changed by an International Botanical Congress (IBC), with the
International Association for Plant Taxonomy providing the supporting infrastructure.

To which Organisms does ICBN Apply?

The ICBN applies not only to plants, as they are now defined, but it also applies to other
organisms studied traditionally by botanists, e.g., Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), fungi,
photosynthetic protists and taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups. For fossils, there
are special provisions in ICBN.

Whether ICBN is Applicable to Cultivated Plants?

No. For naming of cultivated plants, there is a separate code called the International Code
of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP).

History of ICBN
Linnaeus in 1737 and again in 1751 proposed the elementary rules of naming plants in
his Philosophia Botanica. Then in 1813, A.P. de Candolle set forth a detailed set of rules
regarding plant nomenclature in his Theorie elementaire de la botanique. The same rules of
Linnaeus, A.P. de Candolle and his son Alphonse de Candolle were later evolved into our present
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
Alphonse de Candolle convened the First International Botanical Congress in 1867 in
Paris. It was attended by the botanists of several countries. They adopted a set of rules of plant
nomenclature, most of which were proposed by A. de Candolle. These excellent rules of plant
nomenclature are known as de Candolle rules or Paris Code of 1867. Subsequent meetings of the
International Botanical Congress were held in 1892 {Rochester Code), 1905 (Vienna Code), 1907
(American Code) and 1910, but a general agreement, regarding the internationally acceptable
rules of plant nomenclature, was reached in the meeting of the IBC at Cambridge in 1930.
Lawrence (1951) has discussed the detailed history of the Code and may be quoted that in 1930
38
at the Cambridge Congress "for the first time in botanical history, a code of nomenclature came
into being that was international in function as well as in name". This code is called the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Scientists in the International Botanical
Congresses suggest the modifications or amendments which are incorporated in the ICBN on a
regular basis.
The international code of botanical nomenclature code of botanical nomenclature, 1983,
was adopted by the Thirteenth International Botanical Congress, Sydney (Australia) in August
1981, and the chairman of the editorial committee was E.G. Voss. ICBN is divided into three
parts, i.e. Principles, Rules and Recommendation.

Principles of ICBN
The philosophical basis of the Code is formed by the following six principles:
1. Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological nomenclature.
2. The application of names of taxonomic groups is determined by means of nomenclatural
types.
3. The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based upon priority of publication.
4. Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position, and rank can bear only
one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the Rules, except in specific
cases.
5. Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin regardless of their derivation.
6. The Rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless expressly limited.

Rules and Recommendations of ICBN

According to the ICBN (1983) the detailed provisions of the Code "are divided into
Rules, set out in Articles, and Recommendations". As mentioned under point No. 4 of the
Preamble of 1983 ICBN 'The object of the Rules is to put the nomenclature of the past into order
and to provide for that of the future; names contrary to a rule cannot be maintained".
As mentioned under point No. 5 of the Preamble of 1983 ICBN 'The Recommendations
deal with subsidiary points, their object being to bring about greater uniformity and clearness,
especially in future nomenclature; names contrary to a recommendation cannot, on that account,
be rejected, but they are not examples to be followed.**
The Rules and Recommendations of ICBN apply to all organisms treated as plants
(including fungi but excluding bacteria), whether fossil or non-fossil. Nomenclature of bacteria is
governed by a separate code called International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB).
It is stated under point No. 10 of ICBN (1983) that the latest "edition of the Code supersedes all
previous editions.
39
Some Later Codes
St. Louis Code (1999)
The 16th International Botanical Congress was held at St. Louis, Missouri, USA in
August 1999, and the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature adopted in this Congress is
called St. Louis Code. Botanists of 85 nations attended this Congress. Hectic discussions were
made mainly in view of the facts that "as many as two-thirds of the world's 3,00,000 plant species
are in danger of extinction in nature during course of the 21 st century**, and almost every aspect
of the life of human beings depends on plants. Botanists made some resolutions and
recommendations, of which some major ones are under mentioned:
(A) Resolutions Six resolutions were passed in this International Botanical Congress at St. Louis.
(1) Resolution I Botanists agreed on 10 major aspects in this resolution, of which some arc
mentioned below. They call for:
(i) "the establishment of a new coordinating body associated with United Nations to monitor
the status of plants throughout the world, detect those in most danger, and take steps to
conserve them in nature, in botanic gardens, or in gene banks";
1. "Securing additional funds for study of plants throughout the world";
2. "Making all the information about plants .generally available on the internet";
3. Placing additional emphasis on the importance of the "survival of biodiversity throughout
the world";
4. Maintaining "an active census of the status of each country's plants" at national level;
5. "Actively developing and implementing plans to conserve the world's economic plants ";
6. "Devoting special attention to the conservation of medicinal plants ....";
7. "Funding internationally an ongoing program of research on plant population biology..."
(2) Resolution II Botanists of the 85 nations attending this Congress call on governments and
policy makers to:
1. "Recognize the importance of developing and maintaining scientific expertise, provide
resources for the education and training of scientists, and maintain career
opportunities".... especially in biological sciences;
2. 'Actively develop floras and detailed accounts of plants of all regions
3. "Support collaborative program between and among developed and developing
countries";
4. "Ensure high priority be given to the maintenance of botanical museums, herbaria,
libraries, gardens, living plant collections and gene banks.":
(3) Resolution III Botanists in this resolution resolved to:
(i) "increase our knowledge of diversity and relationships of plants ..." and "to make that
knowledge accessible to all";
40
 (ii) "advocate to policy makers the relevance of plant sciences ....", and thus "maintain the
quality of human life on earth";
(4) Resolutions IV to VI. These three resolutions are regarding the (i) importance and
programmes of biodiversity (Resolution IV); acceptance of the decisions of Nomenclature
Section of the Congress (Resolution V); and selection of sites for future Congresses to facilitate
the "attendance of botanists from all regions of the world" (Resolution VI).
(B) Recommendations Several recommendations have been made in ICBN in the St. Louis Code
by botanists attending the XVI International Botanical Congress, of which only some are under
mentioned:
1. The scientific names under the jurisdiction of the Code, irrespective of rank, "are
consistently printed in italic type. The Code sets no binding standard in this respect, as
typography is a matter of editorial style and tradition, not of nomenclature".
2. To set off scientific names even better, the use of italics for technical terms and other
words in Latin, "has now been abandoned".
3. For style of bibliography, the titles of the books are "abbreviated in conformity with
Taxonomic d Literature, ed. 2 by Stafleu & Cowan (1976-1988; with supplements by
Stafleu & Mennega, 1999-2000)".
4. For style of bibliography the journal titles are abbreviated in conformity with Botanico-
periodicum-huntianum (1968) and its supplement (1991).
5. Author citations of scientific names are standardized in conformity with Authors of Plant
Names by Brummitt and Powell (1992).
6. The single largest area of change in St. Louis Code concerns typification, where many
pro-posals have been made on Lectotypification (for details refer to original code).
7. All reference to registration of new botanical names, to become "mandatory from a future
date, be deleted from the Code ....".
8. Fossil plant nomenclature underwent profound changes in St. Louis Code (for details
refer \ to original Code).
9. Fungal nomenclature was only affected in a marginal way by decisions of the St, Louis
Congress.
10. One new term "isonym" has been introduced into the Code, "defined to mean the same
name used independently by different authors at different times
11. In the field of terminology, the terms "homotypic synonym", "heterotypic synonym" and
"replacement names" were accepted as optional equivalents of the earlier "nomenclatural
synonym", "taxonomic synonym" and "avowed substitute".
12. The terminations -viridae, -virales, -virales, and -virus were "outlawed for names of sub-
classes orders, subtribes and genera, respectively.
41
Vienna Code (2005)
The latest XVII International Botanical Congress was held in Vienna in 2005 (XVI being
at St. Louis, Missouri, USA), and the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature accepted in
this Congress is called Viena Code. It is written entirely in English and has been translated in
several other languages. One of the reasons invoked for the choice of Vienna as the site of XVII
Congress was that the second International Botanical Congress had been held there exactly 100
years earlier, i.e., in 1905. It was in this XVII Congress in 1905 that the first internationally
developed rules governing nomenclature of plants were accepted, and these rules were recognised
as Vienna Rules. The XVII IBC held on 12-16 July, 2005 at Vienna was attended by 198
registered members carrying 402 institutional votes. On the other hand, St. Louis Congress at
Missouri, held six years ago in 1999 was attended by 297 members carrying 494 institutional
votes.
The Vienna Code does not differ substantially in overall presentation and arrangements
from the St. Louis Code, and the number of Articles remains the same. Some selected additions
and recommendations of Vienna Code are listed below:
1. The most notable feature of Vienna Code "is the inclusion for the first time a Glossary,
which appears in Appendix VII. This Glossary is very tightly linked to the wording of the
Code, and "only nomenclatural terms defined in the Code can be included".
2. The scientific names under the jurisdiction of Code, irrespective of rank, are consistently
printed in italic type. The "Code sets no binding standard in this respect, as typography
is a matter of editorial style and tradition not of nomenclature".
3. The titles of the books in bibliographic citations are abbreviated in conformity with
"Taxonomic Literature, ed. 2, by Stafleu and Cowan (1976-1988; with 6 supplements by
Stafleu and Mennega, 1992-2000)", but with capital initial letters.
4. For titles of the journals in bibliographic citations, the abbreviations follow the Botanico-
periodicum-huntianum, ed. 2 (2004).
5. Author citations of scientific names appearing in the Code are "standardized in
conformity with Authors of Plant Names, by Brummitt & Powell (1992)"; these are "also
adopted and updated by the International Plant Names Index".
6. "Perhaps the most important single decision incorporated into the Vienna Code was to
deal with what many have recognized as a bomb waiting to explode, the publication
status of theses submitted for a higher degree". The Code decided that "no independent
non-serial publication stated to be a thesis submitted for a higher degree on or after 1
January 1953 would be considered an effectively published work without a statement to
that effect or other internal evidence" (for details, readers should consult the original
Code).'
42
 7. Regarding valid publication of names, Vienna Code made it clear that "names be
composed only of letters of Latin alphabet, except as otherwise provided in the Code."
8. St. Louis Code accepted that all fossil taxa should be treated as morphotaxa. In Vienna
Code, this has not been considered appropriate. A distinction between a morphotaxon
and a regular fossil taxon is now established in Vienna Code.
9. In Vienna Code, it was agreed that "the starting date for valid publication of
suprageneric2 names of spermatophytes, pteridophytes and bryophytes be 4 August
1789, the date of publication of Jussieu's Genera Plantarum".
10. Vienna Code also established that parenthetic author citation is not permitted at
suprageneric ranks.
11. Four family names, previously overlooked in Berchtold and Presl's rare, later, multivol-
umc work of the same name (1823-1825) have been updated: Aquifoliaceae, Cornaceae,
Potamogetonaceae and Punicaceae.
12. Under the concept of "minimum invalidity" (Art. 33.10), the "rules determining when a
rank is denoted by a misplaced term (and hence not validly published) were clarified and
made more practical".
13. From 1 January, 2007, a new combination, a new generic name with a basionym, or an
allowed substitute "is not validly published unless its basionym or replaced synonym is
cited".
14. Vienna Code establishes that only if validly published does a name have any status;
indeed, unless otherwise indicated, the word "name" in the Code means a name that has
been validly published".

Future Botanical Congress and Legality of ICBN

The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) is published under the
authority of the j International Botanical Congresses (IBC). The next meeting of the IBC will be
held in Melbourne, Australia, from 23—30 July, 2011. Similar to other international codes of
nomenclature, ICBN also has no legal status and is dependent on the voluntary acceptance of its
rules by scientists in general and botanists in particular.

SOME IMPORTANT RULES OF NOMENCLATURE

1. Ranks and Endings of Taxa In an accepted system of classification, each individual plant is
treated as belonging to a number of taxa of different ranks. Generally, the species is
considered as the basic unit of classification. Other main ranks in the flowering plants in an
ascending order are genus, family, order, subclass and class. However, ICBN (Voss et al,
1983) has mentioned 22 different ranks and some standardized grammatical endings (suffixes)
43
 for the ranks from division down to the level of genus. All these ranks are mentioned under
Article No. 1.5 (Table 1.1, Chapter 1).
2. Principle of Priority One plant might have been described under different botanical names
by various plant nomenclaturists in different parts of the world. But, according to the "prin-
ciple of priority" "each taxon is to be known by its earliest name". For example, Cleome
gynandra Linn, was first described and named by Linnaeus in 1753. Then he himself changed
its name as Cleome pentaphylla Linn. In 1824 de Candolle recognized three separate genera
(Cleome, Polanisia and Gynandropsis) and named the Linnean genus as Gynandropsis
pentaphylla (Linn.) DC. litis in 1960 merged Gynandropsis and Cleome into one genus, i.e.
Cleome. So according to the "Principle of priority", the oldest name (Cleome gynandra Linn.)
is the correct valid name.
Because of Principle of Priority, names of several plants have now been changed.
3. Type Method The type method is a legal device to provide the correct name for a taxon. A
type specimen is a herbarium sheet (or rarely a drawing or a photograph) of a specimen which
was used by the author to provide its authentic description. According to Article 9 of ICBN
the type of a genus is a species (e.g. the type of genus Vernonia is V. noveboracensis (L.)
Michx.), and the type of a family is a genus (e.g. Aster is the type genus of Asteraceae).
Several kinds of types designated by ICBN are undermentioned:
i. Holotype It is a specimen used by the author in the original publication as the nomen-
clatural type.
ii. Isotype It is a duplicate specimen of the holotype, i.e. from the same collection, with the
same locality, date and number as the holotype.
iii. Lectotype It is a specimen selected by a competent worker from the original material
studied by the author of the species, when no holotype was designated or when the holotype
has been destroyed or lost.
iv. Neotype It is a specimen selected to serve as a substitute for the holotype when all
material, on which the name of the taxon was based, is missing.
v. Nomenclatural Type It is that element with which the name of a taxon is permanently
associated.
vi. Syntype It is one of the two or more specimens cited by an author of a species when no
holotype was designated; or, a syntype is any one of the two or more specimens originally
designated as types.
vii. Paratype or "Co-types It is a specimen other than isotype or holotype. If two or more
specimens have been cited as types by the author, the remaining cited specimens are called
"Co-types" or paratypes.

44
viii. Topotype It is a specimen collected from the same locality from where the holotype was
collected.
4. Synonyms and Related Definitions A name rejected due to misuse or difference in taxo-
nomic judgement is called synonym.
A specific or intraspecific name which has priority and is retained when transferred to a
new taxon, is called a basionym.
A case in which two or more identical names are based on different types, of which only
one can be a legitimate name, is called a homonym.
An illegitimate binomial, in which the name of the genus and the name of the species is
the same, is called a tautonym, e.g. Armoracia armoracia (L.) Britton.
An automatically created legitimate tautonym for infraspecific or infrageneric taxa is
called an autonym, e.g. Hypericum subgenus Hypericum section Hypericum.
5. Citation of Author Some of the rules related to author citation are undermentioned:
i. Original Author The name of a taxon is complete and accurate only when it is followed
by a full or abbreviated form of the author(s) who first validly published the concerned name,
e.g. Liliaceae and Lilium superbum are incomplete; the complete names are Liliaceae Adans.
and Lilium superbum Linn.
ii. Joint Author If two authors have jointly published the name of a taxon, the names of
both the authors should be cited and linked by the words et or & e.g. lllicium griffithi Hook &
Thorns (or Hook et Thorns).
iii. Rank Alteration When a taxon of a lower rank is upgraded in a higher rank but retains
its name, the author's name who published it first should be cited in the bracket It is to be
followed by the name of the author who made the alteration, e.g. Allioni raised the rank of
variety Medicago polymorpha var. orbicularis L. to the species rank. Therefore, it becomes
Medicago orbicularis (L.) All.
iv. Name Proposal When the name of a taxon is proposed but not validly published by one
author, and is later on validly published by another, the word ex should be used as a connecting
link between the name of the former author and the name of the subsequent author, e.g.
Gossypium tomentosum Nutt ex Seem.
6. Names of Cultivated Plants Wild plants brought under cultivation retain their original names.
7. Latin Diagnosis The diagnosis, details and description of new taxa published before 1st
January, 1955 were accepted by ICBN as valid, irrespective of the language. After this date
the description of any new taxa would be considered valid only if accompanied by Latin
diagnosis.

45
8. Effecttve and Valid Publication The publication of new names and description are effective
and considered valid only when they are distributed in a printed form to the general public or
to at least ten well-established botanical institutions.
A validly published names, as specified in the ICBN, is the one in which the basic provisions are
(1) effective publication, (2) publication in the form specified for the name of each category of
taxa, (3) publication with a description, or a reference to a previously published description, of
the taxon to which the name applies, (4) accompanied by a Latin description or by a reference to
a previously and effectively published Latin description of the taxon, and (5) an indication of the
nomenclatural type. On the other hand, an effectively published name is the one published in
printed matter generally available to botanists.
9. Choice of Names when the Taxon Rank is Changed When the rank of a taxon is
changed (viz. a species becomes a genus or vice-versa) the earliest legitimate name in its new
rank is its correct name.
10. Choice of Names when same-rank Taxa are United When two or more taxa of the same
rank (viz. two or more genera, two or more species, etc.) are united into one, the oldest legitimate
name of these taxa would be retained as the name of the united taxon.
11. Retention of Names of Divided Taxa When a genus or a species is divided into two or more
genera or species, respectively, the original name of the genus or species must be retained.
12. Retention of Names of Taxa on Transference When a subdivision of a genus is transferred
to another genus, or a species is transferred to another genus without the change of the rank, the
original legitimate name must be retained. For example, Hydrocotyle asiatica L., on transference
to genus Centetta, must be named as Centella asiatica (L.) Urban.
13. Rejection of Names Names of taxa must be rejected in the following conditions:
i. When the names are illegitimate (i.e. if it is a tautonym, later homonym, rejectable generic
name, nomenclaturally superfluous, etc.).
ii. When the names give different meanings, and become a permanent source of confusion.
iii. When the characters of the name of the taxon are derived from two or more different
elements.
iv. When the generic names coincide with a morphological term, or are unitary designations to
species, or are words not intended as names.
v. When the specific names are tautonyms, or are published without any consideration of
binomial system, or are words not intended as names.
14. Names of Different Taxa According to the International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature (1983) the following should be the pattern of naming different taxa:
i. Genera and higher ranks should be monomials, e.g. Aesculus L., Rosa L., Rosaceae Juss.
ii. Species should be binomials, e.g. Gossypium tomentosum Nutt.
46
iii. Subspecies should be trinomials, e.g. Hibiscus moscheutos ssp. Palustris (L.) Clausen.
iv. Varieties should be quadrinomials, e.g. Lilium catesbaei Walter ssp. Catesbaei var. longii
Fernld.

(B) BOTANICAL NAMES

Botanical names are either Latin words or words that have been latinized from Greek or some
other language.
The name of a species is a binomial and consists of a generic name and a specific epithet. A
specific epithet is the second part of the binomial. However, one must be quite clear about the
fact that it is wrong to use the specific epithet alone to designate a particular species; it must
always be used with a generic name to form the binary combination for that species. The specific
epithets are formed from nouns, adjectives, etc. and may join these words with a large number of
prefixes and suffixes.

COMMON PREFIXES USED IN SPECIFIC EPITHETS

Some Latin prefixes of numbers are as follows:
1. uni-(L.): uniflorus (one-flowered)
2. bi-(L.): bifoliatus (two-leaved)
3. tri-(L.): triangularis (with 3 angles)
4. quadri-(L.): quadrangularis (with 4 angles)
5. quinque-(L.): quinquefolius (5-leaved)
6. sex-(L.): sexangularis (6-angled)
7. septem-(L.): septemlobus (7-lobed)
8. octo-(L.): octoflorus (8-flowered)
9. noveme-(L.): novemneris (with 9 nerves) 10. decum-(L.):
decumlobus (with 10 lobes)

Some of the Greek prefixes of numbers include mon- (for one, e.g. monandra), di- (for 2), tri-
(for 3), tetra- (for 4), penta- (for 5), hex- (for 6), hepta- (for 7), octo- (for 8), ennea (for 9) and
deca- (for 10, e.g. decapetalus).
Some of the other common prefixes of numbers are amphi- (Gr.): for two kinds; diplo-
(Gr.): for double; haplo- (Gr.): for single; multi- (L.): for many; poly-(Gr.)\ for many; a- or
ab- (L.): away from; ecto- (Gr.): outside; endo- (Gr.): inside; inter- (L.): between, and; intra-
(L.): within.

47
COMMON SUFFIXES USED IN SPECIFIC EPITHETS
Some of the common suffixes along with one example of each of them are undermentioned:
-aceus: crustaceus; -alis: digitalis', -aris: angularis; -arium: aquarium; -aticus: aquaticus; -
estris: campestris; -eus: roseus; -ilis: sexitilis; -osus: foliosus.

PLANT PARTS USED AS EPITHETS

Almost all plant parts, including root, stem, leaf, bud, flower, fruit and seeds, have been used as
names of specific epithets. Some of the specific epithets, along with the related plant parts in
parenthesis, are under-mentioned:
receptaculum (for receptacle), sepalum (for sepals), carpellum (for carpel), loculus (for locules),
stylus (for style), petalum (for petals), discus (for disc), ovarium (for ovary), ovulum (for ovule),
pediceUus (for pedicel), pistilium (for pistil), fructus (for fruit), sperma (for seed), folium and
phyllon (for leaf), rhiza (for root), caulos (for stem), etc.

SPECIFIC EPITHETS LINKED WITH COLOUR

Some of the specific epithets linked with colour, along with the name of the colour in the
parenthesis, are under-mentioned alphabetically:
albicans (whitish), albus (white), atrovirens (dark green), aureus (golden yellow), calcareus
(chalky white), candid us (shining white), croceus (saffron yellow), flavidus (slightly yellow),
flavus (pale yellow), fulvus (dull yellow), glaucus (grey-green), luteolus (pale yellow), niger
(black), niveus (snow white), purpureus (purple), roseus (rosy), violaceous (Violet), virens
(green) and, viridis (green).

SPECIFIC EPITHETS LINKED WITH GEOGRAPHY

Some of the geography-linked specific epithets, along with their related geographical places in
parenthesis, are undermentioned alphabetically:
africanus (of Africa), americanus (of America), arabicus (of Arabia), argentinus (of Argentina),
asiaticus (of Asia), australiensis (of Australia), austriacus (of Austria), brasiliensis (of Brazil),
canadensis (of Canada), chinensis (of China), cubensis (of Cuba), europaeus (of Europe),
germani-cus (of Germany), helveticus (of Switzerland), indicus (of India), italicus (of Italy),
mexicanus (of Mexico), sinensis (of China), virgnicus (of Virginia) and, zeylanicus (of Ceylon).

SPECIFIC EPITHETS LINKED WITH SIZE

Some of size-linked epithets are mentioned below alphabetically:
altus (altitude or tall), exaltatus (very tall), giganteus (gigantic or very large), grandis (large),
humilis (dwarf), major (greater), minor (less), minutus (very small), procerus (very tall), pumilus
(dwarf) and, robustus (stout or robust).

48
SPECIFIC EPITHETS LINKED WITH HABIT
Epithets, along with the name of the related habit in parenthesis, are undermentioned
alphabetically: arborescens (arborescent), dichotomus (dichotomous), erectus (erect), furcatus
(forked), prostratus (prostrate), ramosus (branched), repens (creeping) and, stoloniferus
(stoloniferous).

SPECIFIC EPITHETS LINKED WITH HABITATS

Some of such epithets, along with the name of the related habitat in the parenthesis, are listed
below alphabetically:
amphibius (living both on land and in water), aquaticus (living in water), arvensis (growing in
ploughed field), campestris (of field), hypogeus (underground), lacustris (of ponds or lakes),
litto-ralis (growing on seashores), maritimus (of sea), montahus (of mountains), palustris (of
swamps), rupestris (on rocks), sativus (cultivated), sylvaticus (of woods), sylvestris (growing in
woods) and, terrestris (growing in dry soil).

(C) PHYLOCODE: A NEW SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE

WHAT IS PHYLOCODE?
Recently, Cantino and de Queiroz (2001) proposed a new code for naming organisms by clear
"reference to phylogeny (ancestry and descent), rather than on the basis of the Linnaean hierarchy
of taxonomic categories (species, genus, family, and so on)", as stated by Robinson and
Kommedahl (2002), and this "new code" has been named by then as "Phylocode". They also
proposed a new term "clades" in this code. According to them, "clades" is a "group (s) of species
comprising a common ancestor and all its descendants". Clades are the constituents of the "free of
life". All clades should have explicit and unambiguous names that do not change with time. The
current systems of nomenclature are based on Linnaean hierarchy, and they do not "boast such
immutability".
The International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature is known in short as "Phylocode". It is a
developing "draft for a formal set of rules governing phylogenetic nomenclature". The current
version of Phylocode is specifically designed "to regulate the naming of clades, leaving the
governance of species names up to the rank-based codes".

How has Phylocode Come into Existence?

Phylocode is not a new idea. It is actually "based on ideas presented in the literature since
the late 1980s and, more formally, on the outcome of a workshop held at Harvard University in
August 1998" (Robinson and Kommedahl, 2002). In this workshop, a draft proposal was put
forward, and this draft covers only the naming of clades. It was also decided in this workshop
49
that "rules governing species names will be added later". However, as a temporary measure,
"Linnaean binomial nomenclature is used in the draft Phylocode where species names are
needed".
How are the Species Named in Phylocode?
As mentioned above under Article 8.14.1, the final rules governing species names have
not been decided yet. According to Robinson and Kommedahl (2002), "the form that species
names should take hi the Phylocode" is still controversial. Cantino et al. (1999) earlier presented
13 possibilities for naming species phylogenetically and compared these methods with each other
and also with the Lipiaean system". It is, however, for the scientific community to finally decide
whether or not the "Phylocode should become the sole code governing the names of the taxa"
(Robinson and Kommendahl, 2002).
What is the Basic Difference between Phylocode and Linnaean Binomial Nomenclature?
The fundamental characteristic "that distinguishes the Phylocode from the conventional
hierarchic nomenclatural systems is its ranklessness" according to Robinson and Kommendahl
(2002). The proposed Phylocode will cover the naming of clades and species, but in this Code,
these terms will refer not 10 ranks but to different kinds of biological entities. It is so because in
Phylocode "both (clades and species) are the products of evolution that are discovered, rather
than created, by systematists, and both have an objective existence regardless of whether they are
named*' (Cantino and de Queiroz, 2001).
What would be the Starting Date for Phylocode?
Regarding the starting date for Phylocode, Robinson and Kommedahl (2002) stated that
the "starting date for the new Code, which has not yet been decided, will coincide with the
publication of a companion volume providing definitions of widely used clade names".
What does Phylocode Advisory Group now want from the Scientific Community?
There is an advisory group which is now working on formulation and implementation of
Phylocode. This group is now coordinating work and seeking comments and ideas concerning
this proposal from as many people as possible. Anybody interested is welcome to review the
current draft of Phylocode and communicate it to the Phylocode Advisory Committee.

PRINCIPLES OF THE PHYLOCODE

The proposed Phylocode is based on certain principles. It allows freedom of taxonomic
opinion with reference to hypotheses about relationships. It only deals how the names are to be
applied with reference to a given phyiogenetic hypothesis. As published in Division 1
(Principles) of Phylocode, the five basic principles of Phylocode are reference, clarity,
uniqueness, stability, and phyiogenetic context.
1. Reference The most basic purpose of names of taxon is to "provide a means of referring to
50
 taxa, as opposed to indicating their characters, relationships, or membership".
2. Clarity The names of taxon should be "unambiguous in their designation of particular taxa.
Clarity in nomenclature is achieved through explicit definitions.
3. Uniqueness For promoting clarity, "each taxon should have only one accepted name, and each
accepted name should refer to only one taxon".
4. Stability During course of time, the names of taxa should not change. "As a corollary, it must
be possible to name newly discovered taxa without changing the names of previously
discovered taxa". There should, therefore, be a complete stability in the names of taxa.
(5) Phylogenetic context. The concern of Phylocode is only with the "naming of taxa and the
application of taxon within a phylogenetic context".

PHYLOCODE: AN OVERVIEW
The phylogenetic nomenclature will be regulated by the Phylocode because the latter will provide
rules for the following:
1. How to decide which combinations of names and definitions will be considered validly
published (for details, refer to Chapter II of Phylocode)!
2. Which of the names and definitions will be considered homonyms or synonyms (for
details, refer to Articles 13 and. 14)1
3. Which one of a set of homonyms or synonyms will be finally considered vaiId?
Furthermore, the Phylocode will only allow:
(i) The naming of clades (for details, refer to Article 1.1), and
(ii) The use of specimens, species, and amorphics as specifiers (for details, refer to
Article 11).

REGISTRATION DATABASE OF PHYLOCODE

RegNum
The future of the Phylocode is still undecided. If and when it is finally implemented, the
"Phylocode will be associated with a registration database called RegNum. The RegNum will
store the names of all clades and definitions that will be considered potentially valid".
The utility of RegNum will be to "provide a publicly-usable tool for associating clade
names with definitions". In the latter stages, this will be "associated with sets of subtaxa or
specimens through phylogenetic tree databases (such as TreeBASE)". RegNum will also be an
important tool in taking a decision that "which one of a number of synonyms or homonyms will
be considered valid".

51
MAIN EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF PHYLOCODE
1. As mentioned earlier under Article 8.14.1, the idea of Phylocode came as an outcome of
a workshop of systematists held at Harvard University in August 1998. An advisory
group of leading systematists was formed in this workshop.
2. In April 2000, these systematists prepared a draft of Phylocode- and made it public on
the web. They also invited comments from the systematists globally.
3. In July 2002, a second workshop on Phylocode was held at Yale University, USA.
Several modifications were made in the rules and recommendations of Phylocode in this
workshop.
4. From July 6,2004 to July 9, 2004, the First International Phylogenetic Nomenclature
Meeting took place in Paris (France). It was attended by about 70 systematists and
evolutionary biologists from 11 nations. A society was formed, namely International
Society for Phylogenetic Nomenclature (ISPN). An advisory group was formed to have a
complete control on the development of Phylocode.
5. From June 28, 2006 to July 2, 2006 the Second International Phylogenetic Nomenclature
meeting took place at Yale University, USA.
6. From July 21, 2008 to July 23, 2008, the Third International Phylogenetic Nomenclature
meeting was held at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

FUTURE OF PHYLOCODE
Still there exists some definite criticism of the Phylocode, and therefore, the Code as
such is still controversial. Till the late 2007, the "number of supporters for the official adoption of
Phylocode is still small", and it is still uncertain when, actually, "the Code will be implemented,
and how widely it will be followed" Majority of its supporters believe that the registration
database or RegNum should be made popularised as much as possible among the scientific
community, as a first major step in this direction. A lot, however, depends on following the
recommendations of the Third International Phylogenetic Nomeclature meeting held at Dalhousie
University, Canada between July 22, 2008 and July 23, 2008.

QUESTIONS

1. Instead of common names, why do we need scientific names for all plants? Give three dif-
ferences between common names and scientific names.
2. What is binomial nomenclature? Who proposed it and when?
3. What is International Code of Botanical Nomenclature? It applies to which organisms? Who
can make changes in ICBN?

52
4. Write any four principles of ICBN.
5. The XVIII meeting of International Botanical Congress is scheduled to be held in July,
2011. Name the host city and country of this meeting.
6. Define: (a) holotype, (b) isotype, (c) lectotype, and (d) neotype.
7. What is the difference between a validly published name and an effectively published name?
8. Give a brief account of phylocode: a new system of nomenclature.
9. What is binomial nomenclature?
10. Explain generic and specific epithet in detail.
11. What is type method? Differentiate between paratype and syntype.
12. Name two important rules of nomenclature.
13. Expand ICBN. What are its principles?
14. Give three examples of common specific prefixes.
15. Give one example each for different suffixes used in specific epithets.
16. Define Phylocode. What are its principles? What is the name of the database of
phylocode?

******

53
 LECTURE: 5
CELL AND CELL DIVISION
CELL
Definition: The cell could be described as a small unit of living protoplasm always
surrounded by cell membrane. It is the basic unit of structure and function in an
organism.
Robert Hook coined the term cell and named it as when he observed a honey comb like
structure in section of cork under a very primitive microscope.
The matrix between the nucleus and the cell membrane is known as cytoplasm. This
contains a variety of organelles. An organelle is a distinct part of a cell which has a particular
structure and function. The nucleus is the largest intra cellular cell organelle, which contains
deeply staining material known as chromatin, which has a particular structure and function. It
contains DNA (or RNA in some primitive organisms), the genetic material.
In the case of prokaryotic cell, the DNA lies free in the cytoplasm and the region is
known as nucleoid, where as in the case of eukaryotic cells, the DNA is found inside the nucleus,
which is surrounded by nuclear envelope.

Different parts and different organelles of a cell

 Cytoplasm: The portion of cell other than nucleus
 Hyaloplasm: The portion of cytoplasm other than cell organelles
Cell organelles: Various membrane bound structure that are found within a cell are called
cell organelles. Various structures which are found within a cell are:
3. Nucleus 2. Plastids 3. Mitochondria
5. Endoplasmic reticulum 5. Golgi bodies 6. Cell wall
9. Ribosome 8. Lysosomes 9. Centriole 10. Plasma membrane
Nucleus (Director of the cell), was discovered by Robert Brown in 1823. It contains DNA in
specialized structure called chromosomes.
Plastids are self-replicating cytoplasmic organelles found in plant cell. Plastids are absent in
bacteria, fungi and animals. According to presence or absence of pigments, Shimper classified
the plastids into:
i. Leucoplasts (Leukos - white): These are colourless.
ii. Chromoplasts: These are coloured but other than green
iii. Chloroplasts: These are green plastids bearing chlorophyll, the sites of photosynthesis
Mitochondria, the term was given by C. Benda in 1887. It is a rod like, cytoplasmic organelle
which is the main site of cellular respiration

54
Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.): The term was given by Porter in 1948 to identify fine reticulum
that he observed in cytoplasm. It is attached to nuclear membrane on one side and cell membrane
on other. There are types of E.R., Rough or granular ER and Smooth or agranular ER.
Lysosomes, in 1955, Dave named ‘Lysosome’. These are cellular particles containing several
diagestive enzymes such as acid phosphatase, acid ribonuclease etc.
Golgi complex/Golgi bodies/Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi, golgi bodies
arise from rough ER
Centrioles are cylindrical cellular bodies always found in pairs known as centriole pairs. The
members of the pair remain at an angle of 90º to each other, they are found in animal cells only.
Cell wall is found only in plant cell and is absent in animal cell. Cell wall is differentiated into 3
parts: Middle lamella, Primary cell wall and Secondary cell wall.
Plasma membrane/Plasma lemma is the outer most living boundary of the cytoplasm.
Central Vacuole is present in plant cell only. It contains water and other liquids
Ribosomes are small cellular particles which are site of protein synthesis. Since they are rich in
RNA they are called ribosomes.
Generally the animal cells are similar to plant cells but the former contains centriole which is
absent in plant cell.
Some of the chief differences which are present in the plant cells are:
1. Cell wall which is present outside the cell membrane in plant cells and has pores containing
fine threads known as plasmodesmata, which link the cytoplasm of neighboring cells through
cell walls.
2. Chloroplasts are found in photosynthetic plant cells.
3. Large central vacuoles are found in plant cells only.

CELL DIVISION
Definition: The process of reproduction or formation of new cells from the pre-existing cells
is referred to as cell division. In lower organisms like bacteria, cell division takes place by
fission of pre-existing cell. But in higher organisms like eukaryotes there are two types cell
division viz., Mitosis and Meiosis. In both of these two types, the nucleus of a cell first undergoes
division, known as Karyokinesis (Karyon=Nucleus, Kinesis=Division) and then the cytoplasm
divides (Cytokinesis).
Mitosis
The term Mitosis was coined by Flemming in 1882. Mitosis is the process by which a cell
nucleus divides to produce two daughter nuclei containing identical set of chromosomes to the
parent cell. It is usually followed immediately by division of the whole cell to form two daughter
cells. This process is known as mitotic cell division.
55
Cell cycle
The sequence of events which occur between one cell division and the next is called cell cycle. It
has two main stages.
1. Interphase
2. Mitosis or M phase (period of cell division)
1. Interphase
It is the period between successive cell divisions consisting of process associated with
growth and preparation for mitosis. The period of DNA synthesis during interphase is called the
‘S’ phase or synthetic phase and it is separated in time from the previous cell division by a gap
called ‘G1’ phase. G1 phase is the period between the beginning of interphase and that of DNA
synthesis (S phase).
After DNA synthesis a further gap called ‘G 2’ phase occurs before the next cell division
begins, which is the period between termination of DNA synthesis and beginning of prophase of
next cell division.
2. Mitotic phase
The mitotic phase leads to separation of replicated DNA into two daughter nuclei without
recombination. The M phase consists of two major events viz., division of nucleus (Karyokinesis)
followed by division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis). The karyokinesis has got four distinct stages as
follows.
Prophase: Coiling and condensation of chromosome takes place which make them visible as
thread like Structures.
Metaphase: Claerly visisble chromosomes move and arrange on metaphase plate or equatorial
plate.
Anaphase: This is the shortest phase of the mitotic division.
This stage allows the sister chromatids to separate and move to opposite poles.
Telophase: Chromosomes reach the opposite poles, again become thinner and longer by
uncoiling and unfolding.
Cytokinesis: It is the division of cytoplasm. This stage normally follows telophase and leads in
to G1 phase of interphase.

Significance of mitosis
1. Genetic stability 2. Growth 3. Cell replacement 4. Asexual reproduction

56
Meiosis
Meiosis is the process by which a cell nucleus divides to produce four daughter nuclei each
containing half the number of chromosomes of the original nucleus or cell. It is also called as
reduction division since it reduces the number of chromosomes in the cell from the diploid
number (2n) to the haploid number (n). Like mitosis, it involves DNA replication during
interphase in the parent cell, but this is followed by two cycles of nuclear and cytoplasmic
divisions known as Meiosis I (reduction division) and Meiosis II (multiplication division). Thus,
a single diploid cell gives rise to four haploid cells.
First meiotic division (reduction division)
It has four stages namely Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and Telophase I.
Prophase I
It is the longest phase of meiotic division. It has five sub stages namely, Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I are similar to mitotic phase with some differences to be
studied later.
The brief period (interphase) between the first and second meiotic divisions is called
interkinesis. Sometimes it is present, sometimes the dividing cell directly goes into Meiosis
II.
Second meiotic division (multiplication/equational division)
The second meiotic division is equal to mitotic division.

Significance of meiosis
Meiosis enables the chromosome number of a sexually reproducing species to be kept constant
from generation to generation.
Meiosis introduces the genetic variation in the offsprings of sexually reproducing individuals
by means of independent assortment and crossing over (recombination).

QUESTIONS
1. Define: Cell division, Interphase, cell
2. Write a brief note on cell organelles.
3. Enlist different sub stages of Prophase-I

57
 LECTURE: 6

SEED AND SEED GERMINATION

SEED
Seed is a product of a fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, enclosed in the testa which is
derived from the integument (s). Food reserves may or may not be contained in the endosperm.
 Testa. Also called seed coat, derived from the outer integument and Is protective in nature.
 Aril. A fleshy covering on the seed which arises as an outgrowth of the funicle or base of the
ovule. It may be a tuft of hairs. A fleshy white aril is distinctive and is the edible part of
litchi.
 Caruncle. An outgrowth near the micropyle and hilum of the seed (as in castor).
 Cotyledon. The leaf formed directly from the embryo of an angiosperm (also in
gymnosperms). In angiosperms, monocots have one cotyledon (i.e. Monocotyledons) or
dicots have two cotyledons (i.e. Dicotyledons.)
 Kernel. The seed inside the stoney endocarp of a drupe.
 Perisperm. A nutritive tissue derived from the nucellus of the ovule (present in some seeds)
or may be called persistent nutritive nucellus (as in members of Nymphaeaceae). In coffee
seed, it is the perisperm that is the source of coffee powder.
 Straphiole. An appendage of hilum (found in some seeds).

Types of seeds
1. Dicotyledonous exalbuminous (two cotyledons, no endosperm/perisperm)
Pea (Pisum sativum), Gram (Cicer areitinum), all beans, tamarind, mango, jackfruit, cucurbits,
sunflower, mustards, sesame, flax, orange, lemon, oak, pomegranate
2. Dicotyledonous albuminous (two cotyledons, with endosperm and/or perisperm)
Castor (Ricinus communis), papaw, jute, cotton, water lily, black pepper, coffee
3. Monotyledonous exalbuminous (one cotyledon, with endosperm and/or perisperm)
Rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum spp.), maize (Zea mays), onion (Allium cepa), cardamom,
Canna (Canna indica)
Coconut (Cocos nucifera), date palm (Phoenix sylvestris), palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer),
betel nut (Areca catechu)
4. Monocotyledonous exalbuminous (one cotyledon, no endosperm/perisperm)
Very rare, Found in seeds of Aroideae (Amorphallus campanulatus), Hydrocharitaceae
(Vallisneria), Alismaceae (Alisma plantago)
Radicle and cotyledon can be observed in a curved embryo
58
SEED GERMINATION
According to Seed Physiologists, ‘Germination is the mere protrusion of radicle’,
but according to Seed Analysts ‘Germination is the emergence and development from the
seed embryo of those essential structures, which indicates the ability of seed to produce a
normal plant under favorable conditions’. Others consider germination to be resumption of
active growth by the embryo resulting in the rupture of the seed coat and emergence of young
plant.
According to ISTA ‘Germination may be defined as the resumption of growth by the
embryo and development of a seedling from the seed, and the ability to develop into a normal
plant under favourable conditions in the soil’.
Some seeds are capable of germination only few days after fertilization, while others
require an extended period of rest before germination.
Seed germination test is an index indicating its capacity of producing normal healthy
seedlings under optimum condition. The emergence of essential structures of seedlings from
embryo i.e. root system, shoot axis, cotyledons, terminal bud and coleoptiles (Poaceae)
determine its potential to develop into a normal plant under favorable condition.

Morphology of seed germination

Based on the behaviour of storage organ, seed germination is of two types.
1. Epigeal germination: In this type germination, the cotyledons are raised above the ground
and provide nutritive support to the growing points. During root establishment, hypocotyl is
the elongating structure, it breaks the soil surface, pushing cotyledons and plumule through
the ground, e.g. pine and bean seeds.
.

59
2. Hypogeal germination: In this type germination, food storage organs remain beneath the
soil surface. Epicotyl is the elongating structure, plumule is pushed upward and emerges
above the ground. The coleoptile (a temporary sheath enclosing the plumule) is found e.g.
grasses and cereals. Most of the monocotyledons show hypogeal germination. Among
dicotyledons, gram, pea, groundnut are some common examples of hypogeal germination

S.r. Epigeal germination Hypogeal germination

(epi-upon, ge-earth) (hypo-below, ge-earth)
1 In this type of germination, cotyledons In this type of germination, plumule is
(including epicotyl and plumule) are pushed pushed upwards above the soil surface due
upwards above the soil surface due to rapid to rapid elongation of epicotyl.
elongation of hypocotyl.
2 The cotyledons may turn green like normal The cotyledons remains in the soil, do not
leaf. turn green and dry up.
3 e.g. bean, groundnut, cucumber, sunflower, e.g. gram, pea, mango, wheat, rice, maize,
cotton castor, bottle gourd, onion etc. sorghum, pearlmillet, sugarcane, etc.

Sr. Epicotyl Hypocotyl

1. The portion of axis lying immediately The portion of axis lying immediately
above the cotyledons. below the cotyledons.
2. It takes active part in hypogeal It takes active part in epigeal
germination. germination.

3. Vivipary: Germination occurs in fruits without completing the requirement of maturation is

known as vivipary. e.g. mangrove. Vivipary is the phenomenon of giving birth to young
ones in advanced stage of development. It occurs in mammals (among animals) and
mangrove plants. In mangrove plants (e.g., Rhizophora, Sonneratia, Heritiera) the seeds
cannot germinate on the ground because of the excessive salt content and lack of oxygen in
marshy habitat. In such plants seed dormancy is absent.

60
4. Pre-harvest sprouting
Sprouting of seed due to high moisture on
the matured plants standing on the field is known
as pre-harvest sprouting and it is different than
vivipary. e.g. onion, garlic and groundnut.
The process of seed germination starts with
the imbibition of water by seed coat and emergence
of growing root tip of embryo. The process ends
with the development of embryo into a seedling.

Factors Affecting Germination Process of Seeds:

 Temperature: Extremely low or cold
temperature is not favorable for seed
germination. They prefer higher temperatures.
The germination rate of seed is directly proportional to the rise in temperature.
 Moisture or water: Dry seeds do not germinate. Water is an essential factor to trigger off
the process of seed germination.
 Soil: During growth, seeds require mineral elements for further growth which is obtained
from the soil.
 Light: For seed germination light is not essential in the early stages of germination but
plays a main role in the later stages of the life cycle of plants.
 Viability of the seeds: After the seeds are formed, they remain viable up to certain period
which may vary from plant to plant or seed to seed. Many sees die or incapable of
supporting growth after a certain period of time.
 Dormancy period: Many seeds do not germinate abruptly after they are produced . Certain
seeds undergoe a resting time through which they stay dormant and germinate when
conditions are favourable. Preence of growth inhibitors like abscisic acid
induce dormancy in seeds.
 Thinness or thickness of seed coat: Different seeds have varying degrees of thickness to
enable the seeds to remain feasible. Seeds with a thin seed coat tend to germinate faster than
those with thicker seed coats.

QUESTIONS
1. Define seed. What are the different parts of a seed?
2. Define germination. Explain in detail the different types of germination with proper
example and diagram.
3. Enlist the different factors influencing germination.
4. Differentiate between epigeal and hypogeal germination.
61
 LECTURE: 7

MORPHOLOGY & MICRO-MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Botany: Study of plants

Plant Morphology – Branch of botany which deals with external features of plants.
External Morphology – Study of external forms and position of plant organs
Internal Morphology – Study of internal structure of various organs of plant
Anatomy – Study of overall internal structures such as sections of stem, root and leaf which
can be studied under microscope.
Histology – the study of tissues and tissue systems

In this section some information related to internal structure of plants will be covered, which
comes under anatomy, internal morpgology as well as histology.

THE TISSUE: Tissue is a group of cells of the same type or the mixed type, having a common
origin and performing an identical function. Tissues may primarily be classified into two
groups: meristematic and permanent
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES: These are composed of cell that are in a state of division or
retain the power of dividing. The cells which remain meristematic are called initiating cells and
cells derived from them are called derivatives through differentiation.
Meristematic tissues according to their position:
Apical: The apical meristem lies at the apex of the stem and the root and gives rise to primary
permanent tissues
Intercalary: It is present in the nodal region and is prominently found in monocotyledons, e.g.
grasses. As the name indicates, it is present in between the permanent tissues. It is derived from
the apical meristem and is responsible for the
elongation of internodes.
Lateral: The lateral meristem, e.g. cambium, lies
among masses of permanent tissues and gives rise
to secondary permanent tissues.

APICAL MERISTEM
I. Stem Apex: Apical meristem or growing
region is composed of a mass of small, usually
rounded or polygonal cells which are all

62
essentially alike are in a state of division; these meristematic cells constitute the periblem. The
cells of the promeristem soon differentiate into three regions:
(1) Dermatogen: The single outermost layer of cells. The dermatogen gives rise to the skin
layer or epidermis f the stem.
(2) Periblem: This lay internal to the dermatogen, is the middle region of the apical
meristem. It forms the cortex of the stem, which, particularly in dicotyledons, is differentiated
into hypodermis, general cortex and endodermis.
(3) Plerome: This lay internal to periblem, is the central region of the stem apex. Plerome
as a whole gives rise to the central cylinder or stele, which in a dicotyledonous stem is
differentiated into the pericycle, medullary rays, pith and the vascular bundles.

II. Root Apex: Promeristem, in the roots also stem differentiates into three regions:
(1) Dermatogen: This is single-layered but at
the apex it merges into the periblem; outside this, the
dermatogen cuts off many new cells, forming a small-
celled tissue known as the calyptrogen.
(2) Periblem: This is also single-layered at the
periblem, forms the middle region or cortex of root.
(3) Plerome: Its structure and function are
practically same as those of the stem.

PERMANENT TISSUES: These are composed of cells that have lost the power of dividing,
having attained their definite form and size. Permanent tissues are formed by differentiation of
the cells of the meristems and may be primary and secondary. The primary permanent tissues
are derived from the apical meristems of growing regions and the secondary permanent tissues
from the lateral meristems.

PRIMARY PERMANENT TISSUES: Primary permanent tissues may, be classified as

simple and complex and a third special group of Secretory or special tissue.

I. SIMPLE PRIMARY TISSUES: A simple tissue is

made from one type of cell forming a homogeneous or
uniform mass, and a complex tissue is made from more than
one type of cells working together as a unit.
1. Parenchyma: Parenchyma is called the
fundamental tissue of plants and precursor of all other
63
tissues of plants. It consists of a collection of living cells which are more or less isodiametric
with thin cellulose
walls. Different types are Chlorenchyma, Aerenchyma, Idioblasts. It is of universal occurrence
in all the soft parts of plants. Its function is mainly storage of food material.
2. Collenchyma: These are elongated living cells with
the corners or intercellular spaces much thickened with a
deposit of cellulose and pectin. The cells often contain some
chloroplasts. Different types are Angular, Lacunate/tubular,
Plate/lamellar. It gives tensile strength to the stem.
3. Sclerenchyma: It consists of very long, narrow,
thick-walled and lignified dead cells, usually pointed at both
ends. This tissue is divided into Sclerenchyma fibres and
sclereids or sclerotic cells.
Sclereids have very hard cell wall. Sclerieds include
brachysclereids, osteosclereids, found in the Crotalaria, Pisum
etc. Fibre cells are very long and narrow with pointed ends.
Sclerenchyma serves mechanically providing strength and rigidity to the plant.

II COMPLEX TISSUES:
1. Xylem: Xylem or wood is meant to conduct water and mineral salts upward from the
root to the leaf, and to give mechanical strength to the plant body. It is composed of following
elements:
(a) Tracheid: Lignified and hard, tracheids give strength to the plant body other than
conduction
(b) Vessels/ Tracheae: Elongated dead cells, placed in rows with transverse walls dissolved
(c) Xylem Fibers (wood): Sclerenchymatous cells associated with wood or xylems
(d) Xylem Parenchyma (wood): Living parenchymatous cells associated with xylem

64
2. Phloem: Phloem or bast is meant to conduct prepared food materials from the leaf to the
storage organs and the growing regions. It is composed of the following elements:
(a) Sieve-tubes: Slender, tube-like structures composed of elongated cells, placed end on end
(b) Companion Cells: Associated with each sieve-tube and connected by simple pits. Present
only in angiosperms.
(c) Phloem Parenchyma: Living
pare
nchy
mato
us
cells
in
the
phlo
em
(d)
Bast Fibres: Sclerenchymatous cells occurring in the phloem

III. SECRETORY TISSUES

1. Laticiferous Tissue: Thin-walled, very elongated, much-branched ducts containing milky
juice known as latex
2. Glandular Tissue: Special glands containing some sccretory or excretory products. They
may be internal or external.
Internal glands are (i) oil-glands (ii) mucilage secreting glands (iii) glands secreting gum,
resin tannin. (iv) digestive glands secreting enzymes (v) special water-secreting glands
External glands are (i) water-secreting hairs/ glands; (ii) glandular hairs (iii) glandular
hairs secreting irritating, poisonous substances (iv) honey glands or nectarines (v) enzyme
secreting glands
3. Hydathodes: Specialized structure in many angiosperms for exudation of water

MECHANICAL TISSUE
Some tissues are specially meant for providing mechanical strength when plants are
subjected to various stress and strain.
The most important mechanical tissue is sclerenchyma fibres along with sclereids with
highly lignified walls. Collenchyma also gives sufficient strength because of their thickened

65
cellulose walls. Xylem trachaea and tracheids though primarily are conducting tissue they also
provide mechanical support.
The main features of mechanical tissue are Inflexibility, inextensibility,
incompressibility and shearing stresses.

THE TISSUE SYSTEM

According to their large number and various function tissues are classified into three systems
which are: (1) Epidermal tissue system (2) Ground or fundamental tissue system (3) Vascular
tissue system.
1. The Epidermal Tissue System: Epidermis is developed from protoderm, which gives rise to
epidermal tissue system. Cells are parenchymatous and are arranged in a single outermost layer
called epidermis. It functions as a protective tissue. The outermost layer of root is called
epiblema or piliferous layer.
Thickened and cutinized outer walls of epidermis is called cuticle which checks evaporation of
water. In the leaves and young green shoots the epidermis possesses numerous minute openings
called stomata.
Structure and Behaviour:
Stomata (singular stoma) are
very minute openings called the
stomatal aperture formed in the
epidermal layer in green aerial
parts of the plant.
Each stoma is surrounded by two
semi-lunar cells known as guard
cells. Guard cells are living,
have thicker inner, and thinner
outer walls and always contain
chloroplasts. Often neighbouring cells to guard cells differ from other epidermal cells and are
associated functionally with stomata. These cells are called subsidiary cells. A cavity beneath
the stoma is called sub stomatal chamber.
Under normal conditions the stomata remain closed at night, i.e. in the absences of light, and
they remain open during the daytime, i.e. in the presence of light. The opening and closing of
the stomata are due to the movement of guard cells. In the presence of light the guard cells
absorb water from the neighbouring cells, expand and bulge in an outward direction and the
stoma opens. They close up through reverse process in the night.

66
Functions and Distribution
Stomata are used for interchange of gases between the plant and the atmosphere. Stomata are
most abundant on the lower epidermis of dorsiventral leaves. In isobilateral leaves, stomata are
more or less evenly distributed on all sides. In the floating leaves, like of water lily, stomata
remain confined to the upper
Bulliform cells
epidermis alone; in the
submerged leaves no stoma is
present.
Bulliform cells: In most of the
monocotyledonous plants highly
vacuolated thin walled balloon like cells are observed which appear as fan under the microscope
as the median cell is the largest. They may be present on both sides of the leaves but are more
common on the lower side. They might play a role in unfolding of leaves.
Water stomata/Hydathodes: Explained earlier
Epidermal outgrowths: Trichomes may be dead or alive and are grouped as hairs, scales,
colleters, water vesicles or bladders.
Root Hairs: Root hairs unlike trichomes are prolonged epidermal cells called trichoblasts.

2. The Ground or Fundamental Tissue

System (Roots and stems): It is the main
bulk tissue of the body of the plant (shoot &
root), and extends from below the epidermis
to the center (excluding the vascular
bundles). It is differentiate into the following
zones and sub-zones, Cortex, Stele and Pith.
(a) Cortex: This is the zone that lies between
the epidermis and the pericycle; it is usually
differentiated into the following sub-zones:
i. Hypodermis ii. General cortex iii. Endodermis.
Functions: In stems the cortex primarily functions as a protective tissue; in roots the cortex is
essentially a storage tissue.
(b) Stele: The central core of the axis is called stele enveloped by cortex which includes
vascular tissues and pericycle along with pith when present. Pericycle is a multi-layered zone
between the endodermis and the vascular bundles and occurs as a cylinder encircling the
vascular bundles and the pith, as in dicotyledonous stems. In some angiosperms, young stems

67
have abundant starch content in the inner most layer of cortex known as starch sheath. Statoliths
are observed in roots containing starch grains.
Functions: In all roots, the pericycle is the seat of origin of lateral roots. In all stems, the
pericycle is the seat of origin of adventitious roots.
(c) Pith and Pith Rays: The pith or medulla forms the central core of the stem and in the root
it is usually made of large-celled parenchyma with abundant intercellular spaces. The
parenchymatous ground tissue passing in between the vascular bundles constitute pith rays or
medullary rays.
Ground tissue of leaf
The ground tissue of leaf is called mesophyll mainly composed of thin walled parenchymatous
cells with profuse chloroplasts. In most dicotyledons, mesophyll is differentiated into palisade
parenchyma found beneath the upper epidermis or adaxial surface. They are elongated cells.
Cells occurring on the abaxial or lower epidermis are called spongy parenchyma.
Functions: They serve to store food material.

3. The Vascular Tissue System: This system consists of a number of vascular bundles which
are distributed in the stele. The function of this system is to conduct water and raw food
materials from the roots to the leaves, and from the leaves to the storage organs & growing
regions respectively.
Elements of a Vascular Bundle: Consists of three well-defined tissues: (1) Xylem or Wood
(2) Phloem or Bast and (3) Cambium. Vascular bundle originates from procambium.
(1) Xylem or Wood: This lies towards the centre. The first formed xylem is called protoxylem
and lately formed are known as metaxylem. Include details from complex tissue.
(2) Phloem or Bast: This lies towards the circumference. The first formed phloem is called
protophloem and lately formed are known as metaphloem. Include details from complex tissue.
(3) Cambium: This is a thin strip of primary meristem lying in between xylem and phloem.
Cambium is responsible for secondary growth in thickness of the plant body.

Types of Vascular Bundles: According to the arrangement of xylem and phloem, the vascular
bundles are of the following types:
68
(1) Radial: When xylem and phloem from separate bundles and these lie on different radii
alternating with each other, as in roots.
(2) Conjoint: When xylem and phloem combine into one bundle. There are different types of
conjoint bundles.
(a) Collateral: When xylem and phloem lie together on the same radius, xylem being
internal and phloem external.
i. Open, Conjoint, Collateral: Vascular bundle in which cambium is present,
xylem and phloem are on same radius and phloem is present only on one side.
ii. Closed, Conjoint, Collateral: Vascular bundle in which cambium is absent,
xylem and phloem lies on the same radius and phloem is present only on one side.

(b) Bicollateral: When in a collateral bundle both phloem and cambium occur twice.
Open, Conjoint, Bicollateral: Vascular bundle in which cambium is present, xylem
and phloem are on same radius and phloem is present on both sides.
(3) Concentric: When xylem lies in the center and is surrounded phloem. Here amphivasal or
leptocentric bundles have phloem at the centre surrounded by xylem. In the amphicribal or
hadrocentric bundles opposite is observed.

69
Apical Meristems and Tissue system:

ANATOMY OF STEMS

DICOTYLEDONOUS STEMS:
(1) Epidermis: This forms the outermost layer, and consists of a single row of cells,
flattened tangentially and fitting closely along their radial walls, with a well-defined cuticle
extending over it.
(2) Cortex: This is the zone that line between the epidermis and the pericycle, and consists
of hypodermis externally, general cortex centrally and endodermis internally.
(a) Hypodermis (collenchyma): This lies immediately below the epidermis, and consists of
some 4 or 5 layers of collenchymatous cells. The cells are living and contain a number of
chloroplasts.
(b) General cortex: This lies internal to the hypodermis and consists of a few layers of thin-
walled; large, rounded or oval parenchymatous cells.
(c) Endodermis: This is the innermost layer of the cortex consisting of more or less barrel
shaped cells.
(d) Starch sheath: Limiting layer of extrastelar ground tissue
(3) Stele: All the tissue internal to starch sheath constitute stele.
(a) Pericycle: This is the region lying in between the endodermis and vascular bundles.
(b) Medullary Rays: A few layers of fairly big polygonal or radially elongated cells,
lying in between two vascular bundles, constitute a medullary ray.
(c) Pith: It extends from below the vascular bundles to the center, and is composed of rounded
or polygonal, thin-walled, living cells with conspicuous intercellular spaces between them.
(d) Vascular Bundles: These are collateral and open, and are arranged in a ring with a patch
of sclerenchyma forming like a cap known as bundle cap. Each bundle is composed of
a. Phloem or bast b. Cambium and c. Xylem or wood.
a. Phloem: This lies externally and consists of:
i. Sieve-tubes ii. Companion cells iii. Phloem parenchyma
Phloem as a whole is meant to conduct prepared food materials from the leaves to the storage
organs, and later from the storage organs to the growing regions.
70
 b. Cambium: Lying in between phloem and xylem. Cambium is responsible for secondary
growth in thickness of the plant body.
c. Xylem or Wood: This lies internally and consists of the following elements.
i. Wood vessels ii. Tracheids iii. Wood fibers iv. Wood parenchyma

Transverse section (T.S.) of a young dicot stem A part enlarged

Transverse section (T.S.) of a young monocot stem A part enlarged

71
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEMS
(1) Epidermis: This is a single outermost layer with a thick cuticle on the outer surface. Here
and there in the epidermis a few stomata may be seen.
(2) Cortex: Not well differentiated. Hypodermis (sclerenchyma) of 2 or 3 layers thick lying
below epidermis is observed.
(3) Stele: This is the continuous mass of thin-walled parenchyma, extending from below the
sclerenchyma to the center. It is not differentiated into pericycle, etc., as in a dicotyledons.
(a) Vascular Bundles: These are collateral and closed, and lie scattered in the ground tissue.
The bundle consists of xylem and phloem only; cambium is altogether absent.
Xylem: Mainly consist of usually four distinct vessels arranged in the form of a Y, and a
small number of tracheids arranged irregularly.
Phloem: Consists exclusively of sieve-tube and companion cells; no phloem parenchyma
is present in the monocotyledonous stem.

Difference between Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Stems:

Dicotyledonous stem Monocotyledonous Stems
(e.g. sunflower) (e.g. maize)
1. Hypodermis Collenchymatous sclerenchymatous
2. General Cortex a few layers of parenchyma
a continuous mass of
3. Endodermis a wavy layer parenchyma up to the center
(ground tissue)
4. Pericycle a zone of parenchyma and without differentiation into distinct
sclerenchyma tissues
5. Medullary Ray a strip of parenchyma in not marked out
between vascular bundles
6. Pith The central cylinder not marked out
7. Vascular Bundles (a) collateral and open collateral and closed
(b) arranged in a ring scattered
(c) of uniform size larger towards the center
(d) phloem parenchyma it is absent
present usually oval
(e) usually wedge-shaped strongly developed
(f) bundle sheath absent

ANATOMY OF ROOTS
DICOTYLEDONOUS ROOTS:
(1) Epiblema or Piliferous Layer: This is a single outermost layer of thin-walled cells; the
outer walls of most of these cells extend outwards and from unicellular root-hairs. This layer is
used for absorption of water and various mineral salts from the soil and, therefore, has no
cuticle. Root-hairs increase the absorbing surface of the root.
72
(2) Cortex: This consists of many layers of thin-walled rounded cells, with numerous
intercellular spaces between them. The cells of the cortex contain leucoplasts and store starch
grains. Endodermis is a single ring-like layer of barrel-shaped cells. The endodermis is the
innermost layer of the cortex.
(3) Stele: The central cylinder is a protostele.
(a) Pericycle: This lies internal to the endodermis and, like it.
(b) Conjunctive Tissue: The parenchyma lying in between xylem and phloem bundles
constitutes the conjunctive tissue.
(c) Pith: This occupies only a small area in the centre of the root.
(d) Vascular Bundles: These are arranged in a ring, as in the dicotyledonous stem but
here xylem and phloem form an equal number of separate bundles, and their arrangement is
radial. Protoxylem occurs towards periphery and metaxylem towards centre giving exarch
appearance typical of roots.

T.S. view of dicot root T.S. view of monocot root

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS ROOT:
(1) Epiblima or Piliferous Layer: This is the single outermost layer with a number of
unicellular root-hairs.
(2) Cortex: This is a many-layered zone of rounded or oval cells with intercellular spaces
between them. Sometimes a suberized layer is observed known as exodermis. Endodermis is
the innermost layer of the cortex and forms a definite ring around the stele. Cells of the
endodermis are barrel-shaped.
73
(3) Stele:
(a) Pericycle: This is the ring-like layer lying internal to the endodermis.
(b) Conjunctive Tissue: The parenchyma in between the xylem and phloem bundles is
known as the conjunctive tissue.
(c) Pith: The mass of Parenchymatous cells in and around the center is the pith.
(d) Vascular Bundles: Xylem and phloem from an equal number of separate bundles, and
they are arranged in a ring. The arrangement is radial.

T.S. view of root of a watery plant

Difference of dicot root and monocot root

Dicotyledonous Root Monocotyledonous Root

Xylem Vary from 2 to 6 rarely Numerous rarely a limited
bundles more number
Pitch Small or absent Large and well-developed
Pericycle Gives rise to lateral Give rise to lateral roots
roots, cambium and only
cork-cambium
Cambium Appears later Absent altogether

74
 ANATOMY OF LEAVES
DORSIVENTRAL LEAF: Differentiated mesophyll, generally found in dicot plants
(1) Epidermis:
Upper Epidermis: This is a single layer
of cells with a thick cuticle which checks
excessive evaporation of water from the
surface. It does not contain chloroplasts.
Stomata are also usually absent.
Lower Epidermis: This is also a single
layer but with a thin cuticle. The lower
epidermis of the leaf is meant for the
exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) between the atmosphere and the
plant body. Excess water also evaporates
from the plant body mainly through the T.S. view of a dicot/dorsiventral leaf
lower epidermis.
(2) Mesophyll: The ground tissue lying between the upper epidermis and the lower one is
known as the Mesophyll. It is differentiated into (a) palisade parenchyma and (b) spongy
parenchyma.
(a) Palisade Parenchyma: Consists of usually one to two or three layers of elongated, more
or less cylindrical cells, closely packed with their long axes at right angles to the epidermis.
The cells contain numerous chloroplasts and manufacture sugar and starch in the presence of
sunlight.
(b) Spongy Parenchyma: Consists of oval, rounded, or more commonly irregular cells,
loosely arranged towards the lower epidermis, enclosing numerous, large, intercellular
spaces and air-cavities. The cells contain a few chloroplasts.
(3) Vascular Bundles: Each vascular bundle which are observed as veins in leaves (collateral
and closed) consists of xylem towards upper epidermis and phloem towards the lower.

ISOBILATERAL LEAF: Mesophyll undifferentiated, generally found in monocot plants

The structure is more or less uniform from one surface to the other. These leaves also consist of
(1) Epidermis (2) Mesophyll (3) Vascular bundle
The epidermis on either side bears more or less an equal number of stomata, and is also
somewhat uniformly thickened and cutinized. The Mesophyll is often not differentiated into
palisade and spongy parenchyma, but consists of spongy cell only, in which chloroplasts are
evenly distributed.
75
 T.S. view of a monocot/isobilateral leaf

LEAF LAMINA (EPIPODIUM): It is the broad and flattened part of leaf

Function: Photosynthesis, starch formation, gaseous exchange and transpiration
Lamina is classified on the basis of:
A. Surface differentiation E. Lamina margin I. Lamina colour
B. Shape F. Lamina apex J. Lamina odour
C. Incision G. Lamina surface K. Lamina taste
D. Lamina base H. Lamina texture L. Lamina venation

Types of lamina according to surface differentiation

Dorsiventral: Lamina differentiated into two surfaces, namely, upper adaxial (Ventral), facing
the stem and lower abaxial (dorsal), facing away from the stem; found in most dicot leaves
Isobilateral: Upper and lower surfaces are identical; found in most monocots
Centric: Cylindrical with no upper or lower surface

Leaf lamina surface types and leaf lamina texture types are very important for taxonomic
identification and are considered under micro-morphology of plants.

A. LEAF LAMINA SURFACE TYPES:

1.Glabrous: No hair on leaf
lamina surface; Mango
2. Glaucus: Shiny, green with
waxy coating; Lotus, arum of
Calotropis

76
3. Scabrous: Rough lamina surface; Fig
leaves
4. Viscose: Leaf surface sticky due to
excretion; Cleome viscose, Nicotiana tabacum

Scabrous Viscose

5. Rugose: Wrinkled surface;

Rubus rugosus
6. Gland-dotted: Surface with
glands; Lemon grass

Rugose Gland dotted

7. Hairy: There are different sub-types under hairy leaf surface depending upon the length,
texture and distribution of hairs, as described below.

a. Pilose: Hairs are long, scattered; Grevia pilosa

b. Pubescent: Hairs are soft and wooly; Tomato
c. Villose: Long, close: Leucas aspera
d. Tomentose: Hairs are short dense, cottony;
Terminalia tomentosa, Calotropis procera
e. Hirsute: Hairs are stiff, fine, scattered;
Eclipta alba
f. Hispid: Long, rigid; Cucurbits
g. Spinose: Small prickles not spines; Brinjal
Spinose

77
B. Leaf lamina Texture
Herbaceous: Lamina is thin,
membranous; China rose, rose
Coriaceous: Lamina firm,
leathery; Mango

Herbaceous Coriaceous

Succulent: Leaves are Soft, juicy;

Bryophyllum
Gland-dotted: Presence of
glands; lemon leaves (Surface &
texture both)

Succulent Gland dotted

SECONDARY GROWTH IN THICKNESS

Dicotyledonous Stem: secondary growth takes place as a result of the formation of new
(secondary) tissues in them. Secondary tissues are formed by two meristems – cambium in the
stellar region and cork-cambium formed later in the extra-stellar or cortical region. The
increase in thickness due to addition of secondary tissues cut off by the cambium and the cork-
cambium in the stellar and extra-stellar regions respectively is known as secondary growth.
Cambium Ring: Fascicular cambium present in the bundle tissues is responsible for production
of secondary tissues initially. Later a portion of each medullary ray in a line with the cambium
becomes meristematic and forms a strip of cambium called the interfascicular cambium. The
joins on to the cambium proper on either side and forms a complete ring known as the
cambium ring. Secondary growth occur with the activity of this cambium ring. The structures
formed due to secondary growth of xylem and phloem are, annual ring or growth ring, cork,
bark, lenticels.
QUESTIONS

1. Define: Anatomy, histology, stele, cortex, parenchyma, hypodermis

2. Differebtate between the following with proper example and diagram:
a. Monocot stem and dicot stem b. Monocot root and dicot root
c. Monocot leaf and dicot leaf
3. Enlist different leaf lamina types based on surface and texture with proper example
4. Define vascular bundle. What are its types? Explain.
5. Describe stomata nd bulliform cells with proper diagram.

78
 LECTURE: 8

ROOT
A root is the positively geotropic leafless lower portion of the plant axis. Basically, it
arises from radicle and is characterized by non-green smooth surface and not differentiated into
nodes and internodes. Lateral branches arise endogenously. Main function of the root is the
anchorage of the plant into the soil and absorption of water and dissolved minerals from the soil
by means of root hairs. Three kinds of roots have been recognized on the basis of their nature
(tap roots, seminal roots and fibrous roots), and into two types on the basis of their origin
(normal roots and adventitious roots).
Tap root:
A root system with a prominent main root, directed vertically downwards bearing small
lateral roots. It is characteristic to dicot plants, e.g. carrot, radish, rose, trees etc. (fig..8.1A). Tap
loot is primary in nature as it is formed from the radicle.

Fig. 8.1

Seminal root: In monocots, such roots arise from near the base of the radicle, as in rice
(fig. 8.1B) and barley seedlings.
Fibrous root: A root system that develops from the base of the plumule (hypocotyl) in
which all roots are equally prominent, as characteristically found in monocots (grasses)
(fig. 8.1C).
Normal root: A root arising from the radicle.
Adventitious root: A root developing from any other plant part, except the radicle. It may
arise from the underground or aerial stem or from leaf margins.
Modified Roots: Some roots are modified to carry out specialised functions of mechanical and
physiological nature.
79
Modified tap roots: Some tap roots are modified for food storage. These are classified on the
basis of their shape as follows:
(i) Fusiform roots: swollen in the middle and tapering at the two ends. as in radish
(Raphanus sativus) (fig. 8.2A).
(ii) Conical roots - broad at the upper end and
gradually tapering towards the lower end, as in
carrot (Daucus carota) (fig. 8.2B).
(iii) Napiform roots-almost spherical at the
upper end which abruptly tapers at the lower
end, e.g. beet root (Beta vulgaris) and turnip
Fig. 8.2 Modification of tap roots
(Brassica oleracea) (fig. 8.2C).
A. Radish (fusiform ) B. Carrot (Conical)
B. C. Turnip (Napiform)
Modified adventitious roots: Some adventitious roots are modified for various purposes, as
follows:
a. Modified adventitious roots for food storage:
(i) Root tubers: arising from the node. These swell like tubers for food storage, e.g. sweet
potato (Ipomoea batatas) (fig. 8.3A).

(ii) Fasciculated roots: the cluster of adventitious tuberous roots, as found in Aspatagus and
Dahlia (fig. 8.3B).
(iii) Nodulose roots: apices of the roots swell up to form bead-like structures, e.g. mango
ginger (Curcuma amada) (fig.8.3 C).

80
(iv) Moniliform roots: roots develop alternate swellings and constrictions to give a beaded
appearance, as found in Vitis, Dioscorea and some grasses (fig. 8.3D).
(v) Annulated roots: roots appear as if a number of discs are place done above the other, as in
ipecac (Cephalis ipecacuanha) (fig. 8.3E)
Modified roots for absorption - Aerial roots: Orchids grow as epiphytes on trees and bear
hanging aerial routs to absorb atmospheric moisture with the help of spongy velamen tissues
(fig. 8.4 A).

Fig. 8.4 A-aerial roots of orchids and B & C-respiratory roots (pneumatophores) of mangrove
plants.
Modified Assimilatory roots: These are hanging green aerial roots which have the power of
assimilation (photosynthesis), as found in Tinospora cordifolia.
Modified Respiratory roots: These are negatively geotropic vertically growing roots into air
for breathing or oxygen requirement found in mangrove plants growing in saline waters, as in
Rhizophora, Heritiera, Avicennia etc. These are also called pneumatophores (fig. 8.4B & C).
Modified Parasitic or haustorial roots: These absorb nutrition by sending out haustoria into
the tissue of hosts, as found in parasitic plants like Loranthus and Cuscuta (fig. 8.5A and B).
Modified Reproductive roots: Roots that bear adventitious buds which grow into plantlets as
elephantum).
Modified Mycorrhizal roots: Roots of higher plants infested with fungal mycelia which
absorb food from the soil. Mycorrhiza facilitates nutrient absorption specially N, P and K by the
higher plants. These are found in Monotropa (a saprophytic angiosperm), Sarcodes and Pinus
(fig. 8.5C and D).

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 Fig. 8.5

Food storing roots: These accumulate reserve food material to carry out physiological
functions, e.g. fusiform, conical and napiform roots (tap roots) or tuberous, fasciculated,
nodulose, moniliform or annulated roots (adventitious roots).

Roots modified for mechanical support: Roots may be modified variously to provide
mechanical support to the plants and are named accordingly, e.g.
(i) Prop roots: Strong, woody and sunken in the soil, these aerial roots
arise from horizontal branches (stem) to provide stem-like
support, as found in banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis) (fig. 8.6A).
(ii) Stilt roots: Roots arising from lower nodes of the stem and
growing obliquely downwards to anchor the plant into the soil, as found in maize (Zea
mays), sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), screw pine (Pandanus foetidus) and in some
mangrove plants (Rhizophora) (fig. 8.6 B and C).
(iii) Clinging roots: found in epithytic plants (orchids) to cling the plant on the stem of
other plant (fig. 8.4 A).
(iv) Climbing roots: adventitious roots arising from the node of the stem that help in
climbing or twinning of the plant, as found in betel vine (Piper betle) (fig. 3.5) and money
plant (Pothos).

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 Fig. 8.6

(v) Root buttresses: found in some large trees to provide additional support by producing
plank-like roots arising from base of trunk, in Salmalia, Ficus and Terminali.

Fig. 8.7

Other modified roots

(i) Floating roots: Found in aquatic floating plants-special adventitious spongy and whitish
roots filled with air to facilitate plant floating on the water. These also help in respiration, as
found in Jussiaea repens and Pistia stratiotes (fig. 8.7A).
(ii) Contractile roots: special type of roots which can contract or pull the stem deep into the
soil, as found in Lilium, Allium and Cmm (fig. 8.7B).

QUESTIONS
1. Define and draw properly a Tap root system. Mention its functions.
2. Enlist different types of modified roots (tap & adventitious) for physiological functions
with suitable example.
3. Enlist different roots modified for mechanical function with suitable example.
83
 LECTURE: 9

STEM
Stem is the axis of a plant bearing leaves with buds in their axils. It is formed by the
plumule of the seed.
Acaulescent: A plant which is stemless or without visible stem.
Arborescent: A plant almost tree-like with a short main trunk.
Arboreous: A tree with well-developed trunk.
Culm. A jointed stem with distinct nodes and internodes, as in grasses and sedges (fig.14.ID).
Branching of the Stem: Branching may be:
(i) Racemose or monopodial branching-main stem (terminal bud) grows indefinitely and
lateral branches are produced in an acropetal order (i.e., older towards base), as in
Polyalthia.
(ii) Cymose - the terminal (apical) bud loses its activity and axillary
buds grow vigorously to form a large spreading tree as in mango (Mangifera indica), neem
(Azadirachta indica), banyan (Ficus benghalensis) etc. Cymose branching may be: (a)
Uniparous (only one branch at each node), (b) Biparous (two branches at each node) or (c)
Muitiparous (more than two branches at each node).

Modified Stems
(I) Underground Modifications
(1) Rhizome-underground, dorsiventral, horizontally growing below the soil surface with
distinct nodes and internodes. Nodes bear scale leaves on the upper surface and
adventitious roots on the lower surface. They are usually fleshy due to the storage of food,
as found in ginger (Zingiber officinale) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) (fig.
9.1A).

Fig. 9.1

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 (2) Tubers-fleshy, swollen, underground stem bearing scale leaves with buds (eyes) in their
axils. The eyes are spirally arranged, but more crowded towards the distal end (called rose
end), each eye develops into a small shoot. Stem tubers are commonly found in potato
(Solanum tuberosum) (fig. 9.1B), Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) and Cyperus
rotundus.
(3) Bulb-a rounded, modified, underground bud bearing highly reduced (disc-like) stem and
fleshy scale leaves which make up the bulk of the organ. According to the arrangement of
the scale leaves, the bulbs are called (i) tunicated-scale-leaves arranged in a concentric
manner and the whole bulb is enclosed by dry membranous scale leaves, called tunic, as
seen in onion (Allium cepa) , tulips (Tulipa) and tuberose (Polianthes) (fig. 9.2 A, B),

Fig. 9.2

and (ii) scaly or imbricated-scale-leaves arranged loosely with overlapping margins and are
not covered by any common tunic, as in garlic (Allium sativum) and lily (Lilium) (fig. 9.2 C).
(4) Corm-a solid, highly condensed,
vertical root-stock with a large apical
bud. Some scale leaves are present on its
body and adventitious roots grow either
from the base or all over its body. Corms
are found in Colocasia, Crocus,
Colchicum, Gladiolus and
Amorphophallus. In Amorphophallus
Fig. 9.3 complanatus, the corm is single internode
with numerous adventitious buds and
roots all over its body (fig. 9.3).

(II) Sub-aerial Modifications;

85
(1) Runners-develop from the basal internode of the axillary buds of the lowest leaves and
which elongate horizontally along the ground carrying the buds, and after trailing for a short
distance along the ground, each runner attaches itself to the soil by means of adventitious roots
and develops into a new daughter plant, as in Cynodon, Oxalis (fig. 9.4A) and Hydrocotyl.
Sobole is a special type of underground runner found in many grasses. The grasses send out
soboles in all directions and develop numerous offsprings (fig. 9.4B). It is a more effective
method of propagation, as in Saccharum spontaneum, Agropyron and Imperata arundinacea.

Fig. 9.4 A-runner (Oxalis) and B-sobole

(Agropyron).

(2) Stolon-a special type of runner which grows upward like ordinary branch and then archs
down to strike roots in the soil and forms a daughter plant, as in Mentha (fig. 9.5A).

Fig. 9.5

86
(3) Sucker-an underground runner which after travelling a short distance grows up and forms
a daughter plant. These may also develop from the axillary buds. Suckers are commonly found
in Mentha arvensis, Musa and Chysanthemum (fig. 9.5B).
(4) Offset-similar to a runner but shorter and thicker and found in aquatic plants. It runs for
sometimes under-water and then surfaces to bear a bunch of leaves and adventitious roots, as in
Pistia stratiotes and Eichhornia crassipes (fig. 9.6).

Fig. 9.6
(III) Aerial Modifications
(1) Phylloclade or Cladophyll-a stem in which several nodes and internodes become
flattened or swollen, fleshy and green leaf-like. Such stems carry out the photosynthesis
and also store the food. Leaves, present on the nodes, are reduced to scales or modified
into spines. Phylloclade is a xerophytic adaptation to reduce transpiration, as found in
cocoloba (Muehlcnbeckia platyclada), cactus (Opuntia) and ruscus {Ruscus) (fig. 9.7 A,
B and C). In Ruscus, phylloclades look exactly like leaves, but occurrence of flower at the
nodal points, justify their stem nature.

Fig. 9.7

87
Cladode - A special type phylloclade consisting of one or two internodes only. In Asparagus,
the ultimate branchlets are of one internode only and modified into cylindrical leaf-like
structures, whereas leaves are reduced to scales or spines (fig. 9.7 D, E). It is a xerophytic
adaptation to reduce transpiration.
(2) Thorn-a modified straight, hard and pointed axillary branch. Thorns are deep seated, direct
prolongations of the stem and have vascular connections. These are xerophytic adaptations.
Thorns of Duranta bear leaves(fig. 9.8) and those of Prunus flowers

Fig 9.8

(4) Stem-tendril-a modified axillary or terminal bud into tendril for climbing. Tendrils of
Passtflora (fig. 3.4C) are modified axillary branches whereas those of Vitis are modified tips of
sympodial branches.

QUESTIONS

1. Define: Shoot system, Acaulescent, Arborescent, Arboreous, Culm

2. Enlist different types of stem modifications with function and proper examples in tabulated
form.
4. Write down the important functions of stem.
5. Differentiate between
Stem and root
Culm and Caudex

88
 LECTURE: 10

LEAF
Leaf is a lateral appendage of the stem borne at the node and bears an axillary bud in its
axil. It is usually expanded and concerned with the manufacture of food (photosynthesis).
Kinds of Leaves
1. Cotyledonary leaf-cotyledon green and appearing like foliage leaf as in Tilia and
Geranium.
2. Cataphylls or Scale leaves-dry, papery or fleshy scale leaves or bud scales, as found on
various parts of Casuarina, Asparagus and bamboos.
3. Hypsophylls or bract leaves-special leaves which bear floral buds at their axils.
4. Prophylls-first few leaves of a branch which differ from other leaves as found in wood
apple (Aegle marmelos) where these are represented by spines.
5. Floral leaves or sporophylls-stamens and carpels are called sporophylls in common with
lower plants.
6. Foliage leaves-common green leaves (discussed in detail here).
Duration of Leaves
1. Caducous or fugacious-leaves fall off as soon as they are formed as in Opuntia.
2. Deciduous or annual-leaves fall off at the end of a particular season as in Acer.
3. Persistent-leaves last for a long time as in most tropical trees, as in Polyalthia.

Phyllotaxy
It is the mode of arrangement of leaves on the stem.
Leaves borne directly on the main trunk are called cauline as in Dracaena and other
monocots and borne on the branches are called ramal as in most dicot trees. Leaves are called
radical if these arise from reduced stem and appear as if arising from the root as in radish.
In cauline or ramal leaves, there may be one, two, three or more leaves at each node.
When there is only one leaf on each node, the arrangement is called spiral, alternate or acyclic
and if there are, two or more leaves on each node, it is called cyclic.
Spiral or alternate phyllotaxy. Leaves are produced alternately or spirally on the long
axis or stem. If these are found to lie in a fixed number of vertical rows, the arrangement is
called orthostichous and is variously termed:

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Parastichous term is used when it is not possible to establish orthostichy, as on date palm
trunk.
Cyclic phyllotaxy. The leaves at each node form a whorl with the leaves placed on a circle in
which the angles between adjacent leaves are same. It can broadly be of two types:

(1) Opposite phyllotaxy-two leaves on each node and opposite to one another. It can be of
two kinds : (i) Opposite decussate-successive pairs of leaves placed at right angles to one
another as in Calotropis (fig. 10.1) or Opposite superimposed-successive pairs of leaves
exactly on top of one another so that all leaves lie in one plain as in Psidium guajava and
Quisqualis (fig. 10.1).

Fig. 10.1

(2) Verticillate phyllotaxy-also called whorled phyllotaxy in which three to five leaves form a
whorl in each node as three leaves in Nerium odorum (fig. 14.24) and five or more in
Alstonia scholaris.

Heterophylly. Presence of different types of foliage leaves as in Ranunculus aquatilis and

Limnophila heterophylia where submerged leaves (in water) are dissected and aerial leaves are
more or less entire.
Anisophylly. In some opposite phyllotaxy, leaves are of unequal size, as in Pellionia
daveanana.
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Leaf Parts (of Foliage Leaves)
A typical leaf is made up of three parts, (i) the leaf base or hypopodium, (ii) the stalk or
petiole or mesopodium and (iii) the leaf blade or lamina or epipodium (fig. 10.2).

Fig. 10.2 Parts of a typical leaf.

Leaf base. The point of attachment of the leaf to the stem. It may be variously modified, e.g.
(a) pulvinus-a swollen leaf base, as in mango (Mangifera) and Mimosa pudica (fig. 10.3A). (b)
sheathing-(clasping or forming sheath around the stem, as in banana {Musa paradisiaca) (fig.
10.3B), (c) amplexicaul-a sheathing leaf base which surrounds stem completely, as in grasses
and Aethusa cynapium, (fig. 10.3C) and (d) decurrent-a winged leaf base which extends down
to the stem, as in Symphytum (fig. 10.3D).

Fig. 10.3 Variations in leaf bases. A-pulvinus (Mangifera indica), B-sheathing leaf base (Musa
paradisiaca), C-amplexicaul (Aethusa cynapium) and D-decurrent (Symphytum officinale).

Stipules. A pair of lateral outgrowth present at the base of the leaf. Leaves possessing stipules
are called stipulate and lacking are exstipulate (as in mango). Stipules may be of various types,
e.g. (i) Adnate-adhering to the petiole upto a certain height and making it somewhat winged as
in rose (Rosa) (fig. 10.4A), (ii) Free lateral-free on the two sides of the leaf base as in china
rose (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), (fig. 10.4B), (iii) Intrapetiolar-present between the leaf and the

91
axis as in Gardenia (fig. 10.4C), (iv) Interpetiolar-two stipules lying between the two leaves, as
in Ixora (fig. 10.4D), (v) Ochreate-stipules which form a hollow tube encircling the stem from
the node upto a certain height, as in Polygonum (fig. 10.4E),
(vi) Tendrillar - stipules modified into tendril, as in Smilax (fig. 10.4F),
(vii)Foliaceous-leafy stipules, as in Pisum (fig. 10.4G), (viii) Scaly-small
and dry as in Artocarpus, and (ix) Spinous-modified into spines, as in Acacia
and Zizyphus (fig. 10.4H)

Fig. 10.4

The duration of the stipules may be (i) Caducous-shed very early as in Michelia champaca, (ii)
Deciduous-lasting for one season, as in Cassia tora or (iii) Persistent-as in foliage leaves, e.g.
Pisum and Rosa.

Stipels. Stipule-like appendages at the base of leaflets, as in Dolichos lablab, Vicia faba and
Desmodium gyrans (all leguminous plants).

Petiole. Stalk of the leaf, and also called the mesopodium. A leaf having a petiole is called
petiolate as in mango {Mangifera indica) and without petiole is called sessile, as in Calotropis.
The petiole shows, sometimes modifications, as it is winged in Citrus (fig. 10.5A), swollen and
spongy in Eichhornia (fig. 10.5B) and Trapa, flattened or leaf-like called phyllode in australian

92
acacia {Acacia auricuiaeformis) (fig. 10.5C and D), tendrillar in Smilax, partly wing-like and
partly tendrillar in Nepenthes and spinous in Quisquatis.

A B C D
Fig. 10.5 Modifications of petiole. A-winged {Citrus), B-spongy (Eichhornia) and C-phyllode
(Acacia). C-young seedling part and D-mature leaf (phyllode)

Lamina (Epipodium). The most important part of the leaf and a seat of gaseous exchange for
photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration etc. If the upper surface (adaxial) differs in structure
from the lower (abaxial) surface, the leaves are called dorsiventral as in most dicots and if
both surfaces receive equal light and there is no difference between the two surfaces, they are
called isobilateral, as in maize and other grasses. Sometimes, leaves are cylindrical or centric
(no distinct two surfaces), e.g. Allium cepa.
Several features of leaf are considered regarding appearance of lamina, such as shape, base,
margin, apex, surface, texture, venation, incision and simple or compound etc.

(I) Shape: Important shapes of lamina are:

1. Acicular-needle-shaped (as in Pinus).
2. Linear-longer and slightly broader as in grasses and tube roses (Polianthes tuberosa).
3. Lanceolate-lance-shaped as in Nerium and Polyalthia.
4. Oblong-more or less rectangular as in banana (Musa).
5. Ovate-egg-shaped as in china-rose {Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) and banyan.
6. Cordate-heart-shaped as in betel vine {Piper betle).
7. Sagittate-shape like arrow head with two basal lobes as in Sagittaria sagittifolia.
8. Hastate-like sagittate but the two basal lobes are directed outwards as in some Ipomoea.
9. Reniform-kidney-shaped as in Hydrocotyle.
10. Lunate-half moon-shaped as in Passtflora lunata.
11. Obovate-reverse of ovate as in jackfruit (Artocarpus).
12. Obcordate-reverse of cordate with an apical notch as in Bauhinia.
13. Spathulate-spathula-shapcd as in Lippia nodiflora and Euphorbia nerifolia.
14. Cuneate-wedge-shaped as in Pistia stratiotes.
93
15. Elliptical-like an ellipse as in Vinca rosea and guava (Psidium guajava).
16. Rotund-orbicular or circular as in water lily and lotus (Nelumbo)

Fig. 10.6

(II) Margin: The outermost boundary of the lamina is known as margin. Margins show
variation
1. Entire-smooth margin as in mango (Mangifcra).
2. Repand-wavy margin as in Polyalthia.
3. Serrate- margin with teeth pointed upwards as in saw, e.g. china-rose (Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis) and rose.
4. Biserrate-teeth again serrated as in elm (Maple).
5. Retroserrate-teeth pointed downwards.
6. Dentate-margin toothed, but teeth pointed outwards (at right angles) as In water-lily or
Nymphaea.
7. Bidentatc-tccth again dentate.
8. Crenatc-margin with rounded teeth as in Bryophyllum and Hydrocotyl.
9. Bicrenate-margin with tooth and teeth again crenate.
10. Spiny-teeth pointed to form spines as in Ananas (pineapple) and Argemone (Mexican
poppy).
11. Lobed or incised-margin much dissected or incised as in Raphanus.

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 Fig. 10.7

(III) Apex: The anterior tip of the lamina is called apex. It may be of various shapes
1. Acute-pointed and narrow as in mango.
2. Acuminate-apex drawn out into long tapering tail as in peepal (Ficus religiosa).
3. Obtuse-apex blunt or broad angled as in banyan (Ficus benghalensis).
4. Mucronate -apex broad but with a sharp point as in periwinkle (Vinca rosea).
5. Cuspidate-spiny as in pineapple (Ananas), date palm (Phoenix) screw-pine (Pandanus)
etc.
6. Tendrillar- apex forms tendril for climbing as in Gloriosa.
7. Cirrhose- mucronate apex with a fine thread-like structure as in banana (Musa).
8. Truncate-apex abruptly cut across as in Paris polyphylla.
9. Retuse-slightly notched obtuse apex as in Pistia and Clitoria.
10. Emarginate-deeply notched obtuse apex as in Bauhinia.

Fig. 10.8

(IV) Surface: The external surface of lamina may show variation,

1. Glabrous-smooth and without any hair, as in mango.
2. Glaucus-shiny and covered with waxy coating as in Calotropis and lotus.
3. Scabrous-rough because of the presence of short rigid points, e.g. fig leaves.

95
4. Viscose-sticky because of the some secretion as in leaves of Cleome and Nicotians
tabacum, sometime called glutinous.
5. Rugose-wrinkled surface as in Rubus rugosvs.
6. Gland dotted-glands found on the leaf surface as in lemon (Citrus).
7. Hairy-surface covered with hairs. Hairs may be of various types and accordingly called:
(a) Pubescent-hairs soft and woolly as in tomato.
(b) Pilose-hairs long, distinct and scattered as in Grewia pilosa.
(c) Villose-hairs long, soft, closely set as in Leucas aspara.
(d) Tomentose-hairs short, dense, cottony as in Terminalia tomentosa and Calotropis
procera.
(e) Hirsute-hairs stiff, fine scattered as in Eclipta alba.
(f) Hispid-hairs long and rigid as in Cucurbita.
8. Spinose-surface covered with small prickles as in brinjal (Solarium
melongena).

(V) Venation: The pattern of arrangement of vascular system in the lamina is called venation. It
is mainly of two types:
(A) Reticulate venation. The main vein branches repeatedly to form a network or reticulum
covering the entire leaf. It is a characteristic of dicotyledons except in Callophyllum. It shows
two variations:
(1) Unicostate or Pinnate-almost racemose type. One prominent mid-rib runs from the
base to the apex with several secondary and tertiary and so on anatomizing veinlets forming a
net-like framework, as in peepal (Ficus religiosa), banyan (F. benghalensis), Eugenia
jambolina and most dicots (fig. 10.9 A and B).
(2) Muticostate or Palmate-from the base of the lamina arises a number of equally
strong veins (or costas) which spread out like fan, hence called palmate. Palmate veins may be:
a) Convergent-veins converging towards the tip as in Zizyphus jujuba and
Cinnamomum tamala (fig. 10.9C)
b) Divergent-veins spread out from one point to different directions as in
Cucurbita maxima (fig. 10.9D).
(B) Parallel or Striate venation. Main veins run parallel to one another with laterally
connected unbranched veinlets. Parallel venation may be:
(1) Unicostate or Pinnate-presence of single strong mid-rib which gives rise to parallel
branches, joined by parallel transverse veinlets, as in banana {Musa) (fig. 10.10A) and Canna.

96
 Fig. 10.9

Fig. 10.10

(2) Multicostate or Palmate-presence of a number of strong veins arising from the base, this
may be:
(a) Convergent-as in bamboos (fig. 10.10B) and grasses or
(b) Divergent-as in fan palm (Borassus flabellifer) (fig, 10.10C)

(VI) Leaf Incision (Simple and Compound Leaves)

Indentation of the lamina margin is called leaf incision. Accordingly two main categories are
recognized, i.e., simple leaf and compound leaf.

Simple Leaf: A leaf having entire margin (as in mango) (fig. 10.11A) or, if dissected,
presenting a single appearance due to presence of some apparent laminar connection as in
radish and mustard (Raphanus satlvus and Brassica campestris). Leaf-shape of radish is called
lyrate.

Compound Leaf: The leaf has incised margin, and the incision goes so deep, touching the mid-
rib, so that lamina breaks up into lobes or segments called leaflets. A compound leaf may be
(A) Pinnate or (B) Palmate.

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 Fig. 10.11

(A) Pinnate Compound; The midrib (or rachis) directly bears the leaflets or pinnae along both
the sides. It may be simple pinnate, bipinnate, tripinnate and decompounds.
(i) Simple pinnate or unipinnate-leaflets borne directly on rachis, and may be.
(a) Paripinnate-leaflets present in pairs as in Tamarindus indica (fig. 10.11B),
Cassia, Swietinia etc.
(b) Imparipinnate-rachis is terminated by an odd leaflet as in rose (Rosa indica)
(fig. 10.11C), Clitoria, Murraya, Melia azadirachta etc.
(ii) Bipinnate-a compound leaf with main segments again pinnately divided into
pinnules, i.e., leaflets (pinnules) borne on the rachis but
on its branches as in Acacia arabica. Mimosa pudica (fig. 10.11 D), Caesalpinia
pulcherrima etc.
(iii) Tripinnate-incision goes to the third order so that leaflets are found
on secondary branches of the rachis, as in Moringa pterygosperma (fig. 10.11E).
(iv) Decompound-incision high in number to give dissected
appearance of the leaf as in fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) (fig. 10.11F)
and other plants of Apiaceae.

(B) Palmate Compound: In such leaves, rachis does not differentiate and the lamina appears
articulated or attached to a point on the top of the petiole. Such compound leaves may be of
following types:
(i) Unifoliate-single leaflet attached to the top of the petiole, as in Citrus (fig. 10.12A).

98
(ii) Bifoliate-only two leaflets articulated to the rachis, as in Hardwickia binata and
Bignonia grandiflora (fig. 10.12B).

Fig. 10.12

(iii) Trifoliate-three leaflets articulated at the top of the rachis, as in Trifolium, Aegle
marmelos, Oxalis corniculata, Dolichos lablab (fig. 10.12C).
(iv) Quadrifoliate-four leaflets articulated to the top of the rachis, as in Paris quadrifoiia
and in a pteridophyte, Marsilea quadrifoliata (fig. 10.12D). It is a rare type.
(v) Multifoliate-more than four leaflets attached at the top of rachis (petiole), as in Cleome
viscosa, Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Bombax (fig. 10.12E) or Salmalia malabarica.

Modifications of the Leaf Lamina: The lamina or sometimes the entire leaf undergoes
modification to suit various purposes. Some important modifications are:
(1) Leaf tendrils-tendrils formed by climbing plants which may be modification of entire leaf
or its parts, e.g. petiole tendril (as in Clematis), entire lamina (in Lathyrus), terminal leaflets
(Bignonia vensuta and Pisum) and leaf apex (Gloriosa superba) (fig. 3.4E).
(2) Hooks-leaf modified into hooks for climbing as in Bignonia unguis-cati, three terminal
leaflets become claw-like hooks.
(3) Spines-entire or part of leaf modified into spines (pointed hard structure), as in Opuntia,
whole leaf is modified into a spine; in pineapple (Ananas), Agave and Argemone mexicana, leaf
margin and in Phoenix, the apex is modified into a hard spine. In Chrus, prophyll is a spine.
(4) Pitcher-a pitcher-like structure formed either by entire leaf (as in Dischidia rafflesiana) or
by part of it such as by lamina (as in Nepenthes, the pitcher plant). In Nepenthes, pitchers are
modified to catch insects to meet the need of nitrogenous substances (fig. 10.13B) and in

99
Dischidia (an epiphytic climber), the pitcher accumulates the rain water as well as debris which
is absorbed by the adventitious roots formed within.
(5) Bladder-in Utricularia (aquatic insectivorous plant), the leaf segments modify into bladder
to catch the insects (fig. 10.13D).
(6) Fleshy leaves-in some xerophytes and halophytes leaves become fleshy or succulent to
store water due to presence of special storage tissue. Such plants are commonly called
succulents, e.g. Portulaca oleracea, Basella rubra, Suaeda maritima and species of Aloe,
Agave, Bryophyilum, Sedum etc.

Fig. 10.13

(7) Absorbing organs – submerged leaves of aquatic plants absorb water by their general
surface. Such plants are often rootless, e.g. Ceratophyllum and Utricularia

QUESTIONS
1. Enlist different types of leaves and mentions its functions.
2. Describe phyllotaxy with suitable example.
3. Draw and describe a typical foliage leaf.
4. Enlist various leaf lamina features.
5. Enlist various leaf lamina surface features with proper example.
6. Define leaf venation and describe in detail.
7. Define compound leaf and it different types with proper example.
8. Enlist different modifications of leaf lamina with example and purpose for each
modification.
9. Differentiate between palmate compound leaf and pinnate compound leaf.

100
 LECTURE: 11

THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND FRUITS

BRACT AND BRACTEOLES

Axillary floral buds are usually borne in the axils of the specialized leaves called bracts. Such
flowers are called bracteate, as in most members of Acanthaceae. In some cases, bracts are
absent where flowers are called ebracteate, as in Brassicaceae and Boraginaceae. Sometimes
additional bract-like small and thin structures are borne on the pedicel (or peduncle) between
the flower and bracts. These are called bracteoles and such flowers are called bracteolate.
Bracts and bracteoles may be variously modified, such as:
(1) Foliaceous or Leafy bract-bract appears like ordinary green leaf, as in China rose
(Hibiscus rosa-sinensis).
(2) Petalloid bract-bract becomes brightly colored and appears like a petal as in Bougainvillea
spectabilis (fig. 11.1A) in which three small flowers are enclosed within three colored bracts.
Similarly, bright red or orange bracts are found in Poinsettia pulcherrima.

Fig. 11.1 A-petaloid bracts of Bougainvillea and B-involucral bracts of Daucus carom.
(3) Spathy bract-large, thick, boat-shaped bract and called spathe covering full or a part of a
Spadix inflorescence, as in Colocasia antiquorum (fig. 11.4D)' and Amorphophallus titanum. In
some palms, the spathe may be several feet (upto 20) long. Spathes in maize and banana are
well developed and prominent.
(4) Involucral bract-whorls of green sepaloid bracts occurring around the base of the
inflorescence. These form an involucre, as in family Compositae. Involucre of bracts is also
found in Apiaceae (as in Daucus carota fig. 11.1B). In addition to bracts, there may be smaller
involucres "round the base of each branch of the inflorescence as in Daucus and these are called
involucels or partial involucres.

101
 (5) Scaly bract-additional scaly bracts found with each
individual floret as in capitulum (fig. 11.2), catkin or cyathium
inflorescences.
(6) Cupule-hard and woody bracts and bracteoles found at the
base of flower, somewhat like an involucre, as in Cupulifereae. Fig. 11.2
These fuse together to form a cup-like structure (cupule) as the
fruit matures.
(7) Epicalyx-a whorl of sepaloid green bracteoles found below the calyx, as in china rose.
(8) Glumes-two scaly bracts present at the base of each spikelet as in Poaceae, also called
empty glumes (fig. 11.5C).
(9) Lemma and Palea-in the spikelet of Poaceae, each flower bears a bract called flowering
glume or lemma and a bracteole called palea which fits within the lemma (fig. 11.5C).

INFLORESCENCE: The arrangement of flowers and mode of distribution of flowers on the

shoot system of a plant is called inflorescence. Sometimes, flowers are found singly and such a
condition is called solitary. Solitary flowers may be terminal as in Papaver or axillary as in
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (fig. 11.3).

Fig. 11.3

Kinds of Inflorescence
Different types of inflorescences are grouped into three categories:

(i) Simple inflorescence (ii) Compound inflorescence (iii) Special inflorescence

(A) SIMPLE INFLORESCENCE

In such inflorescence, flowers are arranged directly on the main axis. These are of two types.
I. Racemose or indefinite inflorescence II. Cymose or definite inflorescence

102
I. Racemose inflorescence. It has indeterminate growth of main axis, all flowers are lateral and
arranged in acropetal succession, i.e., oldest towards base and youngest towards apex. These are
of following types:
1. Raceme. Peduncle is elongated and flowers are pedicillate (stalked), e.g. mustard (fig.
14.40A) and larkspur (Delphinium).
2. Spike. It is similar to raceme but flowers are sessile, e.g. Achyranthes (fig. 11.4C) and
Amaranthus.

Fig. 11.4

3. Spikelet. It is a secondary small spike with one or a few flowers. Spikelets are arranged in
spike, raceme or panicle (fig. 11.4B). Each spikelet bears at its base two minute bracts called
empty glumes. Above this is a fertile glume, a third bract or bracteole. The fertile bracteole may
be called pa/ea or lemma. Opposite to the lemma, it bears a small glume called upper palea (or
superior palea). Each flower of the spikelet remains enclosed by a lemma and palea. Such
inflorescence is characteristic to family Poaceae (Wheat and rice) (fig. 11.5B, C).
4. Catkin (Ament). It has a delicate and pendulous floral axis which bears unisexual flowers.
All flowers are sessile and densely set Entire inflorescence appears like one unit, e.g. mulberry
(Moms) (fig. 11.5A) and Acalypha.
5. Spadix. It has a fleshy floral axis which remains covered with large and coloured bract,
called spathe. Flowers are sessile and unisexual Male flowers are arranged on the upper part of
the axis while female flowers on the lower part of the axis. Space on axis left between two types
of flowers remains covered with sterile hairs. Spadix is found in Arum, Colocasia (fig. 11.4D)
and Musa.

103
 Fig. 11.5

6. Corymb. It has a comparatively short main axis and the lower flowers have much longer
pedicels than the upper ones so that all flowers are brought more or less to the same level, e.g.
candytuft (Iberis) and cherry (fig. 11.6A).
7. Umbel. It has a very much shortened main axis and all flowers appear to be arising from the
same point. Flowers are bracteate. Younger flowers are arranged towards centre while older
flowers towards periphery. The whorl of bracts is called involucre. Such inflorescence is
characteristic to family Apiaceae (Coriandrum, Foeniculum (or fennel), Daucus etc. (fig. 11.6B,
C).

Fig. 11.6

8. Capitulum or Head. It has a flattened receptacle on which several sessile small florets are
arranged in a centripetal manner, i.e. youngest in the centre and oldest towards the periphery.
Individual florets bracteate. The whorl of bracts present is celled involucres. On the receptacle,
two kinds of florets are usually found:
(i) Ray florets. These are found at the rim of receptacle (periphery) and have ligulate or
strap-shaped showy corolla. Flowers are either sterile (neuter) or female (pistillate) and are
zygomorphic.

104
(ii) Disc florets. These are grouped in the centre and are actinomorphic, tubular and bisexual.
Capitulum of sunflower has both types of flowers (fig. 11.7) but that of Ageratum has only disc
florets. Capitulum inflorescence is characteristic to family Asteraceae.

Fig. 11.7

II. Cymose inflorescence. Such inflorescence has determinate (definite) growth of the main
axis, as the apical bud forms the first flower. Other flowers are produced on lateral branches
which also bear terminal flower. Thus, every time new lateral branch is formed to produce new
flower. Flowers are arranged centrifugally.
Cymose inflorescences are of following types:
1. Monochasial or Uniparous cyme. A single lateral branch arises
from the peduncle of old flower which terminates in a flower. The lateral branch also terminates
in a flower. Monochasial cyme can be of two types:
(i) Helicoid cyme (Bostryx). In this case, all lateral branches arise only on one side of
main axis, e.g. Heliotropium and Drosera (fig. 11.8B).
(ii) Scorpoid cyme. In this case, lateral branches arise alternately on left and right sides, as
in Ranunculus and Gossypium(fig. 11.8A).
2. Dichasial or Biparous cyme. The peduncle bears a terminal flower and stops growing. From
the main peduncle arise two lateral branches, each of which also terminates in a flower. From
the pedicel of each lateral flower further branching may arise repeatedly, as in Dianthus (fig.
11.8C).
3. Polychasial, Polychasium or Muciparous cyme. The peduncle bears a single terminal
flower and below it more than two branches arise. These also bear terminal flowers. In
Calotropis, the inflorescence is a polychasial umbellate cyme, i.e., groups of multiparous cymes
in which main peduncle becomes much short (fig. 11.8D).

105
 Fig. 11.8

(B) COMPOUND INFLORESCENCE

In a compound inflorescence, the peduncle (main axis) branches repeatedly once or twice in
racemose or cymose manner and ultimate branches bear flowers in a racemose or cymose
manner.-These can be of following types:
1. Compound raceme or panicle, e.g. gold mohur (Delonix regia) and Yucca.
2. Compound spike or spike of spikelets, e.g. wheat
3. Compoud corymb, e.g. cauliflower
4. Compound umbel, e.g. Coriandrum and Foeniculum (fig. 11.8B)

(C) SPECIAL INFLORESCENCES

These are of following types:
1. Cyathium. The bracts or involucre becomes fused to form a cup-shaped structure. Few
nectaries are found in the involucral cup. This cup completely encloses a centrally placed
female flower surrounded by a large number of male flowers. Each male flower is bracteate and
achlamydeous and is represented by a single stalked stamen. The female flower is bracteate and
achlamydeous and is represented by stalked (gynophore), tricarpellary and syncarpous
gynoecium. This type of inflorescence is characteristic to genus Euphorbia. The inflorescence is
a special cymose type in which male flowers are arranged basipetally (fig. 11.9).
2. Verticillaster. In this type, leaves are borne on opposite side on a node; each node bears
flowers arranged in dichasial cyme. After the formation of three flowers, each dichasial cyme
passes on to monochasial cyme of scorpoid type. Flowers are condensed, sessile, bisexual and
bilipped. The inflorescence is characteristic to family Lamiaceae (e.g. Ocimum) (fig. 11.10).
3. Hypanthodium. The fleshy receptacle forms a hollow pear-shaped cavity with a narrow
small opening. The flowers are borne on the inner wall of the cavity and are unisexual. Male
flowers are borne on upper side, i.e., towards mouth and female flowers are borne at the base of
cavity. Such inflorescence is characteristic to genus Ficus (fig- 11.11).

106
Fig. 11.9

Fig. 11.10

Fig. 11.11

107
Some Special Terms:
 Peduncle. A stalk which bears inflorescence.
 Scape. A leafless inflorescence stalks arising from the middle of a rosette of leaves. It bears
a flower, several flowers, or a crowded inflorescence (as in onion).
 Rachila, The axis in the centre of a grass spikelet.
 Strobile. A spike in which each flower is borne in the axil of a persistent membranous bract.
 Umbellule. A unit of a compound umbel. Cymule. A diminutive of cyme inflorescence.
 Cincinus (or Cincinnus). A cymose inflorescence with the lateral axes arising on alternate
sides of the relatively main axis.
 Drepanium. A monochasial cyme in which all branches arise from the same side of the
relatively main axis.
 Rhipidium. A monchasial cyme in which the branches lie in one plane, so that it becomes
fan-shaped.
 Glomerule. A cluster of short-stalked cyme. It is distinguished from a head inflorescence by
blooming of the central flower first.
 Tassel. Male inflorescence in maize.
 Thyrse (or Thyrsus). A densely branched inflorescence with the main branching racemose
(indeterminate), but the lateral branches cymose (determinate), as in grapes.
 Secund. Having lateral members all turned to one side, i.e., appearing as if arising from one
side.

QUESTIONS
1. Define bract. Differentiate it from bracteole.
2. Define inflorescence. Enlist the major types of inflorescences with suitable example for ech
in tabulated form.
3. Describe the inflorescence of capitulum and hypanthodium with proper diagram.
4. Define Peduncle, Polychsial cyme, Scorpioid cyme.

108
 LECTURE: 12

FLOWER

Flower is considered as a modified shoot in which every appendage represents a single

leaf. Sepals and petals are sterile leaves while stamens and carpels are fertile leaves. The
different floral appendages are arranged in whorls. Different parts of flower are shown in fig.
12.1.
1. Calyx. It is a collective name for sepals which are present in the outermost whorl. Sometimes
a whorl of epicalyx may be present outer to it as in china rose.
2. Corolla. It is a collective name of petals found next to calyx. Petals are variously coloured.
3. Androecium. It is third inner whorl of a flower that consists of male reproductive structures
called stamens.
4. Gynoecium. It is a collective name of female reproductive structures called carpels which
are centrally placed in a flower.

Fig. 12.1
These structures give a fundamental organisation to a flower; however, there may be several
variations. These variations are described under the heading Terminology.
Terminology
 Bracteate. A flower is said to be bracteate when bract is present.
 Ebracteate. Bracts are not found.
 Pedicillate. Flower is produced on a stalk or pedicel.
 Sessile. Stalk is not found.
 Complete. A flower when it contains all the four whorls (calyx, corolla, androecium and
gynoecium) is called complete.
 Incomplete. Absence of either one of the whorls.
 Hermaphrodite. Bisexual, bearing both androecium and gynoecium.
 Unisexual. Presence of only one type of sex organs.

109
 Staminate. Presence of only male reproductive structures (stamens).
 Pistillate. Presence of gynoecium (stamens are absent).
 Neuter. Sex organs are altogether absent (no androecium and gynoecium).
 Actinomorphic. A flower with radial symmetry and the parts with similar size and shape
(fig. 12.2 A, B)

Fig. 12.2

 Zygomorphic. A flower capable of equaJ division by only one plane of symmetry (fig. 12.2
C,D).
 Asymmetric. A flower which cannot be divided equally from any plane.
 Dioecious. When male and female flowers are produced on separate plants.
 Monoecious. When male and female flowers are present separately on the same plant.
 Polygamous. A plant in which both bisexual and unisexual flowers are present.
 Trimerous. The floral whorls contain units in multiple of three (as in Liliaceae).
 Tetramerous. The floral whorls contain units four in number or in multiple of four (as in
Cruciferae).
 Pentamerous. The floral whorls contain units five in number or in multiple of five (as in
Malvaceae).
 Hypogynous. A flower with superior ovary (as in Brassicaceae).
 Perigynous. A flower with half embedded or sunken ovary (as in Rosaceae) (fig. 12.3B).

Fig. 12.3

 Epigynous. A flower with inferior (completely sunken) ovary (as in Asteraceae) (fig.
12.3C).

110
Terms Used in Description of Calyx
 Polysepalous. Sepals are free, i.e not united with each other (as in Brassica).
 Gamosepalous. Sepals are fused with each other.
 Asepalous. Sepals are absent.
 Caducous. Sepals fall off after fertilization (as in Brassica). Persistent Sepals do not fall off
rather these remain with the developing fruits (as in brinjal and tomato).
 Petaloid. Sepals are colored.
 Tubular. Sepals fuse to form a tubular structure (fig. 12.4B).
 Cupulate. Sepals fuse to form a cup-like structure (fig. 12.4E).
 Urceolate. Sepals fuse to form urn-shaped structure (fig. 12.4C)
 Campanulate. Sepals fuse and form a bell-shaped structure (fig.12.4D).
 Bilabiate. Sepals fuse and form a two lipped structure (fig. 12.4G)
 Infundibuliform. Sepals form a funnel-shaped structure (fig. 12.4F)

Fig. 12.4

 Spurred. One or more sepals form a long, pointed, spine-like structure, which is called spur
(fig. 12.5A).
 Pappus. Sepals are modified into hair-like structures (fig. 12.5B).
 Spinous. Sepals are modified into spines as in water chestnut (fig. 12.5C)
 Leaf-like. Sepals form a leaf-like structure (fig. 12.5D).
 Hooded. Sepals enlarge to form a hood-like structure (fig. 12.5E).

Aestivation of calyx. Arrangement of sepals in the bud. It may be of following types :

(i) Valvate. Sepals are closely arranged in a circle without overlapping to each other (as in
Mimosa) (fig. 12.6).
(ii) Twisted. With parts roiled up in such a way that the outer part of each covers the inner part
of the one in front of it, while in turn its inner part is covered by the one behind it (fig. 12.6).

111
 Fig. 12.5

Fig. 12.6

(iii) Imbricate. Both ends of one sepal are outer and of another sepal are inner while other three
sepals have one end outer and another one inner (fig. 12.6).
(iv) Quincuncial. Two sepals are outer and two sepals are inner while one sepal has one
overlapped and one exposed margin (fig. 12.6).
(v) Vexillary. See description under corolla (fig. 12.6).

Terms Used in Description of Corolla

 Polypetalous. Petals are free (not united) as in Brassicaceae.
 Gamopetalous. Petals are fused as in Solanaceae.
 Apetalous. Petals are absent.
 Sepaloid. Petals are green in colour or similar to sepals.
 Caducous. Petals fall off after fertilization.
 Persistent. Petals do not fall off, rather remain attached with fruits.
 Deciduous. Petals fall off after drying.
 Cruciform. Petals arranged in a cross-like fashion as in Brassica (fig. 12.7A).
 Rosaceous. Petals arranged as found in rose (fig. 12.7B).
 Caryophyllaceous. Petals with comparatively long claws and with limbs placed at right
angles to the claws (fig. 12.7C).
 Papilionaceous. Petals appearing butterfly like; a zygomorphic corolla with one large
posterior standard, two lateral wings and two inner most fused petals, the keel (fig. 12.7D),
as in pea.

112
 Fig. 12.7

 Tubular. Petals fused forming tube-like structure (fig. 12.8A).

 Infundibuliform. Petals fused forming funnel-shaped structure (fig. 12.8B).
 Campanulate. Petals fused forming bell-shaped structure (fig. 12.8C).
 Hypocrateriform. Petals fused with basal portion narrow and tube-like and upper portion
bowl-shaped (fig. 12.8D).
 Trumpet-shaped. Petals fused with basal portion tube-like and upper funnel-like
appearance.
 Urceolate. Petals fuse to form a pitcher like structure (swollen in middle and narrow at the
apex).
 Rotate. Petals fuse to form a saucer-shaped structure at their uper part (fig. 12.8E).
 Bilabiate ringent. Corolla irregular with petals used to form a bilipped structure but the slit
in between two remains open or broader (fig. 12.8G).
 Bilabiate personate. Corolla irregular with petals fused to form a bilipped structure having
compactly closed slit (fig. 12.8H).
 Ligulate. Petals fused to form a tube-like structure at the base and broad flap-like structure
in the upper part (fig. 12.8F), as in ray florets of Compositae.

Aestivation. Arrangement of petals in the bud which may be valvate (fig. 12.9A), twisted (fig.
12.9B), imbricate (fig. 12.9C), quincuncial (fig. 12.9D) or vexillary (fig. 12.9E). The details are
described under the aestivation of calyx.

113
 Fig. 12.8

 Perianth. Petals and sepals are of similar appearance and the two cannot be
distinguished. The unit of perianth is called tepal. If tepals are fused, the condition is
called gamotepalous and if free called polytepalous. If tepals are green in colour, these
are called sepaloid and if coloured like petals called petaloid.

Fig. 12.9

114
Terms Used in Description of Androecium
Androecium is a collective name given to male reproductive organs, the unit of which is called
stamen. A stamen consists of filament, connective and anther (fig. 12.10). The two lobes of
anther remain connected by a connective.

Fig. 12.10

Other terms used to describe androecium are as follows:

Number of Stamens:
 Monandrous. Single stamen in each flower as in Euphorbia.
 Diandrous. Two stamens in each flower as in Coronopus.
 Triandrous. Three stamens in a flower as in Triticum.
 Tetrandrous. Four stamens in a flower as in Scoparia.
 Pentandrous. Five stamens in a flower as in Solatium.
 Hexandrous. Six stamens in a flower as in Gynandropsis.
 Polyandrous. Indefinite number of stamens as in Nymphaea.

Cohesion of Stamens:
 Monadelphous. Filaments are fused but anther lobes are free as in Malvaceae (fig. 12.11A)
 Diadelphous. Stamens with fused filaments arranged in two groups (9+1) (fig. 12.11B) as in
Pisum (Fabaceae).
 Polyadelphous. Stamens with fused filaments arranged in several groups (fig. 12.11C), as in
Salmalia.
 Syngenesious. Anthers are fused with each other but filaments remain free as in Compositae
(fig. 12.12A).
 Synandrous. Both anthers and filaments remain fused as in Cucurbitaceae (fig. 12.12B)

115
 Fig. 12.11

Fig. 12.12 Fig. 12.13

Adhesion of Stamens
 Epipetalous. Stamens are found attached to petals, as in Solanum.
 Epiphyllous. Stamens are found attached to tepals, as in Asparagus. It may also be called
epitepalous.
 Gynandrous. Stamens are fused with the gynoecium, as in Calotropis (12.14B).

Length of Filaments:
 Didynamous. Four stamens, of which two have long filaments and two short filaments (fig.
12.13B), as in Labiatae and Scrophulariaceae.
 Tetradynamous. Six stamens with outer two short and inner four long as in Brassica (fig.
12.13A).
 Inserted. Length of stamens shorter than petals so these remain within corolla tube.
116
 Exerted. Length of stamens longer than petals so these come out of corolla tube.
 Branched stamens. Filaments of the stamens found branched as in castor (Ricinus
communis) (fig. 12.14A).
 Gynostegium. Anthers crowning the column are adnate by the connective to the pentagonal
stigma and form gynostegium (fig. 12.14B) as in Calotropis.

Fig. 12.14

Insertion on Thalamus
 Diplostemonous. Stamens arranged in two whorls on the thalamus and stamens of outer
whorl alternate with petals and of inner whorl opposite the petals, as in Rhamnaceae and
Portulacaceae.
 Obdiplostemonous. Stamens are arranged in two whorls and stamens of outer whorl
opposite and inner whorl alternate with the petals, as in Rutaceae.

Attachment of Filament with Anther Lobe

 Basifixed. Filament attached with the base of
anther lobe (fig. 12.15A), as in Brassica.
 Dorsifixed. Filament attached to the dorsal surface
of anther (fig. 12.15B), as in Passiflora.
 Adnate. Filament running the whole length of the
Fig. 12.15
anther from the base to the
apex (fig. 12.15C), as in Magnolia.

 Versatile. Filament attached to the back of anther at a point only, so that anther can swing
freely, as in grasses (fug. 12.15D)

117
Dehiscence
 Extrorse. An anther dehiscing towards the periphery of the flower.
 Introrse. An anther dehiscing towards the centre of the flower.
 Longitudinal. Anther lobe bursts along longitudinal suture (fig. 12.16A). It is
common type, as in Datura.

Fig. 12.16

 Transverse. Found in unilocular anthers, it appears to be transverse because suture is placed

that way, as in Malvaceae (fig. 12.16B).
 Porous or Apical. Discharge of pollens through apical pore, as in potato (fig. 12.16C).
 Valvular. Wall of the anther opens like trap door, as in Barberis (fig. 12.16D).

Terms Used in Description of Gynoecium

Gynoecium is the collective name of female reproductive organs and the
unit of which is carpel. A carpel consists of ovary, style and stigma (fig.
12.17). Ovules are contained in the ovary

Fusion of Carpels:
Fig. 12.17
 Apocarpous. Carpels are free (not united), as in Nymphaea and
Ranunculus (fig. 12.18A).
 Syncarpous. Carpels are fused, as in Brassica (fig. 12.18B).

Number of Carpels:
 Monocarpellary. Presence of a single carpel in a flower, as in Fabaceae.
 Bicarpellary. Gynoecium formed by fusion of two carpels, as in Brassicaceae.
 Tricarpellary. Gynoecium that consists of three carpels, as in Cucurbitaceae.
 Pentacarpellary. Gynoecium that consists of five carpels. It may also be called
multicarpellary as in Malvaceae.

118
 Fig. 12.18

Number of Locules
 Unilocular. Ovary with single chamber (locule), as in Fabaceae and Asteraceae (fig.
12.19A,B).
 Bilocular. Ovary with two chambers, as in Brassicaceae and Solanaceae (fig. 12.19C).
 Trilocular. Ovary with three chambers, as in Liliaceac (fig. 12.19D).
 Tetralocular. Ovary with four chambers, as in Labiatae or Ocimum (fig. 12.19E).
 Penta or polylocular. Ovary with 5 or more chambers as in Malvaceae (fig. 12.19F).

Fig. 12.19

Placentation (arrangement of ovules within the ovary):

 Marginal. Placenta present along the junction of two margins of the carpel in one
chambered ovary (fig. 12.20 A,B), as in Fabaceae.
 Parietal. Placentae bearing ovules developed on the inner wall of the ovary and their
position corresponds to the confluent margins of carpel in which ovary is unilocular (fig.
12.20 C,D), as in Brassicaceae and Cucurbltaceae.

119
 Axile. Ovules present at or near the centre of ovary on the axis formed by the fusion of septa
and usually in vertical rows (ovules are attached on the axis of a compound ovary) (fig.
14.67 E,F), as in Malvaceae, Solanaceae and Liliaceae.

Fig. 12.20

 Free central. The ovules are borne on a central column with no septa present, the ovary
remains unilocular (fig. 12.20 G.H), as in Caryophyllaceae.
 Superficial. The placenta develop all round the inner surface of a multilocular and
multicarpellary gynoecium, as in Nymphaea (fig. 12.20 K,L).
 Basal. A single ovule borne'-at the base of a unilocular ovary, as in Asteraceae (fig. 12.20
I,J).

Position on Thalamus
 Superior. Ovary placed above the point of attachment of corolla and stamens.
 Inferior. Ovary borne below attachment of all other floral parts and adnate to them.
 Semi-inferior. A condition intermediate to superior and inferior.

Style: Part between ovary and stigma is called style. Commonly, it arises from the top (apex) of
ovary. However, style may arise laterally as in mango (fig. 12.21A), or from the central base of
the ovary, i.e. gynobasic (as in Lamiaceae (fig. 12.21 B). Sometimes, style may be branched
(fig. 12.21C), as in some plants of Euphorbiaceae.

Stigma: The apex of carpel is called stigma on which pollen grains are collected. It may be
bilobed, trilobed, bifid, capitate, discoid, dumbell-shaped, feathery, linear, highly branched or
striate as illustrated in fig. 12.22.

120
 Fig. 12.21

Fig. 12.22

OVULE
Ovules are found in the basal part of the carpel and are:
(i) integumented megasporangia
(ii) the nucellus containing the embryo sac and enclosed by one or two integuments,
which after fertilisation, and subsequentdevelopment, becomes a seed, or
(iii) Young seed in the course of development.
Ovule arises from the placenta and the arrangement of ovules in an ovary is called
placentation.
The various parts of the ovule are - Funicle or Funiculus (short stalk through which it
remains attached), Raphe (a ridge-like structure formed by fusion of funicle and body of the
ovule), Integument (the membrane enclosing the nucellus), Nucellus (the central tissue of the
ovule, containing embryo-sac), Micropyle (a canal-like pore or structure formed by an
upgrowth of the integuments), Chalaza (the base of the nucellus of the ovule), Embryo-sac (the
female gametophyte of the angiosperm comprising antipodal cells, polar nuclei/secondary
nucleus, egg and synergid cells) etc.

121
 Fig. 12.23

 Ategmic ovule. The ovule without any integument as found in Loranthus and Santalum.
 Tegmic ovule. The ovule with integument. It may be unitegmic (with a single integument as
generally found in sympetalae / gamopetalae, e.g. Compositae / Asteraceae), or bitegmic
(with two integuments found generally in polypetalae and monocots).

Types of Ovules
The mature ovule may be classified into six types, based on the position of micropyle in relation
to the funiculus (fig. 12.24).

Fig. 12.24

1. Orthotropous type (also called atropous). The mature ovule is straight and the micropyle
and funiculus are in a straight line and above the hilum, as found among members of
Polygonaceae and Piperaceae.
2. Anatropous type (also called inverted). It is the most common type of ovule found in
angiosperms and is characteristic of sympetalous families. The ovule bends at 180° and gets
inverted, so that the micropyle comes to lie close to the funicle.
3. Campylotropous type. In this type of ovule, the curvature is incomplete, and the body of
the ovule lies at right angle to the funiculus, and is somewhat curved, as in Capparaceae/
Capparidaceae and Leguminosae.

122
4. Amphitropous type. When the curvature of the body of the ovule becomes more than that
of campylotropous and the embryo sac assumes a horse-shoe shape, the ovule is said to be
amphitropous type. It is commonly found in Alismaceae.
5. Hemianatropous type (also called hemitropous). It is a modified type of anatropous ovule
in which the body of ovule lies at right angle lo the funicle and micropyle and chalaza lie in a
straight line. The micropyle is not found near the funicle as in Ranunculus and in members of
Primulaceae.
6. Circinotropous type. It is a special type of ovule formed due to unilateral growth. Initially,
the nucellar mass is in line with the funicle and appears orthotropous, then unilateral growth of
ovule takes place and it gets inverted, thus becoming anatropous. The curvature continues till
the ovule takes a complete 180° turn and the micropyle again faces upwards as in Opuntia
(Cactaceae).

POLLINATION: The transfer and deposition of pollen on the stigma of the flower. Terms
related to pollination are:
Self pollination. The pollination between the different flowers or same flower of the same
plant, as in groundnut, tobacco, barley, oat, wheat etc.
 Autogamy. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
 Geitonogamy. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower
of the same plant.
 Homogamy. Simultaneous maturation of sex organs, as in Mirabilis jalapa and Ymca rosea.
 Cleistogamy. Flowers do not open at the time of the fertilisation and do not expose their sex
organs, as in Commelina benghalensis.

Cross pollination (Allogamy). The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of another flower (i.e., pollination between the flowers of two different plants).
 Xenogamy. Pollination between flowers of different genetic constitution.
 Dicliny or Unisexuality. Plant bearing unisexual flowers, either only male or only female
flowers, as in Carica papaya. Phoenix sylvestris, Morus alba etc.
 Dichogamy. Maturation of sex organs at different time periods. If anthers mature first,
flowers are called protandrous, and if stigma (female sex organ) mature first, they are
called protogynous.
 Protandrous. A dichogamous flower in. which anthers mature first, as in Lamiaceae
(Labiatae), Malvaceae and Rubiaceae.

123
 Protogynous. A dichogamous flower in which stigma matures before the anthers, as in
Magnolia, Michelia and Adhatoda.
 Heteromorphy. The phenomenon of bearing two types of morphologically dissimilar
flowers, as in Primula vulgaris.
 Herkogamy. Presence of some morphological barriers which make self pollination
impossible, as in Calotropis, Asclepias, Ptsrgularia, Coelogyne etc.
 Entomophily. Pollination brought about by insects, as in Salvia, Yucca, Ficus, Calotropis
etc.
 Ornithophily. Pollination carried out by birds, as in Salmalia, Callistemon, Erythrina etc.
 Cheiropterophily. Pollination carried out by bats, as in Kigelia pinnate, Bauhinia
megalandra, Eperua falcata etc.
 Malacophily. Pollination carried out by snails and slugs, may be found in subterranean
runners.
 Anemophily. Pollination by wind as in wheat, maize;, coconut, bhang etc.
 Hydrophily. Pollination by water as found in Elodea, Hydrilla and Vallisnaria.

QUESTIONS

1. Define: Flower, Actinomorphy, Zygomorphy, Perfect flower, Imperfect flower, Pedicel,

Thalamus, Dioecious
2. Enlist and draw different kind of aestivation with examples.
3. Write a short note on placentation.
4. Differentiate between self –pollination and cross pollination.
5. Draw a typical orthotropous ovary and label properly.
6. Enlist:
 Types of ovules
 Types of anther dehiscence
 Types of anther attachmen
 Ttypes of cohesion and adhesion of anthers
 Types of different types of ovary position on thalamus
7. Draw a typical androecium and gynoecium and label properly.
8. Draw a typical flower and label properly.

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 LECTURE: 13

FRUIT

A ripened ovary is called fruit, and study of fruit and fruit bearing plants is called pomology.
Fruit is an important constituent of a balanced diet and is rich in carbohydrates, minerals,
vitamins etc.
On the basis of climate, three types of fruits are recognized:
1. Temperate fruits. These plants grow in cold climate, e.g. apple, pear, cherry, musk
melon, water melon, mulberry, strawberry etc.
2. Tropical fruits. These plants grow in warm climate, e.g. pineapple, custard apple, jack
fruit, cheeku, mango, lemon, mandarin, banana, guava, papaya etc.
3. Sub-tropical fruits. These plants grow in moderate climate, e.g. litchi, ber,
pomegranate, loquat, fig, date, phalsa, jamun, grapes, bel etc.

Classification of Fruits: There are three main types of fruits:

I. Simple fruits. These develop from monocarpellary ovary or multicarpellary syncarpous
ovary.
II. Aggregate fruits (Etaerio). These develop from multicarpellary, apocarpous ovary.
III. Composite fruits (Multiple). These develop from the complete inflorescence.

I SIMPLE FRUITS
On the basis of nature of pericarp, simple fruits are divided into two types:
A. Dry fruits. Pericarp remains dry and undifferentiated into three layers.
B. Succulent fruits. Pericarp is fleshy or fibrous and remains distinguishable into three layers.
These are indehiscent.

A. DRY FRUITS
According to mode of dehiscence, these fruits are divided into three groups:
(a) Dehiscent or Capsular fruits. Pericarp is ruptured after ripening and seeds are dispersed.
(b) Indehiscent or Achenial fruits. These fruits do not dehisce.
(c) Schizocarpic or Splitting fruits. After ripening, these fruits split (divided) into one seeded
segments, called mericarps. Mericarps do not rupture further.

125
126
(a) Dehiscent Fruits (Capsular Fruits). According to mode of dehiscence, these are broadly divided
into five groups:
1. Legume or Pod. Such fruits develop from monocarpellary superior ovary with marginal placentation.
Ovary is unilocular with many ovules. The fruit dehisces by both sutures, as in pea, gram, red gram
etc. (fig. 13.1A).
2. Follicle. Such fruit develops from superior and unilocular ovary. These are usually found in pairs or
groups. The fruit dehisces by one suture as in larkspur, Calotropis, Michelia, Vinca etc. (fig. 13.1B).
3. Siliqua. The fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary with parietal placentation.
The ovary remains unilocular in the beginning but becomes bilocular due to formation of false septum,
called replum. Each locule has many seeds. On maturity fruit dehisces from below to upwards. Such
fruits are characteristic of family Brassicaceae, e.g. mustard, radish, turnip etc. (fig. 13.1C).
4. Silicula. It resembles with siliqua but its breadth and length are equal. It is wide and flat, as in
candytuft (Iberis amara) and shephard's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) (fig. 13.1D).

Fig. 13.1

5. Capsule. It develops from multicarpellary syncarpous, superior ovary with several locules and
axile placentation. According to mode of dehiscence, these fruits are further classified as follows:
(i) Porous dehiscence. Fruit dehisces through the pores developed in the terminal part. Seeds are
slowly dispersed by wind through these pores,, as in poppy [Papaver).
(ii) Loculicidal dehiscence. In these fruits pericarp opens through the middle of locules and placenta
is divided, as in cotton (Gossypium) and okra (Hibiscus esculentus).
(iii) Septicidal dehiscence. In such fruits, during dehiscence septa are ruptured and locules are
separated. Pericarp is also separated in the form of valves, as in linseed and Aristolochia.
(iv) Septifragal dehiscence. In such fruits, during dehiscence placenta remains attached in the centre
of undivided fruit and pericarp's segments become separated. Dehiscence can be either septicidal or
septifragal, as in Datura (fig. 13.2B).
(v) Transverse dehiscence. In such fruits, pericarp dehisces transversely into two parts. The upper
part opens out like a lid and exposes the seed to the wind for dispersal, as in Celosia. Such fruits are
also called pyxidium (fig. 13.2).
127
 Fig. 13.2

(b) Indehiscent or Achenial Fruits. In such fruits, pericarp docs not rupture and seeds remain enclosed
within it. Achenial fruits are further divided into:
1. Achene. The fruit develops from monocarpellary superior ovary. It is unilocular and single seeded.
The pericarp does not fuse with seed coat, as in Clematis and Naravelia (fig. 13.3A).
2. Caryopsis. The fruit develops from monocarpellary, superior ovary and it remains unilocular and
single seeded. The pericarp remains fused with testa. Such fruits are characteristic to family
Poaceae, e.g. wheat, rice, maize etc.
3. Cypsella. The fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary with basal placentation.
Fruits are unilocular and single seeded. Persistent hairy calyx (pappus) are found at the apex of fruit.
These are characteristic to family Asteraceae, e.g. Taraxacum and Cosmos (fig. 13.3B).
4. Nut. Fruit develops from unilocular, syncarpous, multicarpellary, superior ovary. The fruit is single
seeded. Pericarp becomes hard j and stoney as in cashew nut (Anacardium), litchi, water chestnut
(Trapa) (fig. 13.3C).
5. Samara. The fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. It is single seeded. The
pericarp becomes flat like wings, e.g. chilbil (Holoptelea) (fig. 13.3D).

(c) Schizocarpic or Splitting Fruits. These fruits are dry and multiseeded, and after ripening are divided
into one seeded segments or mericarps. Mericarps do not rupture further. Such fruits are further divided
into:

128
 Fig. 13.3

1. Lomentum. The fruit develops from monocarpellary, unilocular, superior ovary. It is a modification
of legume. These are bisutural fruits which are constricted or divided into one seeded mericarps as in
groundnut, Mimosa, Tamarindus etc. (fig. 13.4A).
2. Cremocarp. The fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, on maturation, these
divide along with carpophore into two mericarps, and each single seeded (fig. 13.4B). The fruit is
characteristic to family Apiaceae, as in coriander, carrot, fennel etc.
3. Regma. The fruit develops from tricarpellary (multicarpellary), syncarpous, superior ovary. The fruit
is multilocular. On maturation, after splitting, these divide into as many parts as the number of carpels.
Each part is known as coccus and has one seed, as in castor (Ricinus) and Geranium (fig. 13.4C).
4. Carcerulus. The fruit develops from bi- or polycarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary and is
mutilocular. Number of locules may increase due to false septation. On maturity, single seeded
mericarp splits away, as in Althaea, Ocimum and Malva (fig. 13.4D).
5. Double samara. The fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. Pericarp develops
into two wings. On maturation it is divided into two one seeded parts, as in Acer (maple) (fig. 13.4E).
Samaroid. In sal (Shorea robusta), persistent calyx forms wing, hence look-like samara fruit.

B. SUCCULENT OR FLESHY FRUITS

In these fruits, the pericarp is distinguished into three layers - epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Mesocarp
is fleshy or fibrous. These are of following types :
1. Drupe. The fruit develops from mono- or polycarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. Fruits are
usually single seeded, rarely many seeded. Pericarp comprises three layers. The epicarp forms the skin
of the fruit. Mesocarp is fleshy or fibrous and endocarp is hard and stoney, as in mango, coconut,
peach, walnul, cherry, almond etc. (fig. 13.5A).
2. Berry. The fruit develops from mono- or multicarpellary, syncarpous, superior or inferior ovary with
axiie or parietal placentation. Epicarp forms (he rincl of the fruit, mesocarp becomes fleshy and
endocarp remains thin or membranous, as in tomato, brinjal, guava, date, papaya, chiku, areca nut etc.
(fig. 13.5B).

129
 Fig. 13.4

3. Pepo. The fruit develops from tricarpeilary, syncarpous, unilocular, inferior ovary with parietal
placentation. These fruits are full of swollen placenta and are many seeded. Epicarp makes the hard
rind. Mesocarp and endocarp are fleshy. Such fruits are characteristic of family Cucurbitaceae as in
bottle gourd, cucumber, muskmelon etc. (fig. 13.5C).
4. Hesperidium. The fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary with axile
placentation. These are multilocular. Epicarp is firm and leathery and has several oil glands. Mesocarp
is in the form of white, fibrous part fused with epicarp. Membranous endocarp projects inwards
forming distinct chambers. Many juicy unicellular hairs are found on the inner side of endocarp, as in
lemon and orange (fig. 13.6A).
5. Balausta. The fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous, multilocular superior ovary. It is a
many seeded fruit. The epicarp is rough and leathery, mesocarp is papery and thin and endocarp is
hard and it forms chambers to enclose seeds irregularly. The fruit has persistent calyx. Testa is red and
fleshy whereas tegmen becomes hard, as in pomegranate (fig. 13.6B).
6. Amphisarca. The fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous, multichambered superior ovary.
The fruit is many seeded-Epicarps is hard. Mesocarp and endocarp are fleshy on which are found
scattered seeds, as in wood apple (Aegk marmelos) (fig. 13.7A).
7. Pome. The fruit develops from bi- or polycarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary. The thalamus
becomes fleshy and swollen and surrounds the fruit. So it is a false fruit. The pericarp is thin and
papery. Fleshy swollen thalamus forms the edible part of the fruit, as in apple and pear (fig, 13.7 B
and C).

130
 Fig. 13.5

Fig. 13.6

Fig. 13.7

II. AGGREGATE FRUITS

Infact, these fruits are the group of fruitlets developed from multicarpellary, apocarpous ovary of a single
flower. Such type of aggregate fruits is called etaerio, i.e., aggregate of fruitlets.
These are of following types:
1. Etaerio of follicles. In such fruits, each free (separate) carpel develops into a fruitlet which is known
as follicle. Many follicles of a flower make it etaerio, i.e., etaerio of follicles, as in Calotropis and
Catharanthus (aggregate of two follicles) and Michelia (aggregate of several follicles) (fig. 13.8A).
2. Etaerio of achenes. It is an aggregate of achene fruitlets developed from a single flower, as in rose,
strawberry, Clematis and Naravelia (fig. 13.8C).
3. Etaerio of berries. It is an aggregate fruitlets of berries developed from a single flower, as in custard
apple (Annona) (fig. 13.8D and E).
131
4.

Fig. 13.8

5. Etaerio of drupes. It is an aggregate of fruitlets of drupes developed from apocarpous ovaries of a

single flower, as in raspberry (Rubus) (fig. 13.8B).

III. COMPOSITE OR MULTIPLE FRUITS

These fruits develop from complete inflorescence and are known as infructescence. These are of two
types:
1. Syconus. Such fruit develops from hypanthodium inflorescence. The receptacle becomes fleshy and
hollow cup-shaped with a narrow apical opening. Unisexual flowers are found on its inner surface, male
flowers towards upper side and female (pistillate) flowers towards lower side. Larvae of insects live in
gall flowers (female flowers). The fruit is achene. Fleshy receptacles form the edible part, as in figs
(Ficus) (fig. 13.9D).
2. Sorosis. This type of fruit develops from spike, spadix or catkin inflorescence, as in jack fruit,
mulberry and pineapple. The fruits are so compactly set that entire inflorescence appears as one fruit. In
jackfruit, stigmas fuse with each other to make rough and spiny rind. Bracts, perianth and seeds become
edible in jackfruits. In mulberry, perianth present around the dry achenes is eaten up (fig. 13.9A, B & C).

Fig. 13.9

132
Table 13.1 Some Common Fruits and their Edible Parts
Name Type of fruit Edible parts
I. Simple Fruits
1 Pea Legume Seeds
(Pisum sativum)
2 Okra or ladies finger Capsule Whole fruit
(Abelmoschus esculentus)
3 Wheat Caryopsis Endosperm and embryo
(Triticum aestivum)
4 Cashew nut Nut Cotyledons and fleshy peduncles
(Anacardium occidentale)
5 Litchi Nut Fleshy aril
(Nephelium litchi)
6 Water chestnut Nut Cotyledon
(Trapa bispinosa)
7 Tamarind Lomentum Mesocarp
(Tamarindus indica)
8 Groundnut Lomentum Embryo
(Arachis hypogea)
9 Coconut Drupe Endosperm
(Cocos nucifera)
10 Walnut Drupe Lobed cotyledons
(Juglans regia)
11 Mango Drupe Mesocarp
(Mangifera indica)
12 Grape Berry Pericarp and placenta
Vitis vinifera)
13 Areca nut Berry Endosperm
(Areca catechu)
14 Guava Berry Whole fruit
(Psidium guajava)
15 Banana Berry Mesocarp and endocarp
(Musa sapientum)
16 Tomato Berry Pericarp and placenta
(Solanum lycopersicon)
17 Cucumber Pepo Mesocarp, endocarp and
(Cucumis sativus) placenta
18 Muskmelon Pepo Mesocarp and endocarp
(Cucumis melo)
19 Bottle gourd Pepo Mesocarp and endocarp
(Lagenaria siceraria)
20 Pome granatc Balausta Fleshy testa
(Punica granatum)
21 Madarin orange Hesperidium Fleshy unicellular hairs of endocarp
(Citrus reticulata)

133
 22 Sweet orange Hesperidium Fleshy unicellular hairs of endocarp
(Citrus sinensis)
23 Lemon Hesperidium Fleshy unicellular hairs of endocarp
(Citrus lemon)
24 Lime Hesperidium Fleshy unicellular hairs of endocarp
(Citrus aurantifolia)
25 Apple Pome Fleshy thalamus
(Pyrus malus)
26 Pear Pome Fleshy thalamus
(Pyrus communis)

II. Aggregate Fruits

1 Lotus Etaerio of achenes Thalamus and seeds
(Nelumbium speciosum)
2 Strawberry Etaerio of achenes Fleshy receptacle
(Fragaria indica
3 Custard apple Etaerio of berries Pericarp (except apical part)
(Annona squamosa)

III. Composite Fruits

1 Fig Syconus Fleshy receptacle and seeds
(Ficus carica)
2 Pineapple Sorosis Outer rachis, bracts, perianth
(Ananas sativus) and pericarp
3 Jackfruit Sorosis Bracts, perianth, seeds
(Artocarpus heterophyllus)
4 Mulberry Sorosis Perianth
(Morus indica)

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF THE FRUITS

Table 13.2 Differences between Achene, Caryopsis and Cypsella
Achene Caryopsis Cypsella
1 The fruit develops from The fruit develops from The fruit develops from
monocarpellary and monocarpellary and bicarpellary, syncarpous
superior ovary. syncarpous ovary. and inferior ovary.
2 Pericarp and testa Pericarp and testa are Pericarp and testa are
(seed coat) are separate. fused and cannot be separate.
separated.
3 The fruit is etaerio of Fruit is not found in Fruit is not developed in
achenes. groups. groups.

134
 Examples. Examples. Examples.
Clematis, Naravelia and Triticum,Oryza and Zea. Helianthus and Cosmos.
Ranunculus
Table 13.3 Differences between Legume and Follicle
Legume or Pod Follicle
1 The fruit develops from monocarpellary, It also develops from monocarpellary,
unilocular and superior ovary. unilocular and superior ovary.
2 Fruit is found singly Fruit is found usually in pairs, two or more
in number.
3 It dehisces from both the sutures and It dehisces by a single suture
from top towards base.
4 When fruit dehisces, all seeds come out. When fruit dehisces, seeds are exposed and
are released slowly with drying.
Examples. Fruit is characteristic of Examples. Calotropis and Michelia
family Fabaceae, i.g. Pisum, Dolichos,
Vigna etc.
Table 13.4 Differences between Siliqua and Silicula
Siliqua Silicula
Both types of fruit are found in Brassicaceae
1 The fruit is long and cylindrical The fruit is broad and flat
2 Fruit has a number of seeds Fruit contains a few seeds.
Examples. Brassica and Raphanus Examples. Iberis and Capsella
Table 13.5 Differences between Legume and Lomentui
Legume Lomentum
1 It is a multi seeded dry and dehiscent It is a multiseeded schizocarpic fruit.
fruit.
2 Mericarps are not formed. Mature fruit breaks transversely into single
seeded parts, called mericarp.
3 The fruit has two sutures and dehisces by Mericarps are indehiscent.
both the sutures.
Examples. Pisum, Cicer. Phaseolus etc. Examples. Arachis. Tamarindus. Mimosa
etc.

Table 13.6 Differences between Aggregate and Composite Fruits

Aggregate Fruits Composite Fruits
1 It is a group of fruitlets which develops It develops from an entire inflorescence.
from multicarpellary and apocarpous
gynoecium of a single flower.
2 The fruit develops from carpels of a In the formation of a fruit, ovaries,
single flower. perianths and thalamus participate.
Examples. Michelia, Calotropis, Annona Examples. Morus (mulberry), Ananas,
etc. Ficus etc.

135
Tabid 13.7 Differences between Follicle and Capsule
Follicle Capsule
1 It develops from a single carpel with It develops from multicarpellary,
unilocular and superior ovary. syncarpous and superior ovary.
2 The fruit dehisces by the single suture. On maturity, the fruit shows
longitudinal, transverse and porous
dehiscence.
3 The fruits are formed in pairs or in The fruit is formed singly.
groups.
4 The fruit is dehiscent. Fruit is schizocarpic or splitting.
Examples. Calotropis and Michelia. Examples. Papaver, Gossypium, Datura
etc.
Table 13.8 Differences between Caryopsis and Regma Fruits
Caryopsis Regma
1 The fruit is dry and indehiscent. The fruit is dry and schizocarpic.
2 The fruit develops from The fruit develops from tri-carpellary,
monocarpellary and superior ovary. syncarpous and superior ovary.
3 Fruit is single chambered and single The fruit is multichambered, each chamber
seeded. with a single seed.
4 Pericarp and testa are fused and cannot be Fruit on maturity splits into as number of
separated. The seed remains parts as the number of carpels. Each part is
completely enclosed in the fruit. called coccus. Cocci split to release seed.
Examples. Triticum, Oryza, Zea mays etc. Examples. Ricinus and Geranium.
Table 13.9 Differences between Cremocarp and Regma Fruits
Cremocarp Regma
1 The fruit develops from bicarpellary, The fruit develops from tricarpellary,
syncarpous and inferior ovary. syncarpous and superior ovary.
2 The fruit is bilocular and two seeded. The fruit is multilocular and many seeded.
3 The fruit on maturity splits into two The fruit splits into as many number of
mericarps, each placed at the top of cocci as the number of carpels. The coccus
carpophore. The mericarp is single is single seeded.
seeded.
4 Fruit wall has ridges and furrows. On the outer surface of the fruit wall, spiny
structures are found:
Examples. Foeniculum and Coriandrum. Example. Ricinus communis.

136
Table 13.10 Differences between Drupe and Schizocarpic Fruits
Drupe Schizocarpic Fruit
1 It is a succulent type of fruit. It is a dry type of fruit.
2 Fruit develops from mono - or It develops from monocarpellary or
polycarpeilary, syncarpous, superior polycarpeilary, syncarpous, superior ovary.
ovary.
3 Pericarp is clearly distinguishable into Such differentiation in pericarp is not
three layers: epicarp, mesocarp and found.
endocarp.
4 The epicarp forms skin of the fruit, No such structure is found.
rnesocarp is fleshy or fibrous and
endocarp is hard and woody.
5 The fruit is usually single seeded. The fruit is usually multiseeded.
6 Fruit does not split open at maturity Fruit breaks into number of
indehiscent mericarps.
Examples. Mangifera (mango) and Examples. Arachis (groundnut) and
Cocos (coconut). Tamarindus (tamarind).
Table 13.11 Differences between Pome and Drupe Fruits
Pome Drupe
1 It is a kind of false fruit as the fleshy It is a true fruit that develops from ovary
fruit-like structure develops from the wall
thalamus.
2 The fruit develops from bi- or The fruit develops from
polycarpeilary, syncarpous, inferior monocarpellary or polycarpeilary
ovary and it remains surrounded by superior ovary.
enlarged fleshy thalamus.
3 The pericarp is thin, papery and The pericarp is well developed and.
inedible. differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp and
endocarp
4 The edible part is actually a fleshy The edible part is mesocarp.
thalamus.
5 The fruit has 5-6 seeds. The fruit has a single seed.
Examples. Pyrus (apple and pear). Examples. Mangifera (mango) and Cocos
(coconut).
Table 13.12 Differences between True and False Fruits
True Fruit False Fruit
1 It develops from ovary after In its formation, thalamus, perianth or
fertilization. rachis participate along with ovary.
2 Examples. Mangifera (mango) and Examples. Pyrus (apple) and Ficus (fig).
Carica (papaya).

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Table 13.13 Differences between Pepo and Pome Fruits
Pepo Pome
1 It is a true fruit that develops from It is a false fruit in which fruit like structure
ovary after fertilization. is formed by the thalamus.
2 It develops from tricarpellary, It develops from bi- or polycarpellary,
syncarpous, inferior ovary with syncarpous inferior ovary and remains
parietal placentation. surrounded by fleshy thalamus.
3 The pericarp is well developed and The pericarp is thin and papery and
differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp indistinguishable into three layers.
and endocarp.
4 Seeds are produced in a large number. Only 5-6 seeds are formed.
5 The edible part is fleshy mesocarp and The edible part is thalamus.
endocarp.
Examples. Cucurbita, Citrullus, Example. Pyrus malus (apple).
Momordica etc.

Table 13.14 Differences between Lomentum and Caryopsis Fruits

Lomentum Caryopsis
1 The fruit develops from It develops from monocarpellary
monocarpellary and superior ovary. superior ovary.
2 The fruit is unilocular, multiseeded The fruit is unilocular and single seeded.
and bisutural. It is divided into several
mericarps.
3 Pericarp and testa remain separate. Pericarp and testa are united or fused.
Examples. Arachis (groundnut) and Examples. Triticum (wheat) and Oryza
Tamarindus (tamarind). (rice).

Table 13.15 Differences between Drupe and Berry Fruits

Drupe Berry
1 The fruit develops from mono - or The fruit develops from mono- or"
polycarpellary, syncarpous and polycarpellary, syncarpous, superior or
superior ovary. interior ovary.
2 Pericarp is divided into three layers, Pericarp is divided into epicarp, mesocarp
i.e., epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. and endocarp. The endocarp is thin and
The endocarp is hard and woody. membranous.
3 The fruit is usually single seeded but The fruit is usually multiseeded.
sometimes multiseeded.
Examples. Mangifera (mango) and Examples. Lycopersicum (tomato) and
Cocos (coconut). Vitis (grapes).

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Table 13.16 Differences between Hesperidium and Syconua Fruits
Hesperidium Syconus
1 Fruit develops from the ovary of a single The fruit develops from the entire
flower. inflorescence, thus a type of false fruit. It
develops from hypanthodium
inflorescence and each fruit is achene.
2 Pericarp is distinguishable into three Pericarp is indistinct.
layers, the epicarp, the mesocarp and the
endocarp.
3 The edible part of the fruit is the fleshy The edible part comprises pericarp,
unicellular juicy hairs developed from thalamus, perianth and rachis.
endocarp.
4 The epicarp has a large number of oil Oil glands are not found
glands.
Example. Citrus species. Example. Ficus species (figs).

QUESTIONS

1. Define fruit.
2. Classify fruit into different categories in tabular form with examples.
3. Write a short note on
 Legumes
 Aggregate fruits
 Syconus
 Pineapple
4. Differentiate between fruits of tomato, cucurbits and Lemons.

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Methodical Vegetative and Floral Description (Taxonomic Description)
As far as possible fresh flower must be taken for description. The minute vegetative and floral
structures should be viewed under dissecting microscope. For the study of carpels and locules a transverse
section through immature ovary should be examined.

The taxonomic description should be written adopting following sequence:

1. Habitat (a) Hydrophyte, mesophyte or xerophyte.
(b) Cultivated, ornamental, food crop or wild.
(c) Tropical, temperate or arctic.
2. Habit (a) Herb (whether prostrate, erect, diffuse or weak-
stemmed), shrub or tree.
(b) Annual, biennial or perennial.
3. Root (a) Tap or adventitious.
(b) Branched or unbranched.
(c) Any modification
(Both for tap and adventitious types of roots).
4. Stem (a) Erect, prostrate or climbing.
(b) Modification-bulb, tuber, corm, rhizome etc.
(c) Branching: monopodia or sympodial.
(d) Herbaceous (solid or fistular) or woody
(e) Angular, cylindrical or flattened.
(f) Hairy, spiny, glabrous or glaucous
(g) Colour: green or brown.
5. Leaves (a) Radical, cauline or ramal.
(b) Alternate, opposite (superposed or decussate) or whorled.
(c) Sessile or petiolate.
(d) Stipulated or exstipulated, type of stipule (if present).
(e) Leaf base sheathing connate, perfoliate or ligulate.
(f) Simple or compound.
(g) If compound, pinnate or palmate, number of leaflets.
(h) Venation-uni or Multicostate, parallel or reticulate.
(i) Leaf margin : entire, serrate or reticulate
(j) Surface: hairy, glabrous or glaucous.
(k) Apex : acute, acuminate or obtuse
6. Inflorescence (a) Racemose, cymose or any special type
7. Flower (a) Pedicellate or sessile.
(b) Bracteate or ebracteate.
(c) Complete or incomplete.
(d) Unisexual or bisexual.
(e) Regular or irregular.
(f) Actinomorphic or zygomorphic.
(g) Hypo, peri- or epigynous.
(h) Colour.
(i) Nectaries present or absent.

140
 8. Calyx (a) Number of sepals.
(b) Gamosepalous (fused) or polysepalous (free).
(c) Shape and form.
(d) Green or petaloid.
(e) Aestivation: valvate, twisted or imbricate (ascending,
descending or quincuncial).
9. Corolla (a) Number of petals.
(b) Gamopetalous (fused) or polypetalous (free).
(c) Shape or form.
(d) Coloured or sepaloid.
(e) Aestivation.
10. Perianth When there is no distinction between calyx and corolla it is called
perianth.
(a) Number of tepals.
(b) Gamophyllous (fused) or polyphyllous (free).
11. Androeclum (a) Number of stamens.
(b) Polyandrous (free), adelphous (fused to form a tube) or
syngenesious (anthers fused).
(c) Epipetalous or free.
(d) Filament long or short.
(e) Anthers basifixed, dorsifixed Or versatile.
(f) Anthers monothecous or dithecous, introrse or extrorse.
12. Gynoecium (a) Number of carpels.
(b) Syncarpous (fused) or apocarpous (free).
(c) Ovary superior or inferior.
(d) Number of locules.
(e) Placentation (marginal, axile, parietal, free central or basal).
(f) Number of ovules in each locule.
(g) Styles free or united.
(h) Stigma simple, lobed, capitate etc.
13. Seed (a) Endospermic or non-endospermic.
(b) Number of cotyledons.
14. Fruits (a) Kinds of fruits-dry, succulent or of any special type

Floral Formula. It is written the help of the following symbols:

Br Bracteate
brl bracteolate
% Zygomorphic
Actinomorphic
♂ Staminate
♀ Pistillate
Bisexual or Hermaphrodite
Neuter
Ep. K Epicalyx
K Calyx free
(K) Calyx fused

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 C Corolla free
(C) Corolla fused
p Perianth
A Stamens free
(A) Stamens fused
G Gynoecium free
(G) Gynoecium fused
G Ovary inferior
G Ovary superior
<x Indefinite
CA Epipetajous stamens
PA Epiphyllous stamens

For example floral formula of shoe flower (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) is:

Floral diagram. Arrangement of floral parts and method of drawing the floral diagram is illustrated in
fig. 13.10.
The procedure of drawing floral diagram should be taken up carefully, starting from outermost whorl to
central whorl (gynoecium). The position of each floral part should be ascertained with its relative position
in respect to mother axis (hypothetical).

Fig. 13.10

*****

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 LECTURE: 14

INTRODUCTION TO PLANT TAXONOMY AND PLANT SYSTEMATICS

INTRODUCTION
The term taxonomy was coined by a French botanist A.P. de Candolle (1813) in his book Theorie
elementaire de la botanique. It comprises two words (Greek, taxis = arrangement; + nomos = study).
Strictly speaking, taxonomy is the study of principles and practice of classification, but in a broader
perspective, it deals mainly with identification, nomenclature and classification of objects of biological
origin. In addition, origin and relationships also form important aspects of taxonomy. Plant taxonomy is
often treated as synonymous with Systematic Botany. According to Jeffrey (1968), plant taxonomy,
otherwise known as systematic botany is concerned with identification, classification and naming of
plants. On the other hand in the opinion of authors like Porter (1959), taxonomy is a very broad and
comprehensive subject and comprises (i) Systematic botany (ii) Taxonomic system (iii) Nomenclature
and (iv) Documentation. The main objective of systematic botany is systematic description of plants,
based primarily on their morphology. In present day taxonomy, information from other disciplines of
botany e.g. anatomy, palynology cytology, genetics, ecology, physiology, photochemistry, etc. are
collected. Thus it can be said that taxonomy, on one hand is basic to all branches of botany and on the
other hand dependent on them. Today anyone dealing with plants in anyway has to depend on the labor of
the taxonomists. According to Radford et al. (1974), taxonomy is the pedestal, upon which biology is
built. The information obtained about the characteristics of plants are utilized to frame taxonomic concept
of taxa at various levels, e.g. species, genera, etc.; concept of the evolutionary sequence of characters, i.e.
what characters are primitive or what are advanced, or transitional; classification and arrangement of taxa
in some recognised system and description of taxa. These aspects form parts of taxonomic system.
Plant taxonomy is therefore, regarded a synthetic discipline, and systematic botany is one of the
four disciplines mentioned earlier. However, it is a matter of opinion and both the terms e.g. plant
taxonomy and systematic botany are used interchangeably (Lawrence 1951).
Likewise a term 'systematics' is often used. Simpson (1961) defined systematics, a science
usually considered as dealing with a comprehensive study of diverse organisms with regard to their
natural relationships. Taxonomy, on the other hand is a science usually considered as dealing with
principles and procedures of classification (Radford et al. 1974). Adopted in a broad sense, systematics
includes not only the theory and practice of classification (Taxonomy sensu stricto) but also deals with
the scientific study of origin and evolution of plants.

AIMS OF TAXONOMY: In modern taxonomy, there are mainly three aims which are widely accepted:
(i) To provide a convenient method of identification and communication.
(ii) To provide a classification which expresses natural relationship of organisms as far as possible.
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(iii) To detect evolution at work, discovering its process and interpreting the results.
Out of the above, the first two aims mainly involve an empirical approach which is based on
observed characters and it results in a basic classification. The third aim involves interpretative
approach which affects the improvement in classification, and is interpreted in evolutionary or
phylogenetic terms.

Our knowledge of the world flora is extremely uneven and its classification can be considered in four
overlapping phases:
(1) Pioneer or exploratory phase: It is primarily concerned with identification. During this phase, the
flora is known mainly from herbarium material.
(2) Consolidation phase: The phase in which the species have been studied both, in the herbarium and
field. This initiated the publication of floras and monographs.
(3) Biosystematic phase: It is related to evolution at infraspecific level and takes into account of
geographical and ecological variations on cytological grounds including morphology, number of
chromosomes, breeding behavior and barriers.
(4) Encyclopaedic phase: It synthesizes the evidences derived from the first three phases and tries to
express systematic and evolutionary relationships of plants at every taxonomic unit. It lays great emphasis
on infraspecific categories like ecotype, ecophene, biotype, etc.
The first two phases correspond to alpha taxonomy or alpha classification (Turrill, 1938) and the other
two come under omega taxonomy in which there is a synthetic approach to taxonomic studies.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Identification
It is defined as assignment of plant to a particular taxonomic group, ultimately to a species. The
plant is therefore, given a name by recognizing that it belongs to a previously described taxon (Davis and
Hey wood 1963). In case, the comparison with the taxa of the same rank already recorded, shows that the
plant is significantly different, it may be described as a new taxon and a new name is given to it.
According to Lawrence (1951) identification is the determination of a taxon as being identical with or
similar to another and already known element. Identification is done by comparing a plant specimen with
authentically identified specimen or with the help of keys, descriptions, illustrations given in various
local, regional or state floras.
Nomenclature
It is concerned with the determination of the correct scientific name of a known plant, according
to a nomenclatural system. For this, there are international rules given in International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature (ICBN) which directs the process to be followed for the determination of the name applied
to a particular plant. Correct and scientific name is of utmost importance because of the fact that either the
same plant is known by different names or a common name is applied to a variety of plants in different
144
languages in the same country or in different countries. In order to avoid all these confusions, standard
scientific names are given to plants.

Classification
It is concerned with the placing of a plant or group of plants in a hierarchy or categories or
groups, according to a plan or sequence and in conformity with a nomenclatural system. In this way a
species is classified as a member of a genus; a genus is classified as a member of family; a family of an
order and order to a class and so on. The product is an arrangement or system of classification designed to
express interrelationship of plants. This can be referred to as box-in-box arrangement on the basis of
overall similarities. This arrangement can also be called as pigeonholing of alike objects.
Classification is a natural occupation of man. According to Hopwood (1957-1958). "The urge to
classify is a fundamental human instinct, like the predisposition to sin; it accompanies us into the world at
the time of birth and stays till end." Classification is the basic method by which man can organize the
external world. Which kinds of features are employed, depends on the kind of classification we have in
mind, since classification is done for a purpose and different classifications are needed for different
purposes. Even in early stages of civilization, man soon came to recognize the kind of plants he should
eat, which to be used as medicine, which for shelter, etc. This was based not only on the morphology of
plants but also on their smell; taste and nutritive value. Later some conspicuous features of plants
attracted the man, so that certain groups of flowering plants were created, e.g. Fabaceae, Brassicaceae etc.
Nature is full of diversities and these led man to classify. According to Grant (1963) in plant kingdom,
angiosperms are represented by nearly 286,000 species as compared to 640 species of gymnosperms,
10,000 species of ferns and fern allies, 23,000 species of bryophytes, 8675 species of algae (green, red
and brown), 40,400 species of fungi and slime moulds, 30,000 species of protista, 1,400 species of blue
green algae, 1630 species of bacteria and 200 species of viruses.
In angiosperms great range of variations occurs in form and structure. For example, there are
minutest plants like Wolffia (Lemnaceae) which measure not more than 2 mm in size. On the other hand
Eucalyptus regnans (Myrtaceae) of Australia are tallest plants, attaining a height of more than 100 metres.
Similarly, diversification on nutritional basis is found in angiosperms which are saprophytes like
Monotropa; parasites like Cuscuta, Loranthus, Orobanche; insectivorous plants like Nepenthes,
Sarracenia, Drosera and epiphytes like Dendrobium. Like vegetative characters, angiosperms show great
variations in floral characters. There are unisexual, bisexual or polygamous flowers. The floral
organisation may be simple or complicated. For example in Euphorbia, the male flowers are reduced to
single stamen. In Lemna, the female flower is reduced to an unilocular ovary. The flowers may be naked
or may have well developed perianth. The ovules may be completely closed in the ovary or simply
protected by folded conduplicate carpels, e.g. Winteraceae. The ovules may be integumented or may be
without integument, e.g. Loranthaceae or Santalaceae. The variations are mostly discontinuous that help

145
to a larger extent in a workable classification. When the variations are continuous, classification becomes
problematic.
Documentation
It is concerned with warehousing of plants (both living and fossil) in herbarium or museum.
There are various techniques for herbarium preparation (to be discussed in separate chapter).
Documentation also includes preservation of type materials on which the description and names of taxa is
based. Icones, which may sometimes serve as type, and maps showing geographical distribution of taxa,
also form part of documentation.
Units of Classification and Their Concepts
The taxonomic group of any rank which forms units of classification is termed Taxon (pi. Taxa).
It can be used to denote a division, class, order, family or even a species. Various taxonomic units may be
placed in two categories, i.e. major and minor. In the former are included categories up to families, while
the later forms the name of the plant itself.

MAJOR UNITS
Division
Within the plant kingdom, division represents the category of highest magnitude. The number of
divisions in which plant kingdom is divided, varies from authors to authors. According to Engler and
Prantl (1887-1899), there are 13 divisions in plant kingdom. Eichler (1875) recognised two main groups
in plant kingdom viz. Cryptogamia and Phanerogamia: the former being further divided into Thallophyta,
Bryophyta and Pteridophyta whereas, the later into Gynmosperms and Angiosperms. Cronquist,
Takhtajan and Zimmerman (1966) leaving aside Algae and Fungi, recognized 8 divisions into
Embryobionta, e.g. Rhinophyta,
Bryophyta, Psilophtya, Lycopodiophyta, Equisetophyta Polypodiophyta, Pinophyta and
Magnoliophyta. The names of divisions have the ending—'phyta' but in case of Fungi it is— mycota. The
divisions are characterised by the possession of a very few selected common characters. For example, the
Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms) are characterized by possession of a sporophytic generation dominant over
much reduced gametophytic generation and reproductive structures called seeds enclosed in carpellary
wails. The divisions are often divided into sub divisions and have the ending—'phytina'. In earlier system
ending ‘ae' was added, e.g. the spermatophyta being divided into Angiospermae and Gymnospermae,
which are distinguished on the basis of closed or naked seeds.
Class
It is the next full category, subordinate in rank to the division. The names applied to classes are in
Latin names and have the ending 'opsida'. In earlier classifications ending 'eae' was applied, e.g.
Monocotyledoneae and Dicotyledoneae. The classes are created on the basis of certain more additional
characters as compared to the division. For example Magnoliopsida (Dicots) and Liliopsida (Monocots)
are distinguished by the number of cotyledons, venation of leaves and nature of flowers. The class is often
146
divided into sub-classes which have the ending 'idae'. For example Magnoliidae, Hamamelididae,
Asteridae, etc. The subclasses polypetalae, gamopetalae and monochlamydeae of Bentham and Hooker's
system or Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae of Engler and Prantl's system are not in conformity
with the ICBN. The sub-classes are erected, taking into consideration some more characters in addition.
Order
Each class or sub-class is divided into orders. The order is the category next in the line and
subordinate to that of class. The orders have the ending ‘ales', e.g. Rosales, Cycadales, etc. There are
exceptions like Glumiflorae or Tubiflorae as mentioned in Engler and Prantl's classification. When the
orders are very large, they are divided into sub-orders which have the ending 'ineae'. Orders are
characterized by more additional characters than class. Cohort, Nixus, Alliance or Reihe are equivalent to
orders which have been used in earlier literature. An order possesses greater degree of phylogenetic unity
than that of division or class.
Family
An order or a sub-order comprises one or more families. Usually two or more genera resembling
one another in certain characters collectively constitute a family. When a family contains a single genus,
it is said to be monotypic. Family name has the ending 'aceae'.
There are certain families having names not ending with—'aceae'. e.g. Leguminosae, Palmae,
Gramineae, Cruciferae, Guttiferae, Umbelliferae, Labiatae, Compositae and these families have been
given alternative names, like Fabaceae, Arecaceae, Poaceae, Brassicaceae, Clusiaceae, Apiaceae,
Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, respectively.
The family usually represents a more natural unit than any of the higher categories. The families
of higher plants are recognized by characters generally inherent in the reproductive structures such as
inflorescence, ovary, placentation, carpels, androecium, etc. Apart from reproductive characters, there are
certain vegetative characters which are very prominent and constant in many families. They can be useful
in delimiting one family from the other. To explain this, one can examine the plants, like Barleria
prionitis, Peristrophe bicalyculata, Justicia simplex, Adhatoda vasica or Thunbergia erecta. All these
plants are different from each other in many characters, yet, have been kept in family Acanthaceae
because they have some characters in common, i.e. zygomorphic, bisexual flowers with gamopetalous
corolla, epipetalous stamens, bicarpellary pistil and superior ovary.
When a family is very large and comprises many components, it is often divided into sub-families
which have the ending—'oideae', e.g. Oleoideae, Jasminoideae of family Oleaceae. Similarly, the sub-
families are divided into Tribes and Subtribes which have the ending—'eae' and—'inae', respectively.

MINOR UNITS
A minor unit of classification is the one which becomes part of the name of plant. It may be
genus, species or sub-species etc.

147
Genus
The genus is subordinate in rank to the family. The generic name is the first of the two words
comprising a binomial name e.g. Cucurbita maxima. Cucurbita is the generic name. By and large, several
species constitute a genus. If there is a single species in a genus, it is said to be monotypic. A genus is
defined as an assemblage of species which resemble one another in general structure and appearance
more than they resemble any other genera within the family. The genera of Linnaeus, Hooker, Gray and
other later botanists, is based on the belief that a genus is a category, whose components (i.e. species)
have more characters in common with each other than they do with the components of other genera
within the same family. Take for example Euphorbia which belongs to family Euphorbiaceae, differs
from other genera like Jatropha, Croton, Ricinus, Acalypha, etc. of same family by having cyathium type
of inflorescence. Within the genus Euphorbia, there are several species like E. royleana, E. geniculata. E.
dracanculoides,, E. prostrata, E. hirta, etc. These various species although different in certain vegetative
and reproductive characters, have in common one character, e.g. cyathium. Usually the characters of a
genus are derived from reproductive organs, while those of a species from all parts of the plant body.
Therefore, a genus can be defined as a collection of species which bear similarities to one another in
general characters of their reproductive organs.
The concept of the genus was first of all given by Tournefort (1700) in his publication Institutions
Rei Herbarie, although Otto Brunfels (1464-1534) is credited by having the clearest concept of the
category of a genus. Tournefort recognised two types of genera: The first contained genera based on the
form of flower and fruit, e.g. Nigella or Ranunculus,and the second contained genera for which vegetative
differences were needed, e.g. Pinus, Abies and Larix, which differ from each other in position of their
leaves. For flowering plants, he proposed that one should consider the flower and fruit, and add characters
from other organs, whenever necessary for a better distinction.
Linnaeus adopted Tournefort's generic concept and elaborated upon them. A genus may be
divided into sub-genus, sections, sub-section and series.
Species
A species has been considered as a basic unit of classification. The specific epithet follows the
generic name and is written in small letters, e.g. Cucurbita maxima. By the term species, it is understood
that a collection of individuals which resemble one another closely in all important characters of
vegetative and reproductive organs, and are therefore, supposed to have descended from a common
ancestor. If we walk in a field of pea, we observe thousands of individuals which resemble each other in
all characters, and thus, constitute a species. This can be verified if they breed true from generations to
generations, i.e. produce offspring exactly resembling their parents. However, it should be kept in mind
that such a thing is possible only if individuals in question are exposed to influence of same
environmental factors such as soil, heat, moisture, light, etc. as the parents. The application of this
definition becomes problem in cases where similar individuals have lost the capacity of sexual

148
reproduction and multiply exclusively by vegetative means, yet they constitute same species. Various
authors have defined the species in various ways, which have been broadly classified under two concepts:
(1) Typological, essentialist or taxonomic concept
(2) Biological species concept.
Typological concept
Literally, species which comes from its latin root "specere" refers to appearance. According to Mayr
(1957), typological is the simplest and most widely held species concept. Under this concept,
species are defined on the possession of certain morphological or phenotypic characteristic, not
possessed by members of other species. This concept treats species as random aggregates of
individuals which have the essential properties of the type of the species and agrees with the
diagnosis.
Biological concept
The biological species concept was formulated by Mayr (1969). Unlike typological concept, biological
species is defined by genetic kinship (Love 1964, Mayr (1969) and breeding behaviour. Such
a species is defined as a community of cross fertilizing individuals linked together by bands of
mating and isolated reproductivity from other species (Grant 1957). In other words a biological
species is constituted by groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated
from such other groups. This concept lays emphasis on two points: (i) Interbreeding between
members of the same species and (ii) reproductive isolation between the members of different
species.
Jeffrey (1968) defines species as a series of intergrading and interfertile populations recognizably
distinct from other such series and separated from other such series by genetically controlled
barriers preventing interbreeding. Different species, therefore, are different such series. Doyen and
Slobodchikoff (1974) proposed an operational definition of species as "groups of phenetically
similar, interbreeding populations that share similar ecological niches". However, this cannot be
applied to asexual organisms (Slobodchikoff 1976).
According to Lawrence (1951), species is the product of individuals, judgment. Further, Mason (1950)
says that, a species to one taxonomist may be a sub-species to the other and a family to one may be
an order to another. The taxonomic categories possess only relative values.
Subspecies
These are baby species or species of small magnitude that are distinguished by the obvious or less
significant morphological features than are more obvious species within the same genus. Mayr (1969)
defined a subspecies as "an aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species and differing
taxonomically from the populations of the species. Davis and Heywood (1963) opines that a subspecies is
a segment of species with a distinct area and more or less distinct morphology often showing some
intergradations.

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Variety
Under certain conditions, particularly changed external conditions, a species may exhibit certain
variations in form, size, colour, etc. These are termed varieties.
Forma
It is the smallest category used in ordinary taxonomic work. It is generally applied to specific
variations occurring among individuals of any population. Some botanists consider Forma to be any
variant that occur sporadically in a species population, irrespective of the degree of morphological
variation or constancy. The forma of this category is equivalent to the variety of many botanists.

Some of infraspecific units of classification are:

Biotypes: These are local variants among individuals belonging to the same species in same environment.
Ecophene or ecad: These are individuals of the same species which differ in certain minor
morphological or physiological characters. The differences are due to the differing environment in which
they grow. If they grow under identical environmental conditions, the differences amongst them may
disappear. Thus, ecad or ecophene is a form showing adaptation to a particular habitat in which they grow
and the adaptive characters are not genetically determined, but are due to environmental agencies.
Ecotype: A term proposed by Turesson (1922) defined as a phyletic unit adapted to a particular
environment and capable of producing fully fertile hybrids with other ecotype of the same ecospecies.
The differences are genetical as well as environmental.

TAXONOMIC LITERATURE AND INDIAN FLORA

TAXONOMIC LITERATURE:
A vast literature, concerned with the plant taxonomy existing globally, would
require thousands of volumes to review.
The monumental work Flora of British India (7 volumes) was compiled by Sir JD Hooker (1872-
97). A manual of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora) plants in India. i.e. the Negative List of Export, is on way of preparation. The major forms of
literature with names of important ones are accounted here.
Floras, Manuals etc:
A flora is an inventory of plants of a defined geographical region. The coverage of a flora may
range from a small patch of forest, a valley, a mountain range, a city, district, state, and nation or even to
a continent. Since it is difficult to make an inventory of all plants growing all over the world, limited
areas are selected. A flora may be fairly illustrative or simply synoptic but ideally it should provide
systematic enumeration, comprehensive description, key for identification and if possible illustrations of
various plant species included in it. Depending on their scope and the area covered, the floras may be
categorised as
:
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Local Flora: It covers a limited geographical area, usually a city, district, state, country, a valley or a
small mountain range, e.g. Flora of Delhi by JK Maheshwari (1963), Flora Simlensis by H Collet (1921),
Flora of Tamil Nadu by KM Mathew (1983), Flora of Texas by RC Reeves (1972) ete.

Regional Flora:It includes a larger geographical area, usually a large country or a botanical region, e.g.
Flora of British India by Sir JD Hooker (1872-97), Flora of Malaysia by CC Steenis (1948). Flora Iranica
by KH Rochinger (1963) ete. A flora covering a country is more appropriately called National Flora.
Botanical Survey of India (BSI) has recently taken up the publication of Flora of India.

Continental Flora:It covers the entire continent, e.g. Flora Europea by TC Tutin, et al. (1964-80), Flora
Australiensis by G. Bentham (1863-78) ete.
Comprehensive Treatments have much broader scope and are the joint efforts of comprehending
several important taxonomic works which took place worldwide, e.g. Genera plantarum of C Bentham
and JD Hooker (1862-83), Die naturarlichen pflanzenfamilian of A Engler and KA Prantil (1887-1915),
Das pflanzenreich of A Engler etc.

A manual differs slightly from flora in that it emphasises mainly on providing suitable keys for
identification, descriptions and glossary. They are more exhaustive than floras and generally cover
specialised groups of plants, e.g. Manual of Cultivated Plants by LH Bailey (1949), Manual of Cultivated
tree and Shrub Hardy in North America by A Rehder (1940), Manual of Aquatic Planes by NC Fossel
(1957) etc. A manual differs from a monograph in that the latter has a detailed taxonomic treatment of a
taxonomic group.
Botanical Survey of India is actively engaged in documentation of plant diversity in the form of
district, state, regional and national flora (Flora of India). By March 2006, Flora of Medak District,
Andhra Pradesh was more or less ready for publication; Flora of Uttar Pradesh. Vol 11: Taxonomic
description of 199 species was completed; Flora of Cold Deserts of Western Himalayas, Vol II: five
species completed and Flora of India: Lamiaceae, was underway of revision.
SF Blake (Part 1. 1941; Part 11. 1961) has elucidated the list of floras more comprehensively in
his Geographical Guide to Floras of the World. Frodin (1984) has also given a comprehensive list of
world floras in his Guide to the Standard Floras of the World. One can also know more about them in
Lawrence (1951), Core (1955), Heywood (1963), Reed (1969), Volumes of Taxon etc.

Monographs, Revisions, Conspectus, Synopsis etc:

A Monograph is a comprehensive treatment of a taxonomic group, generally a genus or a family,
dealing compilation of worldwide available all significant information concerning the taxon. The
geographical scope is worldwide because it is impossible to discuss a taxon without including all its
members and often its entire species, subspecies, varieties and formas, It also incorporates an exhaustive
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review of literature, as also a report on author's research work. An ideal monograph contains all
information related to nomenclature, designated types, keys, exhaustive description, full synonymy and
citation of specimens examined. Since preparation of monographs involves vast disciplines
biosystematics) to be undertaken, it takes several years of patience for the study to be completed. This is
the reason that till today there are relatively few monographs on record, e.g. The Genus Pinus by TN
Mirov (1967). The Genus Datura by AF Blakslee et al., (1959). The Genus Iris by WR Dykes (1913),
Monograph of the Genus Avena by BR Baum (1977).
A revision is generally less comprehensive than a monograph and is often based only on
herbarium studies. It incorporates less introductory material and includes a synoptic literature review.
Although it includes complete synonymy but the descriptions are shorter and often confined to diagnostic
characters. The numbers of revisions is more than thousand world over.
A conspectus, an effective outline of the revision, enlists all taxa with all or major synonyms
with or without short diagnosis and with a brief mention of the geographical range. An ideal example of a
conspectus is Species plantarum of C Linnaeus (1753).
A synopsis is a list of taxa with much abbreviated diagnostic distinguishing statements that are
often in the form of keys.

Illustrations (Icones): Illustrations (Icones) are usually published along with the text in Floras and
Monographs but may sometimes be compiled exclusively. They are often detailed analysis that serves as
useful tools for identification. As such many species of plants based on published illustrations only,
without any accompanying description or diagnosis before 1.l.1980, have been accepted as validly
published. The two principal compilations of icones are Hooker's Icones and Wights !cones. Others worth
mentioning are: Illustrations of plants from Europe (Hegi, 1906-1931), North America (Gleason, 1963),
Pacific coast trees (Mc Minn and Maino, 1946), Germany (Garcke, 1972), Korea (Lee, 1979) etc.

Regulations: Since 1867 onwards, International Botanical Congresses are being held periodically at
usually four years of interval. Legislation has been agreed upon to recommend universally adaptable
principles, rules and recommendations for naming the plants and publish the Code, subject to revision at
every congress.

Periodicals (Journals): Floras, Manuals and Monographs are published after a lot of taxonomic input.
They require several decades for incorporating information on the results of ongoing research in the field
with the help of journals or periodicals which play a significant role for continuance of taxonomic study.
They provide a continuous update on additional taxa described or reported from a region and also
information about nomenclatural changes and other taxonomic information. Reference to a publication in
them includes volume number (which remains the same in all issues published within a year); issue
number (numbered within a volume-a monthly journal will have 12 issues, quarterly 4, half-yearly 2 and
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annual 1); and page numbers on which the particular article appears. Various herbaria, botanical gardens,
botanical societies and many other agencies worldwide, publish the findings of their studies in the form of
research papers, short articles, notes, abstracts ete, in these journals published at regular intervals. The
numbers of journals may exceed several thousands. Lawrence and Bensen have compiled an excellent list
of periodicals known to them by that time about published taxonomic literature. These periodicals arc the
authentic and learned treatises on concerned plant taxa and are quite useful in taxonomic study and
research. Some of the common journals devoted largely to taxonomic research are: Taxon (International
Association of Plant Taxonomy, Berlin), Kew Bulletin (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England). Plant
Systematic and Evolution (Denmark), Botanical Journal of Linnaeun Society (London), Journal of the
Arnold Arboretum (Harvard), Bulletin Botanical Survey of India (Kolkata), Botanical Magzine (Tokyo),
Systematic Botany (New York), American Journal of Botany (USA), Botanical Gazzette (USA),
Botanical Society of Bengal Bulletin (India) etc.

Index: An index is an alphabetic catalogue of taxa with reference to their publication. It is prepared to
depict a synoptical background of the work done in respect of names of flowering plants published
throughout the world. They are volumes of compiled work that continuously compile abstracts of papers
published. These include Index Kewensis (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, 1893). Index
Londiensis (London, 1935), Flowering Plant Index of Illustrations and Information compiled by RT
Issacson (1979), Index Nominum Genaricum (1986). Gray Herbarium Card Index (l893-1962 )-
Supplement in 1978, Index Holminesis (1969) etc.

Index Kewensis:Index Kewensis-Plantarum phanerogarum (2 volumes, 15 supplements), Oxford (1893-

supplements to date), the most comprehensive list of the scientific names of flowering (seed) plants,
started its ublication in 1893 from Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England-the largest botanical garden in
the world. The entire work (from 1846 to 1927) was initiated by Sir JD Hooker who remained the
Director of this prestigious Garden in collaboration with Benjamin, Daydon and Jackson. Index Kewensis
enlists names of new and changed names of flowering plants with their bibliographic references to the
place of first publication. In its first publication it included 3.75,000 scientific names known since the
time of Linnaeus. Around ninteen eighties, the data was transferred to a computer database which
continues to expand at the rate of about 6000 records per year. To make this data generally available, the
whole Index Kewensis has been published in CD-ROM in 1993 that contains almost 9,68,000 records.
Index Kewensis is an indispensable reference, most useful to any study of taxonomy of flowering plants.

Dictionaries and Glossaries: Dictionaries and glossaries are the alphabetical lists of difficult botanical
terms which are in usage in the literature. They also provide valuable information concerning genera and
families providing name of author, distribution, family of the genus and number of species it includes.
e.g.Dictionary of Flowering Plants and Ferns by JC Willis-6th edition (1973), Botanical Dictionary, 1960
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(Moscow), Dictionary of Gardening by Chittenden (1951), The Wealth of India-A Dictionary of Indian
Raw Materials and Industrial Products, 1948 (CSIR, New Delhi), Glossary of Botanical Terms
Commonly used in Range Research by Day ton (Washington-1931), Glossary of Botanic Terms with their
Derivation and Ascent by jackson (1928), Dictionary of Economic Plants in India by Singh et al. (1983)
etc. They are valuable in taxonomic studies.

Pictorial Encyclopaedias, Keys etc:

Pictorial encyclopaedias provide all available information on cultivated plants throughout the world.
More famous among them are Standard Cyclopaedia of Horticulture by Baily (1914-17), Indian Trees by
Brittan (1908), North American Trees by Covens (1950) etc.

Keys, provided in most of the manuals and floras in addition to the description, are not considered here.
Keys prepared for general purpose of identification of plant families are widely used, particularly in
determining plants from rich and diverse botanical provinces, e.g. Key to the Families of Flowering
Plants of the World by Hutchinson (1967), The Identification of Flowering Plant Families by Davis and
Cull ens (1965), The Identification of Flowering Plant Families by Hansen and Rahn (1969), etermination
of Angiosperm Families by Punch-Card System by Simpson and [anos (1974), Punch Card Key to the
Dicot Families of South India by Naik (1977) etc.

Specific Literature on Cultivated Plants; Wild Plants; Trees, Shrubs and Grasses:
Literature on cultivated plants has always been predominant since ancient period. This was due to
man's interest of plants providing food, medicines and many more desirable plant products for his needs
and greed. Some of the important ones are listed as: A Manual of Cultivated Plants by Bailey (1924),
Origin of Cultivated Plants by de Candolle (1885), The Mango: Its Cultivated Varieties by Woodrow
(1904), Roses by Pemberton (1920), Coconut: Cultivation by John (1955), South Indian Bananas by [acob
(1934), The Indian Cottons by Gammie (1907), Field and Garden Crops of the North-West Provinces and
Oudh by Duthie and Fuller (1882-93), Some Bananas at Assam by Dutta (1952) etc.

Literature on wild plants appeared because of man's anxiety on plants growing around him. As a result
of many ongoing explorations, plant taxonomists reported a large number of plant species, many of them
were wild. Among literature on wild plants, worth mentioning to include are: Wild Flowers by Kosch
(1964), Wild Flowers of the West by Clements (1927), Some Useful Wild Plants of Delhi Province by
Singh (1945), New or Noteworthy Plants from the Upper Gangetic plain by Raizada (1950), Our Early
Wild Flowers by Keeler (1916) etc.

Literature on trees and shrubs includes many publications on forest trees and shrubs and these growing
elsewhere. Trees produce vast number of valuable commercial products and are grown as ornamentals
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whereas shrubs are valued for their economic products, especially drugs and used as fuel wood. Some
important publications on trees and shrubs are: Indian Trees by Brandis (1906), The Silviculture of Indian
Trees by Troup (1921), Field Manual of Trees by Schaffner (1926), Flowering Trees of India by
Randhawa (1957), Beautiful Trees of India Randhawa (1958), Shade and Ornamental Trees of
California by Pratt (1921), Trees and Shrubs of the Rocky Mountain Region by Longyear (1927), Some
Beautiful Climbers and Shrubs (Bombay) by Bor and Raizada (1954), Trees and Shrubs from Mexico by
Standly (1920-26), A List of Trees and Shrubs of Indore State by Biscoe (1910).

Literature on grasses comprises publications on various grasses. Although grasses include important
undergrowth of forests and grow elsewhere, yet little is known about them. Some important publications
on grasses include : Some Uttar Pradesh Grasses and Common Grasses of United Provinces by Bor
(1941), The World Grasses by Bews (1940), Grasses of North America by Beal (1896), The Gramineae
by Arhar (1934). First Book of Grasses by Chase (1922). The Bambuseae of British India by Gamble
(1896), A Key to the Genera of the Common Grasses of Lucknow and its Environment by Pal (1966),
Grazing Lands in Himachal Pradesh by Raina (1966).
As stated by Lawrence (1951) that "Taxonomy demands an almost encylopaedic of world's
pertinent literature, taxonomists must identify the various sources of taxonomic literature. The closer we
reach the taxonomic literature, more we know about plants and better shall be our understanding of the
floras". India needs close cooperation among taxonomists in various botanical institutes such as Botanical
Survey of India (Kolkata), National Botanical Research Institute (Lucknow}, Forest Research Institute
Dehradun), Central Arid Zone Research Institute (Jodhpur), Indian Fodder and Grassland Research
Institute (Jhansi), various herbaria and many universities and colleges carrying out research in plant
taxonomy.

INDIAN FLORA
India, an important subcontinent of world's largest continent-Asia, with richest plant wealth,
remained unexplored till 1565 when Garcia d' Orta published the first account of Indian plants in the
Portuguese language which was later translated in Latin by Clusius. The works entitle Coloquios dos
Simples e Drogas da India attracted European botanists to India. Subsequently Hortus Indicus alabaricus
(Hendrick von Rheede-1670 to 1703), Flora Indica (Burmann, 1768), Plants of Coast of Coromendel
(Roxburgh-1820 to 24), Plants Asiaticae Rsriores (Wallich-1830 to 32), Icones Plantarum Indiae (Robert
Wight-1838 to 53) and a few others appeared. Sir J. D. Hooker, in 1897, on compilation of the seventh
and the last volume of Flora of British India (1872-97), expressed a wish that his work would facilitate
the preparation and compilation of local floras and monographs of the genera of India which he onsidered
"the richest and most varied botanical area on the surface of the globe, where ample work is still to be
done". Inspired with his pioneering work, the main theme of botany, in nineteenth century, became the
comprehensive study of floras of various parts of the country. Simultaneously, the establishment of
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Botanical Survey of India in 1890 and the organisation of extensive botanical explorations in the British
India, caused to emerge many local and regional floras namely Flora of Bombay Presidency by Cooke
(1901-08) and Talbot (1909-11), Flora of the Presidency of Madras by Gamble and Fischer (1915-36),
Flora of Bengal by Prain (1903), Flora of Upper Gangetic Plain by Duthie (1903-22), Flora of Nilgiris
and Pulney Hill-tops by Fyson (1915), Flora of Biber and Otisss by Haines (1921-25), Flora of Rajasthan
by Blatter and Hallberg (1918-21). Apart from these floras, several other shorter floristic accounts on
limited regions and monographic studies on plant groups, such as orchids by King and Pantling (1898),
Asiatic palms by Beccari (1908-31) ete., and genera like Dalbergia by Prain (1904), Impatiens by Hooker
(1904-11), Dioscoree by Prain and Burkill (1936-38) etc., were made.

QUESTIONS

1. Define taxonomy. Mention the aims of taxonomy.

2. Enlist the major and minor units of classification.
3. Define the various infraspecific classification units.
4. Write a short note on Indian Flora.
5. Differentiate between manual and flora.

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 LECTURE: 15

ROLE OF ANIMALS IN AGRICULTURE

Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such
as food, fibre, and labour. The term is often used to refer solely to those raised for food, and sometimes
only farmed ruminants, such as cattle and goats.

Animal husbandry is the science of breeding, rearing, and caring for farm animals. Animal husbandry is
the branch of agriculture concerned with the care and breeding of domestic animals such as cattle, hogs,
sheep, and horses.
India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world. It has 56.7% of world’s buffaloes, 12.5% cattle,
20.4% small ruminants, 2.4% camel, 1.4% equine, 1.5% pigs and 3.1% poultry.

The Role of Animals and Animal Products in Agriculture:

(1) Animal products are an important source of high quality, balanced and highly bio-available
proteins and numerous critical micronutrients, including iron, zinc, and vitamins B-12 and A,
many of which are deficient in a large portion of the world’s population.
(2) Animals are recognized as high-quality foods, global demand for animal products is almost
certain to continue to increase dramatically.
(3) Farm animals are critical to a sustainable agricultural system and especially for smallholders
that improve nutritional status and additional resources such as manure for fertilizer for
maintaining soil fertility, on-farm power, and other by-products and provide economic
diversification.
(4) The ruminants such as buffalo, cattle, goats, and sheep, efficiently convert the forages from
grasslands into high-quality animal products and grazing also can promote the health and
biodiversity of grasslands if managed appropriately. This is important because grassland
pastures cover >25% of the Earth’s land surface.
(5) The Genetic selection of animals and improved management technologies has saved a large
amount of resources including water and land.
(6) Dung and other animal wastes serve as very good farm yard manure and the value of it is
worth several crores of rupees.
(7) Cow Dung is useful for preparation of good quality of vermicompost as a food for earth
warms.
(8) Livestock are also used as biological control (weed control) of brush plants and weeds.
(9) In rural areas dung is used for several purposes which include fuel (bio gas and dung cakes can

157
 replace charcoal and wood), and plastering material (poor man’s cement) in the huts.
(10) Draft animals such as Bullocks are the back bone of Indian agriculture. Despite lot of
advancements in the use of mechanical power in Indian agricultural operations, the Indian
farmer especially in rural areas still depend upon bullocks for various agricultural operations.
The bullocks are saving a lot on fuel which is a necessary input for using mechanical power
like tractors, combine harvesters etc.
(11) The livestock also contributes to the production of wool, hair, hides, and pelts. Leather is the
most important product which has a very high export potential.

(12) Grazing animals help in maintain the biodiversity of plant spices.

(13) Pack animals (an animal used to carry loads) like camels, horses, donkeys, ponies (Hilly
Horse), mules etc are being extensively used to transport goods in different parts of the country
in addition to bullocks. In situations like hilly terrains mules and ponies serve as the only
alternative to transport goods. Similarly, the army has to depend upon these animals to
transport various items in high areas of high altitude.
(14) Livestock are considered as “moving banks” because of their potentiality to dispose off
during emergencies. They serve as capital and in cases of landless agricultural labourers many
time it is the only capital resource they possess. Livestock serve as an asset and in case of
emergencies they serve as guarantee for availing loans from the local sources such as money
lenders in the villages.
(15) Livestock offer security to the owners and also add to their self esteem especially when they
own prized animals such as pedigreed bulls, dogs and high yielding cows/ buffaloes etc.
(16) People also use the animals like cocks, rams, bulls etc for competition and sports. Despite ban
on these animal competitions the cock fights, ram fights and bull fights (jalli kattu) are quite
common during festive seasons.
(17) Dogs are known for their faithfulness and are being used as companions since time
immemorial. When the nuclear families are increasing in number and the old parents are
forced to lead solitary life the dogs, cats are providing the needed company to the latter thus
making them lead a comfortable life.
(18) In IFS waste materials are effectively recycled by linking appropriate components, thus
minimize environment pollution.

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Animals integrated into the farm, showing the flow of fodder, dung and products

Livestock Resources of India:

 World’s highest livestock owner at about 512.05 million
 First in the total buffalo population in the world - 105.3 million buffaloes
 Second in the population of cattle and goats – 200 million cattle & 140 million goats
 Second largest poultry market in the world - production of 63 billion eggs and 649 million
poultry meat.
 Third in the population of sheep (72 millions)
 Fifth in the population of ducks and chicken
 Tenth in camel population in the world

QUESTIONS

1. What is animal husbandary?

2. What is integrated farming?
3. Describe five major roles of animals in agriculture.

*************

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 Suggested Reading
 Taxonomy of Angiosperms By S. N. Pandey and S.P. Misra, Ane Books
Pvt,. Ltd , New Delhi
 Introduction to Taxonomy of Angiosperms by B. K. Verma, PHI Learning
Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi
 Plant Taxonomy by O. P. Sharma, McGraw Hill Education India Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi
 Botany in Forestry and Environment by Ashok Kumar, Kumar Media Pvt.
Ltd. , Gandhinagar
 Plant Physiology by S.N Pandey and B.K. Sinha, Vikas Publishing, New
Delhi
 Genetics by P.K. Gupta, Rastogi Publications
 Plant Anatomy by B.P.Pandey, S.Chand (G/L) & Company Ltd;
 Plant Anatomy by A. Fahn, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
 A textbook of Animal Husbandry by Banerjee G. C, Oxford &IBH
publishing Co. Pvt Ltd

Best of Luck for Your Bright Carrier Ahead

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