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Geographical Information Systems: 1) Basic Definitions of GIS

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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Introduction
In a general sense, a GIS can be thought of as a computer based system that integrates, stores, edits,
analyzes, shares and displays geographic information for the purpose of informing decision making.
GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created searches),
analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.

GIS started in 1960 with the discovery that computers can be programmed to store maps. A welcome
idea that overcame the drudgery in hand cartography
• The origin of this technology can be traced to Canadian natural resources and development
department
• The origin of this technology can be traced to Canadian natural resources and development
department
• The first ever built geographic information system-Canadian Information Systems (CGIS)
was fathered by Rogers Tomlinson.

1) Basic Definitions of GIS


In defining GIS there seems to be a universal one but in all there are common grounds all. For
instance looking at the following authors conceptualization, certain terms keep recurring.

 "Computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, and displaying


geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified according to their locations.
Practitioners also regard the total GIS as including operating personnel and the data that go
into the system." USGS

 Burrough in 1986 defined GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will,
transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of
purposes"

 "A computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen
on earth. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and
statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by
maps." ESRI

 "An integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained personnel linking
topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other resource data that is
geographically referenced." NASA

 "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial
data from the real world for a particular set of purposes " -Burrough 1986 GIS

 , "A computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle geo-referenced
data :
 data input
 data management (data storage and retrieval)
 manipulation and analysis
 data output. " Arnoff in 1989
2) Levels of GIS (spatial) data sets

There are two broad formats of spatial data sets in GIS namely: Raster data set and vector data sets.
While the vector data sets are a generalization of features represented by lines points and polygons,
the raster data set are presented in grid cells. Usually this could present a gamut of information such
as contained in a satellite remote sensing images. There are several sources of data as discussed
above, but broadly, we have satellite remote sensing images, global positioning system, hard copy
topographical maps, population census tracks, field data, records from offices such as hospitals etc.

Geographic Data Types


Basically there are two (2) types of data in GIS, these are;
1. (i) raster data model or
2. (ii) vector data model.

Data Requirements and Acquisition in GIS


Data requirements for Public health will consist of spatial and non-spatial data. However, the
sources of these data, the methods of their acquisition, spatial coverage, processing/analysis
are important for consideration
3) Phases in Geographical Information System building

The following phases are involved in building up a GIS


1. Data capture; including digitizing,
2. Creation of attribute database for the digitized features
3. Database development (may include spatial joins of additional tables)
4. Spatial analysis
4) Data input and spatial data capture subsystem

Data input in GIS include Scanning, Importing of Imageries, Importing of tables. Once the data
has been imported, data capture can be done and this comes in form of Digitizing (which could
be “On-screen” or with the aid of digitizing) tablets, Importation of spatial database tables as
event layers etc.

5) Spatial data management subsystem

Spatial database should be managed through constant update by a spatial database manager. GIS
is data driven and hence the spatial analysis are tied to the richness of the spatial database.

6) Data presentation subsystem


GIS presents results of analysis in graphical forms. Visulaisation in GIS often involves the
following techniques:
 Thematic mapping,
 Natural Breaks,
 Equal Ranges,
 Equal Counts,
 Quantile and
 Standard Deviation

GIS can break up features into five groups, based on the "Natural Breaks" statistical method. You
can change the number of categories and the type of statistical classification by clicking on the
"Classify..." button. You can choose one of the following classifications: "Equal Area", "Equal
Interval", "Natural Breaks", "Quantile", and "Standard Deviation".

Opening up the "Color Ramps:" menu bar lets you choose a different set of colors than the default
"Red monochromatic" ramp colors. If none of the available color ramps are suitable, you can change
each color individually by double-clicking on the corresponding symbol. This will bring up a color
and style palette.

7.) Remote sensing data as input into GIS


Remote Sensing technology has no doubt contributed immensely to data acquisition in GIS. The
ability to capture agricultural and environmental data by various satellites at different resolutions
makes spatio-temporal data readily available for agricultural, environmental, defence, planning etc.
Time series satellite data for vegetation, land surface temperature, Incident photosynthetically active
radiation, sea surface temperature, cloud temperatures etc. other data include Digital elevation, soil
moisture Evapo-transpiration.

8.) Basic principles in remote sensing


Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making
physical contact with the object. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial
sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth (both on the surface, and in the
atmosphere and oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic radiation emitted from
aircraft or satellites).
 The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate the target.
 This energy for remote sensing instruments is in the form of electromagnetic radiation
(EMR).
 Earth's natural and man-made features that first receive energy from the sun or an artificial
source such as a radar transmitter.
 Different objects return different types and amounts of EMR back to space (spectral
responses).
 The amount reflected back to space is captured by the sensor on board satellite platform and
telemetered back to the earth receiving station.
 Since different object reflects (based on their spectral responses) different quantities of EM
radiation and the Objective of remote sensing is to detect these differences with the
appropriate instruments called sensors, then the image produce show different colour pattern
and the differences are interpreted making it possible to identify and assess a broad range of
surface features and their conditions

10) GIS as a scientific tool in environmental management


Geographical Information Science (GIS) finds more applications in the fields of environmental
management, toxicology and epidemiology. More and more assurance of timely control Bubonic
plagues is given through accurate predictions and decision support with respect to interventions.
Since GIS is unique in efficient storage, manipulation, analysis and seamless integration and display
of large quantities of environmental data, it has given investigators grand support in rapid
environmental and agricultural surveys. In recent past, GIS has been developed for a wide range of
applications in precision farming, prediction of toxicity in air and groundwater, solid waste
management, spatial decision support for citing of environmental facilities and public health safety
studies to list a few.

Since it is a spinoff of Information Communication Technology, GIS through mapping and modeling
of spatial information enables better form of communication between people in research and the
society at large. Available evidence from literature reveals the extreme usefulness of GIS
application in specific areas of environmental/public health such as chemical contamination of water
and water borne diseases. For instance GIS application in the exposure of man to contaminated
drinking water by non volatile organic compounds (VOC) in groundwater reservoir has been
demonstrated. It was possible with this, to determine extent of contamination and location of
vulnerable population on the public water supply network

11) Concept and components of GIS


You will observe that in all definitions of GIS presents some common and recurrent terms namely:
Computer (hard ware and soft ware), Geographical data and Personnel. This clearly points out that
before a system can pass for a GIS it must have the following components

It implies then that a working GIS integrates these five key components namely:
 hardware
 software
 data
 people and
 methods

Figure 1: Components of a GIS.

Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The computer forms the
backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets it's input through the Scanner, key board or a digitizer
board. Printers and plotters are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. GIS softwares in use are MapInfo, ARC/Info, AutoCAD Map, etc.
Data
The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS, maps can be purchased scanned Geo-referenced
digitized and developed into GIS by building database. Geographic data and related tabular data can
also be collected in-house through questionnaire or field surveys and geo-referenced with the aid of
Global Positioning System receivers.
People
there are three categories of people when it comes to GIS; these are the solution seekers, solution
providers and software developers.
Method
There are various techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map
creation can either be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorized using the
scanned images.

12) Relevance of GIS in environmental planning and analysis


GIS are not just used for electronic map-making but today are major tools for the management of our
physical and social environment. GIS are used to assist political decisions and play a part in market
research, in the management of utility services, in automated navigation systems and in many other
fields. Spatial data are usually based on two, dichotomous paradigms, exactly defined entities in
space, such as land parcels, or the continuous variation of single attributes, such as temperature or
rainfall. Methods for modelling both kinds of phenomena and storing them in spatial databases are
described in detail, including the use of geostatistics for interpolating from points to continuous
fields. Examples of how spatial data and an analysis of their spatial interactions are used to solve a
wide range of practical problems ranging from site-location analysis through land degradation, the
optimizing of timber extraction from forests, management and prediction of natural disasters such as
floods and urban renewal projects. GIS is extremely relevant in the fields of geography, hydrology,
geology, environmental science, epidemiology, radioecology, ecology, agriculture, and land
management.

13) Principles of GIS


GIS technology and its implementation are most easily understood within the context of underlying
principles. The following basic principles have been identified as common among successful GIS
projects
throughout the world.

Principle 1: A GIS is a data-driven, data-based information system


Principle 2: GIS data and maps must be maintained (regularly updated).
Principle 3: A GIS is most useful when geographic references are registered on a consistent,
continuous coordinate system.
Principle 4: A GIS has topology (Additional explicit definitions of the relationships among
cartographic features (points, lines, polygons, etc.) must be established
Principle 5: A GIS has many uses and should be shared by many different functions (a multi-use,
shared system can prevent duplication of the common information and duplication of the
effort to maintain it and facilitate the sharing of data among the many organizations and
functions that need this common data).
Principle 6: A GIS contains hardware and software that are constantly undergoing change which
improves its functionality over time
Principle 7: A GIS grows incrementally in terms of technology, cost, and administrative support
needed. Therefore, a long-term commitment is needed to assure success.
Principle 8: A GIS causes changes in procedures, operations, and institutional arrangements among
all users. No longer can data be “guarded” by one individual No longer can a worker
make changes to a map or record that is the responsibility of some other function
without a formal procedure to ensure accuracy.
Principle 9: A cadre of trained, educated, motivated, and dedicated people is crucial to a successful
GIS program. There must be time and resources to have current staff educated on GIS
concepts and trained on selected GIS software.

14) Source, acquisition and management of environmental data


Primarily, GIS data sources include the following.
1. Base maps such as topographic maps, national, state or local government administrative
boundary maps etc. obtainable from the Federal Survey, States Ministries of Lands etc.
2. Research findings from research centres/Institutions obtained from field with GPS
acquisition etc. Such can be obtained from Universities, Institutes, hospitals etc.
3. Demographic data which can be obtained from agencies like Federal Office of Statistics
(FOS), National Data Bank (National Identity Card Management System), National
Population Commission, Meteorological Stations etc.
4. Satellite Remote Sensing derived data: like vegetation Index data, Land surface temperatures,
Precipitation, topography etc available from agencies like NASA, NOAA etc.
5. Global positioning system geo-statistical data

15) Capturing extraction, storage and analysis of spatial data for decision making
The handling of spatial data usually involves processes of data acquisition, storage and maintenance,
analysis and output. The introduction of modern technologies has led to an increased use of
computers and information technology in all aspects of spatial data handling. The software
technology used in this domain is Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GIS is being used by
various disciplines as tools for spatial data handling in a geographic environment.

Data capture entails entering information into the GI system. There are a variety of methods used to
enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format.

1. Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce
digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon
boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed
to produce vector data.
2. Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey
instruments using a technique called Coordinate Geometry (COGO). Positions from a Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) like Global Positioning System (GPS), another survey
tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS.
3. Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors
attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and LIDAR, while
platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites.
4. Aerial photographs can also be scanned and used to digitize features directly from stereo
pairs of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three
dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of
photogrammetry. Currently, analog aerial photos are scanned before being entered into a soft
copy system, but as high quality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be skipped.

When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative
accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be
interpreted but also the cost of data capture. In addition to collecting and entering spatial data,
attribute data is also entered into a GIS. For vector data, this includes additional information about
the objects represented in the system.

After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further
processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some
advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection.
Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on
the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. For example, a fleck of dirt might
connect two lines that should not be connected.

16) Relational analysis of environmental phenomenon


From the data types available for GIS, it can be verified that the problems of spatial analysis deal
with environmental data. The spatial analysis is composed by a set of chained procedure that aims at
choosing of an inferential model that explicitly considers the spatial relationships present in the
phenomenon. In general, the modeling process is preceded by a phase of exploratory analysis,
associated to the visual presentation of the data in the form of graphs and maps and the identification
of spatial dependency patterns in the phenomenon under study.

One type analysis of environmental phenomenon is known as point pattern analysis the object of
interest is the very spatial location of the events under study. An example is in studies aiming at
estimating the risk of diseases around nuclear plants.

Another type of analysis is called Interpolated surface analysis which shows a pattern of spatial
distribution of variability concentration of continuous data such as air or ground water pollution. For
surface analysis, the objective is to reconstruct the surface from which the samples were measured.
For example, consider the distribution of profiles and soil samples of an area. Methods like
universal kriging, co-kriging,

Another type is the areal analysis, most of the data here are drawn from population survey like
census, health statistics and real estate cadastre. These areas are usually delimited by closed
polygons where supposedly there is internal homogeneity, that is, important changes only occur in
the limits. Clearly, this is a premise that is not always true, given that frequently the survey units are
defined by operational (census tracts) or political (municipalities) criteria and there is no
guarantee that the distribution of the event is homogeneous within these units.

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