Geographical Information Systems: 1) Basic Definitions of GIS
Geographical Information Systems: 1) Basic Definitions of GIS
Geographical Information Systems: 1) Basic Definitions of GIS
Introduction
In a general sense, a GIS can be thought of as a computer based system that integrates, stores, edits,
analyzes, shares and displays geographic information for the purpose of informing decision making.
GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created searches),
analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.
GIS started in 1960 with the discovery that computers can be programmed to store maps. A welcome
idea that overcame the drudgery in hand cartography
• The origin of this technology can be traced to Canadian natural resources and development
department
• The origin of this technology can be traced to Canadian natural resources and development
department
• The first ever built geographic information system-Canadian Information Systems (CGIS)
was fathered by Rogers Tomlinson.
Burrough in 1986 defined GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will,
transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of
purposes"
"A computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen
on earth. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and
statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by
maps." ESRI
"An integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained personnel linking
topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other resource data that is
geographically referenced." NASA
"Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial
data from the real world for a particular set of purposes " -Burrough 1986 GIS
, "A computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle geo-referenced
data :
data input
data management (data storage and retrieval)
manipulation and analysis
data output. " Arnoff in 1989
2) Levels of GIS (spatial) data sets
There are two broad formats of spatial data sets in GIS namely: Raster data set and vector data sets.
While the vector data sets are a generalization of features represented by lines points and polygons,
the raster data set are presented in grid cells. Usually this could present a gamut of information such
as contained in a satellite remote sensing images. There are several sources of data as discussed
above, but broadly, we have satellite remote sensing images, global positioning system, hard copy
topographical maps, population census tracks, field data, records from offices such as hospitals etc.
Data input in GIS include Scanning, Importing of Imageries, Importing of tables. Once the data
has been imported, data capture can be done and this comes in form of Digitizing (which could
be “On-screen” or with the aid of digitizing) tablets, Importation of spatial database tables as
event layers etc.
Spatial database should be managed through constant update by a spatial database manager. GIS
is data driven and hence the spatial analysis are tied to the richness of the spatial database.
GIS can break up features into five groups, based on the "Natural Breaks" statistical method. You
can change the number of categories and the type of statistical classification by clicking on the
"Classify..." button. You can choose one of the following classifications: "Equal Area", "Equal
Interval", "Natural Breaks", "Quantile", and "Standard Deviation".
Opening up the "Color Ramps:" menu bar lets you choose a different set of colors than the default
"Red monochromatic" ramp colors. If none of the available color ramps are suitable, you can change
each color individually by double-clicking on the corresponding symbol. This will bring up a color
and style palette.
Since it is a spinoff of Information Communication Technology, GIS through mapping and modeling
of spatial information enables better form of communication between people in research and the
society at large. Available evidence from literature reveals the extreme usefulness of GIS
application in specific areas of environmental/public health such as chemical contamination of water
and water borne diseases. For instance GIS application in the exposure of man to contaminated
drinking water by non volatile organic compounds (VOC) in groundwater reservoir has been
demonstrated. It was possible with this, to determine extent of contamination and location of
vulnerable population on the public water supply network
It implies then that a working GIS integrates these five key components namely:
hardware
software
data
people and
methods
Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The computer forms the
backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets it's input through the Scanner, key board or a digitizer
board. Printers and plotters are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. GIS softwares in use are MapInfo, ARC/Info, AutoCAD Map, etc.
Data
The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS, maps can be purchased scanned Geo-referenced
digitized and developed into GIS by building database. Geographic data and related tabular data can
also be collected in-house through questionnaire or field surveys and geo-referenced with the aid of
Global Positioning System receivers.
People
there are three categories of people when it comes to GIS; these are the solution seekers, solution
providers and software developers.
Method
There are various techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map
creation can either be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorized using the
scanned images.
15) Capturing extraction, storage and analysis of spatial data for decision making
The handling of spatial data usually involves processes of data acquisition, storage and maintenance,
analysis and output. The introduction of modern technologies has led to an increased use of
computers and information technology in all aspects of spatial data handling. The software
technology used in this domain is Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GIS is being used by
various disciplines as tools for spatial data handling in a geographic environment.
Data capture entails entering information into the GI system. There are a variety of methods used to
enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format.
1. Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce
digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon
boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed
to produce vector data.
2. Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey
instruments using a technique called Coordinate Geometry (COGO). Positions from a Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) like Global Positioning System (GPS), another survey
tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS.
3. Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors
attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and LIDAR, while
platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites.
4. Aerial photographs can also be scanned and used to digitize features directly from stereo
pairs of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three
dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of
photogrammetry. Currently, analog aerial photos are scanned before being entered into a soft
copy system, but as high quality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be skipped.
When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative
accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be
interpreted but also the cost of data capture. In addition to collecting and entering spatial data,
attribute data is also entered into a GIS. For vector data, this includes additional information about
the objects represented in the system.
After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further
processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some
advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection.
Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on
the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. For example, a fleck of dirt might
connect two lines that should not be connected.
One type analysis of environmental phenomenon is known as point pattern analysis the object of
interest is the very spatial location of the events under study. An example is in studies aiming at
estimating the risk of diseases around nuclear plants.
Another type of analysis is called Interpolated surface analysis which shows a pattern of spatial
distribution of variability concentration of continuous data such as air or ground water pollution. For
surface analysis, the objective is to reconstruct the surface from which the samples were measured.
For example, consider the distribution of profiles and soil samples of an area. Methods like
universal kriging, co-kriging,
Another type is the areal analysis, most of the data here are drawn from population survey like
census, health statistics and real estate cadastre. These areas are usually delimited by closed
polygons where supposedly there is internal homogeneity, that is, important changes only occur in
the limits. Clearly, this is a premise that is not always true, given that frequently the survey units are
defined by operational (census tracts) or political (municipalities) criteria and there is no
guarantee that the distribution of the event is homogeneous within these units.