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Full text of "<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/byzantiumanint
ro008642mbp">Byzantium An Introduction To East Roman Civilization</a>"
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<pre>127313
BYZANTIUM
BYZANTIUM
AN INTRODUCTION TO
EAST ROMAN CIVILIZATION
Edited by
NORMAN H. BAYNES
and
H. St. L. B. MOSS
OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
Oxford University Press, Amen House, London E.G. 4

GLASGOW NEW YORE TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON
BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI CAPE TOWN IBADAN
Geoffrey Cumberlege, Publisher to the University
FIRST PUBLISHED 1948

REPRINTED WITH CORRECTIONS 1949
REPRODUCED LITHOGRAPHICALLY IN GREAT BRITAIN
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD, 1953
FROM SHEETS OF THE SECOND IMPRESSION
BY CHARLES BATEY, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
NOTE
THIS book was being prepared for publication
before the outbreak of war and all the translations
of chapters written by foreign scholars had been
approved by their authors. We desire to thank
Miss Louise Stone (King's College, University of
London) for her help in rendering into English
the French texts. Mr. Moss, besides contributing
the section of Chapter I on Byzantine history down
to the Fourth Crusade, has throughout helped me
in the preparation of this book for the press and
is solely responsible for the choice of the illustra-
tions. I have added a few bibliographical notes
which are placed within square brackets.
N. H. B.
CONTENTS
Introduction. NORMAN H. BAYNES xv
i. The History of the Byzantine Empire: an
Outline
(A) From A.D. 330 to the Fourth Crusade.
H. ST. L. B. MOSS ..... I
(B) From A.D. 1204 to A.D. 1453. CH. DIEHL 33
n. The Economic Life of the Byzantine Empire:
Population, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce.
ANDR M. ANDR&VDES 51
in. Public Finances: Currency, Public Expenditure,
Budget, Public Revenue. ANDRM.ANDRADJ;S 71
iv. The Byzantine Church. HENRI GRGOIRE. . 86
v. Byzantine Monasticism. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE . 136
vi. Byzantine Art. CH. DIEHL . . . .166
vii. Byzantine Education. GEORGINA BUCKLER . 200
viii. Byzantine Literature. F. H. MARSHALL and JOHN
MAVROGORDATO . . . . .221
ix. The Greek Language in the Byzantine Period.
R. M. DAWKINS . . . . . .252
x. The Emperor and the Imperial Administration.
WILHELM ENSSLIN ..... 268
xi. Byzantium and Islam. A. A. VASILIEV . . 308
xii. The Byzantine Inheritance in South-eastern
Europe. WILLIAM MILLER .... 326
xiii. Byzantium and the Slavs. STEVEN RUNCIMAN . 338
xiv. The Byzantine Inheritance in Russia. BARON
MEYENDORFF and NORMAN H. BAYNES . 369
Bibliographical Appendix . 392
A List of East Roman Emperors . .422
Index .... . 424
LIST OF PLATES
1. View of Constantinople. From a drawing by W. H. Bartlett in
Beauties of the Bosphorus, by J. Pardoe. (London, 1840.)
Frontispiece
PLATES 2-48 (at end)
2. Walls of Constantinople. Ibid.
3. Tekfur Serai, Constantinople. Ibid.
This building, which may have formed part of the Palace
of Blachernae, residence of the later Byzantine Emperors (see
p. 181), has been variously assigned to the nth-i2th and
(owing to the character of its decoration) to the 1 3th 1 4th
centuries.
4. Cistern (Yere Batan Serai), Constantinople. Ibid. 6th century.
5. St. Sophia, Constantinople. Exterior. 532-7. Seep. 167. From
Ch. Diehl, UArt chretien primitif et I* Art iyzantin (Van Oest,
Paris).
6. St. Sophia, Constantinople. Interior. 532-7. See p. 168.
7. Kalat Seman, Syria. Church of St. Simeon Stylites. End of
5th century. Seep. 172.
8. Church at Aghthamar, Armenia. 915-21. From J. Ebersolt,
Monuments d* Architecture byzantine (Les Editions d'art et
d'histoire, Paris).
9. Church at Kaisariani, near Athens. End of i oth century. Photo-
graph by A. K. Wickham.
io. Church of the Holy Apostles, Salonica. 1312-15, Seep. 180.
From J. Ebersolt, op. cit.
n. Church at NagoriCino, Serbia. Early I4th century. See p. 194.
From G. Millet, UAncien Art Serbe: les glises (Boccard,
Paris).
12. Church of the Holy Archangels, Lesnovo, Serbia. 1341. See
p. 194. From J. Ebersolt, op. cit.
13. Fetiyeh Djami, Constantinople. Church of the Virgin Pamma-
karistos. Early I4th century. See p. 192. Ibid.
14. Mosaic. Justinian and suite (detail). San Vi tale, Ravenna. 526-
47. Seep. 176. Photograph by Alinari.
15. Mosaic. Theodora (detail). San Vitale, Ravenna. 526-47.
See p. 176. Photograph by Casadio^ Ravenna.
x LIST OF PLATES
1 6. Mosaic. Emperor kneeling before Christ (detail). Narthex of
St. Sophia, Constantinople. The Emperor is probably Leo VI.
Circa 886-912. See p. 168, note. By kind permission of the
late Director of the Byzantine Institute, Pans.
17. Mosaic. The Virgin between the Emperors Constantine and
Justinian. Southern Vestibule of St. Sophia, Constantinople.
Constantine offers his city, and Justinian his church of St. Sophia.
Circa 986-94. See p. 168, note. By kind permission of the
late Director of the Byzantine Institute, Paris.
1 8. Mosaic. Anastasis. St. Luke of Stiris, Phocis. The Descent into
Hell became the customary Byzantine representation of the
Resurrection. On the right, Christ draws Adam and Eve out of
Limbo; on the left stand David and Solomon; beneath are the
shattered gates of Hell. Cf. E. Diez and O. Demus, Byzantine
Mosaics in Greece. See p. 405 infra. Early nth century. See
p. 184. From Ch. Diehl, La Peinture byzantine (Van Oest,
Paris).
19. Mosaic. Communion of the Apostles (detail). St. Sophia, Kiev.
This interpretation of the Eucharist was a favourite subject of
Byzantine art. Cf. L. Rau, L?Art russe, Paris, 1921, p. 149.
1037. See p. 184. From A. Grabar, UArt lyzantin (Les
Editions d'art et d'histoire, Paris).
20. Mosaic The Mount of Olives. St Mark's, Venice. Cf.
O. Demus, Die Mosaiken von San Marco in Venedig^ 1 1 00- 1 300.
See p. 405 infra. Circa 1 220. Photograph by Alinari.
21. Mosaic. Scene from the Story of the Virgin. Kahrieh Djami,
Constantinople. On the left, the High Priest, accompanied by
the Virgin, presents to St. Joseph the miraculously flowering rod.
Behind, in the Temple, the rods of the suitors are laid out. On
the right are the unsuccessful suitors. Above, a curtain suspended
between the two facades indicates, by a convention commonly
found in miniatures, that the building on the right represents an
inner chamber. Early I4th century. See p, 193. Photograph by
Sebah and Joaillier^ Istanbul.
22. Fresco. Dormition of the Virgin (detail). Catholicon of the
Lavra, Mt, Athos. Group of Mourning Women. 1535. See
p. 196. From G. Millet, Monuments def Athos: L Les Peintures
(Leroux, Paris).
23. Fresco. The Spiritual Ladder. Refectory of Dionysiou, Mt.
Athos. On the right, monks standing before a monastery. Other
monks, helped by angels, are climbing a great ladder reaching to
LIST OF PLATES xi
Heaven. At the top, an old monk is received by Christ. On the
left, devils are trying to drag the monks from the ladder. Some
monks fall headlong, carried away by devils. Below, a dragon,
representing the jaws of Hell, is swallowing a monk. 1546.
See p. 196. From G. Millet, ibid.
24. Refectory. Lavra, Mt. Athos. 1512. Seep. 196. By kind per-
mission of Professor D. Talbot Rice.
25. Fresco. Parable of the Talents. Monastery of Theraponte,
Russia. In the centre, men seated at a table. On the left, the
Master returns. His servants approach, three of them bearing
ajar filled with money, a cup, and a cornucopia. On the right, the
Unprofitable Servant is hurled into a pit representing the 'outer
darkness' of Matt. xxv. 30. Circa 1500. From Ch. Diehl, La
Peinture byxantine (Van Oest).
26. Miniatures. Story of Joseph. Vienna Genesis, (a) On the left,
Joseph's brethren are seen 'coming down' into Egypt from a
stylized hill-town. On the right, Joseph addresses his brethren,
who stand respectfully before him. In the background Joseph's
servants prepare the feast (b) Above, Potiphar, on the left, hastens
along a passage to his wife's chamber. Below, Joseph's cloak is
produced in evidence. 5th century. See p. 176. From Hartel
and Wickhoff, Die Wiener Genesis^ vol. 2.
27. Miniature. Parable of the Ten Virgins. Rossano Gospel. On
the left, the Foolish Virgins, in brightly coloured garments, with
spent lamps and empty oil-flasks. Their leader knocks vainly at
a panelled door. On the other side is Paradise with its four
rivers and its fruit-bearing trees. The Bridegroom heads the
company of Wise Virgins, clad in white and with kmps burning.
Below, four prophets; David (three times) and Hosea. (Cf.
A. Mufioz, // Codice Purpureo di Rossano^ Rome, 1907.) Late
6th century. Seep. 177. Photograph by Giraudon.
28. Miniature. Abraham's sacrifice. Cosmas Indicopleustes. Vati-
can Library. See p. 176.
29. Miniature. Isaiah's Prayer. Psalter. Bibliothfcque Nationale,
Paris. Above is the Hand of God, from which a ray of light
descends on the prophet. On the right, a child, bearing a torch,
represents Dawn. On the left, Night is personified as a woman
holding a torch reversed. Over her head floats a blue veil sprinkled
with stars. Cf. H. Buchthal, The Miniatures of the Paris Psalter.
See p. 407 infra. loth century. See p. 186. From J. Ebersolt,
La Miniature byzantine (Vanoest, Paris).
xii LIST OF PLATES

30. Miniature. Arrival at Constantinople of the body of St. John
Chrysostom. Menologium of Basil II. Vatican Library. On the
left, four ecclesiastics carry the silver casket Facing it are two
haloed figures, the Emperor Theodosius II, gazing intently, and
Bishop Proclus, who swings a censer. In the background, behind
a procession of clergy bearing candles, rises the famous Church
of the Holy Apostles (see p. 1 7 3). I oth-i I th century. See p. 1 8 7.
31. Miniature. St. John the Evangelist. Gospel. British Museum,
Burney MS. 1 9. The Evangelist dictates his Gospel to his disciple
St. Prochorus. nth century.
32. Miniature. The Emperor Botaniates. Homilies of St. Chrysos-
tom. Biblioth&que Nationale, Paris, MS. Coislin 79. Behind the
enthroned Emperor are the figures of Truth and Justice. Two
high officials stand on either side of the ruler. Late i ith century.
See p. 1 86. From H. Omont, Miniatures des plus anciens manu-
scrits grecs de la TtiUioiheque Nationale du VI* au XIV* siecle
(Champion, Pans).
33. Miniature. Story of the Virgin. Homilies of the Monk James.
Bibliothfcque Nationale, Paris, MS. 1208. St. Anne summons
the rulers of Israel to celebrate the birth of the Virgin. I2th
century. Seep. 187.
34. Miniature. Scene of Feasting. Commentary on Job. Biblio-
theque Nationale, Paris, MS. Grec No. 135. The sons and
daughters of Job 'eating and drinking wine in their eldest brother's
house 7 . 1368.
35. Marble Sarcophagus. Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Dis-
covered at Constantinople in 1933. Front panel: angels support-
ing a wreath enclosing the monogram of Christ. End panel: two
Apostles. See A. M. Mansel, Em Prinzensarkophag aus Istanbul,
Istanbul Asiariatika Miizeleri nefriyati, No. 10, 1934. 4th-5th
century.
36. Ivory. Archangel. British Museum. Seep. 177. Circa 500.
37. Barberini Ivory. Triumph of an Emperor. Louvre. On the left,
an officer presents a figure of Victory. Below, representatives of
subject countries. Early 6th century. See p. 177. Archives
Phot, Paris.
38. Ivory. Throne of Maximian.' Ravenna. Front panels: St. John
the Baptist (centre) and Four Evangelists. Cf. C. Cecchelli, La
Cattedra di Massimiano ed altrt avorii romano-orientali^ Rome,
1934- (with full bibliography). 6th century. See p. 177.
Photograph by Alinari,
LIST OF PLATES ziii
39. Ivory. Story of Joseph. 'Throne of Maximian' (detail), Ravenna.
Above: Joseph sold to Potiphar by the Ishmaehtes. Below:
Joseph tempted by Potiphar's wife; Joseph thrown into prison.
6th century. Seep. 177. Photograph by dlinari.
40. Ivory. Romanus and Eudocia crowned by Christ. Cabinet des
Medailles, Paris. The two figures, formerly taken as representing
Romanus IV (1067-71) and his consort, have recently been
identified with Romanus II (959-63) and Bertha of Provence,
who assumed the name of Eudocia on her marriage. loth cen-
tury. Seep. 187. Photograph by Giraudon.
41. Ivory. Scenes from the Life of Chnst. Victoria and Albert
Museum: Crown copyright reserved. Above: Annunciation and
Nativity. Centre: Transfiguration and Raising of Lazarus.
Below: Resurrection. nth-i2th century.
42. Silver Dish from Kerynia, Cyprus. David and Goliath. By
courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 6th
century. Seep. 177.
43. Reliquary. Esztergon, Hungary. See p. 188. Silver-gilt, with
figures in coloured enamel. Above: mourning angels. Centre:
Constantine and Helena. Below: the Road to Calvary, and the
Deposition. I2th century. From L. Brehier, La Sculpture et
les jdrts Mineurs byxantins (Les Editions d'art et d'histoire, Paris).
44. Wool Tapestries from Egypt, (a) Hunting Scene. Victoria and
Albert Museum: Crown copyright reserved, (b) Nereids riding
on sea-monsters. Louvre. 4th-6th century. Seep. 177. From
L. Brehier, op. cit.
45. Silk Textile. Riders on Winged Horses. Schlossmuseum, Berlin.
On a cream background, two helmeted kings in Persian dress,
embroidered in green and dark blue, confront one another across a
horn or sacred tree. Though following earlier models of Sassanian
type, this textile is probably to be assigned to the loth century.
Photograph by Giraudon.
46. 'Dalmatic of Charlemagne.* Vatican Treasury. Blue silk,
embroidered in gold and silk. Christ summoning the Elect.
Centre: Christ seated on a rainbow. Above: angels guard the
throne of the Second Coming (Etimasia). Below: a choir of saints.
On the shoulders: Communion of the Apostles. For the icono-
graphy see G. Millet, La Dalmatique du Vatican^ Bibliothfeque
de PlScole des Hautes tudes, Sciences religieuses, vol. Ix, Paris,
1945. 1 4th century. Seep. 197.
xiv LIST OF PLATES

47. Epitaphios of Salonica (detail). Byzantine Museum, Athens.
Loose-woven gold thread, embroidered with gold, silver, and
coloured silks. The body of Christ is guarded by angels holding
rtpidia (liturgical fens carried by deacons). I4th century. See
p. 197. Photograph by courtesy of the Courtauld Institute of Art ^
London.
48. St. Nicholas, Meteora, Thessaly. The earliest examples of this
group of hill-top monasteries date from the I4th century. Photo-
graph by Mr. Cecil Stewart.
MAPS (at end)
1. The Empire of Justinian I in 565.
2. The Empire of Basil II in 1025.
3. The Byzantine Empire after 1204.
INTRODUCTION
'THERE are in history no beginnings and no endings. History
books begin and end, but the events they describe do not.' 1
It is a salutary warning: yet from the first Christians have
divided human history into the centuries of the preparation
for the coming of Christ and the years after the advent of
their Lord in the flesh, and in his turn the student of history
is forced, however perilous the effort, to split up the stream
of events into periods in order the better to master his
material, to reach a fuller understanding of man's develop-
ment. What then of the Byzantine Empire ? When did it
begin to be ? When did it come to an end ? Concerning its
demise there can hardly be any hesitation 14^3, the date
of the Osmanli conquest of Constantinople, is fixed beyond
dispute. But on the question at what time did a distinctively
Byzantine Empire come into being there is no such agree-
ment. J. B. Bury, indeed, denied that there ever was such a
birthday: 'No Byzantine Empire ever began to exist; the
Roman Empire did not come to an end until 1453' of
'Byzantine art', 'Byzantine civilization' we may appropriately
speak, but when we speak of the State which had its centre
in Constantino's city the 'Roman Empire' is the only fitting
term. 2
But Bury's dictum obviously implies a continuity of
development which some historians would not admit. Thus
Professor Toynbee has argued that the Roman Empire died
during the closing years of the sixth century: it was a 'ghost'
of that Empire which later occupied the imperial throne.
During the seventh century a new Empire came into being
and stood revealed when Leo III marched from Asia to
inaugurate a dynasty. That new Empire was the reply of the
Christian East to the menace of the successors of Mahomet:
the State as now organized was the 'carapace' which should
1 R. G. Collingwood, An Autobiography (London, Oxford University Press,
1939), p. 98; and cf. his study of Christian historiography m The Idea of Histor
y
(Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1946), pp. 49-52.
2 J. B. Bury, A History of the Later Roman Empire (London, Macmillan, 1889),
vol. i, p. vj The Cambridge Medieval History (Cambridge University Press, 1923),
vol. iv, pp. vii-ix.
xvi INTRODUCTION
form the hard shell of resistance against the Muslim attack.
Here there is no continuity with the old Roman Empire:
there is but a reassertion of imperial absolutism and of
administrative centralization to meet changed conditions.
Others, without employing Professor Toynbee's forms of
presentation, have expressed similar views. The loss of
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt to the Arabs in the seventh
century led, as a counter-measure on the part of the Empire,
to the building up in Asia Minor of a new military system:
land grants were made to farmers subject to a hereditary
obligation of service in the imperial armies. It was on this
system and its successful maintenance that the defence of the
Empire was henceforth to depend, and since the Empire was
continuously assailed by foes through the centuries, it was
this new system, Ostrogorsky has urged, which serves to
date the beginning of a distinctively Byzantine Empire: all
the preceding history was but a Preface and a Prelude which
can be briefly summarized. 1
Perhaps an editor may be allowed in this Introduction to
express in a few words a personal opinion, if it be clearly
understood that he has not sought in any way to enforce that
opinion upon contributors. ... If we ask the question can
we still, despite Bury's objection, use the term 'Byzantine
Empire' ? that question may be answered in the affirmative,
since thereby we are reminded of the historical significance
of the fact that it was precisely at the Greek city of Byzantium
and not elsewhere that Constantine chose to create his new
imperial capital Attempts have been made of recent years
to minimize the importance of that fact; the capital, it is said,
might equally well have been set in Asia Minor, just as the
capital of the Turkish Empire has, in our own day, been
transferred to Ankara. But Asia Minor of the Byzantines
was overrun by hostile armies time and again and its cities
captured by the foe. Constantinople, posted on the water-
way between the continents and guarded by the girdle of its
landward and seaward walls, through all assaults remained
impregnable. At moments the Empire might be confined
within the circle of the city's fortifications, but the assailants
1 'En 717 commence . . . 1'Empire byzantm': Henri Berr in the preface to Louis
Brfhier's 7ie et Mort de Byxancc (Paris, Michel, 1947), p. xiii.
INTRODUCTION xvii
retired discomfited and still the capital preserved the heritage
of civilization from the menace of the barbarian. The city
was Constantine's majestic war memorial: the Greek East
should not forget the crowning mercy of his victory over
Licinius. By its foundation Constantine created the imperial
power-house within which could be concentrated the forces
of a realm which was sustained by the will of the Christians*
God and which, in the fifth century, was further secured by
the acquisition of Our Lady's Robe, the palladium of New
Rome. It is well that we should be reminded of that act of
the first Christian Emperor.
And did the Roman Empire die at some date during the
closing years of the sixth century or in the first decade of the
seventh? Is it true that a 'ghost' usurped the imperial
throne? It is not every student who will be able to follow
Professor Toynbee in his essay in historical necromancy.
To some it will rather seem that, ^the Roman Empire died,
its death should be set during the breakdown of imperial
power and the financial and administrative chaos of the third
century of our era. With Diocletian and with the turlator
rerum, the revolutionary Constantine, there is such a rebuild-
ing that one might with some justification argue that a new
Empire was created. For here, as Wilamowitz-Moellendorf
wrote, is the great turning-point in the history of the
Mediterranean lands. But may it not be truer to say that the
Roman Empire did not die, but was transformed from
within, and that the factor which in essentials determined
the character of that transformation was the dream of the
Empire's future as Constantine conceived it? He had been
called to rule a pagan Empire; he brought from his rule in
the West the knowledge of the tradition of Roman govern-
ment. At the battle of the Milvian Bridge he had put to the
test the Christian God, and the God of the Christians had
given him the victory over Maxentius : that favour made of
Constantine an Emperor with a mission, he was 'God's man',
as he called himself. When he went to the East he came into
lands where language, literature, and thought were all alike
Greek. There could be no idea of transforming the East into
a Latin world. That was the problem: a pagan Empire
based on a Roman tradition of law and government ruled by
3982 j
xviii INTRODUCTION
a Christian Emperor who had been appointed to build up his
realm upon the foundation of a unified Christian faith an
Empire centred in a Christian capital and that capital sur-
rounded by a deeply rooted tradition of Hellenistic culture.
Those are the factors which had to be brought 'to keep house
together'. And this Christian Emperor, incorporating in his
own person the immense majesty of pagan Rome, could not,
of course, make Christianity the religion of the Roman
State that was unthinkable but the man to whom the
Christian God had amazingly shown unmerited favour had
a vision of what in the future might be realized and he could
build for that future. Within the pagan Empire itself one
could begin to raise another a Christian Empire: and
one day the walls of the pagan Empire would fall and in their
place the Christian building would stand revealed. In a
Christian capital the Roman tradition of law and government
would draw its authority and sanction from the supreme
imperium which had been the permanent element in the
constitutional development of the Roman State; that State
itself, become Christian and Orthodox, would be sustained
through a Catholic and Orthodox Church, while Greek
thought and Greek art and architecture would preserve the
Hellenistic tradition. And in that vision Constantine anti-
cipated, foresaw, the Byzantine Empire. And thus for any
comprehending study of that Empire one must go as far
back at least as the reign of Constantine the Great.
The factors which went to form Constantine's problem
the pagan Hellenistic culture, the Roman tradition, the
Christian Church were only gradually fused after long
stress and strife. The chronicle of that struggle is no mere
Preface or Prelude to the history of the Byzantine Empire;
it is an integral part of that history, for in this period of
struggle the precedents were created and the moulds were
shaped which determined the character of the civilization
which was the outcome of an age of transition. Without
a careful study of the Empire's growing-pains the later
development will never be fully comprehended.
And from the first the rulers of the Empire recognized the
duty which was laid upon them, their obligation to preserve
that civilization which they had inherited, to counter the
INTRODUCTION rix
assaults of the barbarians from without or the threat from
within the menace of those barbarian soldiers who were in
the Empire's service. It was indeed a task which demanded
the highest courage and an unfaltering resolution. 'If ever
there were supermen in history, they are to be found in the
Roman emperors of the fourth century/ And this duty and
the realization that Constantinople was the ark which
sheltered the legacy of human achievement remained con-
stant throughout the centuries. The forms of the defence
might change, but the essential task did not alter. When in
the seventh century Egypt, Palestine, and Syria were lost,
the system of imperial defence had perforce to be reorganized,
but that reorganization was designed to effect the same
traditional purpose. It is this unchanging function of the
later Empire which, for some students at least, shapes the
impressive continuity of the history of the East Roman
State. Leo III is undertaking the same task in the eighth
century as Heraclius had faced in the seventh, as Justinian
had sought to perform in the sixth. It is this continuity of
function which links together by a single chain the emperors
of Rome in a succession which leads back to Constantine the
Great and Diocletian.
Professor Toynbee regards the reassertion of absolutism
and the centralization of government under Leo III as a
fatal error. But it is not easy to see what alternative course
was possible. In the West the Arabs overthrew imperial rule
in Africa and invaded Europe. What could have stayed the
far more formidable attack upon the Byzantine capital if
Leo III had not thrown into the scale the concentrated force
of the Empire and thus repelled the assault? Could the
Empire have survived ? The ruler was but shouldering his
historic burden.
And even if the continuity of the history of the East
Roman State be questioned, the continuity of Byzantine
culture it is impossible to challenge. Within the Empire
the culture of the Hellenistic world which had arisen in
the kingdoms of the successors of Alexander the Great
lives on and moulds the achievement of East Rome. For
the Byzantines are Christian Alexandrians. In art they
still follow Hellenistic models; they inherit the rhetorical
xz INTRODUCTION
tradition, the scholarship, the admiration for the Great Age
of classical Greece which characterized the students of the
kingdom of the Ptolemies. That admiration might inspire
imitation, but it undoubtedly tended to stifle originality.
Those who would seek to establish that at some time in the
history of East Rome there is a breach in continuity, that
something distinctively new came into being, must at least
admit that the culture of the Empire knew no such severance :
it persisted until the end of the Empire itself.
There are, however, scholars who would interpret other-
wise the essential character of this civilization. For them
East Rome was an 'oriental empire' ; they contend that it did
but grow more and more oriental until in the eighth century
it became etroitement orientalise. These assertions have been
repeated many times, as though it were sought by repetition
to evade the necessity for proof: certain it is that proof has
never been forthcoming. It is true that Hellenistic civiliza-
tion had absorbed some oriental elements, but the crucial
question is: Did the Byzantine Empire adopt any further
really significant elements from the East beyond those which
had already interpenetrated the Hellenistic world? One
may point to the ceremony of prostration before the ruler
($roskynesis\ to mutilation as a punishment, possibly to
some forms of ascetic contemplation, to the excesses of
Syrian asceticism, to Greek music and hymnody derived
from Syrian rhythms and rhythmic prose, and to cavalry regi-
ments armed with the bow what more? The Christian
religion itself came, it is true, originally from Palestine, but
it early fell under Hellenistic influence, and after the work of
the Christian thinkers of Alexandria of Clement and
Origen Christianity had won its citizenship in the Greek
world. Until further evidence be adduced, it may be sug-
gested that the Empire which resolutely refused to accept the
Eastern theories of the Iconoclasts was in so doing but
defending its own essential character, that the elements which
in their combination formed the complex civilization of the
Empire were indeed the Roman tradition in law and govern-
ment, the Hellenistic tradition in language, literature, and
philosophy, and a Christian tradition which had already been
refashioned on a Greek model.
INTRODUCTION zn
What were the elements of strength which sustained the
Empire in its saecular effort? They may be briefly sum-
marized. Perhaps the factor which deserves pride of place
is the conviction that the Empire was willed by God and
protected by Him and by His Anointed. It is this convic-
tion which in large measure explains the traditionalism, the
extreme conservatism of East Rome : why innovate if your
State is founded on Heaven's favour? The ruler may be
dethroned, but not the polity; that would have been akin
to apostasy. Autocracy remained unchallenged. And, with
God's approval secure, the Byzantine Sovereign and the
Byzantine State were both Defenders of the Faith. To
the Byzantine the Crusades came far earlier than they did to
the West, for whether the war was waged with Persia or later
with the Arabs, the foes were alike unbelievers, while the
standard which was borne at the head of the East Roman
forces was a Christian icon at times one of those sacred
pictures which had not been painted by any human hand.
The Byzantine was fighting the battles of the Lord of Hosts
and could rely upon supernatural aid. The psychological
potency of such a conviction as this the modern student must
seek imaginatively to comprehend and that is not easy.
And the concentration of all authority in the hands of the
Vicegerent of God was in itself a great source of strength.
On the ruins of the Roman Empire in western Europe
many States had been created: in the East the single State
had been preserved and with it the inheritance from an earlier
Rome, the single law. In the West men's lives were lived
under many legal systems tribal law, local law, manorial
law and the law of the central State fought a continuing
battle for recognition : in the East one law and one law alone
prevailed, and that Roman law emanated from a single
source, the Emperor; even the decisions of the Councils of
the Church needed for their validity the approval of the
Sovereign. The precedents established by Constantine were
upheld by his successors, and under the Iconoclasts the
challenge to imperial authority raised by the monks demand-
ing a greater freedom for the Church was unavailing. The
Patriarch of Constantinople lived in the shadow of the
imperial palace: within the Byzantine Empire there was no
mi INTRODUCTION
room for an Eastern Papacy. The fact that the Book of
Ceremonies of Constantine Porphyrogenitus has been pre-
served has tended to produce the impression that the life of an
East Roman Emperor was spent in an unbroken succession
of civil and religious formalities, that its most absorbing
care was the wearing of precisely those vestments which
were hallowed by traditional usage. That impression is
misleading, for the Emperor successfully maintained his
right to lead the Byzantine armies in the field, while the folk
of East Rome demanded of their ruler efficiency and personal
devotion. In the constitutional theory of the Empire no
hereditary right to the throne was recognized, though at
times hereditary sentiment might have great influence.
When, under the Macedonian dynasty, that sentiment placed
a student emperor upon the throne, a colleague performed
those military duties which remained part of the imperial
burden. That immense burden of obligation imposed upon
the ruler the responsibility both for the temporal and
spiritual welfare of his subjects fashioned the Byzantine
imperial ideal, and that ideal puts its constraint upon the
Sovereign : it may make of him another man :
The courses of his youth promised it not.
The breath no sooner left his father's body.
But that his wildness mortified in him
Seemed to die too.
So it was with Basil II: 'with all sail set he abandoned the
course of pleasure and resolutely turned to seriousness.' 1
It is to wrong the Byzantine Emperors to picture them as
cloistered puppets : the Emperor was not merely the source
of all authority both military and civil, the one and only
legislator, the supreme judge, but it was his hand, as George
of Pisidia wrote, which in war enforced the will of Christ.
The East Roman State demanded money much money:
no Byzantine Sovereign could live of his own*. During the
chaos of the breakdown of the imperial administration in
the third century of our era a prodigious inflation sent all
prices rocketing sky-high and the economy of the Empire
threatened to relapse into a system of barter. But the fourth-
1 Psellus, Chronographia, vol. i, ch. 4.
INTRODUCTION xziii
century reform restored a money economy and taxation
which could be adapted to the current needs of the Govern-
ment. While the west of Europe under its barbarian rulers
was unable to maintain the complex financial system of
Rome, the needs of the East Roman State were safeguarded
by a return to a system which enabled it to pay its soldiers in
money, while, if military force should fail, the diplomacy of
Constantinople could fall back upon the persuasive influence
of Byzantine gold. It was the tribute derived from the
taxation of its subjects which enabled the Empire to main-
tain a regular army schooled in an art of war an art per-
petually renewed as the appearance of fresh foes called for a
revision of the military manuals. This small highly trained
army must at all costs be preserved : no similar force could
be hurriedly improvised on an emergency. War for the
Empire was no joust, but a desperately serious affair. There-
fore risks must not be run : ambushes, feints, any expedient
by which irreplaceable lives could be saved were an essential
element of Byzantine strategy. To us the numerical strength
of East Roman armies seems preposterously small. As Diehl
has pointed out, Belisarius reconquered Africa from the
Vandals with at most 1 5,000 men ; in the tenth century the
great expeditions against Crete were carried out by a dis-
embarkation force of 9,000 to 1 5,000. The grand total of
the Byzantine military forces in the tenth century was at
most 140,000 men.
The Empire was always inclined to neglect the fleet when
no immediate danger threatened from the sea. During the
first three centuries of our era the Mediterranean had been a
Roman lake. The only barbarian kingdom formed on Roman
soil which took to the sea was that of the Vandals in North
Africa and before their fleets the Empire was powerless: the
seaward connexions between the East and the West were
snapped. The Emperor Leo even feared that the Vandals
would attack Alexandria: Daniel, the Stylite saint whom he
consulted, assured him that his fears were groundless, and in
the event the holy man's confidence was justified. Justinian
made an extraordinary effort in his sea-borne attack upon
North Africa, but after the overthrow of the Vandal kingdom
we hear of no further naval operations until the Arabs
xxiv INTRODUCTION
developed their sea-power in the seventh century. When
Constans II reorganized the fleet and left Constantinople for
Sicily (A.D. 662), his aim, as Bury suggested, must have been
from a western base to safeguard North Africa and Sicily
from the Arabs in order to prevent the encirclement of the
Empire: 'If the Saracens won a footing in these lands Greece
was exposed, the gates of the Hadriatic were open, Dalmatia
and the Exarchate were at their mercy' (Bury). But Con-
stans died, his successors kept the imperial navy in the
eastern Mediterranean, and the Saracen fleet drove the
Romans out of Carthage. North Africa was lost*
When the Caliphate was removed from Syria to Mesopo-
tamia Constantinople was released from any serious menace
from the sea; the navies of Egypt and Syria were in decline,
and in consequence the Byzantine navy was neglected.
Under the Macedonian house the East Roman fleet played
an essential part in the imperial victories, but later the
Empire made the fatal mistake of relying upon the navy of
Venice and thus lost its own control of the sea. The naval
policy of the Byzantine State did but react to external stimulus
much as the Republic of Rome had done in former centuries.
Army and fleet defended the Empire from external peril,
but the force which maintained its internal administration
was the imperial civil service. Extremely costly, highly
traditional in its methods, often corrupt, it was yet, it would
seem, in general efficient: the administrative machine worked
on by its own accumulated momentum. Under weak and
incapable rulers it could still function, while the edicts of
reforming emperors would doubtless be competently filed
and then disregarded. We possess no adequate documentary
evidence for the history of this imperial service: the historians
took it for granted, and they tend to mention it only when
some crying scandal aroused popular discontent. Yet its
activity is one of the presuppositions which rendered possible
the longevity of the Empire.
And the service of the Orthodox Church to East Rome
must never be forgotten in any estimate of the factors which
sustained the Byzantine State.
*The Latin Church', as Sir William Ramsay said in a memorable
lecture in 1908, 'never identified itself with the Empire. So fer as it
INTRODUCTION xxv
lowered itself to stand on the same level as the Empire it was a rival
and an enemy rather than an ally. But in the East the Orthodox
Church cast in its lot with the Empire: it was coterminous with and
never permanently wider than the Empire. It did not long attempt
to stand on a higher level than the State and the people; but on that
lower level it stood closer to the mass of the people. It lived among
them. It moved the common average man with more penetrating
power than a loftier religion could have done. Accordingly the Ortho-
dox Church was fitted to be the soul and life of the Empire, to maintain
the Imperial unity, to give form and direction to every manifestation
of national vigour.' 1
That close alliance between the Byzantine Empire and the
Orthodox Church, however, brought with it unhappy conse-
quences, as Professor Toynbee has forcibly reminded us.
Church and State were so intimately connected that member-
ship of the Orthodox Church tended inevitably to bring with
it subjection to imperial politics, and conversely alliance with
the Empire would bring with it subjection to the Patriarch of
Constantinople. The fatal effect of this association is seen in
the relations of the Empire with Bulgaria and with Armenia.
To us it would appear so obvious that, for instance, in
Armenia toleration of national religious traditions must have
been the true policy, but the Church of the Seven Councils
was assured that it alone held the Christian faith in its purity
and that in consequence it was its bounden duty to ride
roughshod over less enlightened Churches and to enforce
the truth committed to its keeping. And a Byzantine
Emperor had no other conviction: the order of Heraclius in
the seventh century that all Jews throughout his Empire
should be forcibly baptized does but illustrate an Emperor *s
conception of a ruler's duty. The Orthodox Church must
have appeared to many, as it appeared to Sir William Ram-
say, 'not a lovable power, not a beneficent power, but stern,
unchanging . . . sufficient for itself, self-contained and self-
centred'. 2
But to its own people Orthodoxy was generous. The
Church might disapprove of the abnormal asceticism of a
Stylite saint; but that asceticism awoke popular enthusiasm
1 Luke the Physician (London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1908), p. 145 (slightly
abbreviated in citation).
2 Ibid., p. 149.
xrvi INTRODUCTION
and consequently the Church yielded: it recognized St.
Simeon Stylites and made of Daniel the Stylite a priest. That
is a symbol of the catholicity of Orthodoxy. And through the
services of the Church the folk of the Empire became
familiar with the Old Testament in its Greek form (the
Septuagint) and with the New Testament which from
the first was written in the 'common' Greek speech of
the Hellenistic world, and the East Roman did truly believe
in the inspiration of the Bible and its inerrancy. When Cosmas,
the retired India merchant, set forth his 'Christian Topo-
graphy' to prove that for the Christian the only possible view
was that the earth was flat, he demonstrated the truth of his
assertion by texts from the Bible and showed that earth is
the lower story, then comes the firmament, and above that
the vaulted story which is Heaven all bound together by
side walls precisely like a large American trunk for ladies'
dresses. If you wished to defend contemporary miracles it
was naturally the Bible which came to your support: Christ
had promised that His disciples should perform greater
works than His own : would a Christian by his doubts make
Christ a liar? 'The Fools for "Christ's sake' those who
endured the ignominy of playing the fool publicly in order
to take upon themselves part of that burden of humiliation
which had led their Lord to the Cross they, too, had their
texts: 'The foolishness of God is wiser than men', 'the
wisdom of this world is foolishness with God'. It was hearing
a text read in Church which suggested to Antony his voca-
tion to be the first monk: 'If you would be perfect, go sell all
that thou hast and give to the poor, and come, follow me.'
That summons he obeyed and it led him to the desert. In
Byzantine literature you must always be ready to catch an
echo from the Bible.
And thus because it was the Church of the Byzantine
people, because its liturgy was interwoven with their daily
lives, because its tradition of charity and unquestioning
almsgiving supplied their need in adversity, the Orthodox
Church became the common possession and the pride of the
East Romans. The Christian faith became the bond which
in large measure took the place of a common nationality.
And was their Church to be subjected to the discipline of an
INTRODUCTION xxvh
alien Pope who had surrendered his freedom to barbarous
Prankish rulers of the West? Variations in ritual usage
might be formulated to justify the rejection of papal claims,
but these formulations did but mask a profounder difference
an instinctive consciousness that a Mediterranean world
which had once been knit together by a bilingual culture
had split into two halves which could no longer understand
each other. The history of the centuries did but make the
chasm deeper: men might try to throw bridges across the
cleft communion between the Churches might be restored,
even Cerularius in the eleventh century did not say the last
word, but the underlying 'otherness* remained until at last
all the king's horses and all the king's men were powerless
to dragoon the Orthodox world into union with the Latin
Church. That sense of 'otherness' still persists to-day, and it
will be long before the Churches of the Orthodox rite accept
the dogma of the infallibility of a Western Pope.
And, above all, it must be repeated, Constantinople itself,
the imperial city (17 jSacrcAeuoucra Tro'Ais), secure behind the
shelter of its fortifications, sustained the Empire alike in fair
and in foul weather. The city was the magnet which attracted
folk from every quarter to itself: to it were drawn ambassadors
and barbarian kings, traders and merchants, adventurers and
mercenaries ready to serve the Emperor for pay, bishops and
monks, scholars and theologians. In the early Middle Age
Constantinople was for Europe the city, since the ancient
capital of the West had declined, its pre-eminence now but
a memory, or at best a primacy of honour. Constantinople
had become what the Piraeus had been for an earlier Greek
world; to this incomparable market the foreigner came to
make his purchases and the Byzantine State levied its
customs on the goods as they left for Russia or the West.
Because the foreigner sought the market, New Rome, it
would seem, failed to develop her own mercantile marine,
and thus in later centuries the merchants of Venice or Genoa
could extort perilous privileges from the Empire's weakness.
Within the imperial palace a traditional diplomacy of
prestige and remote majesty filled with awe the simple minds
of barbarian rulers, even if it awoke the scorn of more
sophisticated envoys. It may well be that the Byzantines
nviii INTRODUCTION
were justified in developing and maintaining with scrupulous
fidelity that calculated ceremonial. 'But your Emperor is a
God' one barbarian is reported to have said him, too, the
magnet of Constantinople would attract and the Empire
would gain a new ally.
Yet this magnetism had its dangers. All roads led to New
Rome, and a popular general or a member of that Anatolian
landed aristocracy which had been schooled in military
service might follow those roads and seek to set himself upon
the imperial throne. Prowess might give a title to the
claimant, and the splendid prize, the possession of the capital,
would crown the venture, for he who held Constantinople
was thereby lord of the Empire. Yet though the inhabitants
might open the gates to an East Roman pretender, the
Byzantines could assert with pride that never through the
centuries had they betrayed the capital to a foreign foe.
That is their historic service to Europe.
It becomes clear that the welfare of the Byzantine State
depended upon the maintenance of a delicate balance of
forces a balance between the potentiores the rich and
powerful and the imperial administration, between the
army and the civil service, and, further, a balance between the
revenues of the State and those tasks which it was incumbent
upon the Empire to perform. Thus the loss of Asia Minor
to the Seljuks did not only deprive East Rome of its reservoir
of man-power, it also crippled imperial finances. Above all,
in a world where religion played so large a part it was neces-
sary to preserve the balance the co-operation between
Church and State. 'Caesaropapism' is a recent word-
formation by which it has been sought to characterize the
position of the Emperor in relation to the Church. It is
doubtless true that in the last resort the Emperor could
assert his will by deposing a Patriarch; it is also true that
Justinian of his own motion defined orthodox dogma with-
out consulting a Council of the Church. But that precedent
was not followed in later centuries ; an Emperor was bound
to respect the authoritative formulation of the faith; and even
Iconoclasm, it would seem, took its rise in the pronounce-
ments of Anatolian bishops, and it was only after this
episcopal initiative that the Emperor intervened. Indeed
INTRODUCTION xxii
the Byzantine view of the relation which should subsist
between Church and State can hardly be doubted: for the
common welfare there must be harmony and collaboration.
As Daniel the Stylite said addressing the Emperor Basiliscus
and the Patriarch of Constantinople, Acacius: 'When you
disagree you bring confusion on the holy churches and in the
whole world you stir up no ordinary disturbance.' Emperor
and Patriarch are both members of the organism formed by
the Christian community of East Rome. It is thus, by the
use of a Pauline figure, that the Ep anagoge states the relation.
That law-book may never have been officially published, it
may be inspired by the Patriarch Photius, but none the less
it surely is a faithful mirror of Byzantine thought. But it is
also true that bishops assembled in a Council were apt to
yield too easily to imperial pressure, even though they might
reverse their decision when the pressure was removed. The
breeze passes over the ears of wheat and they bend before it;
the breeze dies down and the wheat-ears stand as they stood
before its coming. But such an influence as this over an
episcopal rank and file who were lacking in 'civil courage' is
not what the term 'Caesaropapism' would suggest; if it is
used at all, its meaning should at least be strictly defined,
One is bound to ask: How did these Byzantines live? It
was that question which Robert Byron in his youthful book
The Byzantine Achievement sought to answer; he headed his
chapter 'The Joyous Life'. That is a serious falsification.
The more one studies the life of the East Romans the more
one is conscious of the weight of care which overshadowed
it: the fear of the ruthless tax-collector, the dread of the
arbitrary tyranny of the imperial governor, the peasant's
helplessness before the devouring land-hunger of the power-
ful, the recurrent menace of barbarian invasion : life was a
dangerous affair; and against its perils only supernatural
aid the help of saint, or magician, or astrologer could avail.
And it is to the credit of the Byzantine world that it realized
and sought to lighten that burden by founding hospitals
for the sick, for lepers, and the disabled, by building hostels
for pilgrims, strangers, and the aged, maternity homes for
women, refuges for abandoned children and the poor,
xxx INTRODUCTION
institutions liberally endowed by their founders who in their
charters set out at length their directions for the administra-
tion of these charities. It is to the lives of the saints that one
must turn, and not primarily to the Court historians if one
would picture the conditions of life in East Rome. And
because life was insecure and dangerous, suspicions were
easily aroused and outbreaks of violence and cruelty were
the natural consequence. The Europe of our own day ought
to make it easier for us to comprehend the passions of the
Byzantine world. We shall never realize to the full the
magnitude of the imperial achievement until we have learned
in some measure the price at which that achievement was
bought.
At the close of this brief Introduction an attempt may be
made to summarize in a few words the character of that
achievement: (i) as a custodian trustee East Rome preserved
much of that classical literature which it continuously and
devotedly studied; (ii) Justinian's Digest of earlier Roman
law salved the classical jurisprudence without which the
study of Roman legal theory would have been impossible,
while his Code was the foundation of the Empire's law
throughout its history. The debt which Europe owes for
that work of salvage is incalculable; (iii) the Empire con-
tinued to write history, and even the work of the humble
Byzantine annalist has its own significance: the annalists
begin with man's creation and include an outline of the
history of past empires because 'any history written on
Christian principles will be of necessity universal': it will
describe the rise and fall of civilizations and powers : it will
no longer have a particularistic centre of gravity, whether
that centre of gravity be Greece or Rome: 1 a world salvation
needed a world history for its illustration : nothing less would
suffice* And to the Christian world history was not a mere
cyclic process eternally repeating itself, as it was to the Stoic.
History was the working out of God's plan : it had a goal and
the Empire was the agent of a divine purpose. And Byzan-
tine writers were not content with mere annalistic: in writing
1 R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1946),
pp. 46-50.
INTRODUCTION ixxi
history the East Roman not only handed down to posterity
the chronicle of the Empire's achievement, he also recorded
the actions of neighbouring peoples before they had any
thought of writing their own history. Thus it is that the
Slavs owe to East Rome so great a debt; (iv) the Orthodox
Church was a Missionary Church, and from its work of
evangelization the Slav peoples settled on its frontiers derived
their Christianity and a vernacular Liturgy; (v) it was in an
eastern province of the Empire in Egypt that monasti-
cism took its rise. Here was initiated both the life of the
solitary and the life of an ascetic community. It was by a
Latin translation of St. Athanasius' Life of St. Antony, the
first monk, that monasticism was carried to the West, and
what monasticism Egypt's greatest gift to the world has
meant in the history of Europe cannot easily be calculated.
It was the ascetics of East Rome who fashioned a mystic
theology which transcending reason sought the direct
experience of the vision of God and of union with the God-
head (tkeosis). Already amongst the students of western
Europe an interest has been newly created in this Byzantine
mysticism, and as more documents are translated that interest
may be expected to arouse a deeper and more intelligent
comprehension ; (vi) further, the Empire gave to the world
a religious art which to-day western Europe is learning to
appreciate with a fuller sympathy and a larger understanding.
Finally, let it be repeated, there remains the historic function
of Constantinople as Europe's outpost against the invading
hordes of Asia. Under the shelter of that defence of the
Eastern gateway western Europe could refashion its own
life: it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the civilization
of western Europe is a by-product of the Byzantine Empire's
will to survive.
N. H. B.
I
THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE:
AN OUTLINE
A. FROM A.D. 330 TO THE FOURTH CRUSADE
I
THE history of Byzantium is, formally, the story of the Late
Roman Empire. The long line of her rulers is a direct con-
tinuation of the series of Emperors which began with
Augustus; and it was by the same principle consent of the
Roman Senate and People which Augustus had proclaimed
when he ended the Republic that the Byzantine rulers
wielded their authority. Theoretically speaking, the ancient
and indivisible Roman Empire, mistress, and, after the
downfall of the Great King of Persia in 629, sole mistress of
the orbis terrarum^ continued to exist until the year 1453.
Rome herself, it was true, had been taken by the Visigoths
in 410; Romulus Augustulus, the last puppet Emperor in
the West, had been deposed by the barbarians in 476, and
the firmest constitutionalist of Byzantium must have acknow-
ledged, in the course of the centuries which followed, that
Roman dominion over the former provinces of Britain, Gaul,
Spain, and even Italy appeared to be no longer effective.
Visible confirmation of this view was added when a German
upstart of the name of Charles was actually, on Christmas
Day, A.D. 800, saluted as Roman Emperor in the West. But
there are higher things than facts; the Byzantine theory,
fanciful as it sounds, was accepted for many centuries by
friends and foes alike, and its influence in preserving the
very existence of the Empire is incalculable. Contact with
the West might become precarious; the old Latin speech,
once the official language of imperial government, might
disappear, and the Rhomaeans of the late Byzantine Empire
might seem to have little except the name in common with
their Roman predecessors. Liutprand of Cremona, in the
tenth century, could jeer at the pompous ceremonial and
ridiculous pretensions of the Byzantine Court; but the
3982 B
2 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

Westerner failed, as did the later Crusading leaders, to
comprehend the outlook of the classical world, strangely
surviving in its medieval environment. For the ruler of
Byzantium, the unshakable assurance that his State repre-
sented Civilization itself, islanded in the midst of barbarism,
justified any means that might be found necessary for its
preservation; while the proud consciousness of his double
title to world-dominion heir of the universal Roman
Empire and Vicegerent of God Himself enabled him to
meet his enemies in the gate, when capital and Empire
seemed irretrievably doomed, and turn back the tide of
imminent destruction. Ruinous schemes of reconquest and
reckless extravagance in Court expenditure were the obvious
consequences of the imperial ideal; but what the latter-day
realist condemns as the incorrigible irredentism of the
Byzantine Emperors was not merely the useless memory of
vanished Roman glories. It was the outcome of a confidence
that the Empire was fulfilling a divine commission ; that its
claim to rule was based on the will of the Christian God.
II
When Constantine founded his capital city on the Bos-
phorus, his intention was to create a second Rome. A Senate
was established, public buildings were erected, and the
whole machinery of imperial bureaucracy was duplicated at
its new headquarters. Aristocratic families from Italy were
encouraged to build residences there, while bread and circuses
were provided for the populace. The circus factions, trans-
ported from the other Rome, formed a militia for the defence
of the city. The avowed policy was to produce a replica of
the old capital on the Tiber.
One difference, indeed, there was. The new centre of
administration was to be a Christian capital, free from the
pagan associations of Old Rome, which had resisted, all too
successfully, the religious innovations of Constantine. The
Council of Nicaea, representing the Roman world united
under a single Emperor, had given a clear indication of the
main lines which subsequent sovereigns were to follow in
dealing with the Church. The maintenance of religious
unity was henceforth to form an even more essential principle
AN OUTLINE 3
of imperial policy. Rifts, however caused, in the structure of
the Empire were a danger which, in view of the barbarian
menace, the ruler could not afford to overlook. Constanti-
nople was to be the strategic centre for the defence of the
Danubian and Eastern frontiers; she was also to be the
stronghold of Orthodoxy, the guardian of the newly-sealed
alliance between Church and State.
At the same time, emphasis was laid on the continuity of
Greek culture^ rooted though it was in pagan memories.
The rich cities of Syria and Asia Minor, the venerated island
shrines of the Aegean were stripped of their masterpieces of
sculpture, their tutelary images, to adorn the new mistress
of the Roman Empire. Education was sedulously fostered
by the authorities, and before long the University of Con-
stantinople, with its classical curriculum, was attracting
students from all parts. The process of centralization con-
tinued, and this was furthered by the closing in 551 of the
school of law at Beirut, after the destruction of the city by
earthquake.
From the^ first, Jiifi,~4he- titFee-jaain priosiplcs . of the
Byzantine Empire may: be âidteiaveinaiiifested^hefiiselyes
Imperial Tradition, Christian -Orthodoxy, Greek Culture.
These were the permanent directing forces of Byzantine
government, religion, and literature.
Ill
The administrative reforms of Diocletian and Constantine
had given to the Roman Empire a renewed lease of life, a
restoration, dearly bought though it was, of stability after
the chaos of the third century. Important, however, as these
reforms were, it is possible to regard them as the logical con-
clusion of existing tendencies. The two acts of policy, on the
other hand, by which Constantine became known to pos-
terity the foundation of Constantinople and the imperial
favour increasingly shown to Christianity may justly be
considered a revolution, which set the Empire on new paths.
That revolution took three centuries for its full develop-
ment, but its final consequence was the creation of the East
Roman or Byzantine State. Thus from Constantine (d, 337)
to Heraclius (d. 641) stretches a formative period, during

which Byzantium gradually becomes loosened from her
Western interests, until, with the transformation of the
Near East in the seventh century and the accompanying
changes in her own internal structure, she assumes her
distinctive historical form.
In this period the reign of Theodosius the Great (379-95)
marks a turning-point. He was the last sole ruler of the
Roman Empire in its original extent. Within a generation
of his death, Britain, France, Spain, and Africa were passing
into barbarian hands. Under his two sons, Arcadius and
Honorius, the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire
were sundered, never again to be fully reunited in fact,
though remaining one in theory. In the relations of Church
and State the reign was no less decisive. Constantine's
initiative had, in 313, led to an announcement by the joint
Emperors, himself and Licinius, of toleration for the
Christian faith, and at the Council of Nicaea (325) he had,
in the interests of imperial unity, secured the condemnation
of Arius. Constantine's sons were educated as Christians,
and Constantius II (33761) zealously championed his own
interpretation of the Christian faith; but the pagan reaction
under Julian the Apostate (361-3), though finally ineffective,
demonstrated the strength of the opposition. Julian's imme-
diate successors displayed caution and forbearance in
matters of religion, and it was not until the reign of Theo-
dosius I that the Roman Empire officially became the
Orthodox Christian State. Henceforth legal toleration of
paganism was at an end and Arianism, outlawed from
Roman territory, spread only among the barbarian invaders.
New heresies emerged during the fifth century; Trinita-
rian controversy was succeeded by Christological disputes.
The rift between East and West, steadily widening as their
interests diverged, enhanced the political significance of the
Church's quarrels, and emperors could less than ever afford
to remain indifferent. In the East the metropolitan sees had
been placed in the chief centres of imperial administration;
with the rise of Constantinople to the status of a capital, her
ecclesiastical rank was exalted till she stood next in importance
to Rome herself. A triangular contest ensued between
Rome, Constantinople, and Alexandria, forming the back-
AN OUTLINE 5
ground against which the Nestorian and Monophysite
controversies were debated. The Council of Chalcedon
(451), in which Rome and Constantinople combined to
defeat the claims of Alexandria, ended the danger of Egyp-
tian supremacy in ecclesiastical affairs, but it left behind it a
legacy of troubles. Egypt continued to support the Mono-
physite heresy, and was joined by Syria two provinces
where religious differences furnished a welcome pretext for
popular opposition to the central Government. Meanwhile
the Roman see, uncompromisingly Chalcedonian, com-
manded the loyalty of the West. The problem which taxed
all the resources of imperial statecraft was the reconciliation
of these opposing worlds. The Henoticon of the Emperor
Zeno (482), the Formula of Union which should reconcile
Monophysite and Orthodox, did, it is true, placate the
Monophysites, but it antagonized Rome. Justinian, in the
sixth century, wavered between the two, and Heraclius, in
the seventh, made a final but fruitless effort at mediation.
The Arab conquest of Syria and Egypt ended the hopeless
struggle by cutting off from the Empire the dissident
provinces. The ecclesiastical primacy of Constantinople was
now secure in the East, and with the disappearance of the
political need for compromise the main source of friction
with the West had been removed. By this time, however,
the position of the two bishops at Old and New Rome Irad
become very different. Church and State at Byzantium now
formed an indissoluble unity, while the Papacy had laid
firm foundations for its ultimate independence.
The German invasions of the fourth and fifth centuries
were the principal cause of the differing fortunes of East and
West, and the decisive factor was the geographical and
strategic position of Constantinople, lying at the northern
apex of the triangle which included the rich coast-line of the
eastern Mediterranean, The motive force which impelled
the Germanic invaders across the frontiers of Rhine and
Danube was the irresistible onrush of the Huns, moving
westwards from central Asia -along the great steppe-belt
which ends in the Hungarian plains. This westward advance
struck full at central Europe; but only a portion of the
Byzantine territories was affected. Visigoths, Huns, and

Ostrogoths successively ravaged the Balkans, dangerous but
not fatal enemies, and passed on to dismember Rome's
provinces in the West. The weakness of Persia, likewise
harassed by the Huns, and the timely concessions made to
her by Theodosius I in the partition of Armenia (c. 384-7),
preserved the Euphrates frontier intact, while the ascendancy
of the barbarian magistri miHtum, commanders of the Ger-
manized Roman armies, was twice broken at Constantinople,
by the massacre of the Goths in 400, and again by the employ-
ment of Isaurian troops as a counter-force in 471. Very
different was the fate of Rome. In 410 the city itself was
held to ransom by the Visigoths, and during the course of
the fifth century Britain, Gaul, Spain, and Africa slipped
from the Empire's weakening grasp. In 476 came the end
of the series of puppet emperors, and the barbarian generals,
who throughout this century had been the effective power,
assumed the actual government of Italy,
In the economic sphere the contrast between East and
West is yet more striking. Even under the earlier Empire,
the preponderance of wealth and population had lain with
the Eastern provinces. Banking and commerce were more
highly developed in these regions, and through them passed
the great trade-routes carrying the produce of Asia to the
Western markets. The prosperous cities of Asia Minor,
Syria, and Egypt were still, in the fifth century, almost
undisturbed by the invader, and their contributions, in taxes
or in kind, flowed in full volume to the harbours and
Treasury of Byzantium. In western Europe the machinery
of provincial government had broken down under the stress
of anarchy and invasion. Revenues were falling off; long-
distance trade was becoming impossible; the unity of the
Mediterranean had been broken by the Vandal fleet, and
even the traditional source of the corn-supply of the city of
Rome was closed when the Vandals took possession of
north-west Africa. With the establishment of the barbarian
kingdoms, the organization of a civilized State disappears
from the west of Europe. The centralized government of
Byzantium could levy and pay its forces, educate its officials,
delegate authority to its provincial governors, and raise
revenue from the agricultural and trading population of its
AN OUTLINE 7
Empire. The German kings had only the plunder of con-
quered lands with which to reward their followers ; standing
armies were out of the question, and the complications of
bureaucracy were beyond their ken, save where, as in the
Italy of Theodoric, a compromise with Roman methods had
been reached.
IV
In 518 a Macedonian peasant, who had risen to the com-
mand of the palace guard, mounted the imperial throne as
Justin I. His nephew and successor, Justinian the Great
(52765), dominates the history of sixth-century Byzantium,
For the last time a purely Roman-minded Emperor, Latin
in speech and thought, ruled on the Bosphorus. In him the
theory of Roman sovereignty finds both its fullest expression
and its most rigorous application. It involved, in his view,
the reconquest of the territory of the old Roman Empire,
and in particular of those Western provinces now occupied
by German usurpers. It involved also the imperial duty of
assuring the propagation and victory of the Orthodox faith
and, as a corollary, the absolute control of the Emperor over
Church affairs,
In pursuance of this policy Africa was retaken from the
Vandals (534), Italy from the Ostrogoths (537). The south
of Spain was restored to the Empire, and the whole Medi-
terranean was now open to Byzantine shipping. A vast
system of fortifications was constructed on every frontier;
the defensive garrisons were reorganized, and the provincial
administration was tightened up. Public works and build-
ings of every description, impressive remains of which are
still visible in three continents, owed their origin, and often
their name, to the ambitious energy of Justinian.
The same principles inspired his two greatest creations,
the codification of Roman law and the building of St. Sophia.
Conscientious government required that the law, its instru-
ment, should be so arranged and simplified as to function
efficiently; and the immense expenditure incurred by the
Western expeditions could be met only by the smoothest and
most economical working of the fiscal machinery. Imperial
prestige was no less involved in the magnificence of the

Court and its surroundings; and the position of the Emperor,
as representative of God upon earth, gave special emphasis to
his responsibility for the erection of the foremost church in
Christendom. The centralization of all the activities of the
Empire political, artistic, literary, social, and economic
in its capital city was now practically complete, and the first
great period of Byzantine art is nobly exemplified in the
Church of the Holy Wisdom.
The reverse of the medal, unhappily, stands out in higher
relief when subsequent events are considered. The Western
conquests, though striking, were incomplete, and ended by
draining the resources of the Empire. Heavily increased
taxation defeated the honest attempts of Justinian to remedy
abuses in its collection, and alienated the populations of the
newly regained provinces. The interests of East and West
were now widely divergent, and to the Italian taxpayer the
Byzantine official became a hateful incubus. Further, the
main artery of communication between the Bosphorus and
the Adriatic was threatened by the Slav incursions into the
Balkan peninsula, which increased in frequency towards the
end of the reign.
Even before his accession Justinian had departed from
the conciliatory policy of Zeno and Anastasius with regard
to the Monophysites, and with an eye to Western goodwill
had taken measures to close the schism between Rome and
Constantinople caused by Zeno's attempts to secure a
working compromise in the dogmatic dispute. This, how-
ever, did not end all troubles with the Papacy, for Justinian's
'Caesaropapism* demanded absolute submission of the
pontiff to all pronouncements of the imperial will ; and to
enforce this, violent measures, moral and even physical, were
required, as Pope Vigilius found to his cost. A more serious
consequence was the persecution of Monophysites in Egypt
and Syria. The influence of Theodora, the Empress, who
possessed Monophysite sympathies and an understanding of
the Eastern problem, prevented the policy from being con-
sistently carried out; but enough was done to rouse the fury
of the populace against the 'Melchites', or supporters of the
Emperor, and the results of such disaffection were seen before
long when Persian and Arab invaders entered these regions.
AN OUTLINE 9
At the death of Justinian it became evident that the vital
interests of Byzantium lay in the preservation of her northern
and eastern frontiers, which guarded the capital and the
essential provinces of Anatolia and Syria. The rest of the
century was occupied by valiant and largely successful
efforts to mitigate the consequences of Justinian's one-sided
policy. Aggression in the West had entailed passive defence
elsewhere, supplemented by careful diplomacy and a net-
work of small alliances. This had proved expensive in sub-
sidies, and damaging to prestige. Justin II in 572 boldly
refused tribute to Persia, and hostilities were resumed. The
war was stubbornly pursued till in 591 the main objectives
of Byzantium were reached. Persia, weakened by dynastic
struggles, ceded her portion of Armenia and the strongholds
of Dara and Martyropolis. The approaches to Asia Minor
and Syria thus secured, Maurice (582602) could turn his
attention to the north. The Danube frontier barely 200
miles from Constantinople was crumbling under a new
pressure. The Avars, following the traditional route of
Asiatic nomad invaders, had crossed the south Russian
steppes and established themselves, shortly after Justinian's
death, in the Hungarian plains. Dominating the neighbour-
ing peoples, Slav and Germanic, they had exacted heavy
tribute from Byzantium as the price of peace. Even this did
not avert the fall of Sirmium (582), key-fortress of the Middle
Danube, and the Adriatic coasts now lay open to barbarian
attacks. After ten years of chequered warfare Maurice suc-
ceeded in stemming the flood, and in the autumn of 602
Byzantine forces were once more astride the Danube. Mean-
while the Lombards, ousted by Avar hordes from their
settlements on the Theiss, had invaded Italy (568), and by
580 were in possession of more than half the peninsula.
Byzantium, preoccupied with the East, could send no regular
assistance, but efforts were made to create a Prankish alliance
against the invaders, and with Maurice's careful reorganiza-
tion of the Italian garrisons a firm hold was maintained on
the principal cities of the seaboard.
All such precarious gains won by the successors of
Justinian were swept away by the revolution of 602, which
heralded the approach of the darkest years that the Roman
io THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

Empire had yet known. Angry at the prospect of wintering
on the Danube, the troops revolted. Phocas, a brutal cen-
turion, was elected Emperor, and Maurice and his family
were put to the sword. A reign of terror ensued, which
revealed the real weakness of the Empire. Internal anarchy
and bankruptcy threatened the very existence of the central
power, while Persian armies, in a series of raiding campaigns,
captured Rome's outlying provinces and ravaged even her
vital Anatolian possessions. The ruinous heritage of Justinian
was now made manifest, and the days of Byzantium were, it
seemed, already numbered.
The forces of revival found their leader in Africa, per-

haps at this time the most Roman province of the Empire.
In 610 Heraclius, son of the governor of Carthage, sailed
for Constantinople. Phocas was overthrown, and the new
Emperor entered upon his almost hopeless task. The
demoralized armies were refashioned, strict economy re-
paired the shattered finances, and the turbulent city factions
were sternly repressed. The Sassanid forces, however, could
not be faced in open combat, and a Persian wave of conquest,
more overwhelming than any since Achaemenid days, rolled
over the Near East. In 61 1 Antioch fell, in 613 Damascus;
in the following year Jerusalem was sacked, and its Patriarch
carried off to Persia, together with the wood of the True
Cross, the holiest relic of Christianity. In 619 came the
invasion of Egypt, and with the fall of Alexandria, the great
centre of African and Asiatic commerce, Byzantium lost the
principal source of her corn-supply. Palestine, Syria, and
Egypt were gone, Anatolia was threatened, and meanwhile
the Avars ravaged the European provinces, and in 6 1 7 were
hardly repulsed from the walls of the capital.
By 622 Heraclius had completed his preparations, and the
age-old history of the struggle between Rome and Persia
closed in a series of astonishing campaigns. Boldly leaving
Constantinople to its fate, the Emperor based his operations
on the distant Caucasus region, where he recruited the local
tribes, descending at intervals to raid the provinces of
northern Persia. In 626, while he was still gathering his
AN OUTLINE n
forces for decisive action, a concerted attack was made on
Constantinople by the Avar Khagan, supported by Slav and
Bulgarian contingents, and by the Persian army which had
occupied Chalcedon. Fortunately there was no disaffection
within the city; Heraclius had united Church and State in
eager support for his crusade, and the inhabitants put up a
desperate defence. Byzantine sea-power in the straits was
perhaps the decisive factor in averting disaster. The Slav
boats which had entered the Golden Horn were disabled, and
effective contact between the European and Asiatic assailants
was rendered impossible. After suffering heavy losses, the
Khagan was forced to withdraw. The defeat was significant,
for Avar supremacy in the Balkans declined from this point.
The Slav tribes successively gained independence, and until
the rise of the Bulgarian Empire no centralized aggression
endangered the Danubian provinces.
The following year saw the advance of Heraclius into the
heart of Persia. A glorious victory was gained near Mosul,
and although Ctesiphon, the Sassanid capital, could not be
reached, the next spring brought news of Persian revolution
and the murder of the Great King. His successor was
obliged to conclude peace, and all the territory annexed by
Persia was restored to the Empire. Egypt, Syria, and Asia
Minor were freed from the invader, and the True Cross
returned to its resting-place at Jerusalem. In 629 Hera-
clius entered his capital in a blaze of glory, and the triumph
of the Christian Empire was universally recognized. Rome's
only rival in the ancient world had been overthrown, and six
years of fighting had raised Byzantium from the depths of
humiliation to a position unequalled since the great days of
Justinian.
The defeat of Persia was followed closely by events even
more spectacular, which changed the whole course of history,
and ushered in the Middle Ages of Byzantium, At the death
of Muhammad in 632 his authority scarcely extended beyond
the Hedjaz. Within a few years, however, the impetus of his
movement, reinforced by economic conditions in the Arabian
peninsula, had produced a centrifugal explosion, driving in
every direction small bodies of mounted raiders in quest of
food, plunder, and conquest. The old empires were in no
state to resist them. Rome and Persia had exhausted each
other in the final struggle. The Sassanid realm, torn by
palace revolutions, fell an easy victim, while the absence at
Constantinople of Heraclius, disabled by fatal illness,
disorganized the defence of the Asiatic provinces. By 640
both Palestine and Syria were in Muslim hands ; Alexandria
fell to the Arabs in 642, and with Egypt as a base the con-
querors crept slowly along the North African coa$t. Here
they encountered more effective resistance, and it was not
till the close of the seventh century that the capture of Car-
thage laid open the way to Spain. Meanwhile from the
naval resources of Egypt and Syria a formidable sea-power
developed. Cyprus and Rhodes were taken, and became
centres of piracy from which the Muslims plundered the
Aegean islands, ruining Mediterranean commerce. Con-
stantinople itself was not immune, and a series of attacks
from the sea (673-7) was repulsed only after desperate
efforts and with the aid of the famous 'Greek Fire'. Asia
Minor, the last non-European possession of Byzantium,
was fiercely contended for throughout the century; Armenia
and the Caucasus regions finally succumbed, but in the
south the Taurus passes, the principal gateway to the penin-
sula, were successfully held.
Under the pressure of invasion the Byzantine Empire
took on its medieval, and final, form. The days of Rome as a
great land-power were now over. Apart from Asia Minor
and the immediate hinterland of the capital, Byzantine terri-
tory was reduced practically to the fringes of the northern
Mediterranean coast. During the course of the seventh
century her Spanish outposts had been ceded to the Visigoths,
and north-west Africa fell at length to the Saracens. Sicily
and south Italy, the Magna Graecia of classical times, still
owned allegiance to their Greek-speaking rulers; Naples,
Venice, and Istria were still in Byzantine hands, and by her
hold on the districts of Rome and Ravenna, joined by a
narrow corridor, New Rome had succeeded in preventing
the complete Lombard conquest of Italy. These, however,
were all that remained of the Western conquests of Justinian.
Between them and Constantinople the Slav tribes had
established themselves in the Balkan peninsula, driving the
AN OUTLINE 13
Roman population to the Dalmatian islets or the coastal
cities, and severing the great highway which connected East
and West. Nearer home, a new menace had arisen. About
680 the Bulgars, an Asiatic people, had crossed the lower
Danube, and for the next three centuries their aggression
was to prove a constant danger to the capital.
To meet these altered conditions the imperial administra-
tion was adapted for defence. The territories occupied by
the Byzantine armies became provinces known as 'Themes',
and their commanders exercised as governors both military
and civil functions an experiment first tried in the 'exar-
chates' of Italy and Africa, The heart of the Empire now
lay in Asia Minor, and here the armies were recruited from
farmers to whom were given grants of land on a hereditary
tenure with the obligation of military service. This new
system of imperial defence was organized during the course
of the seventh century, but the poverty of our sources for
this period makes it impossible to trace the development in
detail. By the early years of the eighth century the new army
was already in being.
Byzantium henceforth faced eastwards. The Latin ele-
ment in her culture declined, though, in spite of its disap-
pearance (apart from a number of technical terms) even from
official language, the legal conceptions of Rome continued to
form the basis of her constitution. Shorn of the greater part
of her Asiatic and Western territories, she had become pre-
dominantly Greek in speech and civilization, and a yet closer
bond of unity within the Empire was found in common
devotion to Orthodox Christianity. With the loss of the
dissident provinces, a main obstacle to agreement with the
Papacy had been removed, and in 68 1, after many storms,
union was temporarily re-established by the Sixth Oecume-
nical Council.
Constantine IV (668-85), under whom this result was
achieved, had not only done much for the safety of the
Western provinces, but had also administered an important
check to the advance of Islam towards Constantinople. His
reign was the high-water mark of Byzantine success during
this period. The Heraclian dynasty ended with his successor,
Justinian II, and with its disappearance palace revolutions,
H THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

culminating in anarchy, filled the years from 695 to 717. As
ever, the foes of Byzantium seized their opportunity.
Revolts in Italy became more frequent and more serious.
Carthage fell at last to the Islamic invader. The Bulgarians,
profiting by political discord within the Empire, established
themselves south of the Danube. In Asia Minor the loyalty
of the Byzantine troops and of their leaders had been sapped
by constant rebellions, while from Damascus the Umayyads,
whose Empire was now approaching its zenith, mercilessly
ravaged the unguarded provinces. In 7 1 7 the spearhead of
the Islamic advance threatened the capital. A determined
investment of Constantinople by^ land and sea followed, and
for twelve months victory hung in the balance. In the same
year Leo III (717-41) came to the throne, and the saving of
Constantinople from the concentrated thrust of the first
great Muslim Empire was the earliest achievement of the
new dynasty.
VI
The birthplace of the so-called 'Isaurian' rulers is not
certainly known, though northern Syria appears most
probable. Their Asiatic origin is generally admitted, and
many aspects of their policy, which, owing to the meagre
and hostile character of the sources, has been much debated,
seem to display an alien challenge to the Graeco-Roman
traditions of the Empire. Of the military services of the
Isaurian Emperors there can be no doubt ; even their bitterest
opponents gratefully remembered them as saviours of the
commonwealth in its direst need.
The contraction of the frontiers of East Rome had brought
with it a straitening of her financial resources, a slowing-
down of her commercial activities, and a narrowing of her
intellectual and spiritual life. Under the stress of constant
warfare, art and letters had declined, and the seventh
century is perhaps the most barren period in the history of
Byzantine civilization. The resulting paucity of records has
left many gaps in our knowledge. Fuller information would
reveal the transformation of the Empire, and the heroic
efforts which must have been necessary to adapt it to the new
and perilous conditions brought about by the invasions. It
AN OUTLINE 15
was these efforts which formed the foundation of the
Isaurian successes.
From the standpoint of European history Leo IIFs most
important work was accomplished in the first year of his
reign, when he repulsed the Arab forces from the walls of
the capital. Even Charles Mattel's great victory of Poitiers
in 732 was less decisive, for Byzantium had met the full
force of the Umayyad Empire at the gateway of Europe.
With the succession of the Abbasid dynasty in 750, after a
period of internal strife, the centre of Muslim power moved
eastward to Bagdad, and Asia's threat to the Bosphorus was
not renewed for many centuries. Constantine V was able to
recover Cyprus in 746 and to push back the Anatolian
frontier to the eastern boundary of Asia Minor* For the
fortunes of the Roman Empire Leo's initial success is com-
parable with that of Heraclius, who overcame the Avars
and Persians in the hour of their greatest strength. But the
Bulgarians, who had replaced the Avars in the Danube
region, found themselves on this occasion in the pay of
Byzantium, and such was the military prowess of the Isaurian
rulers that it was not until the close of the eighth century that
Bulgaria began to present a real problem.
The administrative policy of Leo and Constantine appears
to have followed approved methods of safeguarding the
central power, and to have included an extension of the
theme-system which their predecessors had instituted for
the defence of the threatened provinces. The publication of
the Ecloga, a new legal code modifying the law in the direc-
tion of greater 'humanity*, was a more radical measure.
Philanthrofia was a traditional duty of Rome's sovereigns
towards their subjects, but the new code signified a departure
from the spirit of Roman law, especially in the sphere of
private morals and family life, and an attempt to apply
Christian standards in these relations. It is a proof of the
latent strength of the legacy left by pagan Rome that, de-
spite the renewed influence of the Church, a reversion to
the old principles took place later under the Macedonian
regime.
Most revolutionary of all, in Byzantine eyes, were the
Iconoclastic decrees. The campaign opened in 726, when
1 6 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

Leo III issued the first edict against images, which in the
Greek Church was directed specifically against the icons.
Under Constantine V the struggle became more embittered,
and in 765 a fierce persecution was set on foot. In 787 the
Empress Irene, an Athenian by birth, succeeded in re-
establishing the cult of images, but an Iconoclast reaction
under three Emperors of Asiatic origin (813-42) renewed,
though with more limited scope, the measures of Leo and
Constantine. In 843 the images were finally restored.
The Iconoclast movement can be treated neither in
isolation from the secular reforms, nor as subordinate to
them. In its later stages the attack was directed primarily
against the power and influence of the monasteries, as being
the strongholds of the cult of images; and the monks reta-
liated by boldly challenging the Emperor's constitutional
supremacy in Church affairs. But the Isaurians were neither
rationalist anti-clericals nor dogmatic innovators. The use
of images had not been favoured by the Early Church, and
puritan tendencies had appeared sporadically in the fourth
and sixth centuries. Asia Minor was their particular centre
at this time, and Jewish or Muslim hostility in these parts
to a religious use of an art of representation may not have
been without effect, as the abusive epithet 'Saracen-minded',
hurled at Leo III by his opponents, possibly indicates.
Christological issues were deeply involved on either side,
and it must always be emphasized that for the Byzantines
the question was primarily a theological one. Popular
feeling and the immense power of tradition were ultimately
the deciding factors. The triumph of the icon-defenders
was a victory for popular religion and popular ways of
thought. The defeat, on the other hand, of the movement
towards a separation between the spheres of State and
Church reflected no less accurately the Byzantine conviction
of the indissolubility of civil and religious government.
The reign of Irene, first as regent, and later as Empress
after the deposition and blinding of her son, appears at first
sight to be merely an interlude between two periods of
Iconoclasnu Actually, however, the Second Council of
Nicaea (787), which temporarily restored the images,
formulated the theory of icon-worship with such success
AN OUTLINE 17
that the improved organization and tactics of the monastic
party finally won the day.
A sensational development at this time in the West may
have appeared less important to the Byzantines than it does
to us. On Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne was proclaimed
Emperor in the basilica of St. Peter at Rome. The constitu-
tional significance of the coronation has been variously
interpreted in modern days, and the views of contemporaries
were in many cases no less divergent. So far as Byzantium
was concerned, the situation in the West was hardly affected
by the new pronouncement. In theory Charles was no more
than an unusually troublesome pretender. Practically, the
decisive period had lain in the middle of the previous
century. Italian antagonism to Byzantine rule had been
sharpened by the Iconoclast controversy, but the Papacy
had continued to support the Exarchate as a check to the
Lombard overlordship of Italy. In 75 1 Pippin assumed the
crown of France, and in the same year Ravenna, the centre
of Byzantine defence, was captured by the Lombards. The
denouement was swift. In 754 Pippin, in answer to the
Pope's appeal, invaded north Italy. Lombardy became a
vassal state of the Franks, until in 774 it was finally con-
quered by Charlemagne. The Exarchate was delivered to
the Pope, and Byzantine rule, save in a few coastal districts,
in the southern extremity of the peninsula and in Sicily,
came to an end.
The position was not improved with the advent of the
Amorian dynasty (820-67), for Campania and Venice
remained largely independent of Constantinople, while
Sicily soon fell to the Arab invaders from North Africa. In
the East, Byzantine arms met with greater success. Asia
Minor was recovered after a dangerous insurrection under
Thomas the Slav (820-3), anc ^ his Arab supporters were
disappointed of their prize. A fixed frontier-line was
established from Armenia to northern Syria, and the rela-
tions between the Christian and Muslim Empires came to
resemble those which had formerly prevailed between Rome
and Persia. Similar tactics and armament were employed on
both sides; raids became periodical but produced no deci-
sion; mutual understanding and respect were engendered
3982 c
1 8 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

conditions which are reflected in the epic of Digenes Akritas
(see p. 245). Meanwhile, however, Muslim sea-power
menaced the whole Mediterranean basin, and the capture of
Crete (825) by the invaders was even more disastrous than
the loss of Sicily, for the Aegean now lay open to sudden and
destructive raids from the swift corsairs which gathered
there. On the northern frontier the Bulgarians under their
first great leader, Krum, had become a formidable enemy.
A Byzantine army was ambushed and cut to pieces in the
Balkan defiles (811); the Emperor Nicephorus was slain,
and his head used as a drinking-cup by the savage conqueror.
Only the strong walls of Constantinople prevented Krum
from assaulting the capital, and perhaps it was only his death
in 814 which saved it from destruction. The Prankish
invasions of Croatia occupied Bulgaria for the next few
decades, and decreased the immediate threat to Constanti-
nople, much as, in the East, Turkish inroads had paralysed
Byzantium's other foe, the Caliphate.
The Isaurian house had ended with the death of Irene:
from 802 to 867 no dynasty had established itself securely,
and a number of ferocious palace murders punctuated the
continual series of revolts. Of these latter, the rebellion of
Thomas the Slav had been the longest and most dangerous,
approaching at times the dimensions of a civil war. Asia
Minor had been the worst sufferer, and the small peasant-
farmers, a class which the Isaurian Emperors had carefully
fostered, were reduced to dependence on the powerful land-
owners. The feudal tendencies thus encouraged were
destined subsequently to prove a serious problem for the
State. The Amorian period, however, was not all loss.
Against military reverses in the West must be set the
successful maintenance of the Eastern frontier. Against the
bitterness of the Iconoclast controversy must be reckoned
the marked revival of art and learning and the renewed
missionary activities of the Orthodox Church, which carried,
at the hands of Constantine and Methodius, her most potent
civilizing agencies to the Slavs of Moravia. Finally, the
conversion of Bulgaria (864) brought Bpantine influence to
bear, with decisive effect, on the most immediate enemy of
the Empire.
AN OUTLINE 19
VII
The greatest period, in medieval Byzantine, historfis the
double ^ntury.^pann^"byliii^.reigns of the Macedonian
dynasty. It may justly be called the Macedonian period, for
the unity' thus implied was a real, though curious, phenome-
non. During the whole period members of the Macedo-
nian house occupied the imperial throne. Few of the direct
heirs played a leading part in the military and administrative
triumphs of the Empire; apart from the two Basils the heroic
figures are for the most part usurping generals, such as
Nicephorus Phocas or John Tzimisces, whose imperial titles
were gained by murder or threats, or by politic marriages
into the royal house. Yet the need for such marriage alliances
proves clearly the strength of the dynastic sentiment which
swayed the population at this time. Loyalty to the families of
Constantine and Heraclius had been witnessed in the fourth
and seventh centuries; but so deep-seated a feeling as that
evoked by the Macedonians was a new development in
Byzantium. Strangest of all was its final demonstration,
when two elderly princesses, Zoe and Theodora, last scions
of the Macedonian house, were carried to power on the
crest of that astonishing tumult which Psellus has so vividly
described. Palace intrigues, assassinations, and conspiracies
were rife throughout this violent and romantic period; but
they did not break that fundamental loyalty to the house of
Macedon, which, reinforced by the majesty of ceremonial
and the semi-divine character of the Emperor treason had
now become a veritable act of impiety formed the back-
ground of the Byzantine achievement.
The beginnings of that achievement were slow. Byzan-
tium, centre of stability amid the swirling currents of three
continents, had preserved her heritage and guarded her
difficult frontiers only by superior skill in the manipulation
of her limited military resources. 1 For over a century she
had been fully occupied in holding her own, and the forward
movement was now made possible only by the weakness
of the surrounding nations. In the West the Carolingian
Empire was in process of dissolution. Byzantine relations
1 The total strength of the Byzantine army in the ninth century has been
estimated at 120,000.

with the Papacy, though chequered, were no longer em-
bittered by the Iconoclast dispute, and common cause was
found in the defensive measures against Islam. The Saracen
conquest of Sicily continued, but the imperial possessions in
south Italy were firmly held, and spirited counter-attacks on
the Muslim pirates in Tyrrhenian and Adriatic waters gave
welcome signs of a revival of Byzantine sea-power. Nearer
home the Bulgarians at this time presented no real menace,
and Russia was beginning to admit Byzantine influences.
The security of the Empire, both military and financial,
rested, as ever, on the integrity of Asia Minor, and here, too,
the position was favourable for Byzantium. The Abbasid
dynasty, which had overthrown the Umayyads in 750, had
removed the capital of Islam from Damascus to Bagdad,
and with it the sword's point from the throat of Europe. The
Caliphate, which had hitherto been in the hands of able
generals and politicians, supported by Syrian Arabs, soon
fell under the dominance of Persian nobles or Turkish
mercenaries. The Western provinces of Islam Spain,
North Africa, and Egypt threw off in turn their political
allegiance to Bagdad, and powerful rulers in Syria and
Mesopotamia eventually rendered themselves independent
of the Caliph.
Asia Minor was vitally affected by these changes. Its
traditional defences were two. In the south the formidable
passes of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus had been successfully
held by the Byzantines against repeated Saracen inroads.
In the north control of the Armenian massif was necessary
for any permanent conquest of the Anatolian hinterland.
For nine centuries the mountain kingdom of Armenia had
been a bone of contention between Rome and the successive
rulers of Hither Asia. It had been partitioned at intervals
into spheres of influence; its princes had been supported in
turn, or its territories temporarily annexed, by the rival
Empires. From the accession of the Macedonian dynasty
dates the beginning of its Golden Age, when the ascendancy
of the great Bagratid family enabled it to assert a large
measure of independence for two glorious centuries.
Basil I was not slow to seize his opportunity. A treaty
was made with Armenia, and intrigues were set on foot
AN OUTLINE 21
with a view to promoting Byzantine influence. In the south
successive campaigns cleared the way from Cappadocian
Caesarea the starting-point for all Byzantine operations
to the Cilician plain, recovery of which was a necessary
prelude to the advance on Syria. At the same time Byzantine
garrisons were posted in the Taurus defiles, and a foothold
was secured on the upper Euphrates. These advantages
were held under Basil's successor, Leo VI (886-912), more
through the weakness of his enemies than for any other
cause, since the Empire was preoccupied elsewhere. Muslim
corsairs from Crete were terrorizing the Aegean, and in 904
Salonica, the second city of the Empire, which had survived
so many assaults by land and sea, was captured and barbar-
ously sacked, while a large Byzantine naval expedition
against Crete in 910 ended disastrously for the assailants.
Even more dangerous was the rise of Bulgaria, under her
greatest ruler, Simeon (893927), whose ambition it was to
wrest the sovereignty of the Balkans from East Rome. Until
his death no security was possible for the Empire.
Meanwhile internal recovery from the troubled period of
Iconoclasm continued. The reigns of Basil I and Leo VI are
the last of the creative ages of Roman legislation. In the
great collection known as the Basilica the legal heritage of the
past was selected and arranged to suit the requirements of
the new times, and it is significant that one of its main
characteristics was a return to the laws of Justinian, and an
abrogation of the revolutionary principles introduced by the
Iconoclast rulers. The absolutism of the imperial supremacy
over both Church and State is the underlying conception,
and the governing ideals of the Macedonian house are further
displayed in the laws protecting the peasant class against
the depredations of the rich landowners. Tradition the
aesthetic legacy of Hellas, its delight in form and colour, its
many-sided knowledge is also apparent in the revival of art
and letters at this time. Its effect is seen in the churches and
palaces, with their exquisite proportions and balanced schemes
of decoration, and in the classical studies of the University,
where its scholars were dominated by the encyclopaedic
Photius, the most remarkable figure in the long story of
Byzantine learning.

Leo VI died in 912, leaving an infant son known to
posterity as the Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus
(91259), to whose scholarly industry we owe much of our
knowledge of medieval Byzantium. In 920 the admiral
Romanus Lecapenus, succeeding where others had already
failed, seized the supreme power, and was invested with the
imperial title, legitimating himself in some degree by marry-
ing his daughter to the youthful Constantine. Public opinion
was exasperated by subsequent insults to the representative
of the Macedonian house, and with its support Constantine
was eventually able to drive out the usurping family (945).
The series of Byzantine triumphs in the East starts from
this time, but it is doubtful whether it owed much to the
personal efforts of Constantine VII. During the earlier part
of the tenth century the Bulgarian problem had monopolized
attention. Simeon, whose armies had more than once occu-
pied the outskirts of the capital, died in 927. Under the rule
of his son Peter (927-68) amicable relations were re-
established, and Romanus Lecapenus, who had skilfully
defended Byzantine interests in Europe, had been able to
divert his forces in order to attack Rome's principal enemy
in Asia. Here the continual frontier warfare of cavalry raids,
ruses, and reprisals was breeding a race of brilliant leaders,
whose sound strategy and tactical successes were steadily
laying the foundations for the great advance. Chief among
these was Nicephorus Phocas (Emperor 9639), whose
capture of Crete (961) restored at one stroke the Byzantine
supremacy at sea which had been lost for 150 years. Four
years later Cyprus was retaken, and the fall of Tarsus at
length placed Cilicia in the power of Byzantium. All was
now ready for the invasion of Syria, and the rich, strongly-
walled centres of Muslim commerce fell before the conquer-
ing armies of Nicephorus. In 969 the great city of Antioch,
one of the jewels of the old Roman Empire, and further
ennobled by its Apostolic see, was stormed by the Byzantine
troops. Aleppo was taken and became a vassal state, and
north Syria once more, after a lapse of three centuries,
returned to Roman rule.
The prestige of the Empire was now at its height, and the
results were seen not only in Asia. To the demands of Otto I,
AN OUTLINE 23
restorer of the Western Empire, to be recognized as overlord
of the Italian peninsula, Byzantium opposed her prior claim
as the true heir of Rome, and open hostilities were at once
begun. Nor would Nicephorus continue the annual tribute
to Bulgaria which had been paid since the settlement of 927.
Taking advantage of the disturbances which followed the
death of Peter, he advanced into Thrace, and summoned the
Russian hosts from Kiev to aid in completing the destruc-
tion of Bulgaria. This dangerous policy was soon reversed,
when the Russians proved only too successful; their leader,
not content with the occupation of Bulgaria, prepared to
move on Constantinople itself.
A new crisis faced the capital, and a new Emperor was
called upon to resolve it, for Nicephorus had been brutally
murdered in the palace by John Tzimisces (969-76), his
most brilliant general, with the connivance of the Empress,
whose lover he is reputed to have been. Fortune still favoured
the Romans, for Tzimisces proved equal to the opportunity.
Peace was hurriedly patched up in the West, and sealed by
the marriage of the Byzantine Princess Theophano to the
future Emperor Otto II. Tzimisces next turned on the
Russians, whom his generals had already thrown back into
Bulgarian territory. Pursuing them northwards, he forced
them to capitulate and to take their final departure from the
Balkan peninsula. The eastern parts of Bulgaria were then
annexed, and the Emperor concluded his short-lived and
impetuous career with two memorable campaigns in the
East. In 974 he ravaged Mesopotamia, capturing Edessa
and Nisibis, two of the principal strongholds. In the follow-
ing year it was Syria's turn, and his irresistible armies pushed
southwards beyond Damascus and Beirut. It is clear that
the objective was Jerusalem, and the language used by
Tzimisces leaves no doubt of the crusading character of the
expedition. But this final effort of East Rome to recover the
Holy Places was destined to fail. In 969 the strong Fatimid
dynasty, who had seized possession of Egypt, established
themselves also in Palestine, and thus formed an insuperable
barrier against permanent conquest.
The untimely death of Tzimisces in 976 cleared the stage
for the greatest of the Macedonian Emperors, Basil II, 'the

Bulgar-slayer' (963-1025). The precarious tenure of a
Byzantine ruler, menaced from without by hostile armies
along every frontier, and from within by the fierce competi-
tion of powerful nobles, ambitious for the throne, is well
illustrated by the events of his reign. Dangerous revolts in
Asia Minor, lasting for several years, were crushed only after
long and exhausting struggles. Meanwhile Samuel, ruler of
western Bulgaria, had united his people once more, and in
successive conquests had extended his boundaries from the
Danube to the Adriatic. Thirty years of stubborn fighting
in the last and fiercest of the Bulgarian wars ended in the
great Byzantine victory of 1014, when 15,000 Bulgarian
prisoners were blinded and sent back to their sovereign.
With this terrible vengeance the ruin of the Bulgarian Empire
was consummated, and its territories were placed under
Byzantine rule.
The achievements of Basil II did not end here. In 999 he
secured the Empire's hold upon northern Syria, and in 1001
a treaty was concluded with the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt,
which lasted until the end of the reign. This in effect inter-
preted the limits of Byzantine reconquest. The duchy of
Antioch was recognized as an imperial possession, and a
rather shadowy suzerainty over Aleppo was admitted; south
of this, the Fatimid sovereignty was acknowledged. The
effects of this treaty were seen in the Crusading era.
Byzantine action in regard to Armenia was no less
decisive. In 1021 one of the Armenian chieftains, menaced
by Turkish invaders from the east, was persuaded to cede
his dominions to the Roman Empire. By 1045 the whole
plateau had been annexed, and the Empire now held in its
grasp both northern and southern entrances to the vital
provinces of Asia Minor. Meanwhile in the West all
Byzantine territory was placed under the control of a 'cata-
pan', an officer combining military and civil powers. The
weakness of the Papacy and of the Germanic Empire at this
time contrasted unfavourably with the new solidarity of
East Rome, whose star, even in western Europe, appeared
once more in the ascendant.
- Atlhe. death of BasjHnMf 02 5 the Empire had reached its
apogee. By the conquests~orlhe preceding century, less
AN OUTLINE 25
extensive but more practical than Justinian's, Roman terri-
tory had been more than doubled, and the prestige thus
acquired had surrounded it with a periphery of semi-
dependent states. Naples and Amalfi acknowledged the
imperial position in south Italy, while Venice, favoured by
privileged trading concessions, patrolled the Adriatic in the
Byzantine interest. Roman dominance was strongest in the
coastal districts of the Empire, and the fortress of Durazzo
in the West helped to secure the alliance of Serbs and
Croats against possible Bulgarian uprisings, while in the
north-east the Crimean city of Cherson was the centre of
Byzantine diplomacy, playing successfully on the mutual
rivalries of Patzinaks, Russians, and other peoples bordering
on the Black Sea. The Caucasian tribal rulers were heavily
subsidized, and Armenia, as we have seen, passed into
Byzantine hands shortly afterwards, thus forming the
northern bastion of the long eastern frontier.
No less remarkable was the economic prosperity of the
Empire. Basil II had filled the Treasury to overflowing, and
its resources were maintained by the revenue of the new
provinces, and by the dues levied on trade and industry,
both of which were elaborately controlled by the State a
continuous development of those Roman principles which
had found their first systematic expression in the edicts of
Diocletian. Constantinople, the greatest commercial city of
the Middle Ages, was at this time not only the chief pur-
veyor of Asiatic luxuries to the West, but also the most
important single formative influence on the budding arts of
medieval Europe. In contrast with the semi-barbaric king-
doms of the West, the Byzantine Empire presents the appear-
ance of a fully civilized State, equipped with the scientific
government and public services of the ancient world,
administered by a cultured and literary bureaucracy, and
guarded by troops whose tactical efficiency has perhaps
never been surpassed.
The end of the Macedonian house must be told briefly.
Once the strong hand of Basil was removed, all the centri-
fugal influences which he had checked resumed their sway.
For thirty years after his death (1025-56) the Empire rested
on the strength of its dynastic loyalties, while Zoe and

Theodora, childless daughters of Constantine VIII, gave the
supreme authority to a succession of mediocre rulers. The
extinction of the Macedonian family was followed by a
period of disastrous anarchy (1057-81) which lasted until
the advent of the Comneni. This, period wasîgnificant for
thQ fortunes of Byzantium Utsets the stage for thexoriclud-
ing stems ~6f tKe 'drama. Norman adventurers and Seljuk
Turks make their appearance; the Western powers take the
offensive against Islam; the Italian seaports extend the range
of their commerce. The East Roman Empire suffered an
eclipse all the more striking by reason of its recent glories.
Seldom had the personal influence of its rulers been more
clearly demonstrated than in the contrast between the effec-
tive if high-handed methods of Basil II, and the unfortunate
compromises of his successors.
The outstanding service rendered by the house of Mace-
don had been the healing of the wounds left in the body
politic by the Iconoclast dispute. Basil I had perceived the
danger which lay in a final separation of the Roman and the
Orthodox Churches, and had deposed Photius, the Patri-
arch, at a time when a breach with Rome was threatened by
his aggressive personality. Successive emperors had main-
tained their supremacy in Church affairs, despite the steady
growth of ecclesiastical wealth and monastic influence. A
contrast is seen in the events which culminated in the
schism of 1054. Once more a conflict had arisen between
Pope and Patriarch; but no Basil sat upon the throne. The
Emperor Constantine IX, well-intentioned but feeble of
character, was powerless to control his formidable Patriarch,
Michael Cerularius, and the gradual estrangement of Greeks
and Latins, accentuated by differences of language, ritual,
and organization, resulted in a dramatic rupture. Politi-
cal and personal ambition formed the real obstacle to reunion,
for no fundamental dogmatic principles separated the two
Churches, or prevented co-operation between the rank and
file. But Byzantium was destined to rue bitterly her decision,
when in the following century the help of the hated West-
erners became necessary to her existence.
East Rome, a vulnerable Empire of heterogeneous terri-
tories and peoples, had preserved her integrity only by sub-
AN OUTLINE 27
mission to absolute authority. The Macedonian dynasty had
curbed not only the Church but also the aristocracy. Its
decadence gave an opportunity for the disruptive forces
represented by the lords of the big estates. The only
centralizing principle which could counteract this anarchy
was the Roman bureaucracy, that skilled machine of
administration which had worked without intermission for
over a millennium. So the * civil party* came into existence,
with a ministry of scholarly officials. Necessarily anti-
militarist (for the great landowners of Asia Minor, with the
levies of their tenants, formed the military caste), it aimed at
decreasing the influence of the army. Expenses were cut
down, regardless of defensive needs. The frontiers were
denuded of troops, and their commanders could hope for
no advancement at Court. The fatal consequences of this
policy were soon apparent.
The era of Byzantine reconquest had ended in 1043, when
Maniakes, the brilliant general who had triumphed on the
Euphrates and even for a brief moment held Sicily, was
goaded into rebellion and perished in Macedonia, a victim of
the suspicion of unwarlike rulers. Further attempts by the
military party were defeated, and when Isaac Comnenus,
their representative, after holding the supreme power for
two years (10579), felt obliged to abdicate, the civil ser-
vants resumed their sway. Everywhere the boundaries of
the Empire receded. In Italy the Normans overwhelmed
the Byzantine garrisons, and with the fall of Bari in 1071 the
last remnant of Roman sovereignty in the West disappeared.
Croatia regained her independence; Dalmatia and Serbia re-
volted ; Bulgaria was seething with rebellion, and Hungarians
and Patzinaks devastated the Danube territories.
Far more serious was the position in Asia Minor. The
situation which had made possible the great Byzantine
triumphs of the tenth century was now reversed. A new
ruler at Bagdad Tughril Beg, the Seljuk sultan (1055-
63) had inherited the Abbasid Empire, and imparted a
fresh cohesion and driving force to the armies of Islam.
Armenia, recently annexed by East Rome, was no longer a
buffer-state, alert to preserve its independence. Weakly
garrisoned by discontented forces, it succumbed to the

invaders. The Byzantine counter-thrust, led by the Emperor
Romanus IV Diogenes in person, ended in the disastrous
battle of Manzikert (1071) one of the blackest jiays in the
long history of Byzantium.- Despite the capture of the
Emperor "and tfie annihilation of his troops, all was not yet
lost; but the disorganized government at Constantinople
failed to initiate any effective resistance. Asia Minor was
rapidly overrun, and by 1081 the Turks ruled from the
Euphrates to the Sea of Marmora, where Nicaea became the
first capital of the Seljuk sultanate of Anatolia.
Once more the Asiatic conqueror faced Constantinople
across the narrow waters, and once more the Roman Empire
found its saviour. Alexius Comnenus, member of one of the
most powerful families in Asia Minor, was proclaimed
Emperor by the military aristocracy, and inaugurated the
brilliant dynasty which preserved the fortunes of East Rome
for what must in truth be called the final century of her
imperial existence.
VIII
The stage was now set for the last act, and the reign of
Alexius Comnenus (10811118) revealed the main lines of
its development. It marked the victory of the great land-
owners over "the civil servants of the capital a victory
of the forces held in check for so long by a succession of
strong emperors. Its opening years witnessed the attack of
Robert Guiscard the Norman on Durazzo, the fortress which
guarded the western end of the Via Egnatia^ the great Roman
road leading from the Adriatic to Constantinople. This has
been called a prelude to the Crusades, and it helps to explain
the Byzantine attitude to the Crusaders, of whom the
Normans formed a prominent part. The attack was defeated,
with help from the Venetian fleet; Venice could not afford to
see the mouth of the Adriatic occupied on both sides by the
Normans. But the price paid by the Roman Empire was the
opening of all ports to Venetian shipping, and freedom for
Venetian commerce from the dues which contributed so
greatly to Byzantine revenues. This concession made mani-
fest the fatal error of Byzantine trading policy. In later
centuries the Empire for overseas trade, both export and
AN OUTLINE 29
import, had come increasingly to rely on foreign shipping to
convey its merchandise. Its wealthy classes had preferred to
invest in land rather than risk the losses of maritime venture.
The stranglehold of Venice tightened during the whole of
this century, and to the mutual hatred of Greeks and Latins
which resulted was due in no small measure the final catas-
trophe. Ominous, too, was the condition of Byzantine
finances. The loss of her rich Asiatic provinces had deprived
the Empire of the principal sources of taxation, and it is
significant that the gold byzant, the imperial coin which had
retained its full value in the markets of three continents
since the days of Diocletian, was first debased under the
Comnenian dynasty. It speaks well for the diplomatic and
military genius of Alexius that, despite these difficulties, he
was able to win back much of the European territory lost in
the preceding period, to repulse a combined attack on the
capital by Turks and Patzinaks, and by 1095 to be preparing
for a sustained assault on his chief enemies, the Seljuks of
Asia Minor. But in the following year the first Crusaders
from the West made their appearance. Eastern and western
Europe, more complete strangers to one another than per-
haps at any other period in history, were suddenly thrown
together by the impetus of this astonishing movement.
Byzantium, drawn into the orbit of the Western States, and
struggling to maintain her position amid changing coalitions
of the Mediterranean powers, entered upon a tortuous policy
of which only the barest outlines can be given here.
To the realist outlook of East Rome the Crusades were
largely incomprehensible. In a sense all her wars had been
Holy Wars, for she was, almost by definition, the champion
of Christianity against the barbarians. Her own survival
was thus bound up with the future of Christian civilization,
and it therefore behoved all Christians to fight on her behalf.
She, too, had tried to recover the Holy Places, and Antioch,
the limit of her success, had remained Byzantine until only
a few years before. It was reasonable to suppose that the
Western armies would help her, in return for generous
subsidies, to regain her essential Anatolian and north Syrian
provinces. Western contingents had for some time formed
a considerable part of the Byzantine forces, and the Crusaders

might well, on this analogy, prove useful mercenaries; while
if their idealism were genuine, they should surely be eager to
assist the Empire which for so many centuries had held the
gates of Europe against Asiatic heathenism. Alexius was
soon undeceived. These undisciplined armies marching
through his territories cared little for the security of Byzan-
tium. Idealism led them to the conquest of Jerusalem ; other
motives urged them to carve out principalities for them-
selves. But Byzantine military science had not failed to study
the psychology and tactics of the Westerners, and Alexius's
astute diplomacy, utilizing the Western concept of the oath
of fealty, established Byzantine rights over much of the
reconquered territory.
The First Crusade, after initial setbacks, proved a brilliant
success. The Seljuk rulers, mutually suspicious, failed to
combine, and Bagdad gave no effective aid. Nicaea fell in
1097, and the Crusaders marched through Asia Minor.
Antioch was taken in 1098, and in the following year the
object of the expedition was attained with the capture of
Jerusalem. Alexius had recovered most of western Anatolia,
and Crusading States came into existence shortly afterwards
at Jerusalem, Antioch, Tripoli, and Edessa. A new situation
had arisen in the Near East. The Western conquerors
entered into a complex system of balanced alliances which
was necessary to maintain their existence, and Turco-Arab
emirs soon became useful allies against the claims of Sultans,
Caliphs, or Byzantine Emperors. Alexius had long been at
home in this world, and his aims were consistently pursued.
Asia Minor was essential to the Empire, and Antioch, which
had been in imperial hands only ten years earlier, was recog-
nized by most of the Crusaders as a Byzantine fief. Only the
Normans, implacable enemies of Byzantium, proved recalci-
trant, and Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard, after his
intrigues in Antioch and his attack on Durazzo, was finally
crushed by Alexius.
John II Comnenus (i 1 1 8-43) continued the foreign policy
of his father; Cilicia and the Taurus, where Armenian
refugees had begun to found independent States, were sub-
dued, and Byzantine suzerainty over Antioch was success-
fully demonstrated. His efforts were wisely concentrated on
AN OUTLINE 31
the East; but the crowning of Roger II at Palermo in 1 1 30,
which united the realms of south Italy and Sicily, consti-
tuted a new threat, in face of which an alliance was con-
cluded between Byzantium and the Germanic Emperor.
This alliance was destined to play an important part
during the reign of Manuel I Comnenus (i 14380), which
saw a complete change in Byzantine policy. It can be
roughly summarized as a diversion of interests and activities
to the western Mediterranean. Manuel hoped to check the
Normans, who in 1 147 had invaded Greece, by a united
front of both Empires; and the policy seemed successful
when a dangerous coalition, which was headed by Roger II,
of France, the Papacy, Hungary, and Serbia failed to win
over the Western Emperor. But in 1 1 54 Byzantine troops
once more landed in Italy; Venice, alarmed at the threat to
her Adriatic trade, joined the Normans, and the Emperor
Barbarossa followed suit. It was clear that Rome's last bid
for Western dominion had failed, and in 1158 Byzantine
troops left the Italian shores for ever. Manuel, reversing his
policy, made overtures to the Papacy, and supported the
Lombard cities in their successful struggle against Bar-
barossa. But the futility of this was shown in 1177, when
the Congress of Venice reconciled the Pope, the German
Emperor, and the cities of north Italy. Venice had been
alienated by the harsh treatment of her merchants in Con-
stantinople, and Manuel had thus made enemies of all his
Western allies. Nor were events in the East more favourable.
In the preceding year the disastrous defeat of Myriokepha-
lon in the Phrygian mountains had destroyed all hopes of
reconquering Asia Minor from the Seljuks, and the defence
of the coastal districts was henceforth the limit of Byzantine
endeavour.
A sunset glow pervaded the Court of the later Comneni.
Art and letters flourished under this brilliant dynasty, and it
is significant that even at the eleventh hour the poets, histo-
rians, and philosophers of ancient Greece continued to inspire
their spiritual descendants. But within the capital there
festered a fatal feud between the Greeks and the men of the
West. Manuel's policy had raised many Latins to places of
influence, and this brought to a head the accumulated hatred

of the Greeks for the 'barbarian' soldiers and merchants
whose insolence and rapacity had invaded all sections of
Byzantine life. Its fruits were shown in the accession to
power of Andronicus I Comnenus (1183-5) on a wave of
nationalist feeling, which had already found vent in a bloody
massacre of the Latins in Constantinople (1182). The
revenge of the West was the sack of Salonica by the Normans
(1185) and, when their forces approached the capital,
Andronicus, who had lost influence by his oppression of the
aristocracy, was deposed and murdered. The Comnenian
house was replaced by the incapable Angeli, and the Western
powers, further consolidated by the politic betrothal of the
heirs of the Germanic Emperor and the Sicilian kingdom,
waited only for an opportunity to humiliate Byzantium.
That opportunity was furnished by the Fourth Crusade.
The complicated issues involved cannot be discussed here.
The objective was Egypt, where Saladin had rallied the
forces of Islam. But the controlling spirit of the Crusade
was Venice, whose ships constituted the only means of
transport. With the Crusading armies was a Byzantine
prince, whose father, Isaac II Angelus, had recently been
ousted from the throne. His presence, and the influence of
Venice, turned the Crusade from its original purpose, and the
fleet sailed for Constantinople to restore the fallen ruler. A
popular anti-Latin tumult was the result. Isaac II and his
son met their deaths, and the Crusaders assaulted the capital
by land and sea.
On 13 April 1204 Constantinople fell. Three days of
pillaging and outrage followed, and the palaces and churches
of western Europe were presently filled with the stolen
treasures of the East Roman Empire. Its territories were
divided among the conquerors, Venice receiving the lion's
share. Feudal principles determined the government both
of the capital and of the petty principalities which came into
being in Greece and the Aegean. Thus the decentralizing
forces which, with the barbarian invasions, had destroyed
the fabric of Roman organization in western Europe, ex-
tended their influence to the East, erasing the last vestige of
Rome's unification of the ancient world.
H. ST. L. B. MOSS
(33)
THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
B. FROM A.D. 1204 TO A.D. 1453
I
IN the history of the Byzantine Empire the taking of
Constantinople by the Latins is an important date. It was
the first time, since its foundation, that the Byzantine capital
had fallen into the hands of the foreigners attacking it, and
the ^yjlt./?j;hjg_fiyfint.was ^^ dislocation of the monarchy.
The victorious Latins settled on the ruins '
Empire. A Latin Empire was established at Constantinople,
of which Baldwin, count of Flanders, one of the leaders of the
Crusade, was the first sovereign; a Latin Kingdom of
Thessalonica was formed for Boniface of Montferrat. Latin
States were founded in Greece, of which the principal were
the duchy of Athens, governed by the Burgundian family of
La Roche, and the principality of Morea or Achaia, which,
under the Villehardouins, was undoubtedly the most lasting
consequence in the East of the Crusade of 1204. Finally
Venice, which had for a moment thought of appropriating
the entire Byzantine heritage, established in the Mediter-
ranean a wonderful colonial empire, both by directly occupy-
ing the most important strategic points, Crete, Euboea,
Gallipoli, and a whole quarter of Constantinople, and by
enfeoffing the islands of the Archipelago to her Patrician
families. The appearance of the Eastern world was com-
pletely transformed.
Some Greek States, however, remained, and at first, in the
collapse of the Empire, they were multiplied to infinity. But
among the ambitious, eager to carve out principalities for
themselves, three only were to succeed in forming permanent
States. At Trebizond there were two princes, descendants of
the Comneni, whose empire was to continue until the middle
of the fifteenth century. In Epirus there was Michael
Angelus Comnenus, a bastard of the family of the Angeli,
who founded a 'despotat' extending from Naupactus to
Durazzo. Lastly, at Nicaea, Theodore Lascaris, son-in-law
of Alexius III Angelus, collected together what remained of
the aristocracy and the higher ranks of the clergy of Byzan-
tium, and in 1 206 had himself crowned by the Patriarch as
398* D

'Emperor of the Romans'. And in these States, where the
Latin victory had had the effect of reawakening patriotism
and national feeling, it was but natural that all the Greek
sovereigns should be filled with the same ambition; at
Nicaea, as in Epirus, they were dreaming of the recapture of
Constantinople, the holy city, from the usurpers who
occupied it. Which of the two rival Greek Empires, that of
Epirus or that of Nicaea, would realize this dream was, at
the beginning of the thirteenth century, difficult to foresee.
Faced by these two rival states, and menaced by Bulgaria,
the feeble Latin Empire was in a singularly dangerous
position. In fact during the sixty years of its miserable
existence (1204-61), its fate was, as has been said, that 'of a
city perpetually besieged and knowing full well that it is
destined to fall'. 1
Yet in the first moments of confusion which followed the
fall of Constantinople it seemed as if the Latins would
triumph everywhere. But the invasion of the Bulgarian Tsar
Johannitsa and the defeat which he inflicted on the Emperor
Baldwin at Adrianople (i 205) saved Theodore Lascaris from
what appeared certain ruin. For a time under Henry of
Flanders, the successor of Baldwin (i 205-1 6), without doubt
the best prince amongst the rulers of the Latin Empire of
Constantinople, it was possible to believe that the Latins
would consolidate their position and that a sort of tetrarchy,
formed by the four empires of Constantinople, Nicaea,
Epirus, and Bulgaria, united by marriages and alliances,
would definitely divide between them the Near East. 2 The
premature death of Henry ruined these hopes. Henceforth
Greeks and Bulgarians, allied for a joint enterprise, had their
hands free to combat the feeble Latin State.
At first it might have been thought that to Epirus would
fall the glory of re-establishing the orthodox Empire. The
despot of Epirus, Theodore (1214-30), who had succeeded
his brother Michael, had greatly extended his dominions at
the expense of the Latins and the Bulgarians, conquering
Durazzo and Corfu, Ochrida and Prilep, seizing Salonica,
where he had himself crowned Emperor, advancing into the
1 lorga, Htstoire dt la. <vte byxanttne, vol. lii, p. no.
2 Cf. lorga, op. at., vol. in, pp. 108-9.
AN OUTLINE 35
neighbourhood of Adrianople and Philippopolis and threat-
ening Constantinople. But Bulgaria, which he imprudently
attacked, was ruled by an intelligent and energetic sovereign,
John Asfin (1218-41). The Greek Empire in Europe
dashed itself unavailingly against him. Beaten and taken
prisoner at Klokotnitza (1230), Theodore was forced to
abdicate, and his brother Manuel, who succeeded him, lost
most of the conquests made by Theodore, retaining only
Salonica and Thessaly.
During this time, under Theodore Lascaris (1205-22),
and under his successor, John Vatatzes (1222-54), the most
remarkable of the sovereigns of Nicaea, the Greek Empire in
Asia was growing in strength and in extent. Master of almost
the whole of western Asia Minor, Vatatzes had retaken from
the Latins all the large islands of the Asiatic littoral, Samos,
Chios, Lesbos, Cos, and had extended his authority over
Rhodes. He then decided to enter Europe, and with the
Bulgarians as his allies attempted to take Constantinople
(1236). The capital of the feeble Latin Empire was saved
for the time by the intervention of the West, but despite this
intervention Vatatzes succeeded in re-establishing Byzantine
unity in face of the hated foreigner.
The Greek Emperor of Salonica had to renounce his
imperial title and acknowledge himself the vassal of Nicaea
(1242), and four years later Vatatzes took possession of
Salonica (1246). From the Bulgarians, who had been much
weakened since the death of John Asen, he took a large part
of Macedonia. Finally the despot of Epirus, Michael II,
accepted the suzerainty of Nicaea and promised to cede
Serbia, Albania, and Durazzo to Vatatzes (1254). As ally
of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, whose daughter he had
married, and of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, Vatatzes when
he died left the Empire of Nicaea rich, powerful, and
prosperous. The sojourn of the Byzantine monarchy in
Asia had, as it were, spiritually purified the State of Nicaea
and had given to it a national character which Constantinople
no longer possessed. 'A faithful nobility, active and pious
Emperors, had governed and led for half a century a people
of shepherds and peasants of simple manners and customs.' 1
1 lorga, ibid., p. 120.

A new spirit was born there, and it was to this spirit that the
restored Byzantine Empire was to owe for two more cen-
turies *a life which was not always humble and threatened'.
It only remained for the rulers of Nicaea to recapture
Constantinople. The Mongol invasion, which forced
Theodore II Lascaris (i 2 4-8), the son of Vatatzes, to return
to Asia, postponed for a time the Byzantine restoration.
Further, Theodore was compelled to subdue the Bulgarians,
who were seeking their revenge (1256), and later to repress
the revolt of the intriguing despot of Epirus, Michael II.
The latter, who was allied with the king of Sicily, Manfred,
and the prince of Achaia, Guillaume de Villehardouin, was
crushed, after an obstinate resistance, at the battle of
Pelagonia (1259). This was the first victory of Michael
Palaeologus, who on the death of Theodore II had usurped
the throne of Nicaea. Shortly afterwards he crossed the
Hellespont and took from the Latins all that they still
possessed outside Constantinople, whilst, by the treaty of
Nymphaeum (1261), his able diplomacy secured the alliance
of the Genoese, who were jealous of the Venetians. Hence-
forth the Greeks only needed an opportunity and the capital
was won. This opportunity was given to the Caesar Alexius
Strategopoulus on 25 July 1261. The Latin Emperor
Baldwin II, followed by the Latin Patriarch and the Venetian
settlers, fled without any attempt at resistance, and on 15
August 1261 Michael Palaeologus made his formal entry
into 'the city protected by God'. Kneeling before the Golden
Gate, the Emperor and his soldiers listened to the thirteen
prayers composed by Acropolites as a thanksgiving to God.
Then, preceded by the image of the Virgin, the imperial
procession went on foot to the monastery of Studius. Michael
then mounted his horse, and rode amidst popular acclama-
tion to St. Sophia, there to renew his thanksgiving to the
Lord; this done, he took up his residence in the imperial
palace. Some days later, in the 'Great Church', he solemnly
reinstated the orthodox Patriarch, and in words of deep
emotion expressed his faith in the destiny of the Empire.
The Byzantine monarchy seemed to be reborn under the
national dynasty of the Palaeologi, which was to govern it
for nearly two centuries. Popular enthusiasm, intoxicated by
AN OUTLINE 37
this unhoped for success, hailed in the new reign the sure
promise of a glorious age.
II
In actual fact this restored Byzantine State was but the
pitiful remains of an empire. The Latins were driven from
Constantinople; but they were still masters of the duchy of
Athens and the principality of Achaia; the Venetians still
held Euboea, Crete, and most of the islands of the Archipe-
lago ; the Genoese occupied Chios and had important colonies
on the coast of Anatolia and on the Black Sea. Elsewhere,
side by side with the reconstituted Empire of Constantinople,
other Greek States existed which were to be feared as rivals :
the empire of Trebizond in Asia, the despotat of Epirus
in Europe. And above all, confronting the old Byzantine
Empire, other States, young and vigorous, made their
appearance on the stage of history and were quite ready to
contend with Byzantium for the hegemony that it had once
possessed. There were the Bulgarians who, in the course of
the thirteenth century, under great sovereigns such as the
three Johannitsas and John Asfin, had risen to prominence in
the Balkan peninsula. There were the Serbians who, under
Stefan Neman] a (1151-95) and his immediate successors,
had established themselves as an independent State with its
own national dynasty and its own Church freed from the
authority of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and who
were to become, in the fourteenth century, the great power
in the Balkans. In Asia there were the Ottoman Turks, who
were daily becoming a greater menace to the territories
which the Greeks still retained in Anatolia. Thus with
diminished territory, labouring under financial exhaustion
and military weakness, and above all having no longer 'that
moral energy which had so vigorously maintained itself in
the isolation of Nicaea', 1 the Byzantine Empire, in spite of
the efforts of several great sovereigns, sank slowly towards
its ruin, Michael VIII (1261-82), John VI Cantacuzenus
(1347-55), and Manuel II (1391-1425) were alike unable
to arrest the decline. In fact, during the last two centuries of
its existence, there was no longer anything to be found in
1 lorga, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 155.

Constantinople 'but a brilliant sovereign fallen in prestige
and splendid in externals, ceaselessly squabbling monks,
and foreigners exploiting the riches of the State'. 1 And the
situation was all the more tragic and lamentable since to
external dangers were added internal difficulties political,
religious, social, and economic which were, in fact, insur-
mountable.
Michael VIII Palaeologus made a heroic effort to put
things to rights, but by his surrender to the Papacy he did
but awake the bitter opposition of his own subjects.
From the day of his accession Michael VIII had shown
his intention of reconquering from the Greeks as well as
from the Latins the provinces that had been taken from the
Empire. He forced the prince of Achaia, who had fallen
into his hands at the battle of Pelagonia, to cede to him, as
the price of his freedom, the three strongholds of Monem-
vasia, Mistra, and Maina, and thus he regained a footing in
Prankish Morea (at the end of 1261). He seized Janina
from the Epirots (1264); he recovered from the Bulgarians
Mesembria, Anchialus, Philippopolis, and Stenimachus,
while, to ensure the defence of the northern frontier, a
march of Adrianople was created. The Emperor reoccupied
several of the islands of the Archipelago belonging to the
Venetians ; he repressed the insolence of the Genoese whom
he forced to leave Constantinople and settle in Heraclea.
At the same time, very skilfully, by a whole series of family
alliances, he brought into subordination to Byzantium the
sovereigns of Bulgaria and Epirus, and even the powerful
Tartar Khan Nogai, whose support he secured by giving to
him in marriage his natural daughter Maria. A little later
(1272) he once more placed the Bulgarian and Serbian
Churches under the authority of a Greek prelate. These
were great successes, and already at Constantinople the
moment was foreseen when the despotat of Epirus still
regarded as part and parcel of the Roman Empire should
be recovered in its entirety.
But very soon Michael VIII came into collision with the
hostility of the West. The Papacy and Venice had in fact by
no means abandoned the hope of restoring the Latin Empire,
1 lorga, op. cit., vol xii, p. 157.
AN OUTLINE 39
and the Emperor Baldwin II had been favourably received
at the court of Manfred, the king of Sicily. The situation
became still more grave when Charles of Anjou became
master of southern Italy (1266). In 1267, by the treaty of
Viterbo, the new sovereign forced Baldwin II to surrender
to him all his rights over the Latin Empire and married his
daughter to the son of the fallen Emperor. By the marriage
of his son to the heiress of Villehardouin he made sure of
the suzerainty and eventual possession of the principality of
Achaia. Soon his ambitious designs on the East and his
policy towards Byzantium became even more clearly mani-
fest. He seized Corfu (1267), sent troops into the Pelopon-
nesus, occupied Durazzo and the coast of Epirus (1272),
and even assumed the title of King of Albania. At the same
time he allied himself with all the enemies of the Empire in
the Balkans. Bulgarian and Serbian ambassadors appeared
at Naples; the despot of Epirus and the prince of Great
Wallachia promised their support to the Angevin sovereign.
In this terrible crisis Michael VIII showed his diplomatic
skill by preventing a general coalition of the West against
Byzantium. At first, to obviate this danger, he had thought
of soliciting the help of St. Louis, and had sent ambassadors
to ask for his intervention 'in support of the reunion of the
Greek and Roman Churches*. After the death of the king
he adopted the same policy in dealing with the Papacy.
Adroitly taking advantage of the anxiety of the sovereign
pontiff, who had no wish to see an unlimited increase in the
power of Charles of Anjou, and playing upon the constant
desire of the Papacy to re-establish the authority of Rome
over the Greek Church, he concluded with Gregory X, at
the Council of Lyons (1274), the agreement by which the
Eastern Church was again subjected to the Papacy. But in
exchange Michael VIII obtained the assurance that Con-
stantinople should be his without dispute, that he should be
left a free hand in the East, and that, to reconquer territory
that had once been part of the Empire, he should be allowed
to fight even the Latins themselves. Thus, in 1274, he took
the offensive in Epirus against the Angevin troops; he inter-
vened in Thessaly where he besieged Neopatras (1276); he
fought the Venetians in Euboea and made further advances

in Achaia, where the death of Guillaume de Villehardouin
(1278) had greatly weakened the Prankish principality.
Charles of Anjou, kept very busy at this moment by his
difficulties with Genoa, and secretly thwarted by the policy of
the Papacy, looked on impotently at the triumphs of Byzan-
tium.
Unfortunately the Greeks' inveterate hostility towards
Rome defeated the Emperor's ingenious schemes. It was in
vain that Michael VIII, in order to force the acceptance of
the Union upon the Byzantine clergy, replaced the uncom-
promising Patriarch Joseph by John Bekkos (1275), a
prudent man who was of the opinion that one could attain
truth without first insulting one's opponents, and who con-
sidered that many of the points under discussion between
Byzantium and Rome were only c the sound of poor words'.
A violent opposition spread throughout the East. At
Constantinople and in the monasteries of Mount Athos
impassioned pamphlets were published against the union
with the Latins. Outside the Empire all the adversaries of
Michael VIII pronounced against his religious policy. A
council held in Thessaly condemned the Emperor and his
Patriarch; in Epirus, in Bulgaria, in Serbia, and even in
distant Jerusalem the censure was decisive and unanimous.
A veritable schism was produced within the Eastern Church,
and John Bekkos, defeated, was compelled finally, at the
death of Michael, to abandon the patriarchal see. The
demands of Pope Martin IV, who was strongly attached to
Charles of Anjou, still further aggravated the situation.
Michael VIII had hoped to mitigate the antagonism between
the two worlds; he had only made it more acute and more
formidable.
Moreover Charles of Anjou did not disarm. He reor-
ganized the forces with which he dominated Epirus (1278),
won over the Papacy to his views, and formed, 'for the
recovery of the Empire of Romania which Palaeologus was
withholding from them', a league with Rome and Venice
which was joined by the Serbians, the Bulgarians, and even
by the Greeks of Thessaly and Epirus. The Byzantine
Emperor everywhere opposed this alliance with determina-
tion. He defeated the Angevin army at Berat; and above
AN OUTLINE 41
all, to crush the ambition of Charles of Anjou, he helped to
prepare the Sicilian Vespers (March 1282). In the end he
did thereby, it is true, succeed in holding the West in check,
but, when he died in 1282, he left the Empire in an anxious
situation. Too exclusively preoccupied by his Latin policy,
he had been neglectful of Asia; the danger from the Turks
was becoming more and more menacing. By allowing, for
financial reasons, the Empire's system of defence to become
disorganized and by transporting to Europe the best Asiatic
troops, Michael VIII at the end of his reign, in the words of a
Byzantine chronicler, had lost almost the whole of Anatolia.
Thus his undeniable successes were dearly bought. And
although his reign seemed to mark for the Empire the
beginning of a renaissance, decadence was to follow, swift
and irremediable. It has been said, not without reason, that
Michael Palaeologus 'was the first and also the last powerful
Emperor of restored Byzantium'.
Ill
The sovereigns who succeeded Michael VIII were, in fact,
nearly all mediocre: and this was a primary cause of the
monarchy's weakness. Andronicus II (1282-1328) was a
well-educated prince, eloquent, devoted to learning, and very
pious, but weak, and susceptible to every influence, especially
to that of his second wife, Yolande de Montferrat. He was
devoid of any political qualities. It has been justly said of
him that he 'had been destined by nature to become a pro-
fessor of theology; chance placed him on the throne of
Byzantium'. Andronicus III (1328-41) was intelligent, but
frivolous, restless, and fond of his pleasures. After him the
throne passed to his son John V, a child of scarcely eleven
years, and this minority was the cause of prolonged distur-
bances, which had at least the happy result of bringing to the
throne John VI Cantacuzenus (13475$}) the only really
remarkable prince that Byzantium had in the fourteenth
century. He made an energetic attempt to restore the
Empire. Too intelligent not to understand that the glorious
days of domination could return no more, he realized that
'what Byzantium had lost whether in material power, terri-
tory, finance, military strength, or economic prosperity,

could be regained in two ways; through the Byzantine
civilization which continued to preserve and develop the Hel-
lenic inheritance, and through the oecumenical sovereignty
of its Church over the whole of the East 1 . 1 Because of this
his stormy reign is of real historic importance. But Cantacu-
zenus only governed for a few years. In 1355 John V
Palaeologus, whom he had put into the background, over-
threw the usurper; but his long reign (1341-91) only
precipitated the decadence of the Empire. And although his
son Manuel II (1391-1425) was a distinguished prince of
whom it could be said 'that in more favourable times he
would have saved the Empire ', it was now only too clear that
the Empire could no longer be saved. Manuel II and after
him his son John VIII (1425-48) could only devote them-
selves to the utmost of their ability to postponing the inevitable
catastrophe. The last emperor of the dynasty, Constantine
XI (1448-53), could do no more than die a heroic death in
defence of his capital when the walls were stormed by the
Turks. The fact was that even men of ability were unable to
arrest the decadence; circumstances were stronger than their
good intentions. There was no longer any remedy for the
conditions both external and internal which threatened the
Empire with ruin.
In face of the dangers from without, domestic unity,
tranquillity, and strength were essential. The period of the
Palaeologi, on the contrary, was full of civil strife, of
political, religious, and social struggles. First there were
incessant wars for the possession of the throne. Against
Andronicus II rose up his grandson, the future Andronicus
III, whom the old Emperor sought to deprive of his rights
to the throne, and for several years war laid waste the
Empire (132 1-8); the final result was the fall of Andronicus
IL Then during the regency of Anne of Savoy there was
the usurpation of John Cantacuzenus (1341) followed by
the six years of conflict (1341-7) which divided the Byzan-
tine world and ended in the triumph of Cantacuzenus.
During the latter half of the fourteenth century the Empire
suffered from a succession of revolutions, and the serious
thing in all these civil wars was that the opposing parties
1 lorga, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 193.
AN OUTLINE 43
without scruple called to their aid external enemies, Serbians,
Bulgarians, Turks, Genoese, and Venetians, thus opening
the door to those very nations which were contemplating the
destruction of the monarchy. And this shows clearly to
what extent all patriotism, all political sense even, had
disappeared in these conflicts, the result of ambitions which
had lost all scruple.
This was not all, for the Empire was further troubled by
social and religious quarrels. About the middle of the four-
teenth century a profound social agitation was disturbing
the monarchy. The lower classes rose up against the aristo-
cracy of birth and of wealth. At Constantinople, at Adria-
nople, and elsewhere as well, the populace attacked the rich
and massacred them. At Salonica the party of the Zealots
filled the city with terror and bloodshed, and the town, in
fact, became an independent republic, which maintained
itself for seven years (1342-9); its tempestuous history is
one of the most curious episodes in the life of the Empire of
the fourteenth century.
This was the victory of 'democracy in rags'. The dispute
of the hesychasts was the victory of 'democracy in a cowl'.
. . , For ten years (1341-51) this dispute disturbed and
divided the Empire, bringing oriental mysticism, repre-
sented by the monks of Mount Athos and their defender
Gregory Palamas, into conflict with Latin rationalism, the
champions of which, Barlaam and Akindynus,,were brought
up on St. Thomas Aquinas and trained in die methods of
Western scholasticism. And since Cantacuzenus sided with
Athos, just as he sided with the aristocracy, the struggle, in
appearance purely theological, soon became political and
thus added to the confusion.
But the question of the union of the Churches caused the
dying world of Byzantium still more trouble. From the
time of Michael VIII the East Roman Government had
realized the political advantage of friendship with the
Papacy, which would thus secure for the Empire that
support of the West which it so sorely needed. From this
had resulted the agreement of Lyons. In order to conciliate
public opinion Andronicus II had thought it wise to
denounce the treaty concluded with Rome. But political

necessity forced the Emperor's hand. To combat the Turkish
menace the help of the West was for the Empire indispen-
sable. To procure it John V went to Italy and was even
solemnly converted to Roman Catholicism (1369); Manuel
II negotiated with Rome for the same end (H 1 ?)- And
lastly, at the Council of Florence (1439), John VIII signed
the agreement with Eugenius IV which put an end to the
schism between the two Churches. But imperial policy still
came into conflict with the stubborn resistance of the Byzan-
tine clergy, who could not bring themselves to accept the
supremacy of Rome, with the fierce opposition of the national-
ist Orthodox party, who were convinced that the Latins,
in spite of their promises, were seeking only the 'destruc-
tion of the Greek city, race and name', and with popular
hatred, which was fanned by violent controversialists who
represented all sympathy for Latin ideas as a betrayal of
the Church. In vain did John VIII and his successor Con-
stantine XI attempt to impose by force a union which was
made even more difficult by the tactless demands of the
Papacy. Clamours of discontent were heard even under the
dome of St. Sophia itself (1452). On the eve of the cata-
strophe which was to overwhelm Constantinople, in spite of
the tragic situation of the Empire, the question of the
Union seemed to be the essential problem, and some promi-
nent folk did not hesitate to declare that they 'would rather
see the Turkish turban reigning in Byzantium than the
Latin mitre'.
In addition to all this there was the financial distress. In
an Empire ruined by war and possessing ever less and less
territory, taxation no longer yielded adequate resources; the
treasury was empty, and the Government was reduced to
debasing the currency and, in order to procure a little money,
to pawning the crown jewels with the Venetian bankers.
The Empire no longer had an army with which to defend
itself, and it was forced to have recourse to the services of
mercenaries. On sea there was the same weakness, Michael
VIII had attempted to reconstitute the fleet. His successors
considered it a useless expense, and from this time the
command of the Eastern seas passed to the squadrons of
Venice and Genoa, who also dominated the whole economic
AN OUTLINE 45
life of the monarchy. The Empire stood at bay, and the
most surprising thing is perhaps that it should have lasted
so long, especially if the external perils by which it was
threatened are taken into consideration.
After the death of the Tsar John As6n (1241) the Bulgarian
Empire became much weaker, and thus less dangerous to
Byzantium. But in its place a great State had arisen in the
Balkans. Serbia, under ambitious princes such as Stephen
Milutin (1282-1321) and Stephen Dushan (1331-55))
boldly contended with Byzantium for supremacy in the
peninsula. Milutin, relying on his alliance with the Epirots
and the Angevins, seized Upper Macedonia from the
Greeks, and by the occupation of the districts of Seres and
Christopolis gained access to the Archipelago; Andronicus
II was obliged to recognize all his conquests (1298) and to
give him in marriage his daughter Simonis. The defeat
which the Serbians inflicted on the Bulgarians at Velboudj
(1330) further increased their power. Dushan could thus
dream of greater things. An able general and a skilful
diplomat on good terms with Venice and the Papacy, he
began by completing the conquest of Macedonia, where the
Byzantines now held no more than Salonica and Chalcidice,
and where the Serbian frontier on the east reached the
Maritza. He seized part of Albania from the Angevins, and
part of Epirus from the Greek despot. In 1346, in the
cathedral of Skoplie, he had himself crowned 'Emperor and
Autocrat of the Serbians and Romans'. The Serbian Empire
now extended from the Danube to the Aegean and the
Adriatic, and its ruler was recognized as the most powerful
prince in the Balkans. In 1355 he attempted to seize Con-
stantinople. He had already taken Adrianople, and con-
quered Thrace, when he suddenly died unfortunately for
Christendom in sight of the city which he had hoped to
make his capital. After his death his Empire soon disinte-
grated. But from this struggle which had lasted for half
a century Byzantium emerged in a singularly weakened
condition. In 1355 the Venetian envoy at Constantinople
wrote to his Senate: This Empire is in a bad state, even, to
be truthful, in a desperate one, as much because of the Turks
who molest it sorely on all sides, as because of the Prince and

his government with which there is general discontent; the
people would prefer the rule of the Latins, mentioning as
their first choice our seigniory and commune, if they could
obtain it. For in truth they cannot remain as they are for
anything in the world/
The Venetians and Genoese did, in fact, occupy in the
dying Empire a place that was daily more important. The
former, driven from Constantinople in 1261, had soon
returned, and, having lost hardly any of their possessions in
the Archipelago, were all-powerful in the eastern Mediter-
ranean. The Genoese, established since 1267 at Galata on
the Golden Horn, with settlements on the coast of Asia
Minor, at Chios, Lesbos, and Phocaea, and on the Black
Sea at Caffa and Tana, were no less to be feared. And
although the rivalry of the two great maritime cities often
brought about strife between them, they were united in
exploiting the Empire and in profiting from its distress,
'closing to the Romans', as a Byzantine historian wrote, 'all
the maritime trade routes'. Confident in their strength, the
two republics treated the Empire as if they had conquered it,
defying the Byzantine Emperors and imposing their will
upon them. When they thought they had a grievance, they
did not hesitate to attack Constantinople itself. Involved in
all the internal affairs of the Empire, they spread trouble
everywhere in the capital, provoking revolutions, and inter-
vening on every hand. The Byzantines, although angered,
bore with these indignities, while the dominating influence
of the Latins was more and more completely pervading the
Empire, yet instead of borrowing from the West 'the virtues
of work, economy and enterprise', they permitted, almost
without resistance, the completion of the economic ruin of
their country.
But it was from Asia that the most terrible danger came.
From the end of the thirteenth century the Osmanli Turks,
who, after having been subjects of the Seljuk sultans, had
gained their independence owing to the Mongol invasion,
began to attack the Byzantine possessions in Anatolia. In
vain had Michael VIII attempted to stop them; in vain in
order to resist their advance had Andronicus II taken the
Catalan Grand Company into his pay. Commanded by
AN OUTLINE 47
energetic leaders, Osman (1289-1326) and Or khan (1326-
59), in less than half a century the Turks had made them-
selves masters of nearly the whole of Asia Minor. Brusa fell
into their hands in 13263 Nicaea surrendered in 1329, and
Nicomedia in 1337. The fleet built up by the Ottomans
ravaged the islands of the Archipelago, and the Crusade
which in 1343 reconquered Smyrna produced no permanent
results. Already the Turks were hoping to settle in Europe.
Soon, summoned by the Byzantines themselves, they crossed
the Hellespont. John Cantacuzenus, who had solicited the
alliance of the Ottomans and given his daughter in marriage
to the son of the Sultan Orkhan, allowed the Turks to estab-
lish themselves in Gallipoli in 1354. The Balkan peninsula
was open to them. Soon they had occupied Didymotica
and Tzouroulon (1357), and then a large part of Thrace,
including Philippopolis and Adrianople, which the Sultan
Murad I (1359-89) made his capital (1365). Constanti-
nople, isolated, encircled, and cut off from the rest of the
Empire, appeared only to await the final blow which seemed
inevitable.
Two circumstances prolonged the existence of the Byzan-
tine State for a century. Murad I next turned to attack the
other Christian States in the Balkans, crushing the southern
Serbians and the Bulgarians on the Maritza (1371), invading
Albania (1385), and destroying the Serbian Empire at the
battle of Kossovo (1389). In his relations with the Byzan-
tines he insisted only that John V should acknowledge him-
self as his vassal and, after having for a moment threatened
Salonica (1374), he was content to surround Constantinople
with an ever closer investment.
Bajazet (1389-1402) from the moment of his accession
appeared inclined to act more vigorously; so much so that, as
early as 1390, the Venetians were wondering if he would not
very soon be master of Constantinople. However, in spite of
the prolonged attack (139 15) which he made on the Greek
capital, in spite even of the disastrous defeat which, at the
battle of Nicopolis (1396), was inflicted on the Crusade
undertaken by the West to save Byzantium, the Sultan failed ;
the valour of Marshal Boucicaut, sent by Charles VI to the
Greek Emperor, protected Constantinople against the

attacks of the Turks for two more years (1397-9)-
situation remained singularly critical. Manuel II decided to
go to the West to ask for help (1402). He was courteously
welcomed at Venice, Paris, and London; but he obtained
only fair promises. Happily for the Greeks, at this precise
moment a serious event took place in the East. The Mongol
invasion and the resounding defeat which Timur inflicted on
the Turks at Angora (1402) gave the Empire a few years of
respite. Bajazet had fallen into the hands of his conqueror;
his sons fought with each other for the succession, and
Byzantine diplomacy, seconded by the personal influence of
the Emperor Manuel, skilfully took advantage of their
quarrels. The existence of the Empire was thus prolonged
for another half century.
But, in 1421, Murad II (1421-51), having triumphed
over the other pretenders, again took the offensive. He
unsuccessfully attacked Constantinople, which resisted
heroically (1422); he captured Salonica (1430), which in
1423 the Venetians had bought from the Greeks; one of his
generals penetrated into the Morea (1423) where the Greek
despotat of Mistra remained one of the parts of the Empire
which had suffered least from invasion ; he himself led his
forces into Bosnia and Albania, and imposed the payment of
tribute upon the prince of Wallachia. In spite of the heroic
efforts of John Hunyadi atid Scanderbeg, the Ottomans
followed up their advantage. The situation was so serious
that eventually even the West was alarmed. In consequence
of the visit of John VIII to Italy, Pope Eugenius IV preached
a new Crusade; but the expedition met with utter disaster r.t
the battle of Varna (1444). It was the last attempt made by
the West to save the Empire of Byzantium in its agony;
henceforth Constantinople was left to its fate.
Murad II followed up his successes. The duchy of
Athens submitted to the Turks; the principality of the
Morea, invaded in 1446, was forced to acknowledge itself
their tributary; John Hunyadi was defeated at the second
battle of Kossovo, Constantinople alone, behind the formid-
able defence of its walls, appeared impregnable. Ever since
his accession in 1451 it had been the chief ambition of
Muhammad II to capture the city. On 5 April 1453, with
AN OUTLINE 49
an immense army supported by heavy artillery, he marched
against the Byzantine capital. On 29 May 1453 the city
was taken by storm ; at the Gate of St. Romanus the Emperor
Constantine XI died heroically, thus shedding a last ray of
beauty on the closing scene of Byzantine history. The next
day Muhammad II entered Constantinople and in St. Sophia
gave thanks to the God of Islam.
IV
Thus ended the Byzantine Empire, after more than a
thousand years of often glorious existence. But what should
be remembered for this is as unexpected as it is remarkable
is that, in spite of the almost desperate external situation,
in spite of internal troubles, the period of the Palaeologi still
occupies an important place in the history of Byzantine
civilization. Although Constantinople had ceased to be one
of the centres of European politics, it remained nevertheless
one of the most beautiful and renowned cities in the world,
the metropolis of Orthodoxy and Hellenism, and the centre
of a magnificent literary and artistic renaissance, which
clothed the dying city with a glorious light. In this period
can be observed a new spirit, more comprehensive and more
humane, which distinguishes these cultured Byzantines of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and makes them the
forerunners of Humanism the circle of John Cantacuzenus
or the University world are proofs of this. Here, too, in this
city which had so long claimed to inherit the Roman tradi-
tion, it is important to notice the surprising revival of
memories of the past of Hellas, and to observe the birth of a
Greek patriotism, which, on the eve of the final catastrophe,
might seem only a vain illusion, but which is none the less
an expression of one of the ideas that eventually led to the
restoration of modern Greece in the nineteenth century.
And lastly one must not forget that artistic renaissance, the
originality of which is proved by the remarkable works of art
which it produced, and through which Byzantium exerted,
for the last time, a powerful influence over the whole of the
Eastern wotld.
But Constantinople was by no means the sole centre of
this civilization. At Mistra, the capital of the Greek despotat
3982 v

of Morea, there was to be found a brilliant, artistic, and
cultured Court, not unlike the Italian Courts of the fifteenth
century, a real home of Hellenism and Humanism, and
rendered illustrious by the name of Gemistus Pletho. On
the Black Sea Trebizond, the birthplace of Bessarion, was,
under the dynasty of the Comneni, another centre of Hellenic
civilization. The despotat of the Morea and the Empire of
Trebizond survived the fall of Constantinople by only a few
years. The first was conquered by the Turks in 1460, and
the second succumbed in 1461. With the latter disappeared
for nearly four centuries the last remembrance of Byzantine
greatness. But it was no small glory for this dying Empire
that it was able 'to summon all its spiritual energies at the
moment of the final collapse and thus to fall in sunset
radiance".
CHARLES DIEHL
II
THE ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE
EMPIRE
POPULATION, AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE
I. POPULATION
Two English writers, E. A. Foord 1 and W. G. Holmes, 2
are, to my knowledge, the only historians who have attempted
to estimate the entire population of the Empire. But their
calculations refer to the end of the fourth and the beginning
of the fifth century before the distinctively Byzantine form
of the Empire had come into being. Moreover, the figures
that these writers give are entirely conjectural and therefore
worthy of little confidence. The truth is that the elements
which might serve as a basis for a scientific calculation are
lacking. One can indicate only what was the demographic
evolution of the Empire and furnish a few data concerning the
population of its capital. 3
^ A ^^
The population of Western Europe diminished very
greatly after the break-up of the Roman Empire, Did a
similar phenomenon occur in the provinces which the Greek
Emperors succeeded in saving from the Arabs and from the
northern barbarians? If we consider the effects of the bar-
barian invasions and of piracy, of epidemics and famines
and of the growth of monasticism, it is probable that we
should answer that question in the affirmative.
The invasions of the Muslims and the Bulgars, accom-
panied, as they were, by massacre, mass enslavement, and
the headlong flight of the population, were a terrible scourge.
It is true that the fortified coast-cities and the islands were
often spared these horrors, but they suffered from the not
1 The Byzantme Empire (London, A. & C. Black, 1911), p. 10.
2 The Age of Justmian and Theodora (and ed., 2 vols , London, Bell, 1912),
vol. i, p. 137.
3 Cf. A. Andr&des, *De la population de Constantinople sous les empereurs
byzantins* (in the statistical review Metron, vol i, no. 2, 1920). In the presen
t
chapter no attempt will be made to go back farther than the seventh century. It
would be futile to include in our calculations provinces later lost to the Empir
e
or, on the other hand, to consider the period after the twelfth century when the
Byzantine State retained but the shadow of its former greatness.
52 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

less formidable scourge of piracy. 1 When the Arabs estab-
lished themselves in Crete, even cities as large as Salonica
were sacked.
The Greek Church has placed in the first rank of the
evils that it prays Heaven to avert from the faithful pesti-
lence and famine (loimos and limos). This^ conjunction of
words is not due to a mere love of alliteration. Both evils
were equally formidable and constantly menaced the popula-
tion of the Empire. One can appreciate the extent of their
ravages by a single instance: in the reign of Constantine V
the pestilence so greatly reduced the population of Constan-
tinople that the Emperor did not hesitate to fill up the gap
by a forcible settlement in the capital of folk from several
provinces, chiefly from the Peloponnesus. The pestilence
of A.D. 746-7 was, in point of fact, the most terrible epidemic
known to medieval Hellenism, but there were many others.
Similarly, famines, general or local, were frequent.
'Celibacy', says St. Jerome, 'populates Heaven. 1 This is
beyond dispute. But it does not populate our earth, espe-
cially when practised on so vast a scale as it was in the Byzan-
tine Empire. The attraction exercised by the monasteries
upon all classes of society, from the members of the imperial
family down to the lowliest peasant, was indescribable.
Undoubtedly the reaction against this evil contributed not a
little to the Iconoclast movement. But the persecutions of
the monks under the Isaurian and Amorian dynasties were
of small effect. Even before the restoration of icon-worship
the Lives of the Saints give examples of whole families
embracing the monastic life. And later on, the enormous
growth in wealth of the monasteries added material tempta-
tions to the hope of celestial rewards.
The population of the Empire would, indeed, have
suffered a very large reduction, if a series of circumstances
had not diminished the effects of the factors which we have
just enumerated, and if a series of favourable factors had not
in turn played their part in counteracting these effects. Thus
for many centuries the 'themes' the frontier provinces
1 So widespread was this evil that a tariff of ransoms was established (cf. Th.
Reinach, Un control de manage du temps de Bank le Bulgaroctone, Melanges
Schlumberger, Paris, 1924, vrol. i, pp. 118-32).
ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 53

both in Asia Minor and in Europe were protected from
invasion, while during the prosperous reigns it was the
Byzantines who invaded foreign territories. Even piracy
was repeatedly restricted, notably when Crete was delivered
from the Arabs.
Further, famine, which was one of the most terrible
scourges of western Europe during the Middle Ages,
seems to have had much less serious effects in the Eastern
Empire, thanks to the measures taken for the revictualling
of the cities and to the aid distributed in emergencies to the
peasantry.
Among positive factors tending to increase the population
it will suffice to mention three :
(i) Statistics teach us that the population increases in
countries where there is no birth-control and where the
prosperity of commerce and industry favours the develop-
ment of urban centres. Now, at about the time of the down-
fall of Paganism, the voluntary restriction of births, which
had been so prevalent both in Greece and in Italy, ceases.
In all classes of society large families appear to become the
rule; Christianity established afresh the sanctity of marriage
and thus served to compensate for the spread of celibacy
caused by monasticism. On the other hand, industry and
commerce were more highly developed in the Empire of the
East than in any other medieval State. Also the number of
cities was very large. Benjamin of Tudela found them on his
route in almost every day's journey; the Golden Bull of the
Comneni conceded to the Venetians the right of establish-
ing "privileged communities in twenty-eight provincial
towns, 1 while other sources reveal the existence of a large
number of towns not mentioned either by the Jewish traveller
or in the Venetian charter. 2 This would indicate a very
considerable urban population, doubtless exceeding several
millions, especially if one bears in mind that the population
of Constantinople in its palmy days cannot have been under
500,000 souls and occasionally, perhaps, was in excess of
that figure.
1 Nine in Asia, nineteen in Europe.
2 This fact merits special attention, because often mention is made only of
Salonica and of Trebizond, which were merely the most important provincial citie
s.

(ii) The loss of numerous provinces to Arabs and bar-
barians brought about, by way of compensation, a rein-
forcement in wealth and population within the remaining
provinces. The commerce of Tyre and Alexandria, says
Gibbon, 1 was transferred to Constantinople, and Christians
from Africa, Syria, Armenia, and the Danubian districts
flocked to reinforce the population of the Empire. 2
(iii) Gibbon praises the imperial Government for having
utilized these refugees for the creation of new towns and for
the cultivation of deserted lands, and still more for having
gradually subjected to the laws of Church and State the
barbarian tribes which had forced their way vi et armis into
the Empire. This raises the important question of the
imperial policy in home-colonization. Prof. P. Boissonade
has ably outlined the essential features of this policy. 3 He
has shown that it employed a great variety of methods.
Asylum was afforded to the Christian refugees; lands were
distributed to soldiers, accompanied by the obligation of
military service; to the provinces which it was desired to
repopulate the Government transported either religious
dissenters (e.g. Manichaeans, Jacobites, and Paulicians) or
persons of foreign race (Avars, Bulgars, and Turks), while
slaves were emancipated on condition that they would
colonize deserted districts. Sometimes individuals, at other
times large masses, were thus settled in depopulated dis-
tricts. 4 This policy of colonization was extended to nearly
all parts of the Empire, including Italy, but its results were
felt chiefly in the Balkan peninsula.
From all these facts one may conclude that the diminution
of population, which is recorded in the provinces of the
Western Empire, did not extend to the Eastern Empire, or,
at least, not in anything like the same degree. It is, however,
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 53 (ed. J. B. Bury, vol. vi,
1898, p. 69).
a This movement continued nearly to the end. Also, in the ninth century many
Christians of Sicily and southern Italy found refuge in Greece.
a Le travail dans r Europe chrtitenne au Mayen-lgc V'-XV* necks (Paris, Alcan,
1921), pp, 40-1.
* Thus, Justinian II at one time settled 70,000 Slav prisoners in Asia Minor.
On another occasion 14,000 Turkish prisoners were established as settlers in
Macedonia.

impossible to estimate even approximately the number of the
inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire.
II. AGRICULTURE
The agricultural question presents itself under a double
aspect. The one, which one might call the legal aspect,
concerns the form of land tenure. The other is the economic
aspect, in other words, the nature and the conditions of
agricultural production. Of these two aspects the latter is
one of the most obscure; but even as to the first there is
much less information than is generally supposed.
On the strength of various imperial constitutions pro-
mulgated during a period of about ten centuries, it has
frequently been contended that landed property underwent
the following evolution. Concentrated at first in the hands
of great landowners in the early days of the Empire, the land
is seen, in the time of the Iconoclasts, to be divided between
the agriculturists and the peasant communities ; later there
is a reversion to the earlier system of large estates. The
struggle for the protection of small holdings, which was
carried on vigorously from the days of Romanus I Leca-
penus to those of Basil II, finally ended in failure. This
summary is exact only in general outline ; the dates of the
beginning and close of each of the periods are very uncertain
and neither form of ownership (great or small) ever pre-
vailed absolutely over the other. Thus, apart from the fact
that we do not know whether the Rural Law really dates
from the time of the Isaurians, it seems certain that great
landed estates continued to exist while this law, which con-
cerns only the small holdings, was still in force. And, on
the other hand, from the time of Justinian to the period of
the Palaeologi, small holdings seem never to have com-
pletely disappeared. Further, though we know why small
1 Formerly Professor Andr&des had conjectured that under the Comneni the
population of the Empire may have numbered from 10 to 15 millions; later he
felt that it was safer to refrain from attempting any estimate. See his paper on
*La Population de 1'Empire byzantin', in Bidletm de VInstitut arcktologique bulg
are,
vol. ix (1935)* pp. 117-26, which was read at the Byzantine Congress in Sofia
(September 1934).

holdings were protected by the central Government, the
causes which led at first to the development of the system
of small holdings and later to the disappearance of that
system are much less clear. The struggle against the landed
aristocracy undertaken by the Macedonian dynasty, and
before them by certain other Emperors, is generally ex-
plained by reference to military, political, and fiscal con-
siderations. If the 'military lands' were swallowed up in the
large private estates, then the Empire would be compelled
to maintain an army of mercenaries which would prove both
costly and unreliable.
The great landed proprietors, who had become veritable
'feudal' barons, frequently rebelled and occasionally claimed
the imperial throne. It was important to prevent the growth
of their power, while the East Roman State found that it was
much easier to collect from small holders than from large
landowners the various taxes and the numberless contribu-
tions in kind.
To these reasons one must add another, which the
materialistic interpretation of history too often overlooks,
although it is clearly apparent in the text of the laws.
Byzantine society was impregnated with the spirit of
Christianity. The Government felt itself in duty bound to
protect the weak and humble. It should be noted that
Romanus I Lecapenus, who led the struggle against the
'powerful', was himself distinguished by his philanthropic
activity.
One can only conjecture how it was that the system of
moderate and small holdings came to be prevalent in the
eighth century. This fact was formerly explained as due to
the substitution of Slav settlers for the original cultivators.
But this 'Slav' theory, which moreover could apply only to a
part of the Empire, has been abandoned by the Slavs them-
selves. The tendency to-day is to believe that the great
diminution in the number of large estates (they never
disappeared entirely) was due to the terrible invasions in
Europe of the barbarians of the north and in Asia of the
Persians and the Saracens, and also perhaps to the oppressive
administration of Phocas and of Justinian II. Concurrently,
the composition of the agricultural class was completely

altered by the migrations into the Empire of populations
from beyond its frontiers and from province to province
migrations which were partly due to the policy of internal
colonization, of which we have already spoken. Conse-
quently in nearly all the provinces (even those which
suffered comparatively little from the invasions) one saw
easant immigrants arriving who were dependent upon no
>rd of the soil. At about the same period the administration
of the Empire assumed a military character, 1 and the organi-
zation of a provincial army composed of nearly 60,000 holders
of 'military lands' must have entailed a parcelling-out of the
vast domains which in one way or another had come into
the hands of the State.
The later return to a system of large estates which began
in the ninth and tenth centuries may be attributed to a
variety of causes, economic, administrative, political, and
religious. From the beginning of the ninth century, certainly
from the reign of Theophilus (82942), one notes an
economic expansion; the precious metals become more
plentiful and prices rise. The big landed proprietors, owing
to the rise in the prices of agricultural products, a number of
high public functionaries, owing to imperial favour or to the
elasticity of their conscience, and many private individuals
find themselves in command of considerable capital. In our
day they would have invested this capital in portable
securities, have laid it out at interest, or employed it in
trade or industry. But in the East Roman world portable
securities were unknown; money-lending at interest was
forbidden by law or subject to very rigorous restrictions; 2
commerce and industry, while not attended with loss of
social position, as in the West, yielded but limited profits
owing to the guild system and the State control of produc-
tion, as well as of prices. 3 Thus, only agriculture remained;
and when the country had less fear of invasion and the urban
and rural population developed rapidly, agriculture must
1 On the constitution of the themes see p. 297 infra.
2 [Cf. Gregoire Cassimatis, Les IntMts dans la Legislation de Justmien ft dans l
e
Droit byzantin (Paris, Recueil Sirey, 1931); G. Ostrogorsky, Geschichte des byza
n-
tinischen Staates (Munich, Beck, 1940), p. 131.]
3 See p. 65 infra.

have become more and more profitable, especially for those
who had the means of purchasing slaves.
While economic reasons thus led the 'powerful' to acquire
landed property, the 'poor' were forced by fiscal, or rather
by administrative, reasons to sell their lands. The humiliores
were burdened by taxes payable in cash, rendered still more
oppressive by the epibole, the forced labour and contributions
in kind, that were even heavier than the taxes. 1 Beyond
these there were, in addition, various obligations which a
policy of State intervention imposed upon the people. 2 In
theory, no doubt, the fiscal and administrative laws did not
discriminate between the rich and the poor, but in practice,
the 'powerful', who possessed ready capital, could pay the
taxes with infinitely greater ease; 3 moreover, by reason of
their social position, being better able to withstand the tax-
collector, they frequently evaded fiscal contributions or
administrative regulations and, in any case, saw to it that
these measures did not degenerate into oppressive exactions.
This was so generally the case that the free peasant came to
envy the serf of the great landowner or of the monastery,
who lived protected against the State official and who, in
case of a bad harvest, could look to his master to supply his
needs; and no doubt, in many cases, this comparison
induced the freeman voluntarily to embrace the state of
serfdom.
In the sphere of politics Emperors might themselves
belong to the landed aristocracy or might be too dependent
upon the support of that class to combat it with any deter-
mination. This was the case with the weak successors of
Basil II and even, to a certain degree, with the Comneni.
Moreover, the example of the West, with which the Crusades
brought the Comneni into contact, the powerful attraction
exercised by Western chivalry, 4 the abandonment of the
system of 'military lands' for the semi-feudal system of
1 For details, see pp. 83-4 infra.
2 Some of these obligations were very unexpected, as, for example, the obligatio
n
of widows to marry barbarians settled by the Emperor in the district.
3 It is well known, even in our day, how heavy a burden the taxes payable in
cash constitute for the farmer, who is always short of ready money.
+ On the development of this idea, cf. N. lorga, Histozre de la vie byxantine
(Bucharest, 1934)9 vol. n'i, chap. i.

pronoiai, were in themselves sufficient to cause that dynasty
to relinquish a struggle which neither the Emperors of the
early centuries nor the great sovereigns of the Macedonian
line had succeeded in bringing to a successful issue.
Lastly, one must not forget that foremost amongst the
great landed proprietors were the monasteries. In a nation
so piously inclined, not to say so bigoted, as the Byzantine,
it was to be expected that the monastic establishments would
be the recipients of many donations and bequests; and the
monasteries themselves were not backward in soliciting
such pious gifts; indeed one may say that in this method of
enrichment they demonstrated the greatest ingenuity. 1 For
the development of the large estates the monasteries were
thus largely responsible.
When we turn to consider the condition of agriculture
we find that our evidence is contradictory. The material
collected by Boissonnade 2 shows that agriculture in the
eighth and ninth centuries was in a state of 'astounding*
prosperity and was able not only to feed the Empire but
also to provide for an 'active exportation'. The Byzantines
did not confine themselves to growing cereals and cultivat-
ing the vine, but devoted themselves with like success to the
cultivation of fruits, medicinal herbs, cotton, and mulberry
trees (whence the name 'Morea' given to the Peloponnesus).
A flourishing bee-culture supplied the place of a sugar
industry, while abundant horned cattle, sheep, and pigs
were bred as well as horses for the racecourse and for the
needs of the army. The forests gave the material necessary
for house construction and shipbuilding.
Other sources, however, some of them official, tell us of an
agricultural population harassed by Muslim and Bulgarian
invasions, decimated by pestilence and famine, crushed by
fiscal burdens, and exploited by the 'powerful' and by the
monks. The latter two classes of landed proprietors are also
accused of negligent farming and of leaving their domains
partly uncultivated.
1 Amongst other sources cf. Epukepsis Biou MonachiJtou, by Eustathius, the
learned Bishop of Salonica (twelfth century); of this L. Fr. Tafel published in
1847
a German translation under the title Betrachtungen itber den Monchsstand.
2 Op. cit. See note 3, p. 54 supra.

Probably neither of these two pictures, although contra-
dictory, is wholly untrue. Doubtless there were periods and
districts in which agriculture was prosperous, while in others
it was in a miserable condition. The great landed estates
were not always prejudicial to agriculture. 1 In the absence
of documentary data, it is not easy to say what was the exact
situation in normal times.
Yet it is difficult to believe that misery was the rule and
not the exception. Agriculture benefited both by the
absence of foreign competition and by the presence of a
large urban population. After the loss of Egypt, the
numerous cities of the Empire derived their means of
subsistence from the national agriculture. Good communica-
tions by sea and surprisingly good roads in the interior 2
facilitated the exchange of commodities. In the twelfth
century foreigners were struck by the abundance of provi-
sions of every kind to be found in Constantinople. In the
eighth century one landed proprietor, who did not belong to
the aristocracy, owned 100 yoke of oxen, 500 grazing oxen,
80 horses and mules, 12,000 sheep, and a large number of
serfs. Another indication of the agricultural resources of the
Empire is the land-tax, which was one of the two main
sources of public revenue. 3
But one must avoid all exaggeration, and the complaints of
the misery of the peasants offer sufficient ground for sur-
mising that, apart from certain exceptional periods, agri-
culture enjoyed but a relative prosperity and that often the
lot of the peasant was far from enviable.
1 On principle the great estates are better fitted than the small holdings to
organize the production and the distribution of agricultural products. There are
indications that certain big landowners and monasteries realized this fact.
2 At least in Asia Minor. The network of roads m Asia Minor was due in large
measure to military considerations. [Cf. W. M. Ramsay, The Historical Geography
of Asia Mmor 9 Royal Geographical Society, Supplementary Papers, vol. iv (London
,
Murray, 1890); D. G. Hogarth and J. A. R. Munro, Modern ana* Ancient Roads
tn Eastern Asia Mtnor, Royal Geographical Society, Supplementary Papers, vol. m,
part 5 (London, Murray, 1893) ; and cf. W. Leaf, 'Trade routes and Constantinopl
e',
Annual of the British School at Athens t vol. xviii (1911-12), pp 301-13; J. A.
R.
Munro, * Roads in Pontus, Koyal and Roman', Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xx
i
(1901), pp. 52-66 (with map).]
3 The other being the customs.

III. INDUSTRY
In the Byzantine Empire industry occupied as important
a place as did agriculture. But its forms underwent much
fewer disturbances; and, in general, Byzantine industry
presents much fewer historical problems than Byzantine
agriculture.
THE CHARACTER OF BYZANTINE INDUSTRY
Given the density of the urban population, it is probable
that the manufacture of articles of common use employed
infinitely more hands than the manufacture of luxuries.
Nevertheless, if Byzantine industry is usually associated
with the idea of the manufacture of luxuries, this is not due
solely to the fact that Byzantine articles de luxe (owing to
their artistic character) have a special interest for modern
students, but also to the fact that such articles undoubtedly
had in the Byzantine world an importance relatively greater
than they have in our own times. As a matter of fact, such
articles, much sought after by the Churches of the West and
by foreign grandees (both Christian and non-Christian),
constituted the most important item of Byzantine exports.
On the other hand, the home demand for such articles was
also very great. The numerous ceremonies of the Byzantine
Court have aptly been compared to a succession of theatrical
representations (Kondakov); they required an enormous
quantity of costumes, fabrics, vases, and ornaments of all
kinds. The monuments and ceremonies of the Church
demanded an even greater supply; for while there was only
one Court, there were tens of thousands of churches, monas-
teries, and chapels; the treasures of the richest of them
literally dazzled the Westerners, but even the smallest con-
tained many objects of great value. 1
The descriptions given by travellers and the lamentations
of Church Fathers prove that luxury was very widespread in
society. Benjamin of Tudela tells us of rich Byzantines clad
in sumptuous fabrics; they also loved to live in grand houses
and to adorn their tables with gold and silver ware. 2
* Cf. O. M. Dalton, Byxewtion, vol. i (1924), p. 595.
* This custom prevailed to the very last [cf. $. Guilland, *Le Palais de Theodor
e
M&ochite', Revue dcs ttudes grecques, vol. xxxv (1922), pp 82-95]. For the

To meet this great demand at home and from abroad, the
artisans of a number of towns, and principally those of
Constantinople, Salonica, Thebes, Corinth, and Patras, were
obliged to manufacture incessantly the articles, which are
still the admiration of connoisseurs the magnificent silk
fabrics, the heavy gold brocades and fine cloths, the wonder-
ful products of the goldsmith's art (jewellery, enamelled
cloisonne plates, reliquaries, and other objects of religious
devotion, bronzes, See.), elegant glass-ware, ivories in
brief, to quote Diehl, 1 'everything that was known to the
Middle Ages in the way of precious and refined luxury',
THE ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY
Thanks to the publication by J. Nicole of the Edict on the
Guilds of Constantinople, more generally known under the
name of the 'Prefects Book' (eparchikon biblion\ one can
form an approximate idea of the organization of Byzantine
industry and petty trade. 2
The guild system was in full force. Every branch of
industry formed a corporation and some of the corporations
(such as those concerned with the silk industry) were sub-
divided into several guilds. Each guild enjoyed a real mono-
poly but, on the other hand, was subject to a rigorous control
by the State, which fixed the profits, the conditions of
admission of new members, the restrictions upon the exporta-
tion of goods, and a number of other points, including (in
certain cases) even the localities where booths and workshops
could be established. The prefect of Constantinople also
exercised a close surveillance over the members of corpora-
tions and had the right to inspect their workshops.
This order of things, combining economic monopoly and
State intervention, shocked the learned scholar who dis-
covered and published the Edict. Had Professor Nicole
been an economist living in our day, he would have been
much less surprised. 3 He called Byzantium 'the paradise of
luxury of the banquet-table see the exhaustive article by Prof. Phaedon Koukoule
s,
'Eirerqpts Bvlavrw&v JSwouScuv, vol. x (1933), pp. 97-160.
* Byxance. Grandeur et Decadence (Paris, Flammaiion, 1919), p. 95.
* For studies on the Book of the Prefect, see p. 397 infra.
3 For what follows see my article: 'Byzance, paradis du monopole et du privilege
',
Byzantion, vol. ix (1934)9 pp. 171-81.

monopoly and privilege', and this has become an everyday
phrase. In reality, a legislation resembling in many respects
that of Byzantium may be found wherever the regime
corpora*?/ has been tried, whether in the Eastern Roman
Empire or in western Europe of the Middle Ages or in
Japan under the Tokugawas. In most of these cases the
system has had a less liberal form than at Byzantium.
Certainly, in the long run, the guild system impedes progress
and breeds abuses. But it possesses some important advan-
tages; thus, it assures the quality of the goods produced, it
does away with middlemen, it also forestalls both the
exaggerated advance of prices and the crises of over-produc-
tion. That is why this system seems to be a necessity in
certain stages of economic development. In any case, it
appears to have worked in the Greek Empire without arous-
ing any complaints. Nor does it seem to have excited
unfavourable criticism on the part of foreigners. Ganshof
has discovered in the Western laws of the twelfth century a
number of provisions which resemble those of the Prefect's
Edict; 1 and the Turkish Sultans appear to have copied that
Edict slavishly. 2
IV. INTERNATIONAL TRADE
The Byzantine Empire was situated at the junction of the
communications between Asia and Europe, and Europe and
Africa; all routes, by land, sea, or river, connecting eastern
Europe with the Mediterranean passed through Byzantine
territory. This geographical position was a veritable cala-
mity from a political point of view; for no Italian State nor
any region in the Danube lands or in Hither Asia could
develop without being tempted to invade Greek territory.
On the other hand, from the commercial standpoint, that
geographical position was of inestimable benefit, for auto-
matically it made Byzantium the centre of international
trade.
Nature had also favoured the Empire by endowing it with
a great number of ports, on all its coasts, from Trebizond to
1 Byxantion, vol. iv (1928), p. 659.
2 Father Jannin pointed out that certain provisions of that Edict were still in
force in the Istanbul of Mustafa Kemal Pasha.

Dyrrachium and from Crete to Anchialos. Some of these
ports were the natural outlets of vast inland territories.
Thus, Trebizond and Salonica were the ports not only of
Persia and the centre of the Balkan peninsula respectively,
but also of the hinterland of those regions. 1 Cherson, a sort
of colonial possession, occupied for Russia a similar position. 2
But indisputably the greatest trade centre was Constanti-
nople, with its unique situation and its incomparable harbour.
In the course of centuries man had completed the work
of nature. We have already seen that for a long time Byzan-
tium monopolized the trade in articles de luxe, so important
in an age in which international trade relied for its customers
to a great extent upon churches, royal palaces, and seigneu-
rial castles; it may also be remarked that some agricultural
products, such as certain wines and dried fruits, were much
sought after, even by the barbarians. 3 We shall see, in the
chapter on public finances, that at least down to the eleventh
century the Emperors maintained the intrinsic value of their
gold coinage, whence the nomisma or besant became a truly
international coin and supplied the Empire with an indis-
pensable instrument for drawing to itself the trade between
the various nations. In the same chapter we shall speak of
the great public edifices, where merchandise was stored;
these bazaars or caravanseries were to be found in fortified
cities, which afforded protection against invaders and pirates
and thus furnished commerce with that security which is
as necessary to it as a sound currency,
One must also remember that, beside the efficacious
measures taken at various times against piracy, the Byzan-
tines possessed a large mercantile fleet. Down to the
Mussulman era this fleet was mistress of the seas; after
centuries of reverses, it succeeded in developing a new
prosperity, and its decadence did not really set in until the
1 'Trebizond became the great port of the East.' S. Runciman, Byzantine
CrviKsation (London, Arnold, 1933), p. 167.
2 Direct relations between Constantinople and Russia do not date farther back
than the ninth century.
3 Thus the Russians brought their furs, honey, wax, and slaves, and received in
exchange articles of the goldsmith's art, silk fabrics, wine, and fruits. Cf. A.
Vasiliev,
'Economic Relations between Byzantium and Old Russia', Journal of Economic
History, vol. iv (1932), pp. 314-34*

twelfth century. Even during the period of reverses, the
Emperors strove to protect their merchant shipping by
special laws, 1 and, it would seem, relaxed, in favour of ship-
owners, the law against lending money at interest. Lastly,
though we possess only fragmentary information on this
point, it seems to be incontrovertible that international trade
was encouraged by diplomacy and even by treaties. The
treaties concluded with the Russians contributed, in no less
a degree than the occupation of Cherson and the possession
of the Straits, to make of the Black Sea a * Greek sea', to use
the expression of the Arab geographer Ibn Khordadbeh. In
a more general way Byzantine policy towards foreigners
contributed to making Constantinople and, in a lesser
degree, certain other cities extremely busy centres of a re-
exportation trade. That is why in the capital one saw
'strangers from every quarter of the world'. For nations
that were of special importance special warehouses and even
special quarters were reserved. 2
Such are, in brief summary, the reasons why the Empire
of the East remained for several centuries the centre of
international trade. The imperial administration has been
accused of hampering the development of that trade not only
through the interference of its officials but also by a series
of legislative measures. Some of these criticisms are well
founded; others are more or less exaggerated. Too little
account is taken of those economic ideas which, after having
prevailed in the Middle Ages and down to the eighteenth
century (Mercantilism), have now reappeared in another
form in these times of 'State-controlled economy'.
Thus, it is probable that the customs authorities applied
in a meddlesome and vexatious spirit the measures for regulat-
ing trade; and it is also probable that the customs duties (i o
per cent, both on exports and on imports) were too high.
On the other hand, criticisms of the prohibitions placed
upon imports and exports are much exaggerated. Prohibi-
tions upon imports were practically unknown; those upon
1 Cf. the Rhodian Law which has been attributed to the Isaurian Emperors.
[It is not possible to say more than that the law was issued between A.D. 600 an
d 800:
so Ostrogorsky.]
3 This was notably the case with the Russians, the Venetians, and the Genoese.
3982

exports were limited to a few cases and were justified by
special reasons. Thus, only one article (soap) is cited the
importation of which was forbidden no doubt in order to
protect manufacturers within the Empire. As for the goods
whose exportation was forbidden (except by special permis-
sion), they can be classed under four categories : (a) ceremonial
clothing, of which the State was in constant need for Court
festivities, for distribution to high public functionaries, and
for gifts to distinguished foreigners together with unsewn
fabrics (arrapha) and raw silk; () raw materials, which it was
desired to reserve for home industries; (c) salt fish, which
formed one of the staple foods of the capital; (d) gold,
because of the State's anxiety not to deplete the monetary
reserve a principle thoroughly familiar to us to-day. To
this same anxiety must be attributed the occasional recourse
to barter or mutual exchange of products the obligation
imposed upon importers to pay for certain goods (e.g.
Bulgarian honey and flax) not in cash but in goods. This
system, which shocked us until recently, has to-day become
once more the fashion.
Let us pass on to another class of criticisms. In the Byzan-
tine Empire the guild system prevailed in commerce as much
as in industry; lending at interest (at least from the time of
the Iconoclasts) was forbidden or fixed at a low rate; 1 it was
the public authorities, and not the law of supply and demand,
that determined prices; admission to the capital was refused
to certain aliens or subjected to very stringent regulations.
It is but a few years ago that the conviction was prevalent
that economic and commercial prosperity goes hand in hand
with freedom in the matter of labour, prices, interest rates,
and admission of aliens; one was asked to believe that one of
the causes of the decadence of the Byzantine Empire was the
absence of all forms of liberty. This is too sweeping a
simplification of questions of economic history that are
admittedly very complex. Doubtless the criticisms which
we have mentioned are justified in theory. On the other
hand, how can it be overlooked that the guild system and
the principle of State intervention are, in certain stages of
economic development, almost inevitable? Side by side
1 See p. 57 supra.

with some manifest inconveniences, they possess many
advantages. For instance, the regulation of prices forestalled
speculation; while the guild system tended to encourage
exports by assuring the good quality of industrial products
and even to favour imports, since occasionally the guild was
obliged to buy up whole stocks imported into the market
of Constantinople 1 ; and it must never be forgotten that the
system of guilds and State intervention prevailed also in
those great cities of the West which robbed Byzantium of
its economic and commercial supremacy.
As for the aliens, whose sojourn in Constantinople was
subjected to so strict a surveillance, they were mostly bar-
barians from the north, whom there was every reason to fear.
Apart from these 'undesirables', foreigners appear to have
obtained, without much difficulty, permission to sojourn
and even to settle in Constantinople. Even before the forma-
tion of the strong Italian communities, foreigners (for
instance, Syrians) resident in the capital were much more
numerous than in any other city of the medieval world.
This is true to such an extent that one of the most generally
accepted explanations of the economic decadence of Byzan-
tium is that the Byzantines adopted the principle of not
carrying their wares to foreign parts but of waiting for the
foreign purchaser to come to them. The Italian communities
were undoubtedly the cause of the Empire's political and
financial ruin and also, perhaps, of its industrial decline. It
was they who prompted the Fourth Crusade; by their
privileges they deprived the imperial Treasury of the cus-
toms duties, which were its largest source of revenue; their
industrial products little by little took the place of Greek
manufactures; and it was their merchant shipping that
supplanted the fleet of the Byzantine shipowners. Yet from
the purely commercial standpoint these foreign communities
had far less influence. As Charles Diehl says, 'Constanti-
nople remained the great distributing centre of the world's
trade up to the fall of the Byzantine Empire, even when it
was no longer the Empire but the great Italian cities that
profited by the situation'. In my opinion the truth is that
x For instance, all fabrics imported from Syna. Cf. The Prefect's Book>
ch. v, 4.

commercial decadence was not an independent phenomenon
at Byzantium; it was the consequence of that economic
decadence, the causes of which will be summarized in the
concluding section of this chapter.
V. CONCLUSION
From the fifth to the end of the twelfth century the Byzan-
tine Empire was indisputably the richest and most populous
State in Christendom. Its prosperity was due in a large
measure to its population, which was composed of citizens
who were perhaps lacking in the political spirit, too much
given to religious controversies and civil strife, but, on the
other hand, were good heads of families, well endowed with
the spirit of business enterprise, attracted by arts and com-
merce in one word, marked by the virtues, as well as by the
defects, of the Greek race. But this prosperity was equally
due to the State, which took measures, often efficacious,
against depopulation, or for the protection of small land-
owners or for the encouragement of industry and commerce.
It was out of the combined efforts of Government and people
that there grew again and again that wealth which, with the
multitude of sacred relics, was what most impressed the
foreign visitor. When Robert de Clari assures us that 'two-
thirds of the world's wealth is to be found at Constantinople',
when so many other travellers use the same, or nearly the
same, expressions, and even cite details as to the wealth of
various provinces, 1 doubtless they are exaggerating, but at
least they attest that the richest Christian State of the West
appeared poor in comparison with the Empire of the East.
In the following chapter we shall see that the Byzantines
themselves had the feeling that this national wealth, from
which the public Treasury could draw sums that were
enormous for those times, constituted one of the principal
forces of their country.
1 When, for instance, John Brompton and Arnold of Lubeck affirmed that the
public revenues of Corfu and of Cyprus, toward the close of the twelfth century,
amounted annually to 1,620,000 and 7,560,000 gold francs, respectively, they
implied that the inhabitants of those islands had an annual income much larger
than these sums, which to-day would have an infinitely greater (perhaps quintupl
e)
purchasing value.

How DID THIS GREAT PROSPERITY FALL INTO DECLINE?
In many ways and for many reasons. In the first place,
societies, like individuals, grow old. The Byzantine ship-
owners, merchants, and manufacturers, probably rooted
firmly in antiquated methods of business, could not keep
pace with their younger Italian competitors. On the other
hand, as we have seen, the Byzantine economic organization
was a State, and hence a bureaucratic organization, and
bureaucracies are even more swiftly overtaken by decadence
than communities. From the eleventh century the Byzantine
administration was no longer capable of defending the small
landowners; one may also conjecture that by the incessant
interference of its officials (who themselves deteriorated, as
time went on) the State caused more harm than good to
commerce and industry. Oh the other hand, taxation,
increasingly indulgent toward the monasteries and the
powerful classes, became necessarily more and more oppres-
sive for the mass of the people.
Nevertheless, all these causes of decadence weighed little
in comparison with the political misfortunes which (with
certain periods of respite 1 ) continued to befall the Empire
after the death of Basil II. The first of these successive
disasters (each more terrible than the other) was the loss of
the rich agricultural provinces of Asia Minor, in conse-
quence of the rapid advance of the Seljuks. In the course of
the twelfth century came the Norman invasions, one of
which (that of the year 1147) was accompanied by the
transfer to Sicily of the silk industries of Thebes and of
Corinth. Almost simultaneously followed the first three
Crusades, which, amongst other harmful consequences,
brought about the displacement of the Syrian trade from
Constantinople to Italy. In the reign of Isaac Angelus the
restoration of the Bulgarian State brought about the loss
of those Danubian provinces which for long had been a
compensation for the loss of so many Asiatic provinces. The
capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and the partition
of the Empire crowned this long series of disasters.
This last catastrophe was, from an economic point of view,
i Especially under the first three Comnene Emperors.

the death-blow of the Empire. Under the dynasty of the
Angeli the Empire was in full political and military decline.
Its wealth was less impaired, as shown by the testimony of
the travellers quoted above, who belong to the times of that
inglorious dynasty. So long as Constantinople remained
intact, there was always the possibility of a revival like that
which took place after the great Arab and Bulgarian inva-
sions of the early Middle Ages. An example of this recupera-
tion is to be found in Villehardouin's mention of Salonica as
an extremely rich city, although only a few years before
(i 1 85) it had been sacked by the Normans, Constantinople
can be considered the heart of the economic life of the Empire.
It was there that for the most part the portable wealth and
the principal branches of industry and commerce were
concentrated; hundreds of thousands of working people
lived within its walls. Of all this, after several days of pillage,
massacre, and conflagration, hardly anything remained.
To sum up, and without overlooking the internal causes
mentioned above, one may say that the economic decadence
of the Empire was chiefly the work of its foreign enemies,
who by fire and sword depopulated its cities and its lands,
destroyed its industries, and took away its commerce, which
had already been partly deflected to their own countries
since the beginning of the Crusades. When the Palaeologi
succeeded in reuniting under their sceptre a part of the old
Empire, they found everything in ruins. The combined
efforts of the enemy on the north, on the west, and (this time
especially) on the east (the Turks) did not allow the Empire's
economic life permanently to recover a portion of its ancient
splendour. 1
The Byzantine people paid a fearful price for the loss of
their military virtues and for their passion for civil war. 2
M. ANDRADS
1 The economic revival, which occasionally was noticeable, was both local and
ephemeral (e.g. at Salonica).
2 It was these civil wars which paved the way for the foreign invasions; as, for
instance, the rivalries between Isaac II and his brother Alexius III, or between
Andronicus Palaeologus and Cantacuzenus.
Ill
PUBLIC FINANCES
CURRENCY, PUBLIC EXPENDITURE, BUDGET, PUBLIC REVENUE
I. THE CURRENCY
OF the Byzantine coinage it will suffice to say that from
Constantine to Alexius Comnenus the Emperors hardly ever
had recourse to the practice, then so common, of debasing
the coinage. In consequence, for many centuries the Byzan-
tine gold piece, the nomisma, became a veritable international
coin.
But from the time of the Comneni and especially under
the Palaeologi, the practice of debasing the coinage became
frequent and gradually the gold coin, now known as the
hyperpyron, came to be worth but a third of its original value,
which was about 15 gold francs. 1
The precious metals at that time had, of course, a far
greater purchasing value than they have in general to-day;
it is estimated that that purchasing value was five times
greater. Many modern historians, when quoting a figure
from the sources, are in the habit of multiplying it by
five. Thus Paparrigopoulos, who introduced this practice,
reckons the revenues of Constantinople at 530 million gold
francs because, according to the information of Benjamin
of Tudela, the Emperor drew an annual revenue from the
capital of 106 million gold francs. This method of calcula-
tion doubtless gives the reader a more concrete idea of what
this or that item of revenue or expenditure would represent
in present-day money, but it is perhaps safer simply to quote
the figures as they are given by our sources. As a matter of
fact, the purchasing value of gold and silver fluctuated very
much during the ten centuries of the Empire; and what is
more serious, there is no period during those centuries for
1 Byzantine literary sources mention moneys of account, such as the gold pound
(worth 1,080 gold francs) and the silver pound (worth 75 gold francs), while on
the other hand, the gold nonusma was subdivided into milharesta of silver, each
of which was subdivided into beratia.
72 PUBLIC FINANCES
which one can determine with precision what that purchasing
value was. 1
II. PUBLIC EXPENDITURE
No Christian State in the Middle Ages and even few
kingdoms of the Renaissance had to meet such great public
expenditure as the Greek Empire of the East. This arose,
on the one hand, from that Empire's geographical situation,
which exposed it to countless dangers, involving enormous
sums for national defence, while at the same time the political
and social structure of the Empire demanded an expenditure
at least as great as that required for national defence.
(a) NATIONAL DEFENCE
We have already pointed out the exceptional situation of
the Empire at the j unction of the great arteries of com-
munication between Europe, Asia, and Africa. But this
geographical position, while affording immense economic
advantages, caused the Eastern Empire to be the object of
attack from all sides. After the Persians came the Arabs,
and then the Turks; after the Slavs, the Bulgars, and then
the Russians; after the Goths and the Lombards, the
Normans and then the Crusaders.
At first the Byzantines flattered themselves with the
belief that they could stop these successive waves of invasion
by a system of frontier and mountain-pass fortifications
resembling the Great Wall of China, as well as by the
fortification of every city of any importance. This system no
doubt rendered great services ; but besides being so costly as
to call for special taxes, permanent or temporary, it was
in itself inadequate. Therefore without abandoning it the
imperial Government turned its attention more particularly
to the creation of a strong army.
In fact, the Byzantines succeeded in forming an army and
a navy superior in numbers and ships, as well as in organiza-
tion, to those of most of the other States of the Middle
Ages. But these land and sea forces, which repeatedly
1 For the details see A Andre'ades, 'De k monnaie et de la puissance d'achat des
metaux precieux dans 1'Empire byzantm', Byxantion, vol. vii (1924), pp 75-115;
and cf. G. Ostrogorsky, 'Lohne und Preise in Byzanz', Byzantimsche Zettschnft,
vol. xxxn (1932), pp. 293-333.
PUBLIC FINANCES 73
saved the Empire and enlarged its boundaries, were ex-
tremely costly.
It is true that the State reduced the annual charge on the
budget by sacrificing large tracts of public land and distribut-
ing them to citizens in return for a hereditary obligation to
serve in the army, but the charges on the budget continued
to be very heavy. In the first place the Treasury had to
provide for the building and upkeep of several hundreds of
ships, 1 for arms and engines of war (including Greek Fire),
and for the auxiliary services, which were so greatly deve-
loped that, as Manuel Comnenus wrote to Henry II of
England, the Byzantine army, when on the march, extended
for ten miles. Moreover, the 'military lands' did not furnish
a sufficient number of soldiers. Hence, recourse was had to
the enlistment of mercenaries, and the demands of these
foreigners were exorbitant. We know, for instance, that the
Scandinavian mercenaries used to return to their distant
homes laden with riches.
If to all this expenditure we add the pay of the officers,
who were numerous and well rewarded, 2 one can understand
why the wars entailed heavy taxes in money and in kind, and
why in consequence some of the most glorious Emperors
(such as Nicephorus Phocas) were often so unpopular. One
can also understand why the Byzantine Empire preferred to
employ gold rather than the sword in its foreign policy. This
employment of gold assumed two distinct forms. First, that
of tribute. Tribute was in principle quite a wise arrangement;
it was more economical to pay an annual sum than to expose
the country to an invasion, even if that invasion were
repulsed successfully. Thus the Bulgars paid to the Hunga-
rians the greater part of the money they received from the
Byzantines. Yet, as Procopius had already observed, if
tribute kept away one set of barbarians from the frontiers, it
attracted other races. It was, therefore, more profitable to
utilize the great resources of the Empire in procuring allies
amongst the neighbours of the Empire's enemies. The
1 From the eighth to the twelfth century the historical sources repeatedly
mention fleets of 500 to 1,000 ships, in addition to 1,000 to 2,000 transports.
2 It may be estimated that their number amounted to 3,120 and their pay to
3,960 pounds (or, 4,276,800 gold francs) per annum.
74 PUBLIC FINANCES
Byzantine annals furnish many instances in which recourse
was had to this latter method, which became a permanent
element in East Roman foreign policy. 1
The Emperors were also fond of creating a great impres-
sion of their wealth by the magnificence of their embassies.
Thus, the chroniclers relate that Theophilus provided John
the Grammarian with 400 pounds in gold, so that the latter
was enabled to dazzle the Court of Bagdad by scattering
'money like sand*.
() EXPENDITURE ON THE CIVIL ADMINISTRATION
The Byzantine Empire was a complex organism. It was
at once a bureaucratic State, a semi-Oriental absolute
monarchy, a Greco-Christian community, and, lastly, a
nation in which the capital played a role almost as pre-
ponderant as in the States which, like Athens, Rome, or
Venice, were the creation of one city. The budget being, as
Napoleon said, the mirror of a country's political and social
life, all the above traits were necessarily reflected in the
finances and each of them formed a separate item of expendi-
ture in the budget. We shall therefore examine in succession
the expenditure for the administration, the Palace and Court,
the churches and public charities, and the city of Constan-
tinople. For lack of space we must pass over items of lesser
importance such as, for example, universities, public works
in the provinces, or the police force.
i. Diehl has justly praised the Byzantine administration
as 'strongly centralized and wisely organized'. It was
the administration no less than the army which placed the
Empire of the East so far above the other States of the
Middle Ages and which enabled it to survive the frequent
changes of Emperors without lapsing into anarchy. On the
other hand, this civil administration entailed heavy expendi-
ture, inasmuch as the public officials were numerous and
with few exceptions were paid by the State. Like the States
of our own day the Empire of the East maintained a policy
of 'State-directed economy' and insisted upon controlling
and regulating all manifestations of the life of the com-
munity (production, labour, consumption, trade, movement
1 See below what the ministers of Nicephorus Phocas said to Liutprand.
PUBLIC FINANCES 75
of the population, or public welfare). For this supervision a
vast number of officials was needed. Further, the State
possessed immense landed property and itself engaged in
various industries. The kingdoms of the Renaissance,
which also practised economic intervention, if not centraliza-
tion, and also possessed State property, both agricultural and
industrial, adopted the system of the sale of public posts.
But in the Byzantine Empire only a few Court posts or
empty titles were sold. 1 It was therefore necessary to give
salaries to the public officials and each salary was composed
of three parts: the siteresion (provisions), the roga (cash-
payment), and the supply of clothing. The roga and the
clothing were distributed once a year, to the higher function-
aries by the Emperor himself, to the others by the para-
koimomenos. Liutprand (Antapodosis, vi. 10) tells us that the
file past the Emperor lasted three days, while that past the
parakoimomenos lasted a week. From other sources we learn
that the higher functionaries received a handsome roga 2 ' and
costly clothing. Hence, while we lack evidence for the
monetary value of the siteresion and the salaries of the lower
officials, it is clear that the bureaucracy, like the army, con-
stituted a heavy charge upon the public treasury.
2. In consequence of an evolution, which had its origin
in Diocletian's time and was reinforced by the contact with
the Caliphs of Bagdad, the Roman principatus had gradu-
ally changed into an Oriental monarchy. To this form
of government corresponded the splendid palaces and the
magnificent Court of Constantinople. From the financial
standpoint alone it is difficult to estimate the cost of con-
structing the imperial residences (the chief Palace was in
itself a small city) and the expense of the thousands of nobles,
clerics, soldiers, eunuchs, and servants who swarmed therein.
Yet it is certain that even under the most parsimonious
Emperors what to-day we call the 'civil list' must have been
enormous. It was swollen by all the largesses which the
sovereign was expected to distribute to the army, the
1 Cf. A. Andr&des, 'La Vnalit6 des charges est-eUe d'origine byzantine ?',
NowueUe Revue histonyue de droit franfats, vol. xlv (1921), pp. 232-41.
2 Thus the roga of the Dean of the Law School amounted to four gold pounds
per annum (equivalent in purchasing power to 1,000 sterling at least).
76 PUBLIC FINANCES
Church, and the populace; these under prodigal Emperors,
like Tiberius II, 1 reached extravagant sums. The banquets
given on great feast-days or on the arrival of foreign mon-
archs or embassies entailed an expense much more con-
siderable than in our day, seeing that the guests, whose
number occasionally reached 240, received presents both in
money and in kind.
3. But the Emperor was not only a prince, whose ideal of
sovereignty had been influenced by the neighbouring Asiatic
Courts; he was also the head of the Christian Church and as
such he was expected to discharge many obligations and
thereby to incur great expense. Even though the majority
of the pious foundations were the work of private individuals,
the churches and the monasteries must have cost the public
treasury as much as the walls and fortifications. According
to Codinus, St. Sophia alone cost 300,000 gold pounds a
sum much greater than the 60 million scudi spent on the
erection of St. Peter's. The upkeep of churches and
monasteries, which on principle was supposed to be at the
expense of these institutions themselves, could not be over-
looked by the hgothetes of the genikon, the imperial Minister
of Finance. In the first place, the Emperor, in founding an
ecclesiastical institution or church, endowed it with lands
(thus, Justinian assigned to St. Sophia 365 domains, one for
each day of the year, within the suburbs of Constantinople)
or else with an income, as in the case of the monasteries
founded by Nicephorus Phocas on Mt. Athos or that built
by Manuel Comnenus at the entrance to the Bosphorus.
Moreover, some of the more important churches were in
receipt of an annual subvention. That to St. Sophia, fixed at
first at 80 pounds, was raised by Romanus III to 1 60 pounds
of gold. Likewise the Christian religion required the
Emperor to be charitable, good, and merciful. Hence both
he and his family competed with his wealthy subjects in the
endowment of innumerable charitable institutions, such as
hostels for pilgrims (xenodocheia\ refuges for the poor
(ptochotrofheia), hospitals for the sick (nosokomeia\ homes for
the aged (gerokomeia), which were the ornament and pride of
1 The successor of Justinian II, not content with reducing taxation by one-fourt
h,
spent 7,200 gold pounds in largesses in one year.
PUBLIC FINANCES 77
the 'city guarded of God' and the administration of which
represented one of the most important public services.
4. Alfred Rambaud has aptly remarked: 'Constantinople
constituted the Empire, occasionally it reconstituted the
Empire, sometimes it was the whole Empire.' This excep-
tional position of the capital is reflected in the enormous
sums expended on its protection and embellishment, on the
aqueducts, markets, and streets lined with arcades, which
made Constantinople 'the sovereign of all cities', to use
Villehardouin's phrase.
If Constantinople made and remade the Empire, its in-
habitants made and unmade the Emperors. And that was a
fact that the latter took good care not to forget; one of them,
Isaac Angelus, compared the people of his capital to the wild
boar of Calydon and all the Emperors were assiduous in
cajoling the monster. The Roman tradition provided the
populace with the games of the circus 1 and with free distribu-
tions of bread. These civic loaves (artoi pohtikot) were indeed
abolished by Heraclius, but reappeared in the infinitely more
modest form of largesses in money or in kind, which were
distributed on the occasion of happy events or at times of
great scarcity.
III. THE BYZANTINE BUDGET
Paparrigopoulos, on the authority chiefly of foreign
travellers and chroniclers, has estimated the budget of the
Empire at 640 million gold francs, which, of course, had a far
greater purchasing value. Ernst Stein puts it at only i oo- 115
millions. Elsewhere 2 I have discussed these figures at some
length, and I still' believe that both are equally erroneous,
the former being too high, the latter too low. On the other
hand, it seems to be impossible to suggest any definite figure,
not only for the whole budget but even for any one of its
principal heads. The data furnished by Byzantine sources
1 Cf. Novel 8 1 of Justinian.
2 Cf. A. Andr&ds, Le Montant du Budget de I* Empire byzantm (Paris, Leroux,
1922). [This separate publication contains Appendixes which are not given in the
article which appeared in the Revue des ttudes grecques, vol. xxxiv (1921), no.
156.
Cf. Ernst Stein, Byxantimsche Zettschrtft, vol. xxiv (19234), pp. 377-87, and hi
s
Studten xur Geschichte des byxantimschen Retches (Stuttgart, Metzler, 1919),
pp. 141-60.]
78 PUBLIC FINANCES
are in some cases doubtful and in all cases fragmentary, and
those given by foreigners are even more so. Moreover (and
this is a point that has not been sufficiently emphasized) a
considerable proportion of the expenditure was made in
kind. This consisted of articles of every sort, including food-
stuffs, derived from the land or the workshops owned by the
State, or from requisitions made upon private individuals.
It is manifestly impossible, after so many centuries, to say
what value these supplies represented in cash; nor is it
easier to estimate the cash value of the hours of forced
labour (the corvee), which were a public burden laid upon the
citizens.
An additional difficulty lies in the fact that though the
principal heads of expenditure remained practically the same
since the characteristic features of the Empire remained
unchanged, the amounts raised under these different heads
varied greatly according to the character of the reigning
sovereign. Under an ambitious and magnificent Emperor
like Justinian or Manuel Comnenus the expenditure
entailed by campaigns and buildings predominated. Under
a monarch more conscious of the real situation of the Empire,
such as Constantine V, Nicephorus Phocas, or Alexius
Comnenus, it was the expenditure for national defence.
Under an Empress there would be heavy expenditure for
the monasteries, for charities, and for popular largesses;
lastly, under a stupid or debauched Emperor, favourites and
buffoons absorbed a large part of the public treasury's
resources.
But even after all this has been said, it is probable that,
except in the days of the Palaeologi (1261-1453), when the
Empire was but the shadow of its former greatness, and in
certain peculiarly disastrous reigns, the State revenues must
have exceeded, and sometimes greatly exceeded, the sum of
100 million gold francs. Those who assert the contrary
forget, amongst other things, 1 that one must not take into
account only the expenditure in money, since a part of the
expenditure, as well as of the revenues, was in kind; that the
1 As, for instance, the feet that from the ruins of the first Byzantine Empire
sprang up a number of kingdoms and principalities, each of which had a luxurious
Conn and a costly army.
PUBLIC FINANCES 79
principal heads of expenditure in the budget (army, admini-
stration, Court, Church and charities, Constantinople) were
not susceptible of great retrenchment, and that, taken in the
aggregate, they necessarily amounted to a heavy total, and
further, that vast wealth appeared, in the eyes of foreigners,
to be the principal characteristic of the Empire. These out-
siders considered Byzantium *a kind of Eldorado' (Lujo
Brentano). This wealth was also its principal weapon in the
eyes of the Byzantines themselves; the ministers of Nice-
phorus Phocas said to Liutprand: 'We have gold and with
this gold we shall rouse all peoples against you and break
you like an earthen vessel* (Legatio^ 58). It must also be
remembered that all the information supplied by foreigners,
as well as many data given by the Byzantine sources them-
selves, imply very great revenues and expenses. This is true
also of the figures given by our sources of the wealth left by
certain Emperors, 1 whose character and the circumstances
of whose reigns (especially prolonged wars) did not permit
them to adopt a policy of economy.
No comparison with the budgets of the medieval kings of
the West can help us, since these princes reigned over
feudal States and therefore knew nothing of most of the
items of expenditure which we have enumerated above,
especially expenditure for a paid army and a large body of
bureaucratic officials. The only budget which could serve
us for the purpose of comparison is that of the Caliphs of
Bagdad; and the documents published by A. von Kremer
tell us that under Harun-al-Rashid the budget amounted
to a figure approximating to that given by Paparrigopoulos. 2
Finally, it is to be noted that for the Byzantine Empire
property belonging to the State had a much greater financial
importance than it has to-day, while by taxation the Treasury
absorbed a proportion of the national revenue which before
1914 would have seemed greatly exaggerated.
1 Anastasius left 355,600,000 gold francs, Theophilus and Theodora 140 millions,
Basil II 250 millions.
2 Or 530 million dirhans, not counting taxation in kind. It is true that the
territories of Harun-al-Rashid were more extensive than those of the Emperors,
and his system of taxation more onerous; nevertheless, the official figures of t
he
Caliph's revenue that we possess are an indication which we should not overlook.
8o PUBLIC FINANCES
IV. REVENUE
Public revenue was derived from the property of the
State, the taxes properly so called, and the extraordinary
contributions.
Property belonging to the State was of three kinds
industrial, agricultural, and urban.
Industrial property included both the manufacture of
articles needed for the army and of articles of luxury,
especially of fabrics. The products of the imperial factories
were rarely sold; nevertheless they constituted an indirect
revenue. Without them the State would have been obliged
to purchase a multitude of articles indispensable to the army,
the navy, the Court, and the administration. These factories
furnished arms of all kinds (including 'Greek Fire') and the
precious vestments which the Emperor required for his
person and his Court, for gifts to foreign potentates and
embassies, and also for the annual distributions, which, as
we have seen, were one of the three forms of emolument
received by public functionaries.
The Byzantine Emperors had inherited from their prede-
cessors vast agricultural lands. These were reduced by the
distribution of 'military lands*, and by donations to churches,
charitable institutions, relatives or favourites of the Emperor,
and even to colonists of all kinds settled in the Empire. On
the other hand, these agricultural domains were increased
from time to time by conquest and especially by confiscation.
Confiscations were plentiful in troubled times because the
leaders of insurrections were often nobles, with great landed
estates. This explains why, in spite of the many donations,
the agricultural domains continued to be very extensive,
while their products served to cover no inconsiderable
part of the public expenditure. Thus, the public lands
in the suburbs of Constantinople supplied with victuals
the Court, comprising several thousands of officials and
attendants.
The urban resources of the Byzantine State have often
been overlooked by modern writers. To these resources a
passage of Benjamin of Tudela should have called their
attention. The Spanish traveller says that the daily revenue
PUBLIC FINANCES 81
of 20,000 gold pieces, which Manuel Comnenus received
from his capital, came from foreign traders (i.e. from
customs duties), from the markets (i.e. from taxation of con-
sumption), and from the caravanseries. To understand this
passage, one must recollect that at Constantinople, as
throughout the Empire, 1 merchandise was concentrated in
vast buildings bazaars or caravanseries. These belonged
to the State and were not ceded gratis for the use of the
merchants. If one considers also that all mines, quarries,
and salt-pans, according to a tradition going back to Athens
and to Rome, were the property of the State, one is convinced
that the public property of the Empire of the East was much
more varied and extensive and yielded much greater revenues
than in modern States.
Since the time of Savigny much has been written on the
Byzantine fiscal system. But these studies are confined almost
exclusively to direct taxation; and indeed, it is chiefly of
direct taxation that the Byzantine historical and legal
sources treat.
Nevertheless, the only taxes mentioned by Benjamin of
Tudela as levied at Constantinople are the customs duties
and the tax on consumption. Nor do the Byzantine sources
speak of a capitation tax or a house-tax in the capital or even,
as far as the latter tax is concerned, in the provincial cities.
On the other hand, the disastrous consequences which
resulted for the public treasury from the customs privileges
granted to Italian traders imply that the customs duties
were of capital importance. Taken all in all, the direct taxes
were not of the first importance except in places where there
were neither ports nor markets i.e., in the country districts.
This need not surprise us. It 'is what one finds in the
finances of Greek States from antiquity down to the present
day. But why do the Byzantine sources speak chiefly of
direct taxes ? Probably because these taxes, always repugnant
to the Greek temperament and rendered still more onerous
to the rural population by reason of the scarcity of cash, were
the most difficult to collect. Hence, the Emperors were
forced from time to time to amend the legislation concerning
1 This is proved by the Byzantine caravanseries of Salonica and Larissa, whose
walls are preserved to this day.
398* c
82 PUBLIC FINANCES
these taxes 1 and also to exempt from their payment (tempo-
rarily or permanently) those to whom they wished to show
favour, especially the monasteries. On the other hand,
indirect taxation aroused much fewer protests and called for
much fewer fiscal reforms; whence it is seldom mentioned
by the chroniclers and legal sources.
The fiscal importance of indirect taxation in the Byzantine
Empire has, indeed, been insufficiently recognized.
Of the direct taxes, the most frequently mentioned are the
following: 2
(a) The land-tax. This included, first, a tax on the land
itself, assessed according to the area, the value of the soil, and
the nature of its cultivation, and, secondly, a tax on the crops,
having its origin in the old Roman annona and varying
according to the number of ploughing animals employed.
Another peculiar feature of the land-tax was that each vil-
lage formed a fiscal unit; if one landowner disappeared, the
Treasury was not the loser; it simply allotted the defaulter's
land to his nearest neighbour, who had to pay the tax
(epibole).
(b} The tax on grazing-lands (ennomiori) and animals other
than those used for ploughing (pigs, bees, See.).
(c) The capitation tax. This assumed a family character;
it was laid upon each hearth, hence its name kapnikon. It
was levied only upon serfs. 3
(d) All the foregoing taxes fell exclusively upon the rural
population. The direct taxes levied upon the urban popula-
tion were the chrysargyron, the aerikon, and the tax on inheri-
tances. But the first-named of these three, a sort of tax on
commercial profits, was abolished early in the fifth century
by the Emperor Anastasius and was replaced later by a
simple licence-tax. The aerikon, said to have been instituted
by Justinian, has called forth a whole literature, 4 but remains
1 This may be observed also in modern Greece.
2 Cf. Andrades, Byxantmische Zeitschnft, vol xxviii (1928), pp. 287-323.
3 Another tax under the same name was levied occasionally upon freemen; but
it was a war contribution, an extraordinary tax. The sources mention a third tax
,
which, as shown by its tide (kephalttion), was a real capitation tax. But, as Pr
ofessor
Ddlger has proved, this tax was levied only on non-Christians, chiefly Mussulman
s
and Jews.
4 Every self-respecting Byzantinologist thinks it his duty to give a new inter-
pretation of this tax.
PUBLIC FINANCES 83
mysterious and the name seems to have been applied to
several different taxes, while the tax itself would appear to
have had a somewhat intermittent career. The same may be
said of the tax on inheritances. As for the chartiatikon, it
seems to have been a stamp-tax, i.e., an indirect tax. Hence,
even if one admits that the kensos, the real estate tax properly
so called, was levied on urban as well as agricultural land,
the fact remains that the inhabitants of cities were at various
times practically exempted from direct taxation. On the
other hand, the indirect taxes fell heavily upon them in both
forms customs duties and excise.
Customs duties, as in ancient times, were levied both on
exports and imports and the imported goods that had paid a
customs duty were not thereby exempted from the payment
either of the tax on retail sale or of port or transit dues
(skaliatikon, diabatikori). Moreover, the customs duties were
fixed at 10 per cent., 1 whereas in ancient Athens they were
only 2 per cent., and in Roman Italy 2^ per cent, (guadrage-
sima).
Since sea-trade was very highly developed, one can easily
understand that under these conditions the customs revenues
were of vital interest to the Empire. The excise (or tax on
internal consumption of commodities) is set forth in detail
in one document, Novel xxvm of Andronicus Palaeologus
(1317), which has so far not been the subject of any special
study. The fact that each tax bears the name of a commodity
or group of commodities indicates that the amount of the
tax was variable. 2 This Novel of Andronicus also mentions
a tax on weights and measures, which was paid by the buyer,
and lastly, the licence-tax paid by merchants for the exercise
of their calling, which tax, too, varied according to each
calling and was named after it.
Taken all in all, especially for the rural population, the
Byzantine fiscal system would have been tolerable, if it had
not been supplemented by a long series of extraordinary or
supplementary obligations, on which a few ôrds must here
be said.
1 At first, under Theodosius, the rate was 12 per cent.
2 This method, in itself reasonable, is to be found in antiquity and in the Ioni
an
Islands under the Venetian rule.
84 PUBLIC FINANCES
Anyone who peruses the charters of immunity from taxa-
tion granted to certain monasteries, notably that granted to
the Nea Mone of Chios by Constantine Monomachus and
to the Monastery of Patmos by Alexius Comnenus, sees how
numerous and varied these supplementary burdens were.
One may class them as contributions in kind for the benefit
of the army, the officers, and the public functionaries, and as
forced labour, corvees, properly so called, for public works,
whether military (fortifications, &c.) or civil (roads, bridges,
&c.).
Both classes are in conflict with Adam Smith's four rules
of taxation. They were not equally distributed, because
exemption was granted not only to a large number of
privileged persons, but also to such cities and regions as for
one reason or another were outside the circle of requisitions.
They were not fixed, inasmuch as they varied according to
circumstances. They were (by the force of circumstances)
not collected at the time most convenient for the taxpayer.
Lastly, their amount depended on the arbitrary decisions of
the civil or military authorities; and this fostered numerous
abuses to the detriment both of the taxpayers and of the
Treasury.
The only excuse that one can plead for this pernicious
legislation is that it was not an invention of the Byzantines.
These contributions in kind and corvees were but a survival
of the munera extraordinaria et sordida^ of which the Codex
Theodosianus gives us a list and enables us to appreciate the
burden.
V. CONCLUSION
Byzantine finances could not be satisfactory. As in our
day, expenditure was too great and in part unnecessary. The
Government could not meet it except by a system of taxation
which was more oppressive and certainly more arbitrary than
anything we know of to-day.
One cannot, however, form an equitable judgement of the
financial system of any State, except by comparing it with
that of other States of the same period, or with that which the
particular State had inherited. From these two points of
view, the comparison is to the advantage of the Greek Empire
PUBLIC FINANCES 85
of the East. In the first place one is struck by the fact that
not only the monarchies which succeeded to the Empire of
the West, but also the Bulgar and Russian Tsars, while
failing to give their subjects a better administration, had the
greatest difficulty in collecting revenues much inferior to
those yielded without much effort by the smallest Byzantine
'province'. Their finances were in their infancy. The Caliphs
of Bagdad did perhaps collect revenues which, at a given
time, surpassed the revenues of the Byzantine Emperors,
but they had a fiscal system even more crushing. Moreover,
their financial prosperity was of brief duration. 1 Lastly, one
must also bear in mind that, if the Greek Emperors retained
in principle the fiscal system of the later Roman Empire,
they improved upon it in many ways. They abolished certain
taxes (notably the hated chrysargyron\ reduced others, and
took measures which ameliorated the collection of revenue
and rendered the epibole tolerable. They also strove, with
more energy than their predecessors, to protect the small
holders.
In a word, the Byzantine financial administration must be
condemned; but there is good ground for a plea in extenua-
tion of its faults.
M. ANDRADS
1 It reached its zenith under Harun-al-Rashid (768-809); during the ninth

century revenue steadily fell offj in the tenth century it had fallen to insigni
ficant
sums. On the contrary, the yield of Byzantine revenue continued abundant for
many centuries a fact which demonstrates the efficiency of the imperial fiscal
machine.
IV
THE BYZANTINE CHURCH
THE Byzantine Empire being by definition the Roman
Empire in its Christian form, it goes without saying that in
Byzantium the Christian Church dominates at once both
political and social life, the life of letters and of art just as
much as the definitely religious life of the Empire. Its
special problems thus become affairs of State: its interests,
its grievances, its needs, its passions, its conflicts, whether
external or internal, fill the history of the Eastern Empire
fepth as that history was lived and still more as it was written.
Those disagreements which in their origin belong specifically
to the Byzantine Church have left deep marks upon the
civilization of the Christian peoples of the East and have
determined in many respects even down to our own day the
relations of these peoples amongst themselves and with the
West. To quote but two examples: the misunderstanding
which after the Yugoslav unification still divided Croats and
Serbs was in the last analysis the result of the breach between
the Byzantine Church and the Church of Rome which dates
from the year 1054; the antagonism between 'Orthodox*
Georgians and Monophysite Armenians which in the gravest
crisis of their history prevented them from co-ordinating
their efforts to secure their independence that antagonism
was ultimately but a distant consequence of a Byzantine
theological dispute of the fifth century. To-day the Byzan-
tine Church and the autocephalous communities which are
attached to it or rather which have detached themselves
from it in the course of the centuries appear to be the most
rigid, the most set of the Christian Churches; and it is true
that their rites and their dogmas have had for centuries past
a character of hieratic fixity. But the Byzantine Church has
been a living force, a moral force of the first order. And to do
it justice one cannot rest content to describe it merely in its
present attitude or in one only of the attitudes which it has
successively assumed. Nothing can be more superficial than
the reproach of 'Caesaropapism with which it has at times
THE BYZANTINE CHURCH 87

been branded; nothing more inexact so far as the Byzantine
Church is concerned than the charge of 'ceremonialism', of
formalism 'stifling the life of mysticism', for this mystic life
never ceased to inspire the ascetes and during the last century
of Byzantium even took possession of the masses.
It is essential to trace not only the internal evolution of
the Byzantine Church but also its external relations. For
most of its characteristic features result from the accidents of
these two aspects of its double history. These features we
shall do our best to emphasize, but first it is necessary to
bring before the reader the disorders and the tumults, the
conquests and the losses of which these characteristics
remain the witness, just as the motionless lines of a tor-
mented landscape are to be explained only by the convulsions
of which it has been the theatre in long past geological ages.
The plan of our chapter is determined by this consideration
which calls for a division into three parts : we shall first study
the Church as seen from within the Church militant, the
Church finding itself, often divided against itself and often
opposing the State, seeking to assert or to define its dogma;
then we shall consider it from without, in its expansion
beyond the limits of the Empire, conquering and civilizing,
but also imperialist and even intransigent, provoking hatreds
and national reactions ; finally we shall conclude by an attempt
doubtless a rash attempt at synthesis, an effort, perhaps
a vain effort, to attain to some understanding, through its
manifestations in history, of the essence of the Church of the
East, its spirit. . . .
THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE EMPIRE.
THE ACCEPTANCE OF THE NEW FAITH BY THE STATE, AND
OF HELLENISM BY THE CHURCH.
THE TRIUMPH OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH OVER THE
ARIAN HERESY: COMPROMISE BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY
AND THE FAITH.
The first great fact of the internal history of the Byzantine
Church is its 'march on Rome', its conquest of power, and
the foundation by Constantine of the New Rome on the
Bosphorus (inaugurated in 330) which is its striking symbol.
That triumph in which all the faithful saw and still see a
88 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

miraculous confirmation of the divine institution of the
Church belongs, it is true, to all Christian Churches, but in
especial it illumines the Church of which the city of Con-
stantine was soon to be the capital and which identifies itself
with the Empire reorganized by Constantine; and, through
the centuries, that triumph ever gives anew to the Byzantine
Church the highest idea of its own powers, the proudest
confidence in its future. The Church is certain that it is at
once eternal and unique, and this certitude welded it, as it
were, to the Roman State which has the same conviction.
Between Rome and Christ there had, indeed, never been any
antagonism on grounds of principle: Jesus had from the
first assigned to Caesar as of right his own sphere. Anatolia,
which was the heart and the body of the Byzantine Empire,
was predestined for Christian conquest, and the Apostle of
the Gentiles knew well what he was doing when he carried
the good news of redemption into a country which but a few
years before had welcomed with enthusiasm the 'good news'
of the appearance of Augustus, 'the Saviour God'. The
whole history of Christian missions and of the spread of
Christianity is, as it were, prefigured in the mission of Paul,
the foe of the Greek idols, but the herald of the Unknown
God of whom thousands of the subjects of the first Caesars
dreamed and himself a loyal citizen of Rome. The peasants
and the mountaineers of Asia Minor had only very super-
ficially been won over to Hellenic polytheism and the higher
culture of Greece. They knew ecstasy and religious fervour,
personal devotion, the confession of sins, and the hope of the
life beyond the tomb. The vulgar Greek spoken by Paul did
indeed appear to them to be the language of the Holy Spirit.
Amongst people such as these Christianity progressed
almost without hindrance. The classical period of the
oriental ization of the Empire, that of the Severi at the
beginning of the third century, saw upon the throne princes
who were themselves half-Christian. The great persecutions,
those of Decius and Valerian in the middle of the third
century and that of Galerius and his colleagues at the begin-
ning of the fourth, were but violent and desperate reactions
against the peaceful conquest of the Empire by the new
faith. These reactions sprang from the army of the Danube
recruited amongst Balkan barbarians who had remained
pagan troops who were sacrificed in vast numbers for the
defence of the Empire. They were at once passionate and
interested defenders of the old religion, for the class-interest
of the officers appealed to all the anti-Christian prejudices.
The persecutions resemble the modern movements of anti-
semitism. The last persecution caused widespread disgust,
and the principal persecutor, Galerius, recognized his
failure by promulgating on his death-bed the great Edict of
Tolerance of the fourth century, the Edict of Sardica (Sofia,
A.D. 31 1). Five Emperors, at least, between the years 306
and 3 1 1 declared themselves more or less openly in favour of
Christianity. Their attitude proves that the Empire in order
to surmount a terrible economic and social crisis felt it
necessary to resort to a religious mysticism which might
buttress and sustain those political institutions which had
themselves been refashioned upon Eastern models.
That is not all : even such an enemy of Christianity as was
Maximin Daia (died 313) who ended his reign like the
others with an edict of tolerance as well as, half a century
later, the last imperial adversary of the new faith, Julian the
Apostate, sought in more than one point of their organization
of pagan worship to imitate that of the Christian Church. If
they had conquered the Galilaean, these Caesars would have
borrowed from His Church its hierarchy of metropolitans
and many another Christian institution.
Shaken to its foundations, within an ace time and again of
perishing in an unexampled cataclysm, the Empire realized
that in order to survive it needed not only a dynastic, military,
monetary, and administrative basis, it needed also a soul, a
core of religion. And, indeed, it had no longer any choice.
Christianity had on its side the mass of the people, at least in
the heart of the Empire. Here the Orient made its decisive
preponderance felt a preponderance which was at once
demographic, economic, and cultural. And Christianity
brought to the Empire an organization already made, and
the Empire in identifying itself with Christianity had seen
in it a unifying factor. Christianity, however, had conquered
the world not in the form of a great river with a single stream,
but in the form of numerous torrents. These divisions had

not been suppressed by the victory of the Church. On the
contrary, that victory only brought into full light the dog-
matic differences between which the Emperors were forced
to make their choice, while they found themselves faced by
disciplinary disputes to which the persecution itself had
given rise. Many ancient 'heresies' although they had struck
deep roots especially in Anatolia and Syria such as
Montanism in Phrygia or the dualist sects issuing from the
Gnosis of Marcion and Manes were henceforth no longer
a serious danger for the 'Catholic' Church. But Constantine,
so soon as he became master of Africa, found there a Chris-
tianity which was profoundly divided by Donatism, a move-
ment which formed a rallying-point for the masses of the
people who protested against the lukewarmness or the
cowardice in the hour of persecution of those propertied
classes who now, after the Christian victory, claimed their
share of honours, though they had not shared the sufferings
of the persecuted. And Constantine, such was the obstinacy
of the schismatics, was forced to tolerate Donatism. Ten
years later as conqueror of Licinius and master of the whole
Empire he suffered his second disillusionment when he was
faced with the Arian Controversy which was a far graver
issue than Donatism, for Donatism divided only Africa, but
Arianism divided the Roman world.
Arianism is the price paid for the early and fruitful
alliance of Christianity with Greek philosophy. From the
moment that Christ is identified with the Logos, His re-
lations with the Father must be defined in terms of the
Alexandrian conception of the Word. The 'savants', the
philosopher-theologians Antioch was then the great school
of Christian philosophy could not bring themselves to attri-
bute to the Father and the Son the same essence, the same
degree of divinity ; to do so would have led, in their view, to a
heresy which had already been condemned, to Sabellianism.
A priest of Alexandria, Arius, Jiad preached not without
indiscretions and extravagance of speech had popularized
and vulgarized the faith of Antioch. Bold and precise
formulas such as 'There was a time when He was not* roused
the passions of the crowd for and against this 'subordina-
tionism'. His bishop Alexander excommunicated him, but

the dispute began afresh. For the first time doubtless in the
history of the world the inhabited universe the oikoumene
was divided into two camps on a point of religious meta-
physics. An academic controversy was carried into the
streets, a Church dissension became a political, a national,
one might almost say a racial, issue, for it is generally true
that while the hellenized East is Arian, the Latin West is
solid in its opposition to Arianism. The bishops of Alex-
andria, at least Alexander and after him the great Athanasius,
from the first took their stand against the position of the
priest who had appealed to the mob, who spread his teaching
through popular songs 1 chanted by sailors or artisans; in
this great battle which lasted for more than half a century
they were the allies of the West. Arian 'subordinationism',
it should be observed, is the faith of those Eastern countries
which had long since been Christian, solidly Christian ; the
formula of the 'Consubstantial' the Homoousion which
the East will find such difficulty in accepting will be
imposed upon it paradoxically enough by the West
which under Constantino and Constantius is still largely
pagan, which can hardly boast of any theologians, since
philosophy whether pagan or Christian was the concern of the
Greeks. Faced by these subtleties, Constantine shows him-
self at once indifferent and ill-humoured. In a letter of un-
doubted authenticity he begins by describing the study of the
relations between the Father and the divine Son as 'an idle
inquiry'. But he soon saw that union between the hostile
brothers in the faith would not come of itself, that he must
throw his personal authority into the scale. He was com-
pelled to turn theologian, and henceforth, until the fall of
Byzantium, the Emperors of East Rome will never escape
from this task which with many of them will become a
passion, a mania: thus in the twelfth century Manuel
Comnenus will raise a theological tempest over the text 'My
Father is greater than P (John xiv. 28). Constantius, son and
successor of Constantine, will spend his life in the vain search,
as his father would have called it, for a formula which might
reconcile the differences of his Christian subjects. At Nicaea
in 325 Constantine had wished, doubtless prematurely,
1 complaintes.

to play the part of bishop; he had cut the Gordian knot
by imposing the Homoousion a formula suggested by the
simple faith of a Spanish bishop which was repugnant to the
philosophical conscience of the Orientals. A little later he
came to realize the strength of that hostility. Emperor of
Nicomedia and of Constantinople, in the end he took the
part of the bishops of Asia against Athanasius. Constantius
II, living in the East, passes through various shades of
Arianism, while his brother Constans, Emperor of the West,
defends the faith of Nicaea. This duality in the government
of the Empire produces a kind of equilibrium : the bishops,
both in East and West, maintain their positions; the Council
of Sardica (343), assembled symbolically at the frontier
where two Empires met, could not reconcile the differing
points of view, though out of respect for each other the two
brothers were not intolerant. In 350 Constans was assassi-
nated; during the years 351 to 3 53 Constantius reconquered
the West from the usurper Magnentius. More and more
Constantius sets his heart upon forcing the Consubstan-
tialists to accept the creed of the Eastern bishops, or formulas
of compromise invented by ingenious Oriental theologians,
or even Anhomoean formulas of the left wing of Arianism,
until the day when at the two Councils of Ariminum and
Seleucia a neutral confession which proscribed even the
name of substance is imposed upon East and West alike.
The reign of Constantius is in many respects an anticipa-
tion of the whole course of the religious history of Byzantium.
A theological difference ranges one half of the Empire
against the other. The Emperor to settle the dispute sum-
mons council after council: the highways of the Empire
are crossed and recrossed by 'galloping bishops': one sees
now Court prelates or ecclesiastical assemblies won over or
intimidated by the Government, now heroic athletes of the
faith braving the Emperors themselves and gaining from
these religious duels an immense popularity: one sees the
Emperor seeking by any and every means to secure the
support of the Bishop of Rome. And all this will recur
again and again. But in the fourth century the struggle
between Chrstians is not without its danger: Constantius
and Constans had thought that by their draconian edicts of

the forties against superstition and sacrifices they could
deal the death-blow to paganism, but paganism was not pre-
pared to throw down its arms. Julian galvanizes it into new
vigour : he turns to his own purposes the indignation aroused
by the breakers of idols, by unlettered monks, by pamph-
leteers who in their hatred hurled their insults against the
gods of Homer. But he did a disservice to the cause of
humanism in claiming to exclude from the literary and
artistic heritage of Hellas and even from culture itself
those Christians of goodwill who had been trained at the
great seats of learning of the Empire and who did not reject
civilization along with paganism. From this time the
moderates sought for a compromise which might preserve
that which was of essential value, while amongst the Chris-
tians, weary of dogmatic disputes of which the reaction under
Julian had proved the danger, there was an effort to recon-
cile the Christian faith of the West, attached by a primary
anxiety for unity to the formula of the Homoousion, with the
more subtle doctrine of the Orientals.
The peacemakers, the saviours of civilization, of the faith,
and of the Empire, were the Cappadocians, Gregory of
Nazianzus and Basil of Caesarea, men who had been brought
up on the classics, themselves just as much rhetoricians and
'sophists' as they were theologians. Their work has a twofold
aspect. On the one hand, they establish a new orthodoxy;
while accepting the Homoousion they interpret that formula
afresh, restoring the Logos theology. They admit in the
Godhead, like the strict Nicenes, only one substance a
single ousia, but they distinguish three hypostases three
persons. They thus prepare the way for the return to Nicene
orthodoxy of the moderate Arians, who had been startled by
the excesses of Constantius and above all of Valens. On the
other hand, by the literary charm of their writings which
observed the canons of the schools and could be admired by
a cultivated public they reconciled Christianity and Hellen-
ism. By refounding, or rather by founding, religious unity
on the basis of formulas which were not nêrely diplomatic,
the great Cappadocians and their Latin disciples and allies,
like St. Ambrose, once more assured, at the critical moment
when the two Empires were finally taking their separate

ways, through the unity of Christian thought the unity of
the Christian world.
After the Council of 381 held under Theodosius the
Great, 1 Arianism, repudiated by Greco-Roman society, was
henceforth only a Christianity for German barbarians. Even
after the fall of the Empire of the West in 476 the Latins
reacted against this 'barbarous religion' with no less energy
than did the Byzantines.
Finally Christianity, hellenized and philosophic, as it was
presented by Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil of Caesarea,
was well fitted to become *a gentleman's religion', and the
Empire could thus, without scandalizing men of intellect,
persecute those who were still obstinately attached to pagan
sacrifices and 'superstition', who refused to unite, as the
State invited them to do, the cult of letters and the cult of the
true God.
THE MONOPHYSITE AND MONOTHELITE CONTROVERSIES

AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES
ALIENATION OF THE ARMENIAN, SYRIAN, AND COPTIC EAST
As fifty years of relative peace the Pentekontaetia
separate the Persian Wars from the Peloponnesian War,
so a dogmatic peace of like duration extends from the close
of the Arian controversy to the beginnings of the dispute
over the Two Natures. The dates, indeed, present striking
analogies: 480 and 431 before Jesus Christ, 381 and 431
after Jesus Christ the Councils of Constantinople and
of Ephesus. Like the ancient quarrel, the Monophysite
controversy will become an affair of State and will profoundly
disturb the masses of the people. The Great Councils, the
Parliaments of Christendom, will take an increasingly impor-
tant place in the preoccupations of the world. The last
refuge of free speech, they are, in a measure, the successors
of the tumultuous assemblies of the Greek city-states. They
proved, in general, to be less docile than were the synods
presided over by the commissioners of Constantius. More-
over, the subject-matter of the dispute is perhaps of greater
1 So called to distinguish him from his grandson Theodosius II

import than the Homoousion or Homoiousion. And in any event
the consequences of the century-long controversy will be
very different from those of the Arian debate: the latter,
as we have seen, finished by reinforcing the unity and the
solidarity of the Romans, both Greek- and Latin-speaking, in
face of the German invaders, while in the last analysis it is the
Monophysite controversy which will detach from the Ortho-
dox Church the majority of the Syrians, the whole body of
the Copts and in their train the Ethiopians, and the Arme-
nians, while this religious disaffection will facilitate the con-
quests of Islam and the dismemberment of the Empire.
Further, the Monophysite dispute is more 'Byzantine' than
the Arian controversy, inasmuch as it concerns especially the
Eastern world. The West has other interests. A few dates
set side by side will bring into relief this contrast between
Latin Romania, victim of the great conflicts of peoples, and
the Byzantine East distracted by the conflicts of bishops and
of monks. The leading Latin doctor, St. Augustine, was
summoned to the Council of Ephesus, but that summons
reached him too late : he had died in Hippo while the Vandals
were besieging the city.
The battle of the Catalaunian Fields, where all the West,
Romans and Germans, stayed the advance of the Huns, was
fought at about the same time as the great theological battle
of Chalcedon. Still the West does not disavow all interest in
the controversy; indeed, as in 325, it is the West which
imposes a formula of too little subtlety that of the two
Natures without separation or confusion which will re-
main the rock of orthodoxy but also a terrible rock of
offence.
Nestorius himself spoke of his 'Tragedy* : we may bear
the word in mind and consider the whole history of the
Monophysite controversy with its sequel the Monothelite
dispute as a single drama in five acts of unequal length. The
first act has for its central scene the Council of Ephesus (43 1).
Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, disciple of the school
of Antioch, is a true representative of its theology, more
speculative than mystical. He sets before himself the task of
pursuing and overthrowing the followers of another heresy,
Apollinarianism, which carried to excess its opposition

to Arianism by minimizing the human nature in the
Incarnate Word. Nestorius insisted on the Man-Christ, for
on the humanity of Christ depended, it would seem, the
reality of His redemptive death. He taught that the Virgin
was not Mother of God, but of Christ not theotokos, but
Christotokos. Now their faith always led the most ardent of
the faithful to 'go one better*. It was impossible, they
thought, to give too much honour to the Mother of the
Consubstantial Word, who had recently, it appears, become
the object of a cult, full of tender emotion, which met a need
of the Egyptians who, in spite of all, had not forgotten Isis
and her worship. Just as Arius had seemed to humiliate the
Word by saying 'There was a time when He was not', so
Nestorius seemed to insult the divinity of the Redeemer, the
more so as he permitted himself some irreverent and ill-
timed sallies on 'The God at the breast'. When Nestorius
affirmed that the divinity had come to dwell in the humanity
of the Christ 'as in a temple', the devout indignantly pro-
tested that he was dividing, cutting into two, 'tearing
asunder' the Christ. These protests came especially from
Egypt: Egypt had every reason to keep a sharp lookout for
Errors of dogma or of language coming from a Patriarch of
Constantinople. The bishops of Alexandria, absolute heads
of the whole Egyptian episcopate, supported by a formid-
able army of monks and hospital attendants the notorious
farabolam 1 were jealous of Constantinople, the proud
upstart, once the humble suffragan-bishopric of Heraclea-
Perinthus, but raised by the third canon of the Council of
381 above the glorious sees of Alexandria and Antioch.
Every opportunity to humiliate his colleague was welcomed
by the prelate whom men styled the 'Pharaoh' of Egypt.
Although no theological question had been at stake, Theo-
philus of Alexandria had not failed to turn to account the
feud between the Empress Eudocia and St. John Chrysos-
tom: he had overthrown that generous Patriarch, the friend
of the people and the bitter critic of the Court. Cyril, the
nephew of Theophilus, in his turn was not slow to denounce
the heresy of Nestorius. Behind him was the whole of
Egypt, both Greeks and Copts.
1 Really parabalaneis, or bath-attendants.

There had long been close connexion between Egypt and
Rome: the Church of Alexandria had been founded, tradi-
tion said, by Mark, the disciple of Peter. It was at Rome
that Athanasius had sought a refuge from persecution. It
was thus natural that Pope Celestine should trust the ortho-
doxy and the energy of Cyril. The Council of Ephesus,
summoned by Nestorius and by his protector the Emperor
Theodosius II to judge Cyril, witnessed the triumph of the
Egyptian and the decisive and final defeat of the 'Byzantine'.
The assembly met 'in the church called Mary' it was a
symbol and a prophecy. And yet the result of the Council
could not be easily foreseen. Cyril, in the eyes of many
moderates, had gone too far in his attack upon Nestorius and
his 'dyophysitism'. In his 'anathemas' he had made use of
expressions which bordered on the left-wing heresy of the
Single Nature in the Incarnate Christ Monophysitism.
But he manoeuvred with supreme skill. Even at the Council
of Ephesus itself he carried through with the complicity of
the Roman legates a couf d'eglise by opening the proceed-
ings before the arrival of the Eastern bishops who were
favourable to his adversary whose condemnation he forced
through without a moment's delay. Later every expedient
was employed to influence the Court at Constantinople,
particularly baksheesh. Cyril's 'benedictions' took the form
of ivory tables, costly carpets, even ostriches, and thus
gained for his theology the support of high officials and their
wives. And at last when everyone including the Emperor had
sacrificed the embarrassing and compromising Nestorius,
Cyril made the necessary concessions to the theology of
Antioch, spoke as did the Antiochene theologians of the
Divinity which dwelt in the Christ as in a 'temple', and
admitted that there had been 'a union of two natures'. The
more fanatical of his partisans doubtless regretted the
moderation of their great leader, but Mgr. Duchesne con-
cludes that 'the Pharaoh had become a Saint'.
We have told the story of this first act at some length,
because it both sets forth, as is fitting, the theme of the
tragedy and is the prologue in which the characters are intro-
duced. These, it is true, will at times change their names,
will play different parts, but the rivalry between Alexandria
3982 H
and Constantinople, the arbitration of Rome, the vacillation
of the Emperor, these remain throughout unaltered. We
pass then to the second act.
Egypt under its new Patriarch Dioscorus wishes to drive
home its victory: it regrets the moderation of Cyril. It now
confesses the Single Nature without equivocation. At the
Second Council of Ephesus (449) history repeats itself, at
least in part, since Flavian, Patriarch of Constantinople,
accused of having condemned the Monophysite monk
Eutyches, is in his turn anathematized and deposed. At
Rome the Pope, St. Leo, protests against a hazardous
Christology, and in his famous dogmatic letter proclaims
the 'orthodox' doctrine of the future: 'The true God is born
with the complete and perfect nature of a true man, perfect
in His own nature (divinity) and perfect in our nature
(humanity).' Henceforward the Monophysites will be
accused by the Great Church, as was Nestorius, of denying
the humanity of the body of Christ, and, as a consequence,
the Passion. Logically the Monophysites should have main-
tained that the death of Christ on the Cross had been only an
appearance a phantasia unless they were prepared to
confess that the God-Man had suffered 'by a miracle'. But
in fact the Monophysite theologians and even Eutyches him-
self almost always declined to admit the extreme views which
were imputed to them by their enemies. However that may
be, passions had been unloosed in favour of a doctrine which
exalted the divinity at the expense of the humanity of the
Incarnate Christ. Almost throughout the East the masses of
the people were in its favour, rising together with the monks
against the Nestorianizing episcopate, while the feeble and
vacillating Theodosius II, once the protector of Nestorius,
impressed doubtless by the elemental force of the movement,
gave to it his official support. His minister, the eunuch
Chrysaphius, was the patron of Eutyches who, it was
reported, had said that the body of Christ had descended
from heaven.
But a change of sovereign reversed the course of religious
policy: Theodosius II died, while hunting, in 450: his sister
Pulcheria ordered the execution of Chrysaphius and then
married Martian who shared with her the government of

the Empire. The new rulers set before themselves the task
of imposing upon their subjects the creed of Pope Leo.
The third act of the tragedy begins : its scene is the Council
of Chalcedon (451). The opening sessions of the Council
were directed by a civil commission of nineteen high officials.
But, despite this rigorous control, it was only with great
difficulty that the assembly was brought to accept the new
definition of the faith desired by Marcian and Pulcheria:
*We confess one Jesus, Lord, only Son, whom we acknow-
ledge in two Natures' There were those who had sought the
golden mean by proposing the formula 'of two Natures'. It
was in vain that in later clauses of the creed emphasis was
laid upon the indivisibility of the two natures : by admitting
that they persisted without confusion after the union the
doctrine of St. Cyril was implicitly rejected. It is for this
reason that the definition of Chalcedon had on men's minds
so provocative an effect. Throughout a large part of the
East it was believed that the Government and the official
Church had gone over to Nestorianism. Few ecclesiastical
assemblies have been so hated and so anathematized by
millions of the faithful as was the Council of Chalcedon:
even to-day it is still a rock of offence. No sooner had 'the
accursed Council' finished its work than a double revolution
broke out against it at Jerusalem and in Egypt. The
influence of the monks, drawn for the most part from Asia
Minor, and the prestige of a few great solitaries reconquered
Palestine for Chalcedonian orthodoxy, but Egypt remains
and will remain uncompromising. In the valley of the Nile
there is constituted a solid Monophysite opposition which
nothing can break, while in Syria after bloody conflicts and
many disturbances the deep-seated Monophysitism of the
masses of the people will shake the columns of 'the school of
Antioch'.
Then there begins the interminable fourth act (476-565),
the century during which the Emperors seek to disarm the
hatred of the East against Chalcedon. Prodigies of ingenuity
and of theological diplomacy were devised, but in the result
it was almost completely labour lost. The Emperor Zeno in
484, in agreement with the Patriarchs of Constantinople and
of Alexandria, published the Henotikon or Edict of Union,
ioo ' THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

the first in date of these subtle attempts to sacrifice Chalcedon
to the Anti-Chalcedonians without rejecting expressis verbis
the orthodox, but scandalous, Council. The Henotikon
repeated the official creeds, except that of Chalcedon, and
added : * If anyone has taught otherwise, whether at Chalcedon
or elsewhere, let him be anathema!' But a silence which
failed to satisfy the Egyptians appeared to the Romans a
heretical pusillanimity; it caused a complete breach between
Constantinople and the Pope (484-51 8). This first schism,
known as the schism of Acacius from the name of the then
Patriarch of Constantinople, is a sign of the times: Byzan-
tium, since the whole West is now taken captive by the
barbarians, prefers communion with Alexandria to union
with Rome.
Anastasius, the successor of Zeno, is a pure Monophysite,
although at times he may disguise his extreme views, since
the capital and the Balkans remain orthodox. One day the
general Vitalian presented himself before the gates of
Byzantium at the head of an army of Huns: he came as the
soldier of the Pope. Everywhere the two confessions
identified themselves with the political and social parties
which took as their emblems the colours of the 'factions' of
the circus : the Greens represented, as a rule, the lower classes
which were Monophysite, the Blues the orthodox bourgeoisie.
The latter triumphed with the Emperor Justin, a Latin of
Balkan origin as was Vitalian. Justin re-established union
with Rome and persecuted the Monophysites ; his nephew
Justinian was, like his uncle, in principle a Blue and orthodox,
but vacillated now to one side, now to the other, under the
pressure of circumstances and still more under the influence
of his wife Theodora, a convinced Monophysite, who
united prudence with an unwavering purpose.
After the reconquest of Italy from the heretic Goths it was
essential for Justinian to pose as the champion of the orthodox
faith and the ally of the Pope; he thus, in concert with Pope
Agapetus, put an end to the Monophysite reaction of the
Patriarch Anthimus. But Theodora would not surrender
the hope of converting to her faith the Pope himself and the
whole of the regained West, and Justinian devoted ten
years of his life to this work to 'the seduction of the

Papacy' and 'the reconciliation of the Orientals'. His idea
was to expurgate Chalcedon: to eliminate from the Acta of
the Fourth Council that which was most offensive to the
nonconformists. In 45" i three enemies of Cyril Theodore
of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, and Ibas of Edessa
had been absolved or justified. If one pursued the dead even
in their tombs, the fierce hatreds of the Monophysites might
he appeased: so thought the pious sovereigns and their
advisers. And all the West, if the Pope of Rome consented
thereto, would bow before this posthumous condemnation
pronounced in the cause of peace.
Such was the affair of the 'Three Chapters' which is odious
on more than one ground; it was a strange charity towards
separated brethren which appealed to their hatred rather
than their love: the Emperor's intervention in a purely
theological dispute was direct, brutal, and repeated; the
luckless Pope Vigilius was subjected to violence and mal-
treatment: he was dragged from Rome to Constantinople:
here he yielded, then resisted, retracted, again insisted, and
at last at the Fifth Oecumenical Council (Constantinople
553) he ratified the condemnation of the 'Three Chapters',
i.e. of the writings of the 'scandalous doctors'. Henceforth
the Council of Chalcedon was emended, but nothing was
gained thereby, for still the oriental dissenters refused their
subscription. Moreover, in the course of the controversy
over the Three Chapters the Monophysite Churches had
reconstituted their hierarchy which had for a time been
disorganized by 'the Catholic terror'. The enthusiastic
missionary Jacobus Baradaeus has given Jiis name to the
Syrian 'Jacobites'. Coptic Egypt, in spite of the orthodox
Patriarchs who had hardly any adherents save in Greek
Alexandria, hesitated only between the different shades of
Monophysitism. In 548 Theodora had died, doubtless full
of hopes for the success of the great scheme of the Three
Chapters and for the future of her co-religionists whom she
sheltered and at need hid by hundreds in her palace. It was
doubtless the memory of his wife which led the Emperor,
exasperated by the failure of his efforts at conciliation, to join
the extremists amongst the Monophysites and to profess
Aphthartodocetism to maintain the incorruptibility of the
loz THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

body of Christ. This imperial heresy was but the hallucina-
tion of a dying man ; his successors returned to 'the catholic
terror'. Yet in Egypt, as though to demonstrate the impos-
sibility of repression in a country permanently disaffected,
saints such as Eulogius and John the Almsgiver, who suc-
ceeded each other on the patriarchal throne of Alexandria,
proved themselves veritable heroes of Christian charity. The
fruits of their activity were disappointing: there were few
whole-hearted conversions to orthodoxy.
Then there follows the fifth act of the great dispute: it,
too, lasted for a century. Like Zeno and Justinian, Heraclius
dreams of reconciling the dissidents. Never since Chalcedon
had the prospects been more favourable for the re-establish-
ment of religious peace. It must surely need a truly diabolical
obstinacy in the Christians of the East to refuse to accept
this peace from the hands of a holy Emperor, now crowned
with victory, who after his overthrow of pagan Persia had
restored in triumph the True Cross to Jerusalem (630).
Heraclius was always henceforth in the eyes of Christians of
the East and the West alike the Christian hero above all
others, and his theological adviser, the Patriarch of Con-
stantinople, Sergius, shared the Emperor's aureole, since it
was he who with the favour of the Mother of God had
defended the capital against Avars, Slavs, and Persians.
Consequently more readily, more frankly than Vigilius, the
Pope Honorius allowed himself to be won over to the pacific
policy of the Emperor and the Patriarch of the East. It was
a marvellous success ! It was a triumph for Heraclius and he
felt himself more truly victorious than on the day when he
announced to the peoples of the Empire the destruction of
Chosroes in 'the eternal fire'.
The peace for the souls of his subjects which Rome had
sanctioned the Emperor owed to his faithful Armenian
compatriots: for Heraclius was a son of this heroic nation.
Two-thirds of Armenia had been reconquered from Persia by
Maurice, it had been lost again in part under Phocas, it had
been regained and delivered from the Iranian yoke by him-
self or rather by the prowess of its own warriors fighting in
the service of Byzantium. Now Armenia, which for fifty
years had been indifferent to the controversy on the Two

Natures, had, at the beginning of the sixth century, become
Monophysite, or rather anti-Nestorian. This was not
surprising, since Nestorianism was in Persia, as it were, a
second national religion, the only recognized form of
Christianity. Heraclius knew well his good 'Haikh*. After
the hardships which they had shared with him, after the final
victory, they asked for nothing better than to welcome as
brothers both the Greek and the Latin Christians. But they
desired to be reassured concerning Chalcedon which had
divided the person of the Saviour. This Heraclius and
Sergius undertook to do; without raising afresh the thorny
problem of the Two Natures, they affirmed that in Christ
there was at least only one energy. On this assurance the
union with the Armenian Church was effected. Honorius
went still further: he spoke of a single will and this latter
formula was adopted in the imperial edict the Ekthesis
of 63 8 . But when that edict appeared, it was already too late.
The fair dream had faded. The diplomacy of so many
eminent and far-seeing men was rendered vain by the magni-
ficent and disastrous obstinacy of one man, Sophronius
(since 634 Patriarch of Jerusalem), who declared that belief
in two energies and two wills was essential for orthodoxy.
The Patriarch Cyrus, sent to Alexandria to win the Copts for
the new Henotikon, soon found himself isolated between the
Orthodox and the uncompromising Monophysites. The
successors of Honorius, who died in 638, rejected with
horror his 'Monothelitism'. And those for whom the subtle
were to follow. Monothelitism which was designed to save

the whole position in the East had ruined everything. But
Armenia was not occupied until 652, and at first the Heraclian
dynasty did not give up all hope. Still in 648 Constans II,
the successor of Heraclius, endeavoured to render acceptable
the essential point in the compromise by forbidding all discus-
sion either of 'energies' or 'wills'. Pope Martin saw in this
'retreat' a heresy worse than all the others and, like Sophro-
nius, demanded, with the inflexible logic of an intransigent
Chalcedonian, the explicit recognition of two energies and

two wills. All the efforts of a policy which aimed at peace and
conciliation only served to make the 'dualism' more pro-
nounced. The wish had been to translate, explain, expur-
gate, tone down the definition of Chalcedon of which the
'Two Natures' formed the stumbling-block. And in the
result orthodoxy, more exigent than ever and more provoca-
tive, imposed on men's consciences three 'dyads' in place of
one. At the same time the West revolted against the lawful
Emperor. It is not difficult to understand the anger of
Constans, the arrest, trial, and banishment of Martin and
other martyrs of orthodoxy. But Monothelitism was de-
feated, because after the Arab conquest of Armenia it
appeared to be at once useless and dangerous. Constantine
IV surrendered : he accepted the Roman formulas, and at the
Sixth Oecumenical Council (Constantinople 7 Nov. 680-
16 Sept. 68 1) an 'aggravated Chalcedon'. This was a
repetition, in the sphere of theology, of the adieu of Hera-
clius: 'Farewell Syria, farewell for ever!'; but that farewell
was now extended to the Churches of all those territories
which after centuries of religious disaffection were finally
lost to the Empire. 1
CONCLUSION
Chalcedon triumphed, but over ruins: it triumphed
despite the power and the genius of Zeno, of Anastasius, of
Justinian, of Theodora, and of Heraclius who for more than
two centuries had sought with admirable devotion and
perfect clear-sightedness to disarm hatreds, to conciliate the
rival mysticisms. They had matched themselves against
forces which were too strong for them. It has been urged
that the losses sustained by the Empire in the seventh
century did in one sense but strengthen the consciousness of
Byzantine unity. It is certain that they made of it essentially
a Greek State, its Latin possessions in the West being more
and more eroded by invasion. And the faith of East Rome is
crystallized. Men forgot the history of the 'sublime' con-
troversies of the past: they remembered only the creeds of
1 This fifth act of the Christological drama had a brief epilogue in 712 under
an Armenian usurper, PhiLppicus Vardanes, the Julian the Apostate of Mono-
thelitism.

the six canonical councils regarding them as identical, or,
like the Gospels, as complementary recalled only the ana-
themas against the unhappy heroes of these theological
disputes, Nestorius and Eutyches, Honorius and Sergius
and, included in the medley, Theodoret of Cyrus and Ibas
of Edessa. And since these condemned heresies exhaust
almost all the possibilities of theological speculation, theology
itself, living theology, henceforth ceases to play its pre-
ponderant part in the story of Byzantium.
THE ICONOCLAST CONTROVERSY
For it is in vain that some modern scholars have sought to
extend into the eighth and ninth centuries the history of the
beginnings of Christology. The controversies of the ancient
schools count for nothing in Iconoclasm and in the defence
of the icons, even though their champions employ a posteriori
Christological arguments and hurl against each other
charges of Nestorianism and Eutychianism. The distur-
bances which we must now recount are concerned with any-
thing but philosophical speculation. Leo the Isaurian and
his son Constantine V had saved Anatolia and Constanti-
nople, threatened after the reign of Justinian II and his
ephemeral successors by a great offensive from Islam. They
needed for this defence, this laborious reconquest, the
country-folk of Phrygia and of Pisidia fighting on their own
soil which had now become a military frontier. It was
necessary to reward these good soldiers, to make concessions
in their favour. The puritan bishops of Phrygia were
emboldened by the murmurings of their flocks who con-
stantly affirmed that the defeats of the Christians were to be
explained by the corruption of the Christian Church; they
instinctively reverted to the language once used by St.
Epiphanius condemning the abuse of images as idolatry.
Iconoclasm arises from an examination of conscience made
by Christians who doubtless for centuries past had kept alive
their scruples on this point. Despite the agreement, sealed
about 400, between Christianity and the arts of which
Epiphanius did not approve protests were heard from time
to time which recalled the prohibition of the Pentateuch. It
needed only a convinced preacher to convert this latent
io6 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

protest into formal opposition. The bishops of Nakoleia and
of other places who were the advisers of Leo III must at the
bar of history bear the responsibility for a step which was at
once natural and legitimate. The Emperor only followed
with timidity a movement which he had not initiated: he
satisfied these conscientious objectors, but that satisfaction
was but partial, and belated. It needed another quarter
of a century from the beginning of the movement before
iconoclast theory was given dogmatic statement. This
ratification legalized, one may say, an idea which since 729
had become very popular and very powerful, for it was
recommended to the masses of the people by the striking
military successes of the dynasty. The army stood almost
solid behind Constantine V, who in his own lifetime became
a legendary hero, and against the monks, the fanatical
defenders of the images. On the other hand, by their overt
resistance to the BasHeus, certain ascetics for their part won a
popularity which was perhaps somewhat questionable. They
were in revolt, it must be remembered, not only against the
decrees of the Emperor, but also against the canons of a
council (753), and the cruelties of Constantine V were but a
reply to a vast conspiracy hatched by these revolutionary
monks.
Byzantium was never, at any period, totalitarian. Con-
quered parties, crushed under one reign or under one
dynasty, revive and triumph under another reign, another
dynasty. It is thus that, despite the martial glory of the great
Isaurians, the religious revolution of 787 is to be explained.
The military reigns, because of the burdens which they
imposed upon the people and upon the monasteries, tradi-
tionally the foes of the imperial Treasury, always tended to
provoke serious opposition. To secure power the ambitious
Irene, widow of Leo IV, son of Constantine V, galvanized
into action the anti-Constantinian, anti-militarist, iconophil
party. In despite of the 'Old Guards' of Constantine V, in
787 she carried through the religious restoration (Second
Council of Nicaea) and c set up' once more the images which
had for so long been proscribed. The Council took care not
to blacken the memory of the great Isaurians; on the con-
trary it proclaimed the striking merits of these triumphant
Emperors. Irene feared their shades. The better to secure
her position she sought to create in her favour a movement of
greater strength than was at this time the reaction in favour
of the images: she allowed the monks and the people to
protest against the divorce of her son Constantine VI and
his 'adulterous marriage* with the lady of the bedchamber
Theodote. She was thus able to depose and blind an
Emperor, who was her own son, without the loss of her
prestige or her renown for saintiiness. The 'Moechian
Affair' the 'Affair of the Adultery' thus took precedence
in the passions of the people over the 'Affair of the Images'.
And Theodore of the monastery of Studius, an agitator
beyond compare, will be able to arouse a greater enthusiasm
than the champions of orthodoxy for having extorted from
an Emperor respect for the moral law which bound all alike
and from a Patriarch the strict application of canonical rules!
Theodore henceforth will defend all good and holy causes:
when Leo V began once more (8 1 5) to play the part of a Leo
the Isaurian, Theodore had the honour of fighting for the
sacred icons themselves. For Irene had fallen through the
unpopularity of her eunuch camarilla; under her successors
Nicephorus I, Stauracius, and Michael Rangabe, the Bul-
garian victories of 8 1 1 and 813 had precisely the same effect
as the great Arab invasion a hundred years before: cries were
raised against the corruption of the faith. On the approach
of the Bulgars, the people of Constantinople betook them-
selves to the tomb of Constantine V, the Iconoclast and
victorious Emperor. The Council of 8 1 5 promulgated a kind
of moderate Iconoclasm: it no longer ordered the destruc-
tion of the images : they were to be hung out of reach of the
faithful. The Council made a distinction between 'images'
and idols. To this doctrine Michael II and his son Theo-
philus, the princes of the Phrygian dynasty of Amorium,
were content to adhere, until once more the opposition
became a majority. And again a woman, a widow, an
Empress, and a saint, Theodora, sees herself by the logic of
events led to seek support in a party which she reorganizes.
But the lessons of the past have told. In 843 orthodoxy was
finally re-established, but the Festival of Orthodoxy is now
in truth the festival of reconciliation: even the memory of
io8 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

the last heretical Emperor is saved as is that of those peace-
loving Patriarchs who in spite of the Studites have given
proofs of forbearance in the 'Moechian Affair'. Michael III,
the son of Theodora, and the generals of his family together
with the sovereigns of the Macedonian dynasty founded by
Basil I (867) understood what part of the Iconoclast legacy
should be preserved. Orthodox Byzantium keeps the enemy
at bay; the Emperors lead the army in person and success-
fully resist the monks. For the third time a long religious
controversy is brought to a close and this time it ends in
harmony. The Byzantine Church maintains intact the com-
promise of the fourth century which reconciled art with the
faith. Orthodox Emperors gird on the armour of the Icono-
clasts. Culture wins a victory over the barbarous rudeness
of the Isaurians, imperial order triumphs over the revolu-
tionary spirit of undisciplined fanatics who had refused to
communicate with Patriarchs and had declared that
Emperors were not above the laws.
THE STRIFE OF PARTIES
The subjects on which turn the great disputes of the
Church and of Byzantine society descend more and more
from heaven to earth, from the heights of lofty speculation to
practical morals and then to pure politics. From controver-
sies on the divine consubstantiality of Christ and on the
mystery of the Incarnation to those which debate the legiti-
macy of images the distance and the difference are already
sensible. When all these points of doctrine and of ritual are
fixed, the militant passions of Byzantine society find new
grounds of difference ; but like our modern parties, formed
from the same social strata, the folk of East Rome came into
conflict over claims that were frequently changing, and in the
name of principles which were very impermanent. One has
the impression that the parties and their organization are the
essential and enduring elements, much more at any rate than
the issues for which they struggle. In the eighth century and
at the beginning of the ninth we have seen Theodore the
Studite and his monks in open feud with the hierarchy and
with the authority of the Emperor: from Constantinople
they appealed to Rome to defend the moral law and 'the

independence of the religious power*. The Patriarch
Methodius who suppressed this movement could rely upon
the support of the moderates and the politicians, of culti-
vated laymen, of the dynasty and the Court, and also of a
large number of monks who were weary of the pride and
dominating spirit of the men from the monastery of Studius.
Ignatius, his successor, was the tool of Studite bitterness.
Son of the dethroned Emperor Michael Rangabe, made a
eunuch in infancy, Ignatius had also on his side all those who
only unwillingly acknowledged the dynasty of Amorium.
No one can deny the heroic virtues of the ascete, but these
were accompanied by an inflexibility which dealt many
wounds. Ignatius seems to have taken as his model Theo-
dore the Studite accusing Constantine VI of adultery; thus
he did not hesitate to impose a penance on the Caesar Bardas
(uncle of Michael III) who was suspected of 'incestuous*
relations with his niece. One can without difficulty conjure
up a picture of the party heterogeneous enough which
approved of the brutal reaction of the Government, a reaction
which culminated in the deposition of the eunuch Patriarch.
Bardas had as his allies the whole of the party which had
supported Methodius, from the loyal defenders of the
dynasty down to the anti-Studite monks, including the
intellectuals of the University of Constantinople. It was a
professor of this university, who was at the same time a high
official, a diplomat, a man of letters whose width of reading
was immense, the Byzantine who is most representative of
Byzantium, Photius, who was chosen to replace the ascetic
and impolitic Patriarch. We have reached the 25th of
December 858. Ignatius had been 'retired' five days before
and in the interval all the ecclesiastical orders had been con-
ferred upon the layman Photius. The great dispute of the
ninth century had begun. Rome forthwith intervened. At
first Pope Nicholas I did not refuse to recognize this 'irre-
gular' election, since for this irregularity precedents were
not lacking; but he delayed his ratification. He hoped to
receive in exchange for his recognition some advantages
he looked to recover jurisdiction over 'Illyricum', the
countries lying between Pope and Emperor that Leo III
after his quarrel with Pope Gregory II had withdrawn from
no THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

the latter in order to annex them to the Patriarchate of Con-
stantinople. But Photius would not yield, and he was sup-
ported in his refusal by the Emperor Michael III and the
Caesar Bardas. The Pope ostentatiously allied himself with
the party of Ignatius which he thought to be the stronger.
Ignatius, indeed, always denied that he had retired of his
own free will. 1 In 863 Nicholas condemned and excom-
municated Photius at the Lateran Council. Then Photius
took the offensive with vigour. The conversion of the Bui-
gars, for long a matter of dispute between Rome and
Byzantium, only embittered the quarrel. Photius trans-
ferred the controversy into the sphere of dogma and began
to denounce not only to the Bulgars but to all the Churches
of the East (866) the errors of Rome, such as the celibacy of
the clergy and the corruption of its creed into which had
crept the heretical addition of the Filioque. 2 He summoned
to Constantinople a Council (867) where Nicholas in his
turn was anathematized. At this Council the whole episco-
pate of the East was represented. Michael presided and
doubtless also with him was the 'subordinate Emperor'
Basil. 3 Photius was at the height of his success and glory.
The Oriental patriarchates espoused his cause. Even in the
West he had powerful allies in the Carolingian Emperor
Louis II whom the Council acclaimed together with his wife
Ingelberga; the latter was hailed as the 'new Pulcheria'.
Photius had indeed everything on his side: learning, elo-
quence, imperial power, and incredible good fortune.
Heaven seemed to bless his missions. The Moravians, the
Bulgars, the Russians were converted. The aureole of
Photius is associated with that of his imperial master Michael
III who in 863 had exterminated the last great army of the
Mussulmans of the Euphrates. By his side Photius, the
homo regiuSy had become the national hero: his proud
resistance to the pretentions of Rome had brought him that
which he had previously lacked popularity.
If none the less he fell, he fell together with the dynasty
1 It would seem that on this point he was wrong, and that his resignation was a
fact.
2 The procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son.
s Michael and Basil had joined in the assassination of the Caesar Bardas m the
preceding year.
THE BYZANTINE CHURCH in

itself. Basil the Macedonian, the murderer of Michael III,
could not count upon any of the friends of this prince, his
benefactor and his victim, and thus appealed to the adver-
saries of the fallen dynasty to the Ignatians and their hero.
Ignatius was re-established and at the Council of 869-70
(Eighth Oecumenical Council of the Latins), while avenging
Rome, avenged his own wrongs : Photius was struck down.
But there the triumph of the Pope was ended; after all
Ignatius by an involuntary homage to his enemy continued
the national policy of Photius which was an essential part of
the renewal of the power of the Empire. Ignatius retained
Bulgaria and irony of history avoided the excommunica-
tion of Rome only by his timely death, felix opportunitate
mortis. Photius once more ascended the patriarchal throne
and was recognized by Pope John VIII. Thus was peace
concluded between Rome and Byzantium. At the Photian
Council of 879-80 (Eighth Oecumenical Council for the
Greeks) peace was solemnly proclaimed. Neither John VIII
nor any of his successors will henceforth undo that which
'the good John' (as the Patriarch styles him in his last work)
had done. If Photius fell yet again and without recovery
(887), that was once more in consequence of a change of
sovereign. The young Emperor Leo VI, whom his father
Basil had sorely ill-treated, on his accession changed his
ministers and in order to reconcile both parties and at the
same time to secure his own control over the Church he
made his brother Stephen Patriarch. Yet the Ignatians con-
tinued to fan the flame of the fierce hatreds of the past and
pursued Photius in exile and in the tomb with a literature
inspired by bitter animosity a literature full of mangled
citations and obvious forgeries. Until the year 898 they
persisted in their refusal to communicate with the official
Church, demanding from Rome and from the Patriarch a
fresh condemnation of their enemy. It is they who have led
mpn to believe in a 'second Photian schism'. At that time
there was no schism save within the Greek Church itself a
consequence of an inexpiable party strife which is even con-
tinued under new names the strife between Nicolaites and
Euthymians.
That which gave rise to the feud between Nicolaites and
ii2 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

Euthymians was a -repetition of the former ' Affair of
Adultery'. The Emperor Leo VI wished in the Church's
despite to marry as his fourth wife his mistress Zoe Car-
bonopsine, a beauty 'with eyes black as coal' who was already
the mother of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The Patriarch
Nicholas, the Mystic, that is to say, the imperial secretary,
twice dared to forbid the Emperor to enter St. Sophia. His
place was taken by a monk Euthymius, a simple and saintly
man who in the goodness of his heart and through love of
peace settled the dispute. Thus on this occasion it is the
* Court prelate' Nicholas, a man of letters, a minister and a
diplomat like Photius, whose pupil indeed he was, and who
like Photius had passed directly from the 'world' to the
Patriarchate, who contrary to all expectation takes up once
more the heroic role of censor of an Emperor's morals, while
the ascete Euthymius appears as the consecrator of a sacri-
legious union. The Photian party which was that of Nicholas
thus gains a new prestige while the former 'Ignatians' suffer
from the complaisance of Euthymius. So when, on the
death of Leo, Nicholas again becomes Patriarch, his ponti-
ficate was of a truly imposing magnificence. Regent during
the minority of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, actually prime
minister, a Byzantine Richelieu who conducted corre-
spondence and negotiated with the Arabs and the Bulgars,
he appears to Christendom at the same time as the moral
superior of the Pope of Rome with whom he virtuously
refuses to communicate, since Rome had sanctioned the
scandal of the Emperor's fourth marriage. When in 920 the
'union of the Churches' was re-established it was as victor
that Nicholas signed the famous 'Tome of Union', humiliat-
ing at the same time the Emperor Constantine who had been
conceived in adultery. This moral superiority thus secured
by the Byzantine patriarchate naturally caused the Govern-
ment anxiety: after the pontificate of Nicholas, just as after
that of Photius, the Basileus wishes to 'confiscate* the
Patriarchate, by installing as Patriarch a prince of the blood
royal: formerly it was Stephen, son of Basil I, now Theo-
phylactus, son of Romanus Lecapenus. Had this precedent
been followed, it would indeed have meant Caesaropapism.
But these two attempts were not repeated in the sequel.

The second experiment was rendered particularly un-
fortunate by the character of Theophylactus who was an
unworthy bishop, passionately interested in stables and
horse-racing. Men grew accustomed to think that in all
questions falling within his sphere, and above all whenever
any moral issue was at stake, the Patriarch had undisputed
rights even as against his master, the Emperor. Later Poly-
euctus resumed this noble role of ecclesiastical censor when
he forced John Tzimisces to repudiate the adulterous and
criminal Theophano.
Under Sergius II, the great-nephew of Photius (beginning
of the tenth century), the two great parties which we have
seen at feud with each other since the end of the eighth
century were finally reconciled. In the course of the years
each had had its truth, and each its own greatness. They had
had in turn, or even simultaneously, their raison d'etre^ their
popularity. Each in its own way could justly claim to have
incarnated the many-sided soul of Byzantium. And it
was but logical that Byzantium should have adopted and
canonized their leaders even while it opposed them. Who-
ever should speak ill of their combative Patriarchs above
all of Photius and Ignatius was anathematized: Photius
and Ignatius were at one in death and sanctity. When the
final breach with Rome comes in 1054 it will find the
Byzantine Church united: that breach is not caused by
internal discords within Byzantium itself the defeated
party appealing to the arbitrament of Rome as it had been
previously in the Acacian and Nicolaite schisms. On the
contrary, the energy of a Nicholas or a Polyeuctus doubtless
inspired the action of the Patriarch Arsen Autorianus under
Michael Paleologus when to the glorious founder of the last
Byzantine dynasty, despite his reconquest of Constantinople
from the Latins (i 26 1), he refused pardon for having blinded
the luckless Emperor John, the last of the Lascarids. Arsen
was deposed, but the Arseniates, like the Ignatians of an
earlier day, refused to recognize the new Patriarch and
pronounced his ordinations invalid and sacrilegious. They
became a fanatical and revolutionary sect, a kind of little
Church avoiding all contact alike with the clergy and the
laymen of the official Church. Like the Ignatians again they
3982 T
ii4 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

g reduced against their adversaries legends and forgeries,
ut in itself the movement this protest of more than half a
century against the crime of an Emperor is not without
its greatness. And the Patriarch Arsen, however narrow-
minded he might be, certainly added to the glory of the
oecumenical see : he has something of the stoic resolution of
his great contemporaries, the popes who conquered Frederick
II and Manfred.
PALAMISM
Before she perished Byzantium was to give to the world
the spectacle of a last theological joust and the proof that she
was to the end, even when hard pressed by the barbarians,
capable of fighting against herself for high ideals. One
might say that Byzantium had sworn to give the lie to her
future reputation for dogmatic immobility, since fourteenth-
century Talamism' is a doctrine of surprising boldness, of
unexpected novelty. It is not that the mystical current which
feeds Hesychasm the movement of which Gregory Pala-
mas was the theorist and the prophet does not reach far
back in the history of Byzantine religious thought; indeed,
it derives in a straight line from Origen and there had ever
been those in the Church of East Rome who had aspired to
reach 'the delights of Contemplation'. But at an early date
these speculations had been adjudged heretical. In the sixth
century, at the very moment when the Great Council which
was to condemn the Nestorian 'Three Chapters' was in
session (553), anathemas had been launched against the
errors of Origen and against the Origenist monks of
Palestine. How comes it that eight centuries later practices
and theories infinitely more hazardous not only appear
openly in the light of day, but are straightway included
amongst the treasured possessions of unchanging Ortho-
doxy? The explanation of this paradox can be supplied by
history alone. As we have seen, always, ever since the victory
of Christianity, in the sphere of theology those opinions have
triumphed, however daring they might be, which were held
by the social strata of the population which circumstances
had made the masters of the Empire. Egypt which for
centuries was a necessity for the material existence of the

Empire, Armenia which fought its battles, Anatolia which
repelled the Arab invasion forced Constantinople to come
to terms with Monophysitism and with Iconoclasm. At
Constantinople and Thessalonica, under Andronicus III
Palaeologus, John V Palaeologus, and John Cantacuzenus,
the people, exploited economically by the Latins, was roused
to fury against the nobles and the intellectuals, who for
political reasons were prepared to treat with the Westerners,
and was torn by social convulsions, while Serbs and Turks
were settling in the territories of the Balkan peninsula. Half
betrayed and more than half invaded and subjugated, the
Greek people defended only with greater passion its soul and
its faith. The monks of Athos appeared to the folk of East
Rome as the heroic champions of their cause. It is for this
reason that when 'a stranger, a Calabrian monk, Barlaam,
undertook to refute by means of the * Western' syllogism and
to ridicule with impious sarcasm the traditional methods
of prayer employed on the Holy Mountain, popular senti-
ment immediately took the side of the Athonites. Gregory
Palamas, an ascete of Athos, had built up a whole theology
in justification of these methods of devotion : and this was
unanimously adopted by the monks. John Cantacuzenus
was at this time engaged in the struggle against his legiti-
mate rival John Palaeologus: he desired to win over to his
side the greatest moral force in the Empire now facing its
death agony the monks of Athos and the crowds which
followed their lead: he therefore supported the innovator.
The bishops, at first hostile or hesitant, saw in the new
doctrine a rejuvenation of national orthodoxy, and the
Council of St. Sophia gave to it its consecration (1351). At
the outset the question was whether the Hesychasts were
right in their claim that by holding the breath, by making
the spirit re-enter into the soul, and by gazing fixedly upon
the navel they could attain to the vision of the uncreated
light which shone on Tabor. To justify their view Pala-
mas, overturning the dogma which had been crystallized for
centuries, proposed to distinguish between the divine essence
and the operations of that essence. And the fathers of 1351
had the hardihood to see in his writings only a simple
development of the ancient creeds. Palamism constitutes
n6 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

the most astonishing of paradoxes. Formally it has never
been disavowed by the Byzantine Church. Gregory Palamas,
who at his death was Archbishop of Thessalonica, is regarded
as a holy doctor and as a worker of miracles. Thanks to him
his Church, which prided itself on its fidelity to the tradition
of the ancient Fathers and of the seven Councils that
tradition which it opposed to the sacrilegious novelties of the
West created in a fevered atmosphere as of a state of siege
an entirely new transcendent theology, a disordered mysti-
cism full of unfamiliar formulas which its author himself
presented as a divine revelation. It is in truth a mystical
Reformation, a new Christianity, which was perchance
intended to supply spiritual armour to a nation on the
threshold of a slavery which was to endure for half a millen-
nium. Yet instead of scourging Palamism with the sarcasms
of Barlaam, of Voltaire, and of Gibbon would it not be better
rather to admire that depth of Christian sentiment which
animated until the end the Byzantine people a people
which, whenever we see it stirred by a collective emotion,
places those values which it considers eternal far above the
chances and the changes of politics ?
EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH
The Byzantine Church as a Christian Church and a State
Church rather as the Church of the universal State had
in double measure the duty of preaching the Gospel through
the whole earth. Before the Church had conquered the
Roman Empire it had already crossed the Empire's frontiers.
The kingdom of Armenia submitted to Christ at a time when
the Christians were still persecuted by Rome. It is certain
that Constantine thought of using Christian Armenia to
defeat Persia, the hereditary enemy of Rome in Asia. And
henceforth Christian missionary activity, always in the service
of the Empire, whether it springs from the sects or from the
Great Church, will never cease. The Christological con-
troversies which contributed to the political dismemberment
of Byzantium had at first served to extend the empire of
Christ. When Zeno expelled the Nestorians, particularly
the scholars of Edessa, they fled into Persian territory and
there the persecuted faith became what may be called the

second national religion of the Sassanid State. This heroic
body of Christians, this Church of the Martyrs, will remain
attached, despite cruel memories, to its original home. It
will spread in Sassanid Iran and later in Mussulman Persia
the science of Greece and will carry its knowledge and its
faith across the solitudes of central Asia as far as China, where
the stele of Si-gnan-fu is a moving witness to its fidelity.
This prodigious Nestorian missionary activity has been
spoken of as a second Alexander's conquest of Asia. For
Byzantium it is a sort of 'involuntary' mission. But on the
other hand the conquests of the Monophysites have almost
an official character. From Egypt, 'heretical' but passion-
ately Christian, propaganda radiated towards Ethiopia
(Axum) and Arabia, and Constantinople did not disavow the
zeal of these heterodox missionaries. When the constancy
of the Christians of Himyar is overborne by Jewish tribes,
the Catholic Emperor Justin sends his Monophysite ally,
the Ethiopian king, to deliver the heroic companions of the
martyr Arethas. For the 'interior Mission' the conversion
of the pagans of Asia Minor Justinian will make use of the
Monophysite bishop, John of Ephesus, despite the brutality
of his methods. Justinian and Theodora send concurrent
missions to the tribes of Nubia, and the Monophysites,
favoured by Theodora, will outdistance the Orthodox envoys
dispatched by her husband. Henceforth the wars of Byzan-
tium are holy wars, whether they are waged against pagans or
against heretics. When the fleet of Belisarius sets forth for
Carthage, on board the admiral's vessel there is placed a
Vandal newly baptized according to the Orthodox rite. The
great campaigns of Heraclius are the first Crusades. In the
ninth century when the Amorian and Macedonian sovereigns
begin anew the offensive against Islam, the enthusiasm of
the reconquest gives birth to a fresh missionary ardour and
these new missions will be amongst the most fruitful. In
exceptional cases political considerations may prove un-
favourable to Christian propaganda. The Chazars of southern
Russia, allied with the Empire against the Mussulmans but
fearing the imperial supremacy, reject the faith both of Irene
and of Harun-al-Rashid and choose rather to adopt Juda-
ism for their religion. It is under the victorious reign of
u8 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

Michael III that Byzantium prepares its master-stroke, the
conversion of the Slavs. The Court sends to Great Moravia,
threatened by the German bishops, the two brothers from
Thessalonica, Constantine and Methodius, who can speak
the Slav language of Macedonia and who translate the scrip-
tures into this tongue. And when in their turn the Bulgars
to escape the weight of Byzantine arms accept Christianity,
the disciples of Constantine and Methodius, the Apostles of
the Slavs, ejected from Moravia, employ their zeal, their
experience, and their books to make of Bulgarian Christianity
the first-fruits of Great Slavia and in truth 'the eldest
daughter of the Church of the East'.
Let us pause here for a moment. The adoption by the
Greek Church of the Slav language for the use of its Slav
converts is an important fact, yet it is not unnatural; it is
indeed in conformity with its spirit and its liberal tradition.
In the East the Church has always been polyglot, while in the
West Latin was the sole liturgical language. The national
liturgies, the diversity of ecclesiastical languages have at
times been regarded as responsible for schisms and dis-
memberments of the Church ; but Byzantium knew what
was her true course. She had the merit of bearing no ill will
towards Armenian, Copt, or Syrian for the secession of the
Monophysite and Nestorian Churches: had not Georgia
remained loyal ? Byzantium granted freely to the Slavs that
which Rome disputed or refused to them, and she had her
reward. Along with the alphabet, the literature, even the
thought of East Rome, the Slavs accepted Byzantine art in
all its forms.
But this Slav mission was not complete until after the
conversion of that people which both numerically and
politically was destined in this great family to play the
principal part the Russian people, an amalgam of tribes
which had been organized by the genius of Scandinavian
adventurers. In 859 they came as friends to Constantinople .
in little groups, and then returned home, fearing the Magyars
or the Petchenegs, by way of the territories of Louis the
Pious. 'Home'? But where exactly was the residence of
their chief or hacan ? We cannot say. But twenty-one years
later in 860 it is an immense fleet of Rhos which all but

captured Constantinople: it was only by a miracle, rendered
famous by Photius, that the 'God-guarded city' was saved
from this barbarian armada. Michael and Photius realized
forthwith that they must convert these new neighbours now
settled at Kiev, were it only to employ them against the
terrible Petchenegs. The Rhos accepted a bishop, but this
first planting of Christianity was suppressed. In 957 the
princess Olga visited the Byzantine Court: not only is this
visit a fact of history, but we still possess in the De Ceremoniis
the protocol which described the visit in full detail. Olga
was converted to Christianity. In 989 Vladimir, Olga's
successor, did not merely accept baptism for himself but
baptized his people; by imperial favour he and his people
became 'the first friends of the Basileus' and took the place of
the Chazars as the allies of Rome in the far East. Vladimir
had no cause to complain of his decision to reject both Islam
which forbade wine to its converts 'To drink is a joy for
the Russians and we cannot live without drinking* and
Judaism, circumcised Jews, like the Mussulmans, being
dispersed throughout the world. The Russian Chronicle
further tells of an embassy of six boyars whom the Emperors
Basil and Constantine conducted to St. Sophia: 'We went to
Greece,' so runs the story, 'and we were led to the place where
they adore their gods and we knew not whether we were in
heaven or on earth, for on earth nowhere are there such
sights or such beauties/ On that day 'the third Rome' was
born.
THE BYZANTINE CHURCH AND THE ROMAN CHURCH
The conquest of Russia may be regarded as compensation
for the later breach with Rome. In the perspective of the
centuries this schism is the most important fact in the
external religious history of Byzantium. Since the period of
the Crusades it has influenced and still influences profoundly
the relations between the East and West: it has contributed
and still contributes to form the very ideas of 'East' and
'West* the concepts of the 'Oriental' Christian and the
Christian of the Occident, of the 'Roman Catholic' on the one
hand and the 'Orthodox' or 'schismatic' on the other. The
dispute of the year 1054 determined the development of
that conflict which has been waged through the centuries, of
which the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204
and by the Turks in 1453 are the most famous episodes and
the most disastrous consequence. The mutual hatred caused
by this quarrel produced during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries the frescoes in the churches of Moldavia where the
'Latins' are represented amongst the damned, in the same
way as to the average 'Catholic' the enslavement of the
Greeks to the Ottoman yoke appeared as a divine punish-
ment as fully deserved as was the dispersion of the Jews.
The quarrel has been in the past and still remains stronger
than the ties of blood. Even to-day in despite of their
political interests it separates the Slavs who have followed
the older Rome Croats, Slovenes, Slovaks, Czechs, and
Poles from those whose religious centre is the New Rome
of Constantine whether they be Serbs, Bulgarians, Rus-
sians, or Latins of the Danube lands, the Roumanians, whose
ecclesiastical language was for long the Old Slav. These
profound divisions have produced the belief that long before
1054 the schism was predestined in the nature of things: it
is considered to have been from the beginning inescapable,
fatally conditioned by the opposition of nationality and of
language. This view is false. The differences alleged between
the rites of East and West are, for the most part, such as
existed naturally in different Churches of which the eccle-
siastical historian Socrates, in the fifth century, after the
manner of Herodotus gives a curious catalogue. Divergent
customs, contradictory practices were in no wise a hindrance
to communion : they did not cause a breach of the peace. Too
great importance has been attributed to the severances
between Byzantium and Rome which occurred during
the long controversy over the Two Natures the Acacian
schism, the Monothelite dispute. When the great debate
was concluded, it left behind it no trace any more than did
the ancient disagreements between Constantinople and
Antioch or Alexandria. Of greater significance, at first sight,
is the conflict between Leo III and Gregory II. It is thus
summarized in the conventional story: Leo the Isaurian
having endeavoured to enforce Iconoclasm upon the Church,
the Pope stirred up revolt against him in Italy, while the

Emperor by way of reprisal confiscated the papal patrimony
and attached to the diocese of his Patriarch Sicily, Byzantine
Italy, and Illyricum. This seizure anticipates, it is contended,
the policy of Photius and of Cerularius : the heresy of Leo
III and of Constantine V led the Popes to betray the Empire
and to throw themselves into the arms of the Franks. In
short, Leo the Isaurian, when he tore down the icon of the
Christ from the Brazen Gate, had conjured up Charlemagne
seventy years before his time that Western Emperor who
as an imperial rival was to be the great scandal to Byzantine
pride ! But this conception of history is legendary. It is not
Byzantine heresy which has emancipated the Papacy from
the Basileis. The Popes of the eighth century never dreamed
of freeing themselves from the sovereignty of the Emperor
until it was proved that Byzantium had neither the strength
nor the leisure to defend them against Lombards and Arabs.
The religious question counted for nothing. The true touch-
stone of the sentiments of the Papacy is the attitude of the
Pope in 753-4 at the moment when Constantine V had
assembled his great Iconoclast Council. Pope Stephen II so
far from anathematizing the Emperor appealed to him for
the dispatch of a fleet with reinforcements. The Pope,
perfectly loyal to an Emperor at once 'heretic and perse-
cutor', would not have asked for anything better than to
remain such a loyal subject. If Stephen II did decide to
betray Byzantium and call the Franks to his aid, that is
solely because Constantine V was compelled to employ all
his land and sea forces in his struggle against the Arabs and
the Bulgars. Besides this, it is easy to show that the cause of
the images, as Byzantium knew it, was not espoused by the
West. If the heresy of the Isaurians had indeed produced
the disaffection of the West, one should have seen in the
West a movement of sympathy for Orthodoxy when it
triumphed after the Council of 787. But almost the exact
contrary actually occurred: the bishops of Charlemagne
found that Byzantium of the Iconodules the champions of
the icons was at least as much in the wrong as had been
Byzantium of the Iconoclasts. The Pope himself was less
unjust, and down to the time of Nicholas I, the enemy of
Photius, it does not appear that either the confiscation of

Illyricum or the coronation of the usurper Charlemagne
separated the two Churches from each other. Nicholas, as
we have seen, taking advantage of the delicate position in
which Photius was placed, thought that he could extort from
the Patriarch the restitution of Illyricum. But that was to go
against a fait accompli in the political sphere, and on this
point St. Ignatius himself was just as obstinate or as power-
less as was Photius. Nicholas, in his attack upon Photius and
his Bulgarian mission and in general upon the distinctive
practices of the Greek Church, showed a singular impru-
dence. Photius by his attack on the celibacy of priests and
on the addition of the Filioque to the creed had no difficulty in
proving to the Pope that alike in discipline and dogma it was
the older Rome which was responsible for innovations: a
great scandal would immediately be disclosed if only one
should cease to keep the eyes shut in economic charity. We
have seen how an intelligent Pope, John VIII, by recognizing
Photius at the time of his second patriarchate allayed all
these differences between Rome and Byzantium. It was
agreed that the addition of the Filioque to the creed had been
and should remain entirely unofficial, and the Papacy itself
would see that the genuine text should be preserved. As is
well known, to-day Rome on this point as on many others
has returned to wisdom and truth, since it has authorized the
Uniates to recite the creed without the Filioque. Charity on
both sides could after all pass over minor differences : many
of these had been charged against the Romans and denounced
with great bitterness by the Byzantine Council in Trullo
(691) and yet no breach between the Churches had ensued.
But all the same the schism did come and persisted, like the
Erinyes, as Aeschylus portrayed them, installing themselves
in the house and refusing to be ejected. Why was there this
schism?
We must reject completely the idea of those who seek to
prove the existence of a schism already latent and to deter-
mine its 'terrain'; at the beginning of the eleventh century,
it is urged, under Sergius II, great-nephew of Photius, it did
but come once more to the surface: the Patriarch affirmed
against Rome the sanctity of his great-uncle and re-edited
the latter's encyclical addressed to the Eastern patriarchates

on the errors of the Western Church. These theories which
are still widely maintained form a sort of corollary to the
legend of the second Photian schism. The schism of Ceru-
larius, it is true, arose from no superficial causes. The main
cause is the justifiable scorn of the Byzantines for the bad
Popes of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. The folk
of East Rome had never seen three oecumenical Patriarchs
deposed by a single Emperor, as Henry III had deposed
three Popes: they had never seen bishops fighting at the
head of their troops, nor cases of simony as scandalous as
those of the West. The comparison between Rome and
Byzantium for the centuries which preceded the schism is
all in favour of the latter. Contrary to that which is often
ignorantly repeated, it is, in fact, the Popes who have fallen
into slavery, it is the Patriarchs of Constantinople who are
independent. Byzantium had a lively consciousness of its
own strength, its dignity, and its privileges. Byzantium was
in the right on most of those dogmatic and disciplinary
questions which were in dispute, if in such matters it is
occufattOy prescription, tradition which determine where right
lies. But life also has its rights, and it is this fact which
Byzantium failed to recognize. Here, indeed, is to be found
the true cause of the schism. The Byzantines were fully
justified in despising the bad Popes, but they did not realize
with what kind of men they had to deal when they met Pope
Leo IX and his advisers, Cardinal Humbert, Frederick of
Lorraine, and their like. These men were not cowards,
neither were they degenerate nor illiterate. Humbert,
writing to the Patriarch of Antioch, approves the latter's
creed, although it lacked the Filioque. These leaders of the
West were full of life and enthusiasm, they were about to
begin their great struggle for the purification of the Church,
for its complete enfranchisement from civil authority, for the
establishment of the celibacy of the clergy. They knew that
the fight would be long and bitterly contested, and that it
would be fought on more than one front.
The Norman conquests were already avenging Rome for
the ecclesiastical annexations of Leo the Isaurian; as a conse-
quence of these victories such towns as Otranto, Rossano,
and Reggio had once more been attached to the Roman

metropolitan see. As a counter-offensive, acting, it would
seem, under orders from the Patriarch (Michael Cerularius),
Leo, Bishop of Ochrida, indulged in an ill-timed attack upon
the usages of the Latins. This was sent to the Bishop of
Trani and by him transmitted to Rome. There it aroused
sincere indignation. Leo had discovered a new ground of
accusation which had been overlooked by Photius but which
henceforth controversialists would never allow to be for-
gotten: besides fasting on the Sabbath, he censured the
Latins for using unleavened bread in the eucharistic sacri-
fice, while another Greek disputant protested with violence
against the celibacy of the clergy. The aggression of the
Orientals was dangerous: it might compromise the whole
work of the reformers, and arm against them the entire
opposition of the West. It was for this reason that Rome's
reaction was of an unlooked-for violence. The feeble govern-
ment of Constantine Monomachus needed the Pope, for
Italy was not yet lost beyond recall. An arrangement might
have been possible : it was the wish of the Emperor himself.
But Leo IX sent to Constantinople 'one of the violent men
in Church history', Cardinal Humbert. On both sides old
grievances were exploited: the encounter was brutal. Each
party to the dispute excommunicated the other (1054).
Michael Cerularius carried with him his whole people:
Latin insolence had been such that this time Rome had no
supporters in Byzantium: even the party of the philosophers,
Psellus at its head, who were the foes of Cerularius applauded
him. The Emperor who had disapproved his action narrowly
escaped expulsion from the city when a riot broke out in the
capital ; he hastened to make his peace with the Patriarch.
This is not the place to recount the melancholy story of
those fruitless efforts at union made almost without excep-
tion by the Emperors of Byzantium who were driven thereto
by political necessity. All the Eastern patriarchates, all the
Churches of the East had followed Constantinople into
schism. The Latin conquest did but deepen the cleft
between the two worlds. When the Latin Empire and the
Latin Patriarchate fell in 1 26 1, the repugnance of the Greeks
for the Union, henceforth synonymous with alien domina-
tion, was stronger than ever. Yet Michael Palaeologus was

a determined 'Unionist', especially during the years when
under the menace of the Crusade of Charles of Anjou he
sought on every side whether at Rome or amongst the
Arabs to secure the help of allies against his redoubtable
enemy. The Emperor gathered around him some prelates
who wished him well; in particular the Patriarch Bekkos
took his side. It is a curious fact: but at this time the
prestige of the Latins and of their theological activity had a
powerful effect upon some of the best minds in Byzantium.
In all good faith these men were inspired by a Christian
passion for unity and thus supported tike policy of Michael
which was crowned with success at the Council of Lyons
(1274). But the union effected at Lyons had hardly more
than a symbolic significance, and it further lost a great part
of its value after the Sicilian Vespers of 10 March 1282.
Charles of Anjou was thus deprived of his power to injure the
Empire: Michael Palaeologus at the time of his death
(December 1282) had won a complete triumph, and there-
fore his son and successor, Andronicus II (1282-1328),
straightway renounced the Council of Lyons, made his peace
with the Orthodox, and deposed Bekkos, the partisan of the
Latins ; the Patriarch, although a man of high character and
of real independence of mind, was reviled as a traitor by the
nation. Michael had negotiated and concluded the Union
in order to disarm the West, to prevent a repetition of the
Fourth Crusade. His successors revived the idea to stay the
invasion of the Turks. But the danger must be instant and
pressing before the rulers of Byzantium will decide to resort
to so desperately unpopular an expedient. During the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries, indeed, both the intellectuals
and the politicians may quite voluntarily be drawn towards
the Latins, but as soon as ihepium votum begins to take con-
crete shape, immediately it arouses against itself the fanatical
opposition of the masses. During the disastrous quarrel of
the two Johns (middle of the fourteenth century) in spite
of the attitude of the people, solidly anti-Latin in its sym-
pathies, the rival Emperors outdo each other in their zeal for
the Union of the Churches. In 1 348 an embassy of Cantacu-
zenus arrives at Avignon, in 1352 Cantacuzenus, although
he welcomes the support of the monks and the crowds, yet

writes to Clement VI. Stephen Dushan, the Serbian
Emperor, precisely because he aspires to a rule which at
least in the Balkans shall be universal, will for his part also
affect an enthusiasm for the Union which, as he thinks,
will win for him from the Pope the dignity of leadership in
the Crusade as well as subsidies and reinforcements. The
personal faith of John V Palaeologus, himself half-Latin
through his mother Anne of Savoy, is beyond question, but
all that he could do when in 1369 he visited Pope Urban V
in Rome was to offer his individual 'conversion'. The terrible
disasters of the years 1422 to 1430 brought John VIII and
the representatives of the Greek Church to Florence, and it
was in that city on 6 July 1439, after emotional debates in
which the best Byzantine theologians together with the
Patriarch Joseph participated, that there was signed that
Act of Union which is to-day exhibited in the rotunda of the
Laurentiana. The Union of Florence was to lead on 10
November 1444 to the catastrophe of Varna, while it also
failed to preserve religious unity, for no sooner had the
delegates of the Greek Church returned to their congrega-
tions than they were met by the reprobation of the monks
and of the people. Many of the signatories withdrew their
consent to the Union. But it remains a great religious
transaction : it is on the basis of that Act of Union that to-day
several millions of Oriental Christians are united with Rome.
These 'Uniates' are particularly numerous in the Ukraine
and in Transylvania, while in Greek territory the movement
towards union with Rome has of recent years been slow and
difficult, opposed, as it is, by a public sentiment which is
inspired by the rancours and bitterness of the centuries.
Still Rome never ceases to encourage Uniate propaganda:
to each of the separate Eastern Churches it presents a
Church which, while it acknowledges the supremacy of the
Pope, yet retains the liturgy, the language, and, so far as
possible, the customs and the costume of the national
Church. Thus the Holy See is ever multiplying its conces-
sions to the Byzantine tradition. In the matter of language
it is almost as liberal as East Rome itself. The canonist
Balsamon in the thirteenth century refused to exclude any
language from liturgical use. To-day Catholics of the so-

called Byzantine rite are granted, besides Greek, the use of
the Old Slav, Georgian, Roumanian, and Arabic languages.
Rome goes farther still: not only does she tolerate, she
claims even to impose upon the Orientals united with her the
preservation of their distinctive ritual. In 1931, on the
occasion of the fifteenth centenary of the Council of Ephesus,
there were celebrated at Rome and at Grottaferrata masses
and solemn offices according to the different Oriental rituals.
Such are the results of the Council of Florence.
THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
BYZANTINE CHURCH
The Byzantine Church is the most important of Byzantine
survivals. The Empire has disappeared, but the Church
remains, and thanks to the Slavs it still has on its side the
force of numbers. Despite the anti-religious persecutions in
Red Russia and despite the multiplicity of the languages in
which its liturgy is celebrated, it has kept an aspect, an
appearance, just as characteristic as that of Islam, for example,
and certainly much more traditional and more archaic than
that of the Catholic Church which has been transformed
almost beyond recognition by Jesuitic devotions and a kind
of ritual Modernism. The preceding pages have shown the
reader how the system of the Orthodox Church was con-
stituted from century to century. Up to the time of the
Iconoclast Controversy up till the time of the Seventh
Oecumenical Council (whose decisions alike for the Latin
West and for the 'Orthodox' East are as canonical and binding
as those of the other six) Greek thought the thought of
Christianized Greek philosophy provided the imposing
'structure' whence the entire Christian Church took its
dogmatic definitions, the subtlest distinctions of its Christo-
logy. Despite the objections and the reservations of Rome,
these Councils by their canons continuously consecrated and
confirmed the hegemony of the Church of the capital,
Constantinople, over all the other Churches comprised in
the territories of the Eastern Empire, even over the Patriar-
chates of Alexandria, of Antioch, and of Jerusalem, although
in the political sphere the first and the third of these were
never regained by the Byzantine Emperors after their

conquest by Islam. The ecclesiastical ascent of Constan-
tinople was at first justified solely on political grounds. It was
only later that it was based upon the apocryphal legend of St
Andrew, the first called amongst the Apostles, who became
Bishop of Byzantium. The story is a fabrication of the
sixth century. It is towards the end of the reign of Justinian
that the Church of the capital adopts the title 'Apostolic'. If
its head very early styles himself 'Patriarch', the epithet is
at first only honorific and is used with great freedom by
other metropolitans. The title 'oecumenical' or 'universal', by
which Rome will on several occasions pretend to be scanda-
lized, has in its origin but little significance. This qualifica-
tion which is exactly equivalent to our 'general' or 'superior'
only implies a relative and indeterminate authority: it may
be granted to professors of the University or at times, like
the term 'patriarch', to the ecclesiastical head of a province.
The history of these titles does not differ from that of the
word Pope to which the Bishop of Rome had no exclusive
right, since it was borne and still is borne to-day by the
Patriarch of Alexandria. But it is clear that the ambiguous
term 'oecumenical* served to justify a posteriori a primacy of
honour which is still respected by the different Orthodox
Churches despite the decline of the see of Constantinople.
The Arab conquest and the annexation of Illyricum in the
eighth century make a reality of this 'oecumenicity', if
the oikoumene is to be identified with the State governed
by the Basileus, and this ambitious predicate, precisely like
the genitive 'Romaion' 'of the Romans' which after the
eighth century is regularly attached to the title of Basileus,
permits the Church of Byzantium to grant to its daughter
Churches of more recent formation Patriarchates which are
more or less autonomous, just as the imperial chancery can
recognize other Basileis. Thus after the political conquest of
Bulgaria Basil II conferred his sanction upon the Bulgarian
Patriarchate, and similarly to-day, in conformity with Byzan-
tine tradition, the Phanar takes no offence at the title of
Patriarch borne by the heads of several autocephalous
Churches.
The organization of the Byzantine Church was from the
outset modelled upon that of the Empire, and in particular

upon the administrative divisions of the time of Diocletian
or of Constantine. Even to-day the metropolitans can be
said to be the bishops of the Constantinian provinces. In
each city there was a resident suffragan bishop; in the
Byzantine Empire the title of archbishop, if it is not merely
an honorific synonym for bishop, denotes the head of an
autocephalous bishopric, i.e. one which is directly dependent
upon the Patriarch. It is only in Illyricum which until the
eighth century had for its ecclesiastical superior the Pope of
Rome that 'archbishop' has its Western sense of 'metro-
politan*. In general the Byzantine Church had no bishops
in fartibus. One must come down almost until our own day
to see residing in Constantinople prelates whose titles pre-
serve the memory of those dioceses of Asia Minor where
massacre or exchange of populations on a large scale has
completely destroyed the former Christian congregations.
While the dioceses, for example, attached to the Kingdom of
Greece have already been or are in process of being emanci-
pated according to the formula of the Oecumenical Patriar-
chate and thus incorporated in the national Church, in theory
the episcopate is recruited by popular election, although
more and more in the course of Byzantine history higher
authorities and even the direct influence of the Emperor
come to play a preponderant part in the choice of bishops.
An ancient rule which for a long period does not admit of
any exception and which is often adduced in the controversies
between Rome and Byzantium declared that a bishop is
elected for life, that he is wedded to his church and that a
divorce from his see by way of translation to another bishopric
is unlawful. After the fourth century at least, the bishop
cannot be married: on the other hand, simple priests, deacons,
and subdeacons can live with their wives on condition that
they have been remarried on being created subdeacon. The
celibacy of the clergy was often denounced as a heretical
innovation which was due, according to Byzantine theolo-
gians, to the pernicious influence of Manichaeism. This
essential difference in ecclesiastical discipline was one of
those points of misunderstanding which were exploited by
controversialists at the time of the schism. We have already
said that nothing could be more false than the charge of
3082 K
1 30 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

Caesaropapism which is generally brought against the
Byzantine Church the accusation that the Church ren-
dered servile obedience to the orders of the Emperor even in
the religious sphere. It is true that the Emperor always con-
cerned himself with ecclesiastical affairs: he endeavoured to
maintain or to impose unity in dogma but, as we have seen,
his claims were by no means always submissively recognized.
Indeed, the Byzantines became accustomed to the idea that
organized opposition to the imperial will in religious matters
was normal and legitimate. We have quoted some famous
instances of opposition or victorious resistance to the
Emperors of East Rome.
After the ninth century the Emperors no longer seek
to attack orthodoxy: the orthodox faith is henceforward
crystallized it has, in a word, triumphed over the Emperors.
Apart from a slight concession to the passions of the Mono-
physites at the time of the Fifth Oecumenical Council (553)
nothing ultimately remained from the long-continued efforts
in themselves not without their own wisdom and nobility
by whidi the Emperors, from Zeno to Constantine III,
sought to escape from the strict line of Chalcedonian ortho-
doxy. Neither did any trace of Iconoclasm survive, that
movement which the Isaurian and Amorian sovereigns had
sustained against a part of the nation which was later to
become the majority of the Byzantine people. In the
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries the Basileis
were unfortunately powerless to secure recognition from the
clergy of the Union with Rome, and the last Palaeologi were
so little Caesaro-Popes that they, together with a chosen few,
belonged to the Uniate Greek rite, somewhat like some
modern sovereigns who have been strangers to the religious
faith of the majority of their subjects.
Such is the truth concerning the religious tyranny of the
Byzantine Emperors. Without any suspicion of paradox
the religious history of Byzantium could be represented
as a conflict between the Church and the State, a conflict
from which the Church emerged unquestionably the victor.
Further, it is not true that intolerance and the persecution of
dissenters are to be imputed primarily to the civil power
which thus imposed upon the Church for political ends an

attitude which was sadly lacking in Christian charity. From
the time of the persecution of the last remaining pagans
down to the vexatious measures directed against the Pauli-
cian dissenters and the Armenian Monophysites measures
which in the eleventh century weakened the resistance to the
Seljuk Turks there are numerous cases in which we see the
Emperors subordinating the sectarian defence of orthodoxy
to considerations of policy and of humanity. The Emperor
Arcadius, the son of Theodosius the Great, has the reputa-
tion of having dealt the decisive blow against paganism. His
legislation on this subject is indeed pitiless, but a contem-
porary document which chance has preserved for us shows
the Emperor in October 400 refusing to the Bishop of Gaza
his sanction for the destruction of the temple of Marnas for
the same reasons which dissuaded Charles V from applying
severe measures against the heretics in Antwerp, a commer-
cial city and therefore of great moment to the State. *I know
well', said Arcadius, 'that this town is full of idols : but it
pays its taxes loyally and contributes much to the Treasury.
If, suddenly, we terrorize these people, they will take to
flight and we shall lose considerable revenues.' We cannot
catch in every case the echo of similar discussions in respect
of those repressive measures which w6re constantly demanded
by the Church against infidels and heretics. But, speaking
generally, the policy of most of the Emperors of the fifth and
sixth centuries is a policy of tolerance and of conciliation
towards the heterodox. The Paulicians from 668 until about
875 sought to win over to their dualist faith the Armenians
and Anatolians, especially in the regions of Pontus and the
Euphrates; through their military virtues the Paulicians
were the useful allies of the Empire. We know that at least
one Emperor, Leo the Isaurian 3 refused to persecute the
Paulicians, and that another, in spite of his Patriarch, listened
to the counsels of moderation which were given him by the
Studite monks. In the tenth century the Byzantine recon-
quest was accompanied and facilitated by the very liberal
concessions granted to the Armenian and Syrian Mono-
physites. If these good relations are later disturbed and if in
the end there was a return to the mistakes of the past, the
fault assuredly lies not with the Emperors but with the local
1 32 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

orthodox clergy. In a word, the civil power and the religious
authorities have each of them kept to their proper roles. One
may justly reproach the Byzantine Church for its dogmatic
rigidity which has cost it many a disappointment, but it
would be unjust to be surprised on that account. This
rigidity is but one aspect of the orthodoxy of the Byzantine
Church an orthodoxy only crystallized after desperate and
century-long conflicts. This rigid dogma was for the
Byzantine Church a conquest of which she was proud. It
was because she was the loyal trustee of this unadulterated
faith that she could proclaim herself to be superior to the
other Churches, that she could arrogate to herself the right
to condemn the vicious practices of the Church of Rome.
The reader who has observed in these pages the relations of
politics and religion cannot fail to recognize that, however
disastrous it may have been from the temporal point of view,
Byzantine intolerance is in its essence an affair of the spirit:
it is not inspired by any nationalism. Here lofty minds are at
work who place above everything else the treasure of the
faith. And if anything can lend beauty to the decline of the
great Byzantine Empire after 1071 after the fatal day of
Manzikert it is precisely this impolitic and sublime refusal
to compromise it is the fact that the Byzantines were
profoundly religious. The signature of their whole civiliza-
tion is their faith. It is that which explains the character of
their literature and of their art. It is true that Byzantium in
its loyalty to the fourth-century compromise (see p. 93)
preserved the essential works of profane literature, that it
never ceased to transcribe them, to write commentaries upon
them; Byzantium produced men of great learning, scholars
of a curiosity which knew no bounds. History, for example,
was passionately studied by an almost uninterrupted series
of writers who at times were inspired by the great classical
models. Yet almost all the Byzantine men of letters were
first and foremost preoccupied with theology. Not only do
the monastic chroniclers give pride of place to Church
affairs, but the historians properly so called, like Nicephorus
Gregoras, interrupt their narrative to recount through whole
books high controversies over points of doctrine. Byzantine
poets or at least versifiers are legion. But although some

of them have sought to sing of the great events of history
and not merely of JByzantine history but of the history
of mankind e.g. the glorious Crusades of the seventh
century yet not one of them can claim a place in world-
literature not even the Poet Laureate of Heraclius, George
of Pisidia, nor the Poet Laureate of Nicephorus Phocas,
John the Geometrician. There is no breath of the true spirit
either of epic or of lyric poetry in their elegant, frigid, and
pedantic works. If chance had not preserved for us some
fragments of popular songs from the ninth and tenth cen-
turies of an inspiration similar to that of the klephtic ballads
of modern Greece, we might be tempted to believe that even
the heroism of the war against the Arabs never awoke in a
Byzantine bard that primitive enthusiasm which recurs in
the historical songs of almost all barbarian peoples. Even
the Armenians possess a large body of secular poetry. Such
poetry was denied to Byzantium, doubtless partly because
Byzantium neglected the language of the people which was
full of poetic possibilities in order to write almost exclusively
in a learned idiom. But the principal reason for this absence
of a poetic literature is to be sought in the almost complete
domination of the Byzantine by religious interests. The
true, the only Byzantine poets are those who in their
modesty styled themselves 'melodes', humble monks whose
sole aim was the enrichment of the liturgy. They indeed are
truly inspired, but the source of their inspiration is to be
found in the Scriptures and in the drama of the liturgy; and
it must also be said that their art does not follow classical
models or the rules which govern classical poetry. The
earliest of these poets are pupils of the Syrians whose
strophes, refrains, and acrostics they imitate. One great
name must be mentioned that of Romanus 'the Melode'.
He was a deacon born in Syria who came to Constantinople
in the sixth century: to him the Greek Church is indebted
for hymns of deep feeling, though at times their effect is
spoiled by an excess of eloquence by those peculiarly
Byzantine faults : superfluity of words and a prodigal misuse
of elaboration. And among prose-writers apart from some
chroniclers using the vulgar tongue or some high functionary
relating without pretention his own memoirs those who

escape from the conventional style which stifles true senti-
ment and simple expression are the mystics addressing them-
selves to a picked audience of ascetes, or the hagiographers,
happily fairly numerous, who are preserved by their igno-
rance from the well-worn expressions of a literary tradition
and who are almost the only Byzantines who can put us into
immediate contact with the life of their day. That religious
sentiment, however, which has saved from pedantry and
archaism a few pages of Byzantine literature could fashion
through art, above all through mosaic and painting, through
architecture also and at times, though very rarely, through
sculpture, a marvellously adequate expression of the Byzan-
tine soul. But this art, like the poetry of the melodes, is only
a perpetual illustration of dogma or of the liturgy. The
theological and liturgical symbolism which was developed
after the seventh century is an original creation of Byzan-
tium. Thanks to that creation the Byzantine Church has
something of beauty and of grandeur which can stand com-
parison with the cathedral of the West that book of stone
with its wealth of spiritual teaching. In the West there are
the statues and the stained glass of the windows: in the
Byzantine East there are the frescoes and the mosaics which
present to the eye the scenes of the two Testaments and
the symbols which correspond to the different moments of
the Eucharistic Drama. Here in this Eucharistic Drama, the
Mystery of mysteries, the Sacrifice above all other sacrifices,
is the centre of Byzantine faith, the centre of Byzantine life
itself. Through the centuries Byzantine theologians sought
to determine precisely its sublime significance. It is because
in the Eucharist is contained man's supreme hope, because
here is the essence of Christianity, that the peoples of the
East have met in violent conflict seeking with passionate
intensity rigorously to define the dogma of their faith.
Christians were Christians only because Christianity brought
to them liberation from death. If one would penetrate to the
heart of Eastern Christianity one must be present on the
night when the Easter liturgy is celebrated: of this liturgy
all other rites are but reflections or figures. The three words
of the Easter troparion the Easter hymn repeated a
thousand times in tones ever more and more triumphant,

repeated to the point of ecstasy and of an overflowing mystic
joy Oavdrq) Bdvarov Trcmjcras 'By His death He has trodden
death beneath His feet 1 here is the great message of the
Byzantine Church: the joy of Easter, the banishing of that
ancient terror which beset the life of man, this it is which has
won and kept the allegiance of the masses: it is this creed of
triumph which has been translated into all the languages of
the Orient, and yet has never lost its virtue: this is the faith
which found its material expression in the icon, so that even
when the originality of the artist fell short, man's short-
coming could not veil the meaning of that joyous Mystery.
HENRI GRgGOIRE
V
BYZANTINE MONASTICISM
IT would be difficult to over-estimate the part played by
monasticism in the history of Byzantium. It was on the
territory of the Eastern Empire that this institution took its
rise and on that soil it flourished amazingly. We shall not
attempt, as others have done, to look outside Christianity
for the origin of an institution which was deeply rooted in
the Gospel. 'If thou wilt be perfect', said the Lord, 'go and
sell that thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have
treasure in heaven.' This invitation, which any Christian
could accept if he would, very early found an echo in the
Church, and the state of perfection held up by Christ as an
ideal met with a ready response in many hearts. Those who
accepted the call did not at once separate themselves from
the rest of the faithful. Ascetics of both sexes continued to
live in the world, and like Origen, for instance, practised
every form of self-discipline, without feeling bound to cut
themselves off from all intercourse with their fellow men. It
is in Egypt that we first hear of hermits. They began by
building themselves huts in the outskirts of the towns and
villages, and to these huts they withdrew in order to give
themselves up to contemplation and the practice of ascetic
exercises.
In this way St. Antony (about 270) began his life as a
solitary, but after fifteen years he withdrew to Pispir in the
desert and there shut himself up in an empty tomb, in which
he lived for some twenty years. His reputation for holiness
brought him many imitators, who came to settle in the
neighbourhood of his retreat in order to profit by his example
and advice; he was obliged to listen to their appeals and to
busy himself in giving them some guidance and the rudi-
ments of an organization. We need not consider whether
any other hermit preceded him in the desert, as St. Paul of
Thebes may perhaps have done. St. Antony was undoubtedly
the first solitary of whose influence we may be certain,
extending as it did beyond his place of retreat. But the
BYZANTINE MONASTICISM 137

company of his disciples had none of the characteristics of a
religious community. Though they received instruction
from him, they were not bound to obey him, nor were they
committed to any uniformly regulated way of life. The
development of monasticism known as semi-eremitical arose
shortly afterwards in the deserts of Nitria and Scete in Lower
Egypt. We have descriptions of these communities in the
works of Palladius and Cassian. These monks lived in
separate cells, and in Nitria sometimes three or four cells
were grouped together. They met at church for the liturgy
on Saturdays and Sundays only, and were subject to no rule,
the authority of the elders being purely personal. When
visiting each other they occupied themselves with the study
of the Scriptures or discussed questions of spiritual doctrine.
Cassian's Collations give us an idea of the nature of these
conversations.
At about the same time that St. Antony, after twenty
years of strict seclusion, began to concern himself with his
disciples at Pispir, there appeared in Upper Egypt another
famous ascetic, who was to give the monastic movement a
new direction. St. Pachomius, a disciple of the hermit
Palamon, having doubtless observed the disadvantages and
even the dangers of complete isolation, proceeded to organize
a community for the hermits of his neighbourhood, and
founded at Tabennisi, near Dendera, the first monastery of
the life in common (koinobiori) to which disciples soon flocked.
The monastery consisted of several separate buildings, each
holding thirty to forty persons under the direction of
a superintendent. The monks owed obedience to their
Superior and were subject to a rule. Not only were their
religious exercises, that is to say, prayer, instruction, and
confession, strictly regulated, but manual labour, which
consisted in the practice of different handicrafts, was also
compulsory. This constitution of Pachomius met with very
great success. Before his death in about 345 the Pachomian
Congregation, as it may be called, comprised nine monas-
teries, containing a great number of monks, and two con-
vents for women.
The work of Pachomius gave to monasticism its essential
and final form. The hermit in his retreat practised continence
138 BYZANTINE MONASTICISM

and poverty, and to these virtues was added in the monas-
teries that of obedience. The religious was henceforth a man
cut off from the world and obliged to exercise these three
virtues: that obligation was soon to be enforced through the
sanction of a vow. He was pledged to observe an austere
discipline which regulated his relations with God, his
superiors, and the monastic community. The independent
life of a solitary did not lose its attraction all at once; still for
a long time it remained the form of asceticism preferred by a
minority, while it was found possible to combine it with
coenobitism, i.e. with the life in a community. But the
advantages of the latter were so great that it was bound
before long to predominate. For in the common life there
was found scope for the exercise of charity and for a rivalry
in well-doing of every kind which was denied to the hermits,
while it gave an opportunity to practise the virtues of
religion without going into the wilderness.
In Egypt the monastic movement in all its forms met
at first with incredible success. We need not discuss the
fantastic figures given by certain authors. The Historia
Monachorum would have us believe that there were more
monasteries than private houses at Oxyrhynchus, and that,
including those in the suburbs, monks numbered 10,000
and nuns 20,000. These exaggerated figures show that the
number of the monks was large enough to strike men's
imaginations and at the same time it is too large to allow
us to believe that all who entered the monasteries were
actuated by purely religious motives. It is therefore not
surprising to find the Emperors Valentinian and Valens
ordering the removal from the religious houses of those who
had fled there in order to evade public duties.
Monastic life satisfied an aspiration so widespread that it
could not long be confined to the land of its origin. It was
natural that the adjoining countries of Palestine and Syria
should have been the first to be influenced, especially as
the Holy Places were becoming more and more a centre of
attraction and the scene of an intense religious movement.
Two names stand out among the pioneers of the religious
life in Palestine in the first half of the fourth century, namely,
St. Hilarion, who lived as a hermit in the Gaza desert, and
St. Chariton, to whom is attributed the foundation of the
Laura of Pharan, in the desert of Judaea, and of other lauras,
notably that of Souka, known as the Old Laura. The laura
was a form of ascetic life much favoured in Palestine. It
consisted of a group of hermits who lived in separate cells, but
were under the direction of an abbot. The centre of the
laura was often a monastery, where the hermits met on
Saturdays and Sundays, and to which young aspirants to
the solitary life were admitted in order first to undergo the
severe tests demanded of those who wished to embrace this
special vocation. During the fifth and sixth centuries
monastic life in Palestine developed remarkably. On this
movement we are exceptionally well informed through the
work of Cyril of Scythopolis (sixth century), the author of a
unique series of biographies of illustrious monks, among
them St. Euthymius, St. Sabas, and St. Theodosius. The
most famous of these monks, St. Sabas, founded no less than
seven lauras, among them the Great Laura, where he lived
until his death. At the beginning of the sixth century the
peace of the monasteries of Palestine was disturbed by the
Origenist disputes. The civil authority was forced to inter-
vene, and the New Laura, which had become a centre of
heretical unrest, was cleared of its occupants and handed
over to the orthodox monks. Palestine admitted both the
established forms of monasticism, the coenobitic organiza-
tion and the life of the hermit. The one did not exclude the
other, but the life of the solitary was generally more highly
esteemed. In the seventh century Palestine was cut off from
the Empire by the Arab invasion, and under the new govern-
ment its monastic institutions suffered greatly, those which
survived losing all contact with the religious houses beyond
the frontier which had the same origin and observed the
same rite as themselves.
Syria and Mesopotamia were drawn into the movement
by an irresistible force. We are told that Eugenius, one of
the pioneers of Syrian monasticism, was apprenticed to the
religious life in Pachomius's monastery at Tabennisi, and
that from Egypt he brought a company of seventy monks to
Mesopotamia and founded a monastery near Nisibis.
A certain Julian, mentioned by St. Jerome, is said to have
introduced monasticism into Osrhoene. It is not recorded
who first inhabited the desert of Chalcis, near Antioch, but
it was there that St. Jerome is known to have lived as a
hermit for several years. In Syria there were monasteries,
properly so-called, of which mention is made by various
historians. All the monks whose exploits were recounted by
Theodoret in his Philotheos Historia were hermits. They
gave themselves up to penitential exercises differing by their
great austerity and other special characteristics from those
practised by the monks of Egypt. These latter, it has been
observed, performed penances which may be called natural,
such as fastings, long vigils, and a strict isolation from the
world. It is true that some of them, as for instance Macarius
of Scete, were led through a competitive spirit to establish
records in self-mortification and in consequence fell into
obvious excesses. But in general Egyptian asceticism was
governed by a spirit of moderation which took account of the
limits of human endurance. In Syria it was otherwise; the
hermits mentioned by Theodoret, living alone in the desert,
their own masters, and subject to no control, tortured their
bodies without check or restraint. Their asceticism took
violent and at times extravagant forms. It was in Syria that
St. Simeon the pillar-saint appeared, and his example was
to prove infectious; it created a class of ascetes which per-
sisted for centuries. If one disregards the bizarre form of
his self-mortification, Simeon Stylites may be regarded as
typical of Syrian monasticism, for unlimited austerities
united with unceasing prayer, individualism, and complete
isolation are its characteristic features.
The storms raised by heresy in the Patriarchates of Alex-
andria and Antioch, and the intervention of the Arabs,
separated from Orthodoxy and later from the Empire nearly
all the monasteries in the Nile valley and a great number of
those in the Orontes, Euphrates, and Tigris regions. They
formed themselves into isolated groups which had hence-
forth no share in the life of the great monastic family, the
true heir of the traditions of Antony and Pachomius, which
elsewhere was to exhibit so striking a development.
From Egypt and Syria monasticism spread, and the
current must soon have reached Asia Minor. We know little

more than that there were monks in Galatia before the end
of the fourth century, and that there, as in the adjoining
countries, the severity of the climate was unfavourable to the
adoption of a hermit's life. We are better informed with
regard to Armenia Minor, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, into
which countries monastic life was introduced by Eustathius
of Sebaste, whose indiscreet zeal nearly wrecked the whole
future of the movement. Especially in Armenia monasticism
assumed exaggerated forms. Several decrees of the Council
of Gangra (in Paphlagonia) are inspired by the desire to
remedy excesses which could not but be censured by the
ecclesiastical authorities.
Cappadocia, which later sent into other countries such
famous monks as SS. Theodosius and Sabas, gave to the
Church one who may well be regarded as the lawgiver of
the monastic life, namely, St. Basil of Caesarea. Under the
influence of his sister Macrina, he resolved to leave the world,
but before embracing the monastic life he determined to
learn its secrets in the places where it had received its
definite form. With this object he visited Egypt, Palestine,
Syria, and Mesopotamia. On returning from his travels he
withdrew to a retreat at Annesi on the River Iris in Pontus,
and there proceeded to put into practice the ideal formed by
his study of the lives of the anchorites on the one hand and of
the coenobites on the other. The completely isolated life
of the former could in his opinion be the goal only of the
chosen few. Such a life was less in accordance with man's
social nature, gave no scope for charity, and for most men
was accompanied with serious disadvantages. Ordinary
minds, uncontrolled by any supervision or rule of obedience,
were apt to give way to pride and self-deception, and at
times die cares of a man's mere material existence might
become so absorbing as seriously to hinder communion with
God. On these grounds St. Basil preferred coenobitism.
But he fully realized the weakness of the Pachomian organi-
zation as it existed in Egypt, namely, that the number of
monks in each group was too great. The Superior could
consequently neither know them intimately nor direct them
effectively; and it was not easy to free these necessarily self-
supporting communities from preoccupation with material

needs. Basil, therefore, in choosing the coenobitic system,
amended it by reducing the number of monks in each
monastery to more modest proportions. Still, while not
encouraging the hermit's life, he did not altogether pro-
hibit it.
Profiting by the experience gained in his travels, he regu-
lated the lives of his monks in every detail. The hours given
to prayer, study, work, meals, and sleep were all fixed, and
even the details of dress laid down. Basil did not leave
behind him any Rule, properly so called; and it is not easy
to determine whether the ancient authorities who seem to
attribute one to him are referring to the whole, or to a part
of the Ascetica that have come down to us under his name.
When writing to Gregory of Nazianzus 1 he traced in broad
lines the life of the monk as he conceived it, and from the
Ascetica, especially the 55* chapters known as The Longer
Rules* and from the monastic catechism in 313 questions
and answers, known as The Shorter Rules, one could put
together a series of fairly detailed regulations. In any case
the tradition created by Basil and the writings which have
circulated under his name have exercised a very great
influence. The fame of the Bishop of Caesarea and the
practical nature of his conception of the communal life
assured the success of the moderate form of coenobitism and
of the domestic discipline which he introduced into the
groups under his control.
There was never in the Greek Church any 'Order of St.
Basil', and the title 'Basilian' as applied to the monks of the
Empire is an invention of Western scholars. But there is no
doubt that his monastic system spread almost at once from
Pontus into Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Armenia, and the
whole of Asia Minor; in these countries it enjoyed a remark-
able success. We have unfortunately no satisfactory statis-
tics of the number of monasteries which sprang up there
during the following centuries. But judging from the allu-
sions to them scattered through the Lives of the Saints, from
the evidence of Procopius, and from the constant discovery
in charters of fresh names of religious foundations whose
history remains unknown to us the number of monasteries
1 Ep. 8. 2 Regulaefusius tractate.

throughout Asia Minor must have been very considerable.
It is particularly in this part of the Empire that one finds
colonies of monks formed in mountainous districts corre-
sponding to those 'Holy Mountains' which in Europe are
still represented by Athos or the Meteora. The origin of
these communities is nearly always the same. A holy man,
having determined to shun the world, seeks out an accessible
spot in the recesses of the neighbouring mountain, and there
retires into a cave or builds himself a hut. His retreat is
presently discovered, and disciples place themselves under
his guidance. A community is thus formed and the building
of a monastery begins. The reputation of the master and his
disciples spreads, bringing fresh recruits, and it soon becomes
necessary to enlarge the accommodation and also to add to
the number of hermitages that generally spring up in the
neighbourhood of a monastery. We may cite as an example
Mt. St. Auxentius, above Chalcedon in Bithynia, which takes
its name from the famous hermit who established himself
there in the second half of the fifth century; here the religious
life flourished for at least eight centuries. In Bithynia, too,
was Mt. Olympus, one of the most important of monastic
centres, the home through the centuries of many famous
ascetes, among them the great St. Johannicius. Mt.
Admirable, near Seleucia, owed its renown to St. Simeon
Stylites the Younger and his disciples; and opposite to it, in
the Black Mountains, was the Scopelos the Rock made
famous by the Abbot Theodosius. Near Miletus, the moun-
tain celebrated in antiquity under the name of Latmus was
taken over by monks, the most noted of whom was St. Paul,
who died in 955. Consecrated to the worship of God, the
mountain henceforth takes the name of Latros. 1 Monasteries
were founded on Mt. Galisius, near Ephesus, for the disciples
of the monk Lazarus (ob. 1054), who lived several years upon
a column. On Mount Kyminas, on the borders of Bithynia
and Paphlagonia, we find in the tenth century several holy
monks, notably St. Michael Maleinus and St. Athanasius.
The latter went thence to found the monastery of Lavra on
another holy mountain, destined to become yet more famous
Mt. Athos; and since we have now left the soil of Asia,
1 Latreuem, to worship.
H4- BYZANTINE MONASTICISM

we may add a mention of Mt. Ganos in Thrace, of which
little is known, and of the Meteora monasteries in Thessaly.
The capital of the Empire was not reached by the
monastic tide as quickly as some have asserted. It has been
maintained on documentary evidence of little value that the
introduction of monasticism into Constantinople dates from
the time of Constantine, and some fifteen monasteries are
cited as having been founded there during his reign. From
a study of more reliable sources, however, we are forced to
the conclusion that the first monks established in the capital
were heretics attached to the patriarch Macedonius, and
that the few monasteries of those days had only an ephemeral
existence. The true beginnings of Byzantine monasticism
coincide with the reign of Theodosius. Jonas, a soldier from
Armenia, founded the monastery of Halmyrissus in Thrace;
and the oldest monastery in Constantinople itself, namely,
that of Dalmatius, sprang from a hermitage founded by the
monk Isaac. These two ascetes must be deemed to be the
true fathers of monasticism in the capital. Isaac's foundation
was followed by that of Dius, but of its early history little is
known. One of the most important monasteries was that of
Rufinianae, founded by Rufinus on the coast of Bithynia.
Its monks were brought from Egypt, but on Rufinus's
fall they returned to their own country. Later Hypatius,
a Phrygian, came to Rufinianae and there with two com-
panions he settled. Gradually a small community grew up;
Rufinus's monastery was re-formed, and Hypatius was com-
pelled to become its head. For forty years he governed the
monastery with success.
A long history is attached to the monastery of the Akoi-
metoi. Its founder, Alexander, who came to Constantinople
from the desert of Chalcis, bringing with him ideas of
reform, introduced the practice of continuous prayer. The
monks were divided into three choirs who relieved each
other in singing the praise of God without ceasing by day or
night. Hence the name Akoimetoi, those who never sleep.
Under Alexander's successor the monastery was trans-
planted to Gomon, on the Black Sea, but it returned later to
the neighbourhood of Constantinople and was re-established
on the Bosphorus opposite the Bay of Sosthenes. Its founder,

Alexander, whose reputation in later years was not un-
challenged, was outshone by one of his successors, St.
Marcellus.
Once introduced into the capital, monasticism made rapid
strides. In the Acts of the Council of 536 may be found the
signatures of the representatives of sixty-eight monasteries
in Constantinople and of forty in Chalcedon. Their number
continued to increase and the list of the foundations that
sprang up one after another in the city and its suburbs is
interminable. Many of these have some history, some brief
hour of fame, but we cannot give details here. It is interest-
ing, however, to note that the strange form of asceticism
originated by St. Simeon Stylites found its way to the
capital. Daniel (ob. 5 1 8), the first successor of the famous
Syrian penitent, lived for many years on a pillar near
Anaplus. A number of disciples congregated at its foot and
for them the Emperor Leo I built a monastery and provided
accommodation for strangers. Daniel was not the only
stylite in Constantinople, and even as late as the tenth
century he had a successor in the person of St. Luke, whose
column stood in the quarter of Eutropius.
With this great increase in the number of monks there
immediately arose the necessity for a stricter discipline, and
both the ecclesiastical authorities and the State were forced
to take measures to correct or forestall abuses and to give a
more solid foundation to the institution of monasticism.
St. John Chrysostom, great champion as he was of the
monastic state, was obliged to insist on the strict observance
of the rule of seclusion and to admonish severely those
monks who left their monastery and roamed through the
streets of the city. More than one bishop doubtless had
to recall to their duties the monks of his diocese who, for-
getful of one of their principal obligations, were tempted
to mingle with the world and busy themselves with secular
matters.
Legislation on the part of the Councils was sometimes
necessary. We need not discuss the decrees, of limited scope,
passed by the Council of Gangra against the Eustathians.
More general measures were taken by the Council of
Chalcedon, which began by recognizing that for many men
3982 T

the monastic life was nothing more than a pretext for bring-
ing confusion into the affairs of Church and State. Such
persons were accused of going from one town to another
with the sole object of building monasteries for themselves,
and in future no one might found a monastery without the
consent of the bishop of the diocese. Monks are to be
entirely subject to the bishop, and may not leave their
monastery save in case of necessity and with his authoriza-
tion. Their duty consists in fasting and prayer within the
precincts of the monastery. The monastic habit may not be
given to a slave without the consent of his master. The
religious of either sex, once vowed to God, can never marry.
No regularly established monastery can be secularized, nor
can its property be alienated.
At times circumstances gave to the Emperors the oppor-
tunity of passing laws governing the monks, but these,
inspired as they were merely by the need of the moment,
were soon disregarded. To Justinian is due the credit of
having formulated in his later laws the Novels the code
of monastic legislation. This code gives legal authority to
the ecclesiastical canons, and, following in the tradition of
St. Basil, regulates the statutes and the main details of the
religious life. These dispositions were inspired by a genuine
regard for the institution of monasticism. 'The monastic
life', said the Emperor in his preface, 'with the contempla-
tion which the monk practises is a holy thing; it leads men's
souls to God, and not only does this life serve those who have
adopted it, but its purity and its prayers make it useful to
all.' Justinian deals mainly, and almost exclusively, with
monasteries or coenobia, that is, with monks living, eating,
and sleeping in common. He admits, however, a more
perfect way, the life of hermits or solitaries, but refrains
from detailed regulations for such. When the number of
monks in a coenobium becomes very large, two or three
buildings must be, provided to house them. No religious
house may be built without the permission and blessing of
the bishop. The monastery must be surrounded by a wall,
the door'of which is guarded by some of the older and most
trusted monks, and no one may pass in or out without the
permission of the Hegoumenos (abbot). Communities of

monks and nuns must have separate quarters, and every
precaution is taken that the rule of separation should be
strictly observed.
The monastery is placed under the authority of a Superior,
elected by the monks. To four or five senior monks, who are
in orders, is entrusted the regular performance of the reli-
gious services. If they have no church of their own, the
monks must attend service in the neighbouring church and
immediately afterwards return to the monastery. The
noviciate is for three years, during which the postulant
wears the dress of a layman. If at the end of that time he has
given satisfaction and can prove that he is not a slave, he is
granted the habit of a monk. Up to this time he has had the
free disposition of his goods, but from the moment of his
assuming the habit his property passes to the monastery.
The proportion of his fortune that reverts to the wife or
children whom the monk has left in the world is fixed by law.
A monk who leaves his monastery cannot be received into
another, and property acquired by him reverts to his monas-
tery and to that monastery he himself must be brought back.
On a repetition of his offence he must be consigned to
military service. No monk may accept the duties of a
guardian or any other secular task that might turn him from
the service of God. Property once in the possession of the
monastery cannot be alienated. Rules are laid down to
guide the Superiors in the administration of property, and to
guard them against mistakes which might endanger the
monastic endowments.
These laws were evidently not made without the co-
operation of the ecclesiastical authority. State intervention
in such matters is almost always accompanied by dis-
advantages which show themselves in the course of time.
But in general Justinian's legislation was beneficial and well
adapted to the regularization of the monastic life. It was
definitive and Justinian's successors found little in it to alter.
Nor did the Councils of the Church: the Council in Trullo
laid down that no one might become a hermit who had not
lived under coenobitic rule for three years. The Council of
787, in calling for the suppression of double monasteries,
that is to say, of those in which the monks' dwelling was close
H8 BYZANTINE MONASTICISM
to and under the same administration as the nuns', was
merely restating an article of the original code.
Under these regulations monasteries continued to multiply
throughout the Empire. Emperors, princes, wealthy mer-
chants, and other persons of note built monasteries or hospices
to the glory of God and as atonement for their sins. A desire
for ostentation was sometimes a contributing factor. Nice-
phorus Phocas (963-9), though a great friend and bene-
factor of monks, held that the number of monasteries had
already passed the bounds of moderation, and that the
excessive increase in religious establishments was prejudicial
to the institution of monasticism itself. He forbade the
creation of new foundations and the enlargement and
enrichment of those already in existence. He did not
definitely prohibit the bequest of property to the Church,
but ordained that the money must be used only to restore
buildings fallen into ruin and not to erect new ones. These
dispositions were annulled in the reign of Basil II.
Apart from legislation, in the strict sense of the term, the
intervention of individuals had no small effect upon
the development of the monastic life. The reformer who in the
ninth and later centuries had most influence upon Byzantine
monasticism was St. Theodore, of the monastery of Studius.
Born in Constantinople, he left the world at the age of
twenty-two and retired to an estate belonging to his family
at Saccoudion on Mt. Olympus. Here, with several com-
panions, he put himself under the guidance of his uncle, St.
Plato, who had previously settled on the Sacred Mountain.
As a monk Theodore made rapid progress and was soon
fitted to assist his uncle in the control of the monastery.
With the increasing number of postulants the burden
became at last too heavy for the old man, and Theodore was
called upon to take his place. When the monks of Saccou-
dion, headed by their Abbot, took up an uncompromising
attitude towards the question of the Emperor Constantine
VTs divorce, they brought on themselves a sentence of
exile. For a brief interval they returned to Saccoudion, but
were obliged once more to leave and take refuge in Con-
stantinople, There they were invited to establish themselves
in the Psamathia quarter, in a large monastery founded in

463 by the Consul Studius, and now almost abandoned
as a result of the recent period of persecution which had
only just come to an end. Under Theodore's control the
monastery developed in an extraordinary degree, and we
read that the number of 'Studite' monks soon reached a
thousand.
But for the wise reforms instituted by Theodore, the
weight of responsibility resting upon an abbot would have
become- well-nigh insupportable. He created a whole
hierarchy of dignitaries, superintendents, and other monastic
functionaries, each with well-defined duties, from choir-
masters and stewards to cooks, infirmary attendants, and
carpenters. Every head of a department had to render an
account of his service to the abbot, who, by keeping the
central control in his own hands, brought order and regu-
larity into the working of the monastery. Theodore drew
up a programme for each class of occupation. He even com-
posed little pieces in verse, which summed up for each the
duties of his charge, and thus recalled the particular virtues
needed in his task. Many monastic regulations attributed
to St. Theodore were in fact introduced at Saccoudion by
St. Plato. Amongst these is the prohibition against admit-
ting into the monastery not only women, but also female
animals. In this Plato would seem not to have introduced
any new rule, but only to have reinstated an ancient practice.
It is well known how strict is the observance of this rule at
Mt. Athos, and how greatly it adds to the austerity of the life
in those monasteries, 'it is by no means certain that it was
originally conceived as a safeguard of morality as it is usually
interpreted. It would appear that St. Plato wished to remove
the abuses that arose from too close an association of monks
and laymen, and to remove any mercenary tendency that
might easily result from trading in goods belonging to the
monastery. In more than one monastery the breeding of
cattle was carried on, obliging the monks to house lay ser-
vants within their walls. In banning all female domestic
animals, Plato put an end to that particular form of trading
which specially called for the employment of workers from
the world without the monastery.
St. Theodore supplemented these regulations by

introducing a sort of penitential code, attaching punishments
to breaches of the common rule or to failures in individual
duty. Three times a week he called his monks together to
be instructed by lecture or catechism in the virtues of the
monastic life piety, obedience and self-discipline, and
the enthusiasm and the fervour which each should bring to the
discharge of his own task. He established in the monastery
of Studius (we must not call it the 'Studion', a term unknown
to the ancients) a minute organization of the communal life,
a rigorous discipline, and a severe though reasonable asceti-
cism. These reforms, widely disseminated by his writings,
especially by his will, the Hypotyposts^ and his Catechisms,
which last were frequently read in monasteries, gave a new
vigour and a new lustre to the religious life of the Eastern
Empire. Traces of Theodore's influence are found in the
Rule that St. Athanasius of Mount Athos gave to the monas-
tery of Lavra, and in the special monastic constitutions
known as typica.
From a study of these charters of foundation, a certain
number of which have been preserved to us, the oldest of
them dating from the ninth century, we can form a vivid
picture of life in the monasteries. The regulations of these
typica are naturally adapted to the laws issued by Justinian
which themselves were inspired by the Monastic Rules
of St. Basil, As far as liturgical ordinances and the dates of
fast-days are concerned they are content to follow the use
of Jerusalem, or what is generally known as the typicon of St.
Sabas. Taken as a whole, the details of these rules, as
codified in the typica, though not expressly derived from the
regulations of St. Theodore the Studite, are yet in such
complete accord with his reforming spirit as to leave no
doubt of his influence in their composition.
We may take as an instance the Rule of the Euergetis
monastery in Constantinople, which was drawn up by
Timothy, monk and priest, and later abbot. He was the
brother of the founder, Paul, who died in 1054.* This
typicon may usefully serve to illustrate the character of these
monastic regulations since it was later used by other founders
1 Typica of two kinds are here preserved together, the /cn/ropi/cov and the
We have to deal here with the former only.

and had itself drawn material from analogous texts. This is
what it tells us of the organization of the monastery.
Its essential part has reference to the life of prayer : the
chanting of the services, private devotions, and the chief
means of sanctification. The hours to be spent in prayer by
day and night are laid down. Mass shall be celebrated daily;
the more advanced monks may communicate three times and
the others once a week, always by permission of the Superior.
Communion must be preceded by confession. The sole
confessor is the abbot, who must put himself at the disposal
of the penitents twice a day, that is, in the morning and at
evening after compline.
During meals, which are eaten in common, someone
reads aloud ; at no other time may any food or drink be taken.
The dietary is specified for ordinary days, for Lent and the
two lesser times of fasting, and also for certain days on which
better fare is permitted. The food is the same for everyone,
except in case of illness. The Brothers are lodged two in a
cell; their clothing is supplied from the common stock.
Monks in good health are allowed three baths a year, those
who are unwell may have more. The number of monks in a
monastery is in proportion to its income.
It was the founder's intention that his establishment
should be self-governing, and that no one, not even the
Patriarch or the Emperor, should be able to take possession
of it. The authority of the abbot is paramount, he is the sole
spiritual director of the monks, and all owe him respect and
obedience. He chooses his steward (peconomos\ who, unless
unworthy, will ultimately succeed him. Besides the steward,
the chief officials to help him are the skeuophylax or sacristan,
in charge of the church and the sacristy; the dochiarios
(custodian, treasurer) of money, and the dochiarios of goods,
such as linen, shoes, and food. To the epistemonarchos is
confided the maintenance of order and regularity in the
monastery. The trapezarios has the management of the
refectory, and below him come those in charge of the cellar
and the bakery.
Founder's Day must be observed, and the anniversaries of
certain other benefactors. On these days alms are distributed,
but apart from these distributions no poor man should ever
1 52 BYZANTINE MONASTICISM
be sent away empty-handed. No women may be admitted
except ladies of very high rank. Travellers and the sick poor
are warmly welcomed and cared for in the hostel or hospital
maintained on their behalf*
The rules of the typica constituted a new consecration and
a stricter regulation of the monastic communities. We must
not expect to find in them any concrete details or special
conditions of the life in different monasteries, due to differ-
ences of time and place, which would give an individual
character to each establishment. The interior life of a
monastery as portrayed in the typica was everywhere the
same: an orderly contemplative existence, in which prayer
took the chief place and for which rules were laid down with
regard to fasting and abstinence, and also concerning manual
labour so far as this was compatible with the austerity of the
ascetic life. Everything was arranged with a view to the
personal sanctification of the monk, not with any idea of
pastoral ministry.
Some typica of nunneries have also come down to us.
These are the more important since we have little informa-
tion on the subject of female monasticism, which is, however,
of very ancient origin and had a development as rapid as the
male branch. Vowed to a strict seclusion in a narrowly
limited field of action, nuns have naturally left less mark than
monks on the history of their times. In Greek hagiography
they play an unobtrusive part, and in order to measure the
attraction of the cloister for the women of East Rome we are
almost reduced to counting the number of convents. We
know that there were a great many, but we can give no
precise figures. Naturally a few special regulations occur, but
otherwise there is little essential difference between the
typica of the women's convents (of which unfortunately few
survive) and those of the monasteries. The most important
of these typica are the one long familiar to students which was
framed about 1 1 1 8 by the Empress Irene for the convent of
the Virgin (rij$ jccxapmo/i-ew^) and that of Our Lady of
Good Hope, founded in the next century by Theodora and
her husband, the famous general John Comnenus. Like
most of the foundation charters, Theodora's was designed
to protect her new establishment from any hampering out-

side interference. She wished Our Lady of Good Hope to be
a free and autonomous convent. To safeguard the religious
spirit and the material interests of the house the nuns needed
the protection of some influential personage, and, with this
object in view, she appointed her sons its ephoroi (guardians).
The number of nuns, limited at first to thirty, was after-
wards raised to fifty. They were divided into two categories,
corresponding to the choir nuns and the lay sisters of our days.
The nuns were to be on a footing of complete equality,
and the rule permitted no mitigation of the rigour of the
common life, except in illness, or in those special circum-
stances in which, according to the usage of the times, some
relaxation of austerity was allowed. For the convent was
often the refuge of the victims of great misfortune, while
members of the nobility and of the imperial family sometimes
sought to end their days in its shelter. Allowance was made
for the former state of these ladies, used as they had been to
lives of ease and luxury, and, if they so desired, they were
permitted to employ a servant.
The convent should have a priest to celebrate the Holy
Mysteries and to take the services. He must be of a certain
age and of unquestioned honour and virtue. According to
the typicon of Irene, priests attached to a convent must be
eunuchs, but no such stipulation is made in that of Theodora.
The obligations on which the foundress laid special stress
were those of obedience and poverty. The nuns were not
allowed to alienate any goods, and the fruit of their labour
became the property of the convent. Rigorous seclusion was
enforced and visits were strictly regulated. The day was
divided between prayer and work, and it was impressed upon
the nuns that they had not left the world in order to live in
idleness. The Mother Superior, who is elected by the
Sisters, has control of the convent with the help of several
assistants, the chief of whom are the ecclesiarchissa and the
steward. Less important duties are assigned to other nuns.
The table fare on feast and ordinary days is regulated, as are
also the details of dress.
It was a matter of course that charity should be shown to
the poor, and we learn from the fypica that religious houses
often had benevolent institutions, such as hospices, hostelries,

or hospitals, attached to them as annexes which were not
served by the monks or nuns, but were maintained by the
funds of the community. Pacurianus, a 'Great Domestic'
of the West under Alexius Comnenus, founded a hospice for
old men near the monastery of Petritzos (in Bulgaria). In
other places he erected three hostels dependent on this same
monastery, where the poor were lodged and cared for free of
charge. He also established a monastic school in which six
young men were trained in holy learning with a view to
ordination. The typicon of Michael Attaliates provided for
the creation of a hospice at Rodesto and for the distribution
of alms to the poor of Constantinople. Attached to the
monastery of Pantocrator in the capital was an important
hospital, containing fifty beds, which reminds us of a modern
clinic. It had a medical staff of sixty persons in addition to
supervisors or inspectors, accountants, and numerous sub-
ordinates. It had a consulting-room and was divided into
five sections, each for a different type of illness and under the
care of two doctors with two assistants and several orderlies.
A special ward was reserved for epileptics. Besides all this
it had a hospice for the aged sick, which would accommodate
twenty-six old men. Near the monastery of the Kosmosoteira
the founder built a hospital containing thirty-six beds and
drew up regulations for its proper management. It included
baths to which the public was admitted. The hospital belong-
ing to the monastery of Lips was of more modest proportions
and had only fifteen beds.
The typica do not as a rule confine themselves to a plain
statement of precepts and rules, with an occasional supple-
mentary chapter on the property of the monastery. The
founder often prefaces them with an account of the lofty
motives that have guided him, and introduces in more or less
detail some spiritual instruction, generally inspired by a very
high ideal. These documents give the most favourable view
of the monastic life; but they show only one side of the pic-
ture, and we may be allowed to question whether the reality
corresponded at all closely with so noble a conception,
To imagine that the institution of monasticism could have
persisted through so many centuries and in so many different
lands, without any signs of weakness or decline, would be to

put too great a confidence in human nature. Only the strict
observance, and not the mere framing of rules, however
complete and detailed, can prevent abuses or sustain religious
fervour, and it would be rash to assert that such regulations
generally succeeded in maintaining at a normal level the
practice of monastic virtues. On so delicate a matter as this
one must not expect to find any precise information in our
historical sources; here the gradual decline to laxity and
decay is naturally not depicted. Those hagiographers who
have described in most intimate detail the inner life of the
monasteries, while avoiding its darker features, for the most
part only record examples of holy living and noble action.
Nevertheless a few contemporary documents have come down
to us in which free expression is given to complaints of the
faithlessness of monks to their duties, and the consequent
decline of coenobitism.
In his novel on religious houses the Emperor Nicephorus
Phocas denounced the abuses arising from the accumulation
of wealth by monasteries, and spared the monks no unpalat-
able truth. One of the sharpest criticisms of the monastic
life comes from the ranks of the clergy in a treatise by
Eustathius, Archbishop of Salonica (pb. 1 1 98). The picture
he draws of the moral condition of monks was no doubt a
true one for his time and diocese. He is careful, however, to
note that there were many virtuous monks in the capital of
the Empire and its suburbs, but that does not imply that
outside Salonica none but regular and devoted houses
existed. The causes he alleges for the moral decline of
monasteries undoubtedly produced similar effects in other
E laces. The manner of enlisting new recruits to the order
;ft much to be desired, and men entered the monastic life
less with the object of serving God than of making sure of
their daily bread without working for it. In this way monas-
teries became filled with the coarse and ignorant, whose one
idea was to profit by the material advantages thus provided
and to live a life of ease. Their zeal went no further than an
attempt to add to the property of the community; but greater
wealth was accompanied by greater worldliness. Study was
neglected, the most precious books in the library were
judged useless and sold. The abbot, whose duty it was to

train his subordinates in the paths of virtue, was content to
instruct them in the things that concerned material existence
and the administration of property. He was the manager of
an agricultural estate rather than a spiritual director. Such
according to Eustathius was the life of the monks as he knew
it. He had seen the failure of his efforts at reform, apd gives
free rein to his feelings in a satire, in which, though many
features are obviously exaggerated, the main causes of the
decay of the religious spirit are clearly set forth.
Among pernicious influences was the habit of granting
monasteries to laymen. This custom, to which John IV,
Patriarch of Antioch (1081-1118), devoted a pamphlet of
vigorous protest and which was condemned by the Councils,
was widely practised by the Iconoclast Emperors, notably by
Constantine V. To these sovereigns it offered a means of
rewarding political or military services to the detriment of
the monks, their resolute opponents in matters of religious
policy. The restoration of orthodoxy caused a temporary
lull in a practice so harmful to the institution of monasticism.
But it was soon revived in a form that seemed on the face of
it completely beneficial. Monasteries with buildings in
disrepair and likely to fall into ruin were made over to wealthy
laymen or high officials on condition that they should be
restored or rebuilt. By degrees this pretext was made to
serve for the giving away of religious houses that were in no
serious need of repair, then of others still less so, and finally
of even the most richly endowed monasteries.
This system proved disastrous for the monasteries. The
grantee or charistikarios ended by seizing all the goods of the
monks, leaving them only a fraction of their revenue. It was
impossible for them to celebrate their feasts with the cere-
mony enjoined by the founder, or to continue their daily
distribution of alms or food to the poor, and they were them-
selves left with only just enough to live upon. They became
entirely dependent on the goodwill of the new owner, and
the abbot lost all authority over his monks, who were often
forced to stoop to any dealings that would bring them the
means of subsistence. This state of affairs was even more
subversive of discipline in the women's convents. The
grantees, with their womenfolk and servants/ were in con-

stant contact with the nuns, who had to tax their ingenuity
to the utmost in order to obtain the necessities of life. The
ill effects of the extension of such a practice from which soon
only the most recently founded convents were free may
easily be imagined, and measures to remedy the abuse were
of little avail. 1
Only by the gradual slackening of traditional observances
can one explain the transformation of coenobitism into the
system known as idiorrhythmicism which to-day may be
studied on Mt. Athos, where it was introduced in the
fifteenth century. Its main effect was to set aside the monastic
rule of poverty. The money brought in by a monk on
entering the monastery, as well as the product of his work
there, remains his own property. If he is a tailor, he may sell
the clothes he makes, if an artist, the works of art for which
he is lucky enough to find a purchaser; and he is free to deal
as he pleases with the sums thus acquired and even to dispose
of them by will. Another feature of idiorrhythmicism con-
sisted in the grouping of the monks within the monastery
into 'families'. These families consist of a president with a
few monks, perhaps five or six, adopted by him in propor-
tion to the resources at his disposal for their upkeep; for,
while bread, wine, oil, and wood are supplied by the monas-
tery, the president has to provide everything else. Each
family occupies quarters with a separate kitchen and refec-
tory, but all assemble for the services, which are celebrated
as in coenobitic monasteries. It has, however, been observed
that the religious rites are much less impressive, since the
system of division into families does not permit of sufficient
attention being given to their preparation, especially to the
adequate training of voices for the choir. Only three times a
year do all the monks take a meal together in the common
refectory. One would expect to find the abbot acting as the
connecting link between the different groups, but idior-
rhythmicism has no place for such a dignitary. The central
authority lies with the council of presidents of families, which
itself chooses one of its members to direct its discussions.
So bizarre a system as this can only be regarded as an
obvious sign of the decay of the religious spirit.
1 Cf. the struggle against the system of Commendam in the West.
The purity of monastic tradition found an enemy of
another sort in the mystic doctrines leading to Hesychasm,
which deeply troubled the peace of Mt. Athos, The life of
solitude and contemplation (Hesychia) had long formed part
of Byzantine religion, though it will be remembered that
St. Basil, while not forbidding eremitism, did not wish to see
an increase in the number of hermits, and that Justinian's
legislation was inspired by a similar desire. Hermits or
hesychasts were regarded as belonging to the highest grade
of the monastic life. To become one was a privilege reserved
for those coenobites who had given proof of their sanctity
and were farthest advanced in perfection. St. Athanasius,
the founder of the Lavra, stipulates in his Rule that out of
120 monks only five shall be permitted to live the life of a
solitary, that is, to withdraw into separate cells in order to
gixfe themselves up to prayer and meditation whilst remain-
ing under the control of the abbot. In the fourteenth century,
thanks mainly to Gregory the Sinaite, daring theories, not
unlike those of the Indian fakirs, spread among these soli-
taries and other independent hermits concerning the vision
of the Divine Light and the mechanical methods for its
attainment. The system may have developed from the
mysticism of the celebrated Simeon, the New Theologian
(ob* 1022), in combination with the extravagant theories of
the Massaliani and Bogomils. The Calabrian monk Barlaam
vigorously attacked these aberrations, but they found a
defender, at least so far as concerns the theological side of
the system, in Gregory Palamas. A lengthy controversy
followed and much polemical writing. Councils debated the
matter. It was Palamas who prevailed, and with him pre-
vailed also Hesychasm, though freed from some of the- more
grotesque features which had proved attractive to rude and
simple natures. But Hesychasm was incompatible with a
healthy spirituality or a reasonable asceticism, and it is to
this day a running sore in the body of Greek monasticism.
It has been impossible to ignore the harmful germs that in
the course of centuries have threatened the existence and
lessened the vitality of the great institution of monasticism,
though without succeeding in destroying it, but the defects
which we have been obliged to record did not prevent it

from enjoying long and brilliant periods of prosperity.
Amongst a people devoted to religion, in an Empire where
the Church was so closely bound to the State, where the
sovereign constantly intervened in ecclesiastical affairs, and
monks were officially recognized, monasticism was bound to
platan important part. In the first place by virtue of their
reputation for saintliness famous monks often exercised a
personal influence over Emperors and high officers of State.
An unlettered man, like Simeon Stylites, was led to intervene
in questions of general concern to which his mode of life
seemed utterly foreign. 'Never losing interest', said Theo-
doret, 'in the welfare of the Churches, he led the campaign
against Pagan infidelity, denounced the audacity of the Jews
and scattered groups of heretics. He sent messages on such
subjects to the Emperor, stimulated the zeal of magistrates
for the things of God, and even warned the pastors of the
churches to give more attention to the welfare of their
flocks/
Daniel, another famous stylite, 1 had frequent dealings
with Emperors and ministers of State. The Emperor Leo I
often visited him, and on one occasion brought the king of
the Lazes in order to get the stylite's decision on a disputed
political question. There are many instances of sovereigns
asking simple monks for impartial advice and the benefit of
their prayers.
It was not only by individual action that monks exerted
their influence. In an Empire shaken by heresies continual
meddling by the temporal power in matters that should
properly be left to theologians inevitably brought about the
intervention of religious bodies directly interested in the
purity of the Faith. Monks often worked by secret and cir-
cumspect methods that can only be guessed at by their
effects; but it is rather the solemn demonstrations or pro-
longed struggles, in which great numbers of monks, if not
the' whole monastic body, put their prestige and strength at
the service of the Church, that have left visible traces on the
pages of history. In times of crisis, when religious passions
were aroused, when questions of dogma and discipline were
bitterly disputed, and the tradition of orthodox doctrine was
1 Cf. p. 145 supra.

threatened by innovators, the monks were willing temporarily
to renounce the peace of the cloister. But it would be rash
to claim that at all times and in all places their intervention
in theological quarrels was happy and praiseworthy, or of
service to religion. At a time when the army of monks
formed a confused and undisciplined crowd and they had to
be forbidden the towns, lest, under pretext of doing good,
they should upset the public peace, Theodosius could write
to Ambrose: 'Monachi multa scelera faciunt/ It only
needed a few bold spirits to launch them upon demonstra-
tions, not only regrettable in themselves, but quite incom-
patible with the life of prayer and contemplation to which
they were vowed.
The role played by the archimandrite Barsumas at the
Robber Council of Ephesus, to which he had gone with a
thousand monks in support of the doctrine of Eutyches, is
only too well known. Bishop Flavian, having appealed to
Pope Leo against his condemnation, was violently attacked
by Barsumas's band, who handled him so brutally that he
died three days later of his wounds. One could give instances
of similar interventions on the part of the monks, less violent
perhaps, but hardly less regrettable. The great heresies of
those times found all too often a favourable soil for their
development in the monasteries. In the East, especially in
Egypt, the Monophysite party had no keener supporters
than the monks, and in Palestine the Origenist monks had
to be dispersed. But it would be incorrect to extend the
blame to all the monks of the Empire. While bearing in
mind exceptional cases such as these, one may say that in
general monks have readily ranged themselves on the side
of orthodoxy and maintained happy relations with the sup-
porters of the true doctrine. Thus Antony 'the first monk*
did not hesitate to quit his desert retreat and appeared in
Alexandria to champion orthodoxy and uphold the faith
of Nicaea. St. Athanasius greatly befriended the monks.
Theodoret, who was, with Flavian, a victim of the Robber
Council of Ephesus, at the same time as he appeals to the
Pope, writes to the monks of Constantinople, assuring them
of his devotion to orthodoxy and of his anxiety to avoid the
very appearance of being severed from their communion.

Dalmatius, a monk of Constantinople, answered the appeal
of the bishops assembled at the Council of Ephesus : leaving
his monastery he led the monks of the capital to the imperial
palace and received from Theodosius II the pledge of his
adherence to the orthodox faith. When the usurper Basiliscus
was favouring the Monophysites, it was to the pillar saint
Daniel that the folk of Constantinople resorted : they finally
persuaded him to descend from his pillar. His feet were so
swollen that he could not walk, but he was carried into the
city. In St. Sophia Basiliscus was constrained in the presence
of Daniel to abjure his heresy. When in the seventh century
the house of Heraclius sought to reconcile the upholders of the
doctrine of the Single Nature in Christ by propounding
the theory of the Single Will or the Single Energy it was
again another monk, Maximus the Confessor, who was the
life and soul of the orthodox resistance. Threats, exile, and
finally torture all alike failed to break his indomitable
resolution.
It was during the period of the Iconoclast Emperors that
the energy of the monks was seen at its brightest. Constan-
tine V was fully aware of the influence which the monks
enjoyed and tried at first to win them over to his own ideas,
but he was met by a determined resistance. Exasperated by
his failure, the Emperor persecuted his opponents. In 761
he put to torture the hermit Andrew Calybites. Stephen the
Younger saw his monastery sacked, and when thrown into
prison he found more than 300 monks locked up for
the same cause. At length in 765 he was put to death
at the Emperor's order. The populace was incited against
the monks, a number of whom were made to file into the
hippodrome amid shouts and jeers, each monk holding a nun
by the hand. The persecution was not confined to the capital
but spread to the provinces : monasteries were sacked and in
the public square of Ephesus many monks were given the
choice of marriage or death.
In the later stage of the Iconoclast movement it was
Theodore the leader of the Studite monks who headed the
opposition to the Emperor. Under Leo the Armenian, in an
assembly convened by the Emperor, Theodore insisted that
the affairs of the Church concerned the clergy only and that
3982 M

the Emperor's authority was limited to secular administra-
tion. An imperial decree was forthwith issued which imposed
silence on Catholics in matters of faith. To this Theodore
refused to submit and organized public resistance. On Palm
Sunday a great procession of monks carrying the forbidden
images was seen to issue from the monastery. By order of
the Emperor Theodore was then sent into exile. During
that exile which lasted for twelve years, by his letters, his
catechisms, and messages he never ceased to encourage the
monastic resistance and continued to be the moving spirit
in the opposition to the Emperor. Many of his disciples
suffered martyrdom and from his own letters we learn of the
sufferings imprisonment, scourging, and torture which
he and his followers had to endure. On one occasion
Theodore was himself condemned to a hundred strokes of the
lash ; he was left lying on the ground unable to move, eat, or
sleep ; by the devoted care of his disciple Nicholas he was
slowly nursed back to life, taking four months to regain his
strength.
The cause of the icons won the day; the heroic efforts of
the Studite were apparently crowned with success, but we
must not overestimate his triumph. The master idea in the
life of Theodore was to win for the Church independence in
its own sphere. In this he failed: the tradition of Caesaro-
papism which dated back from the earliest days of Byzantium
emerged from the Iconoclast controversy unshaken. While
one must admire Theodore's courage which never yielded
under the brutal trials to which it was subjected, it must at
the same time be admitted that his temperament was lacking
in pliancy and breadth of mind and that his counsels were
rarely inspired by moderation. Moreover, by no means all
his monks, including even those who shared his views on
orthodoxy, approved his intransigent attitude. Those of Mt.
Olympus, for instance, led by St. Johannicius, were in
favour of a more moderate course. That policy of uncom-
promising opposition their master Theodore handed on to
the Studites with serious results, as in their resistance to the
Patriarch Methodius, and the atmosphere they created was
perhaps not without influence on the troubles which marked
the advent of Photius, or on the events under Michael

Cerularius, with their well-known consequences. But with
Theodore's death there disappeared the last of the great
monks to intervene decisively in times of crisis.
That monastic intervention in politico-religious disputes
was so often crowned with success is due not merely to the
influence of a few outstanding personalities, but to the wide
popularity of the monastic body as a whole. The monks
were loved by the people, from whom indeed their numbers
were mostly drawn; the name kalogeros, 'good old man', a
usual way of addressing them, is evidence of their popu-
larity. They were esteemed for their austerities and for the
practice of those essential virtues which were the goal of the
religious life. The rule of celibacy earned for them a peculiar
respect and placed them far higher in popular regard than
the married clergy, who were excluded from the episcopate.
The glory of the holiness of the famous men who had come
from the monasteries was reflected upon all the members of
the order: they were looked upon as men of God. The older
monks in particular inspired confidence, and their advice,
known to be disinterested, was in constant demand. They
were chosen as directors of conscience, and confession was
often made to the more saintly of them, even though they
were not in priest's orders. Finally they were beloved for
their traditional hospitality and their generosity in distribut-
ing alms to the utmost limit of their resources*
Nevertheless, the monastic life, as it developed in the
Eastern Empire, was not specially organized with a view to
the pastoral ministry monks being for the most part lay-
men nor even with a view to charitable works or what we
should call social service. The aspirant's intention on enter-
ing the monastery is to serve God by working for his own
perfection and salvation; it is no burning zeal for the welfare
of others that moves him. Whether he wishes to consecrate
to God the flower of his youth, seeks in the cloister a peaceful
refuge after a life of storm and bitter disillusionment, or
shuts himself up in expiation of his sins, the idea of apostle-
ship does not seem to haunt him. Eastern monasticism has
known no development parallel to that brought about in the
West by the variety of Orders and religious Congregations,
each of which responded to a special need and sprang up at

the moment that this need made itself felt. In the West side
by side with the contemplative Orders arose other com-
munities whose members, while working for the salvation of
their own souls, could at the same time engage in the works
of mercy both corporal and spiritual. The great principles
of religion which inspire the monk, whether he be Greek
or Latin, were never in any way hostile to the creation of
monasteries which admitted, alongside of the obligation of
prayer and austerities, practical works of charity for the
world outside, such as popular preaching, instruction,
missions, and service in hospitals. But Greek monasticism
seems to have been arrested in its free development; the
causes of this arrested development are too complex for us
to attempt to unravel. They were perhaps connected in
some way with Justinian's legislation, the effect of which was
to mould all forms of monastic life to a definite and uniform
pattern, subject it to the control of the civil administration,
and discourage in advance any bold initiative. Greek
monasticism never found its place within a powerful organi-
zation ; it has never been subjected to a rigorous discipline
or controlled by a permanent and unquestioned authority.
And thus, lacking this organization and direction, it has
been unable to make full use of its spiritual forces which are
clearly in large measure wasted.
One is forced to think that here the Schism barred the
way to progress and kept monasticism in a deplorable
stagnation.
The wonderful multiplication of religious Orders in the
West from the twelfth century to this day, with their fresh
blossoming in the sixteenth century, should have made
manifest the happy fruits of a more flexible adaptability; it
should have provoked imitation in the East, or better still
emulation. The Greek Church either could not know of
such developments or affected to ignore them, in the same
way as a man will ignore his next-door neighbour, under the
pretext that the fellow has no business to teach him how to
behave.
In this rapid review we have dealt with the essential
features of the organization and religious action of Byzantine
monasticism. But we would not entirely pass over another

aspect of the monastic life, though there is no need to dwell
at length upon so well known a subject. We refer to the
intellectual activities of the monks and the traces left by them
in the history of art and literature. In the monasteries
painters found opportunity for the development of their
talent, and it was often the monks themselves who covered
the walls of their churches with beautiful frescoes, or guided
the hand of the artist in mosaic. But amongst the work that
alternated with prayer and psalmody in the monastery, the
copying of manuscripts unquestionably occupied the first
place. It is needless to recall all that monks have done for the
preservation of the works of classical literature, or to dwell
upon the famous schools of calligraphy that arose among
them. During the great periods of Byzantine history the art
of the calligrapher was supplemented by that of the minia-
turist, and many beautifully illuminated manuscripts from
Byzantine monastic scriptoria are reckoned to-day among the
greatest treasures of our libraries.
It is not by copies alone that monks have enriched the
storehouse of literature. They have produced many original
works, ascetical, theological, and historical. A separate place
must be reserved for poetry. Greek monks have composed
many hymns with which Latin hymnography can but rarely
stand comparison. Finally their Lives of the Saints bring
before us the great figures of monasticism, and while record-
ing the virtues of these holy men give details of the customs
and events of their day that one would seek in vain elsewhere.
Here again the Greek can more than hold his own : he has no
need to fear the rivalry of the hagiographers of the medieval
West.
HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE
VI
BYZANTINE ART
THE church of St. Sophia in Constantinople is the master-
piece of Byzantine art, and it is at the same time one of those
monuments where some of the most characteristic features
of that art appear most clearly. Thus if one would understand
the nature of the Christian art of the East and in what its
originality consisted, one must go first of all to this essential
building to this 'Great Church' as it was called throughout
the East during the Middle Ages.
When, in 532, the Emperor Justinian decided to rebuild
the church which Constantine had formerly erected and
dedicated to the Holy Wisdom for this is the meaning of
St. Sophia he was determined that the new sanctuary
should surpass all others in splendour. In the words of a
Byzantine chronicler, it was 'a church, the like of which has
never been seen since Adam, nor ever will be'. A circular
was issued to all the provincial governors, instructing them
to send to Constantinople the richest spoils in ancient monu-
ments and the most beautiful marbles from the most famous
quarries in the Empire. To add to the magnificence of the
building and dazzle the eye of the beholder by a display of
unrivalled wealth Justinian determined to make a lavish use
of costly materials, gold, silver, ivory, and precious stones.
A taste for the sumptuous in all its forms a passion for
splendour is indeed one of the foremost characteristics of
Byzantine art.
For the execution of his design and the realization of his
dream the Emperor was fortunate enough to discover two
architects of genius, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of
Miletus, both of whom, it must be borne m mind, came from
Asia. Contemporary writers are unanimous in praise of their
knowledge, skill, daring, and inventive power; and, since
Justinian grudged neither money nor labour, the work pro-
gressed at an amazing speed. In less than five years St.
Sophia was completed, and on 27 December 537 it was
solemnly consecrated by the Emperor.
BYZANTINE ART 167

It has been truly said that the Great Church is 'one of the
mightiest creations in all architecture', a statement the truth
of which is clearly shown by a close study of this famous
monument. The impression given by the exterior is, it is
true, by no means striking; a sixth-century Byzantine build-
ing, with its bare walls of brick, always presents a somewhat
poor and monotonous aspect from without. But before
entering the basilica, when one has crossed the space
formerly occupied by the great atrium, surrounded by
porticoes, and the narthex which opens into the church by
nine doors, the effect produced by the interior is in truth
incomparable. A vast rectangle, 77 metres by 71-70 in area,
forms a broad nave flanked by aisles with galleries above them
which pass over the narthex and extend all round the church.
At a height of 55 metres from the ground this central nave is
crowned by an enormous dome, 31 metres across, which
rests upon four great arches supported by four massive piers.
Whereas the arches on the north and south sides of the nave
are filled by solid walls pierced with windows and carried on
two tiers of pillars, those on the east and west are buttressed
by two semi-domes, each of which in its turn is supported by
two great semicircular niches and in this way strength and
balance are given to this astonishing central dome. An apse
projects from the middle of the hemicycle which is covered
by the eastern semi-dome; exedrae^ embellished with columns,
together with the arcades on the right and left serve to
connect the nave with the aisles. But what most impresses
the beholder is the dome henceforth a characteristic
feature of Byzantine architecture which has truly been
described by a sixth-century writer as *a work at once
marvellous and terrifying', seeming, so light and airy it was,
'rather to hang by a golden chain from heaven than to be
supported on solid masonry'.
There was doubtless nothing new in such a plan. St.
Sophia is related to the type of building, familiar in Asia
Minor since the fifth century, known as the domed basilica.
But, in virtue of its great size, harmony of line, boldness of
conception, and constructive skill, it appears none the less as
a true creation 'a marvel of stability, daring, fearless logic,
and science', as Choisy puts it. When on the day of its
168 BYZANTINE ART

inauguration Justinian saw the fulfilment of his dream, one
can well imagine that in a transport of enthusiasm he did
indeed exclaim: 'Glory be to God who hath deemed me
worthy to complete so great a work. I have outdone thee,
O Solomon!'
The decoration which covers the interior of St. Sophia is
of equal significance in the history of Byzantine art, the
splendour of its ornament designed to dazzle the beholder
being no less characteristic than its masterly use of archi-
tectural forms. Tall columns of porphyry, white marble,
and verd antique, crowned by marble capitals, wrought like
goldsmith's work and often picked out by touches of blue
and gold, rise from the pavement of mosaic and marble,
which has been likened to a garden where the rich lawns are
strewn with purple flowers. In the spandrels and round the
soffits of the arches, delicate decorative carvings of an
unmistakably oriental style stand out around disks of
porphyry and verd antique, like lacework against a dark
ground. The walls are sheeted over with marbles of many
colours, their tones blended as if by the most skilful of
painters, giving the effect of rich and velvety oriental carpets.
And above, on the curves of the vaults, on the pendentives,
on the conch of the apse, the crown of the dome, and on the
walls that fill the great lateral arches, brilliant mosaics shone
out from the dark blue and silver backgrounds that the new
art and this was one of its most essential innovations
was beginning to substitute for the light backgrounds of
Alexandrian painting. When St. Sophia had been converted
into a mosque the Turks covered every representation of the
human figure in these mosaics with a coating of whitewash
or paint. Of recent years the process of uncovering the
mosaics has been conducted under the authority of the
Turkish Government; 1 when the whole work is finished
the church will recover still more completely its marvellous
splendour. It must, however, be noted that most of the
1 This work has been under the direction of Professor Whittemore: he has
completely cleared the narthex and over the southern door he has disclosed a fin
e
mosaic which appears to date from the tenth century In the interior of the churc
h
in the tribune over the right aisle he has uncovered some curious mosaics of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries representing portraits of emperors. For the repor
ts
of Professor Whittemore*s work see the bibliographical note at p. 405 infra.
BYZANTINE ART 169

mosaics in Justinian's church were of a purely ornamental
character and that the majority of the figure subjects date
from the tenth and eleventh centuries. But from the first the
whole decorative scheme showed a wonderful sense of
colour, which delighted in skilful combinations of tints and
play of light; scorning simplicity, it aimed rather at a
dazzling magnificence. To this wonderful decoration, which
fortunately still exists, must be added the lost splendours of
the pulpit or ambo the dull gleam of its silver mingling
with the glitter of precious stones and the radiance of rare
marbles of the iconostasis in chased silver that enclosed
the sanctuary, of the altar in solid gold, shining with rare
jewels and enamels; and of the silver canopy or ciborium
over the altar, enriched with silk and gold embroideries
between its columns. Add to that the beauty of the lighting
which at night made the church shine with a fiery splendour
and proclaimed to sailors from afar the glory of Justinian
and the end of their voyage. Contemporaries, one can well
understand, could not sufficiently admire this St. Sophia,
'the marvellous unique building which words are powerless
to describe'. Procopius records in moving language its
effect upon the visitor. 'On entering the church to pray', he
says, 'one feels at once that it is the work, not of man's effort
or industry, but in truth the work of the Divine Power; and
the spirit, mounting to heaven, realizes that here God is
very near and that He delights in this dwelling that He has
chosen for Himself.' And one can understand that the
popular imagination, which had attached a whole cycle of
picturesque legends to the dome of St. Sophia, should, even
several centuries later, have easily believed that God in His
mercy had received Justinian into Paradise for the sole
reason that he had built the Great Church.
Neither the striking success of St. Sophia nor the character-
istic features of its style could, however, be understood or
explained without presupposing a long period of patient
research and resourceful experiment. From the day at the
beginning of the fourth century, when by the will of
Constantine Christianity became a State religion and
perhaps even before this splendid triumph & great and
i?o BYZANTINE ART

fruitful artistic movement had developed during the course
of two centuries and spread throughout the East, in Egypt,
Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Armenia, and elsewhere.
This movement, which was to culminate in the triumph of
the new style in the sixth century, naturally took a different
form in different places; there was a Christian art peculiar to
Egypt, one to Mesopotamia, and another to Asia Minor,
each of which had its own character. But beneath this
diversity of form a few general principles can be traced which
show themselves in certain essential features.
Christian art, as it took form in the East at the beginning
of the fourth century, was faced by a twofold source of
inspiration. On the one hand there was the classical tradi-
tion of Hellenistic culture still living and brilliantly fostered
in the large cities, such as Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus ;
and on the other, there was the oriental tradition, that of the
old Iranian or Semitic East, which in contact with Sassanid
Persia at this time came to life again throughout the interior
of Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia, and drove
back the Greek influence which had long been triumphant.
Christianity in its hatred of paganism, though unable to cut
itself off completely from the splendour of classic antiquity,
gladly adopted the methods of these indigenous arts which
had suddenly awakened from sleep, and willingly set itself
to learn from the East. Hence was to arise this dualism of
two opposing influences which would endure as long as
Byzantine art itself; indeed it is the combination of these two
influences which gives to Byzantine art its peculiar character.
The debt of the new art to this double tradition we must now
seek to define.
From the beginning of the fourth century triumphant
Christianity had covered the whole East with a wealth of
sumptuous churches, and for these new churches new archi-
tectural forms were created. Alongside the Hellenistic
basilica with its timber roof appeared the Eastern barrel-
vaulted basilica (of which the origin, it seems, should be
sought in Mesopotamia); while in addition to the plain
rectilinear basilican form appeared the church of circular,
octagonal, or cruciform plan. In particular, the new archi-
tecture acquired from Iran the use of the dome, the model of
BYZANTINE ART 171

which it found in the Persian monuments of Seleucia and
Ctesiphon, and crowned with it the new types of building
that it invented, such as the domed basilica, or the churches
on a centralized or radiate plan. The dome was supported
either by squinches (trompes (Tangle] after the Eastern
fashion, or, in the more scientific and more Greek manner,
by pendentives.
In the decoration of the churches a like development was
taking place. A rich and complicated ornamentation of a
somewhat heavy and wholly oriental exuberance covered the
walls with luxuriant foliage, in which a host of birds and
other creatures disported themselves amongst curving
arabesques. From the East came also the technique of this
decoration, in which the contrasting blacks and whites
alternating on the neutral background supplied by the
lightly incised stone gave a charming effect of colour which
is absent from the high relief and bold modelling of antique
sculptured ornament. On the walls the harmony of classic
proportion was replaced by the brilliant effect of polychrome
marbles. From Persia came also the arts of enamel and
cloisonn^ work, and the lavish use of sumptuous and
coloured fabrics. All this gave to the new art a definitely
oriental character.
But the embellishment of the new churches consisted
above all in the covering of their walls and vaults with long
cycles of frescoes and resplendent mosaics, in which
Christian heroes and the events of sacred story stand out
against a background of dark blue. In representing them
the simple and familiar lines which early Christian art had
favoured gave place to majestic and solemn figures of a more
individual and realistic type; the primitive symbolism of
former times was replaced by the historical and monumental
style, and a new iconography arose for the illustration of the
sacred themes.
Christian art undoubtedly retained many of the customs
and traditions of pagan workshops the secular motives,
rustic themes, and mythological subjects dear to Alexandrian
art; and from classical tradition it further inherited a feeling
for beauty of design, dignity of pose, elegance in drapery,
sobriety, and clearness of treatment. But its chief aim in the
172 BYZANTINE ART

decoration of its churches was the instruction and edification
of the faithful. The wall-paintings and mosaics were intended
to form, as it were, a vast volume open to the view of the
illiterate, like a splendidly illuminated Bible in which they
could learn with their eyes the great events of Christian
history. From the first we find an attempt to illustrate the
Sacred Books, and this illustration shows great differences
of style in the different places of its origin. For the Gospels
there was the version of Alexandria, still entirely under the
spell of Hellenistic feeling and grace, and another version of
Antioch, more dramatic and more faithful to realism. For
the Psalter there was both an 'aristocratic* version, imbued
throughout with classic tradition, and a monastic or theolo-
gical version, remarkable for its realistic style, search for
expression, and close observation of nature. Thus can be
traced side by side the two opposing traditions, which were
by their combination to form Byzantine art.
As instances of the creations of this great artistic move-
ment, we may mention the admirable basilicas still standing
in the dead cities of central Syria, namely those of Rouweiha,
Mchabbak, Tourmanin, Qalb Louze, and the monastery of
St. Simeon Stylites at Kalat Seman, justly called 'the
archaeological gem of Central Syria'; the oldest of the
Armenian churches, the originality and influence of which
must not, however, be exaggerated; those of Asia Minor,
particularly that at Meriamlik in Cilicia, the earliest known
example of a domed basilica, which seems to have played an
essential part in the transformation of Eastern elements in
accordance with the spirit pf Greece; at Salonica, the fine
basilica of the Virgin (Eski-Djuma), the domed basilica of
St. Sophia, and that of St. Demetrius, which with its five
naves, lofty columns, and its walls brilliantly decorated with
splendid mosaics and marble facing was, before its destruc-
tion by fire in 1 9 1 7, one of the wonders of East Christian art;
especially also at Salonica the mosaics of St. George and those
of the chapel of Hosios David; and at Ravenna, the Byzantine
city where Oriental influences were paramount, the mosaics
of the Baptistery of the Orthodox, and, perhaps the most ex-
quisite example that survives of the Christian art of the time,
the wonderful decoration of the Mausoleum of GallaPlacidia.
BYZANTINE ART 173

It is primarily in the chief Hellenistic centres of the East
in 'the triple constellation* of Alexandria, Antioch, and
Ephesus that we must seek the sources of the great move-
ment from which the new art was to arise. Constantinople,
though the capital of the Empire, seems to have played a
far smaller part than these three cities in the development
of Christian art in the fourth and fifth centuries. But if she
created little herself at that time, she has the great honour of
having welcomed the varied elements offered by different
regions within the Empire, of having co-ordinated, trans-
formed, and hallowed them through the construction of a
great masterpiece. It was in Constantinople that an 'imperial
art' arose in the sixth century: an official art, the essential
aim of which was the glorification of God and the Emperor,
an oriental art embodying the lessons both of Greece and
of the ancient Asiatic East, an art complex and manifold,
secular as well as religious ; and it is in Justinian's time that
this art, which may henceforth be called Byzantine, has
expressed itself fully and in a definitive form.
But St. Sophia is by no means the only creation of what
has aptly been called the First Golden Age of Byzantine
art. At this time, with unrivalled skill, use was made of
every type of architectural construction: the Hellenistic
basilica at Ravenna in Sant' Apollinare Nuovo (between 515
and 545) and Sant' Apollinare in Classe (between 534 and
549), andin the beautiful church of Parenzo in Istria (between
532 and 543); the domed churches built on a centralized or
radiate plan of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (between 526 and
537) at Constantinople and of San Vitale (between 536 and
547) at Ravenna; the domed basilica type in St. Irene (532)
at Constantinople; the five-domed cruciform church in the
Holy Apostles (536-45) at Constantinople (destroyed by
the Turks shortly after 1453), and in the Church of St. John
at Ephesus, the ruins of which have been exposed by the
recent excavations. Already we may see in several buildings
the plan of the Greek cross soon to become the classic type of
Byzantine churches. Never has Christian art been at one
and the same time more varied, more creative, scientific, and
daring. The characteristic features of St. Sophia appear in a
i 7 4 BYZANTINE ART
number of other buildings; for example in the cistern of
Bin-bir-Direk at Constantinople, which experts are inclined
to recognize as the work of Anthemius, or in the aqueduct of
Justinian, the work of an unknown master who was un-
doubtedly an engineer of great ability. In all these buildings
we find the same inventive power, the same skill in the solu-
tion of the most delicate problems of construction, the same
alert activity, and in each of the churches there was, as
in St. Sophia, the same wealth of decoration in the form
of carved marble capitals, polychrome marble facings a
notable example of which is the apse of the basilica in Parenzo
and above all, in the play of light upon the mosaics.
Of many of these great works there remains, alas, nothing
but a memory. In St. Sophia, as we have seen, only some of
the mosaics of Justinian's time survive. The magnificent
decoration of the Church of the Holy Apostles, one of the
masterpieces of sixth-century art, is known to us solely from
its description given by Nicholas Mesarites at the beginning
of the thirteenth century: events in the life of Christ and in
the preaching of Christianity by the Apostles were depicted
in chronological order, and far above, in the height of the
domes, there were represented the Transfiguration, Cruci-
fixion, Ascension, and Pentecost. This decoration must have
been one of the largest and most beautiful compositions of
sixth-century Byzantine art, and it would seem that we must
recognize in it the handiwork of an artist of genius. A note
in the margin of Mesarites' manuscript tells us that the
artist's name was Eulalius. From another source we learn
that Eulalius, with a just pride in his work, inserted his own
portrait into one of the sacred scenes, namely that of the
Holy Women at the Tomb, 'in his usual dress and looking
exactly as he appeared when he was at work on these paint-
ings'. This curious incident, doubtless unique in the history
of Byzantine art, recalls to mind the practice of fifteenth-
century Italian artists.
The greater part of the mosaics of St. Demetrius at
Salonica have also perished, having been destroyed by the fire
of 1917. They formed a series of votive offerings recalling
the favours granted by the Saint the only instance of this
theme found in Byzantine art. Three panels alone of this
BYZANTINE ART I75

beautiful decoration now remain, hanging, like icons, at the
opening of the apse. One of them, which represents St.
Demetrius standing between the founders of the church, is a
masterpiece of vigorous expression and technical skill. It
dates probably from the first third of the seventh century.
It is in the West therefore, and above all at Ravenna, that
we must look for works of Justinian's century.
Three of the Ravenna churches, namely Sant' Apollinare
Nuovo, Sant* Apollinare in Classe, and San Vitale, still retain
an important part of their mosaics. In the first of these
buildings there are three zones, one over another, represent-
ing scenes from the life of Christ, figures of saints and pro-
phets, and two processions, one of male and the other of
female saints, advancing towards Christ and the Virgin. In
the uppermost of these zones we may note the contrast
between the series of miracles, still evidently inspired by the
art of the Catacombs, and the cycle of the Passion, which is
treated in a definitely historical style, and with obvious
anxiety to detract in no way from the Divine Majesty. The
two sumptuous processions of saints just referred to are
worthy of special attention, for they have no parallel in
Byzantine art. Their brilliantly clad figures in their charm-
ing poses suggest a distant memory of thePanathenaic frieze.
From every point of view these mosaics of Sant' Apollinare
Nuovo hold an important place in the evolution of Byzantine
iconography. Of no less historic interest is the decoration of
Sant' Apollinare in Classe where the curious representation
of the Transfiguration appears as a last effort at once
complicated and subtle of the symbolism of former days.
But the most striking of all the compositions in the three
churches is undoubtedly that in the choir of San Vitale.
Round the altar are grouped episodes foretelling and glorify-
ing the sacrifice of the Divine Lamb, and the whole design is
inspired and unified by this sublime idea. Reminiscences of
primitive Christian art are still blended with the feeling for
realism and the sense of life and nature characteristic of the
new style. The mosaics of the apse, a little later in date
(about 547), show this style in its perfection. In the conch
is the imposing figure of Christ, seated on the globe of the
world, accompanied by saints and archangels. But most
176 BYZANTINE ART

remarkable of all are the two famous scenes in which
Justinian and Theodora appear in all the glory of their
imperial pomp, portraits full of life and expression, astonish-
ing visions rising from a dead past. These magnificent
decorations, amongst the most precious creations of Byzan-
tine art which we still possess, enable us to form an idea of the
nature of profane art at Byzantium, where it held an impor-
tant place beside religious art. Unfortunately all too few
examples of it have survived. We see, too, how powerful an
effect could be obtained by employing mosaic, and why this
method of decoration persisted in ordinary use for centuries
in Eastern churches, whether the aim was solemn grandeur
or historical realism.
The same tendencies, the same interests, can be traced in
all the artistic remains of the sixth century. Amongst
existing fifth- and sixth-century illustrated manuscripts are
some that are still throughout inspired by the Hellenistic
spirit. In the Genesis MS. in Vienna, which dates from the
fifth century, sacred episodes are treated as scenes from
everyday life; the characters are placed against a landscape
or an architectural background, and many allegorical figures
are introduced, such as nymphs of the springs, gods of the
mountains, and personifications of cities and virtues. We
find a similar treatment in the seventh-century Joshua Roll
in the Vatican, which reproduces models of undoubtedly
earlier date, and in the Vienna MS. of the Natural History
of Dioscorides, illuminated in the sixth century for a princess
of the imperial family, in which there appear, among alle-
gorical and mythological figures, portraits of the author
himself a common feature of the illustration of ancient
manuscripts. There is, however, already a development in
the illustrations of the Christian Topography of Cosmas
Indicopleustes, which are a creation of sixth-century
Alexandrian art, although the earliest extant copy, now in the
Vatican, dates from the seventh century. New themes, new
types, of a more serious and solemn nature, characteristic of
the historical and monumental style, are mingled with
picturesque scenes inspired by the Alexandrian tradition.
And it is this new spirit which prevails in two sixth-century
manuscripts of the Gospels, namely the beautifiil Evangelium
BYZANTINE ART 177

of Rossano in Calabria, of which the miniatures often seem
to be a copy of mosaics, and the Syriac MS. at Florence. In
each of these the richness of the ornament testifies to the
growing influence of the East,
The same dualism is manifest in the figured textiles, which
have been found for the most part in the Egyptian cemeteries
of Akhmim and Antinoe. The picturesque subjects which
were the favourite motifs of Alexandrian art mythological
figures, genre scenes, dancing girls, and musicians are
followed under Persian influence by compositions in a
different style, in which appear horsemen confronting each
other, hunters, drivers of chariots, and also religious scenes ;
here more and more the supple freedom of Hellenistic art is
replaced by the solemn realism of the monumental style,
while the growing taste for polychromy is revealed in a
richer and wider range of colours. The art of the sculptor
shows similar tendencies. It is represented chiefly by carved
ivories, for monumental sculpture tends to disappear and is
reduced to a purely ornamental decoration. The Hellenistic
style persists in such works as the Barberini ivory in the
Louvre or the diptych of the archangel Michael in the
British Museum. But for the most part Oriental influence
predominates. A notable example is the celebrated throne
of Bishop Maximian preserved at Ravenna, a masterpiece of
technical skill and delicate craftsmanship. Here events in the
life of Joseph, scenes from the life of Christ, and solemn
figures of the Evangelists are placed in a richly decorated
setting. In the gold- and silver-work from Antioch as for
example in the silver dishes from Kerynia (Kyrenia) in Cyprus
and in the famous Antioch chalice, undoubtedly of the
fifth or sixth century we find the same note of realism, the
same quest for truth combined with harmony and elegance.
Thus by the end of the sixth century Christian art in the
East seemed to be transformed. More and more under
Oriental influence it had gradually abandoned the graces of
the picturesque Alexandrian tradition for the solemn and
stately grandeur of the historical style. In this development
it had often shown novelty, originality, and creative power.
It had proved that it could embody the glories and beauties
of the Christian faith in great works of art, could invent
3982 K
178 BYZANTINE ART
individual and expressive types for the characters of sacred
history, and give living and often dramatic representations
of the events of Gospel history. A great religious art had
arisen, which, while always retaining something of classic
tradition, had yet been strongly marked by Eastern influence.
In its application to secular as well as religious subjects this
art had produced not only great churches but masterpieces of
civil and military architecture. And in spite of the difficult
times that followed Justinian's glorious reign, still in the
seventh century it shone with unquestioned brilliance, as may
be seen in some of the mosaics at Salonica and in the mosaics
and frescoes of churches in Rome (St. Agnes, the Oratory of
St. Venantius in the Lateran, the Oratory of Pope John VII,
and the church of Santa Maria Antiqua). But notwithstand-
ing its great qualities, this art tended to become fixed in
those forms which tradition had consecrated. The Iconoclast
revolution was, however, soon to reawaken and transform it
by the introduction of fresh and living elements.
The Iconoclast Controversy, which disturbed the peace of
the Empire from 726 to 843, was fated to have serious results
for Byzantine art. The Iconoclast Emperors, though hostile
to religious art, were by no means opposed to all display and
all beauty. They had no liking for cold, bare churches, or
for palaces without splendour, and were careful to put some-
thing else in the place of the images they destroyed. They
sought the elements of this new decoration in the picturesque
motifs dear to Alexandrian art, which, as we have seen,
monumental art had progressively abandoned. They had a
liking for landscapes full of trees and flowers, circus and
hunting scenes, portraits, too, and historical pictures in which
their victories were recorded. This was clearly a return to
the classical tradition that sixth-century art had gradually
eliminated, and thus was foreshadowed the freer and more
flexible imperial art of the tenth and eleventh centuries, in
which imitation of antique models went side by side with a
taste for colour and ornament derived from the East, while its
creative power would be revealed through close observation
of nature and of life in its search for expressive and picturesque
detail.
BYZANTINE ART 179

In spite of persecution, however, religious art had by no
means disappeared. On the contrary, it had gained during
the struggle an unexpected freshness and vigour, as may be
seen in certain manuscripts, such as the Chloudoff Psalter,
which were illuminated at this time under the influence of
the monastery of Studius and are full of contemporary
allusions. Thus arose in the face of imperial art a monastic
or popular art, which after the triumph of orthodoxy would
more and more set its stamp on the works of Byzantine art.
We may infer that at the close of the Iconoclast crisis this
art, under the influence of these two opposing currents^ was
ripe for a new renaissance. This renaissance, which has
aptly been called the second golden age of Byzantine art,
fills the period from the middle of the ninth to the end of the
twelfth century.
What St. Sophia had been for the architecture of the sixth
century, that the New Church, the Nea, built at Constanti-
nople by order of Basil I, was for the end of the ninth the
characteristic, the typical construction that was to serve as
a model for numerous imitators. Like St. Sophia it was
approached through a vast and magnificent atrium, but inter-
nally all trace of a basilica had disappeared, its plan being
that of an equal-armed cross inscribed in a square. It was
crowned by five domes which were placed one at the inter-
section of the arms and the others at the four corners of the
building. Doubtless no more than in the case of St. Sophia
was this plan a completely new departure, for, from the
sixth century and even earlier, it occurs amongst the typical
forms of Byzantine architecture. But from the tenth century
onwards it became extraordinarily popular, and, although it
never entirely supplanted the earlier forms of construction, it
appears thenceforth as the habitual, one may say the classic,
type of Byzantine architecture. It occurs in Constantinople,
where there is an excellent example in the church of the
Mother of God (Kilisse Djami), dating apparently from the
eleventh century, and also at Salonica in the Kazandjilar
Djami (1028) and the church of the Holy Apostles (twelfth
century). It is met with in Greece and Asia Minor, in
Bulgaria, and Serbia, in Roumania, as well as in Russia. While
i8o BYZANTINE ART

the plan in its application varies considerably, certain common
tendencies appear everywhere of which it is important to
underline the characteristic features : (i) an external emphasis
on the main lines of the construction by means of four lofty
vaults, ending in curved or triangular facades; and (2) the
raising to a great height of the central dome by placing it on
a lofty polygonal drum. Thus the somewhat heavy cubical
mass of the older buildings is replaced by a more elegant and
harmonious grouping of a series of diminishing vaults which
combine to form a kind of pyramid, culminating in the
central dome which completes the graceful outline of the
whole. There was a like attempt to give more space and air
to the interior of the building by substituting slender
columns for the massive piers that formerly supported the
dome, while the monotony of straight lines was relieved by
hemicycles at the ends of the narthex or by a triapsidal
termination of the sanctuary. Thus these Byzantine churches
gained something of the grace and vigour of Gothic cathe-
drals. And, greatest change of all, charming and skilful
combinations of colour appeared on the external facades in
place of the severe and depressing bareness of the great
blank walls of former times. This was effected by alterna-
tions of red brick with white rubble, to form geometrical
patterns, such as chequers, key-patterns, crosses, lozenges,
circles, and stars. Additional brilliance was attained by the
use of glazed earthenware vessels and faience tiles. The
curve of the apse was decorated with arcades and tall
hollow niches, and the whole building was enlivened by the
play of the contrasting colours of the decoration. At Con-
stantinople in the churches of Kilisse Djami, Fetiyeh Djami,
of the Pantocrator or Zeirek Djami, at Salonica in the church
of the Holy Apostles, in Greece at Merbaca, and in Serbia at
Krusevats and Kalenic, are preserved charming examples of
this style of decoration, which, gradually becoming richer
and more complicated, lasted till the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries. All this shows to how great an extent
Byzantine architects were able to give expression to their
inventive talent and their desire for novelty in spite of the
apparent fixity of forms. Their art was by no means clumsy,
dry, monotonous, or bound by rigid formulas; it was on the
BYZANTINE ART 181

contrary distinguished throughout its history by astonishing
diversity of type, by creative power, and by a scientific hand-
ling of problems of constructional equilibrium, no less than
by the life which inspired it.
If to-day one wishes to form some idea of the magnificence
of a Byzantine church during the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth
centuries, one should visit St. Mark's at Venice. Doubtless
the Venetian basilica, built on the model of the church of the
Holy Apostles in Constantinople, differs in plan from that of
the equal-armed cross inscribed in a square which was the
ordinary type in Byzantine architecture at this time, but with
the five domes that form its crown, with its decoration of many-
coloured marbles which covers the walls both within and
without, in the lofty columns of the nave, and the pierced and
delicately carved screens, in the glowing mosaics and the rere-
dos of dazzling enamel set above the altar, in its atmosphere
of purple and gold, it realizes the ideal of this art in which
colour holds pride of place. By the richness of its mosaics, by
the brilliance of its gold, by the splendour of its rare marbles
St. Mark's appeared to the Venetians (in the words of an
inscription in the basilica) as the glory of the churches of
Christendom. For us it stands as the living embodiment of
Byzantium during the centuries of her revived magnificence.
Besides these great religious monuments, civil architec-
ture produced its own masterpieces in the shape of the
imperial palaces. Nothing remains above ground of the
Great Palace, 1 which rose tier upon tier on the slopes which
climbed from the sea to the hill upon which now stands the
mosque of Sultan Ahmed; nothing remains of the palace of
Blachernae at the north-western end of the landward walls
whither the residence of the Emperors was moved from the
twelfth century onwards; their magnificence is, however,
fully attested by the descriptions of contemporary writers.
The Great Palace, to which almost every Emperor from
Constantine until the tenth century had taken pride in
making additions, consisted of a prodigious variety of splen-
didly decorated structures. We learn that in those of the
1 The Walker Trust of the University of St. Andrews has carried out excavations
on the site of the Palace. These excavations were initiated by Professor Baxter
in 1935. (See the bibliographical note at pp. 405, 409 infra )
1 82 BYZANTINE ART
ninth century the influence of Arabian art was clearly visible.
As a whole, the Sacred Palace of Byzantium was not unlike
the Kremlin of the Muscovite Czars, or the Old Seraglio of
the Ottoman Sultans.
The beauty of the decoration is in keeping with these
features of the architecture. To-day on entering one of these
twelfth-century churches, such as that of Daphni (near
Athens), or that of St. Luke the Stiriote in Phocis, St. Mark's
at Venice, or the Palatine Chapel at Palermo, and above all
if one enters a church on Mt. Athos, one is at first sight
bewildered by the wealth of Gospel scenes and figures of
saints with which the walls and vaults are covered. The
arrangement of the designs is, however, by no means
fortuitous ; it was a profound idea which inspired and ordered
the disposition of the whole. The successful presentation to
the eyes of the faithful of the doctrines of the Church through
this new system of decoration was assuredly one of the finest
creations of the art of Byzantium during the ninth and tenth
centuries. The main object of sixth-century church decora-
tion had been, as we have seen, to record upon the walls of
the churches scenes from the Gospel story; now, however, it
is dogma and liturgy that are to be expressed in the decora-
tion. Once history had taken the place of symbols, now in
its turn history gives way before theology.
Each cycle of scenes occupied in fact a special place in the
church in conformity with a profound theological concep-
tion. At the crown of the dome the Heavenly Church was
represented by the glorious and awe-inspiring image of the
Christ Pantocrator surrounded by angels and prophets and
dominating the assembly of the faithful. In the apse the
Church on Earth appears in its loftiest manifestation, that of
the Virgin, praying for humanity, or enthroned between two
archangels; and beneath her, over the altar, are other scenes,
such as the Communion of the Apostles or the Divine
Liturgy, which called to mind the mystery of the Eucharist.
In the rest of the building devoted to the Church on Earth the
saints and martyrs, heroes and witnesses of the Christian
faith, are ranged in hierarchical order; while above them
were scenes from the Gospels representing the twelve great
BYZANTINE ART 183

feasts of the Church, through which the essentials, of
Christian dogma are expressed. These are the Annuncia-
tion, Nativity, Presentation in the Temple, Baptism, Raising
of Lazarus, Transfiguration, Entry into Jerusalem, Cruci-
fixion, Descent into Hell, Ascension, Pentecost, and Death of
the Virgin. No attempt was made to arrange these scenes in
chronological order, but prominence was given to those of
the deepest dogmatic significance, so as to draw to them
more forcibly the attention of the faithful : thus at St. Luke
the Stiriote's and at Daphni special places are set apart for
the Crucifixion and the Resurrection. Again, on the western
wall of the church, over the entrance, was the vast composi-
tion representing the Last Judgement. Minor episodes,
such as the Washing of the Disciples' Feet, and the Doubting
of Thomas, complete a great decorative scheme in which, in
the words of a theologian, 'all the mysteries of the Incarna-
tion of Christ* were combined. Lastly, scenes from the life
of the Virgin were generally represented in the narthex.
At the same time iconography was enriched by the crea-
tion of new subjects and of new types, more individual, more
expressive, inspired by a greater realism and sincerity. Under
the influence of the Apocryphal Gospels scenes from the life
of the Virgin took an increasingly prominent part in church
decoration. Certain new subjects now make their appear-
ance, such as the Descent into Hell, the Dormition of the
Virgin, and the Communion of the Apostles, which are
plainly inventions of artists of genius. Here, too, there is
creative power which does honour to the Byzantine art of
the tenth and eleventh centuries, and it is no small proof of
its achievement that these models dominated for centuries
the decoration of churches throughout the whole of the
Christian East.
The 'New Church' has long vanished. Nothing remains
of its mosaics in which the precise formula of the new
system of decoration seems for the first time to have reached
its full expression, but already some of the later mosaics of
St. Sophia have been disclosed, while outside the capital
Eastern Christendom can still show several examples of
these combinations of theological scenes which are of very
real importance and of a living interest. Thus dating from
1 84 BYZANTINE ART
the beginning of the eleventh century there is the church of
St. Luke's monastery in Phocis, its mosaics and the marble
veneering of its walls almost intact and not marred by any
restoration; and from the end of the same century the
mosaics of the church of the monastery of Daphni, near
Athens, have justly been called *a masterpiece of Byzantine
art'. Between the beginning and the end of the eleventh
century the successive stages in the development and pro-
gress of the new art are illustrated in a series of other build-
ings, such as St. Sophia of Kiev (mid-eleventh century),
with its mosaics and its curious frescoes representing
Byzantine court life and performances in the hippodrome;
Nea Moni in the island of Chios, unfortunately seriously
damaged; St. Sophia of Salonica, which has a representation
of the Ascension in the dome; the church of the Dormition
of the Virgin at Nicaea, completely destroyed in the Greco-
Turkish war of 1922 ; the cathedral of Torcello, famous for
its great Last Judgement; and in St. Mark's at Venice,
which also dates from the end of the eleventh century, the
decorations of the three domes of the nave and the cycle of
the great feasts of the Church on the curve of the great
arches.
It is remarkable how much all these works still owe to
ancient tradition. Some, particularly those of Daphni, are
almost classic in their feeling for line, sensitive drawing, and
delicate modelling. The beauty of the types, the elegant
drapery, and harmonious grouping of some of these
compositions show to what an extent the influence of anti-
quity persisted, despite impoverishment, as a living force in
Byzantine art. On the other hand, it is from the East that
this art acquired its taste for a picturesque and vivid realism,
and especially the feeling for colour and its skilful use which
constitute one of the chief innovations of the eleventh
century. Painting was formerly inspired in great measure
by sculpture; sixth-century mosaic figures often resemble
statues of marble or of metal. But this sober character now
gives way to a variety, a complexity of effects, and a richness
that mark the advent of a colourist school. The blue grounds
of an earlier period are replaced by gold ones, already at
times enlivened by the introduction of decorative landscape
BYZANTINE ART 185

or architecture. Against these backgrounds of gold the
bright hues of the draperies, the interplay of complementary
colours, and the neutral tones of incidental features are all
combined; the technical skill of the artist matches the refine-
ment of his work ; it is one of the characteristic features of
this great artistic movement.
Many of these works and still more the representations
of secular subjects drawn from mythology or history which
decorated the imperial palace and the houses of the great
nobles of this period are derived from this imperial art which
was steeped in memories of antiquity, but was freer and more
elastic and showed a genuine creative power. But opposed
to this official art and very different from it both in spirit and
in method there was a monastic and popular art, more
realistic and dramatic, which, under the growing influence
of the Church, progressively freed itself from the traditions
of Hellenism and in the end ousted imperial art imposing its
own more rigid and austere programme. The tendencies of
this religious art are seen in the newly discovered frescoes
of the rock churches of Cappadocia and in those which
decorate the chapels of hermits in southern Italy. They
appear even more clearly in illuminated manuscripts. It was
the ecclesiastic and monastic influences that finally pre-
vailed, fixing the types, stiffening the poses of the figures,
and eliminating everything that seemed too much the out-
come of individual fantasy, or too suspect of ancient pagan-
ism. Nevertheless, for a long time the two opposing schools
reacted upon each other ; they had many qualities in common,
and they shared in one and the same endeavour to inspire
with a new spirit the art of Byzantium.
The truth of these observations is borne out by a study of
illustrated manuscripts. The epoch of the Macedonian and
Comnenian Emperors (from the end of the ninth to the end
of the twelfth century) was unquestionably the most brilliant
period of Byzantine miniature painting. Many fine manu-
scripts have come down to us from this time, several of which,
illuminated expressly for Emperors, are real masterpieces,
revealing the character and the dominating tastes of the age.
What strikes one most in these works is the two opposing
tendencies by which they are inspired. Without dwelling on
1 86 BYZANTINE ART
the relatively considerable part played in the art of this time
by the illustration of classical works (such as the Nicander in
the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris and the Oppian in the
Marcian Library at Venice), in which there is an obvious
return to the traditions of Alexandrian art, we notice even in
religious manuscripts the same current of antique inspira-
tion. Instances of this may be found in the beautiful
psalters of the so-called 'aristocratic' series, a particularly
fine example of which is the tenth-century psalter now in the
Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris; in illustrated manuscripts
of the Gospels, a whole series of which shows the character-
istics of the Hellenistic school of Alexandria; and in a whole
group of manuscripts of St. Gregory of Nazianzus, in which
an essential place is taken by picturesque scenes of everyday
life and by episodes borrowed from mythology. The
influence of this imperial and secular art is seen also in the
very expressive portraits that adorn some of these manu-
scripts, for instance those of the Emperor Nicephorus
Botaniates (in the Bibliothfeque Nationale in Paris) who
appears in several miniatures with his wife or some of his
ministers, and the fine portrait of Basil II in the Venice
psalter.
But this imperial art was strongly countered by the
monastic tendency. Against the 'aristocratic' psalter stands
the psalter with marginal illustrations, in a more popular and
realistic style. In contrast to the Alexandrian version of
Gospel illustration, we find the Eastern version from
Antioch; and side by side with the literary and secular type
of the miniatures of the manuscript of Gregory of Nazianzus
there is the theological type, a fine example of which is the
beautiful manuscript executed for Basil I in the Bibliotheque
Nationale of Paris. This monastic art had assuredly no less
creative power than its imperial rival: witness the illustra-
tions of the Octateuch, where at times a distinctly novel
effect is produced by the turn for realist observation which
has made contemporary dress and manners live again for us;
witness also the beautiful ornament, inspired by the East,
that covers with a profusion of brightly coloured motifs the
initial pages of many Gospel manuscripts. But in these
miniature paintings, as in the larger works of Byzantine
BYZANTINE ART 187

painting, one notes the progressive weakening of classical
tradition and the increasing ascendancy of religious in-
fluences. The sumptuous Menologium in the Vatican
Library, illuminated for Basil II, is somewhat monotonous
and shows an obvious anxiety to conform to the traditional
'canon', notwithstanding the apparent variety of subject and
the skill of the eight artists who illustrated it. And the
triumph of the monastic spirit is still more evident in twelfth-
century manuscripts, such as that containing the Homilies of
James the Monk. Art became more and more subject to the
rule laid down by the Council of Nicaea in 787; *it is for
painters to execute, for the Fathers to order and to prescribe'.
In the end the Church succeeded in making her doctrinal
and liturgical tendencies prevail. But it is none the less a
fact that the miniature painting of the Second Golden Age,
as conceived by the artists of the imperial school, with their
love of incident, landscape, and the picturesque, contributed
largely to prepare the development from which the last
renaissance of Byzantine art arose.
A further noteworthy characteristic of all the works of
this period is the taste for magnificence and display. With
its love of luxury and passion for colour, the art of this age
delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the
fame of Byzantium in the Middle Ages throughout the whole
of the Christian world.
Amongst these were the beautiful silks from the work-
shops of Constantinople, triumphs of Byzantine industry,
portraying in dazzling colour animals lions, elephants,
eagles, and griffins confronting each other, or representing
Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the
chase. There were also carvings in ivory, precious caskets
adorned with classical or secular motifs, or, as on the casket
at Troyes, with figures of Emperors, together with diptychs,
such as the tenth-century plaque in the Cabinet of Medals at
Paris, on which Christ is shown crowning Romanus II and
Eudocia (tenth century). This is one of the finest achieve-
ments which Byzantine art has bequeathed to us. There
were ivories carved with religious subjects, such as the
Harbaville triptych in the Louvre (tenth century), the Sens
188 BYZANTINE ART

casket, the Virgin from the former Stroganoff collection in
Rome, now in the Cleveland (U.S.A.) Museum, and many
others in which the lessons of classical tradition are combined
with the inspiration of the East and with an observation
of nature: there were bronze doors executed in a skilful
combination of damascening with niello work, and the
craftsmanship of goldsmiths and silversmiths, a fine example
of which is the beautiful repouss6 silver-gilt plaque in the
Louvre, representing the Holy Women at the Sepulchre;
and, above all, enamel-work, which Byzantium had borrowed
from Persia, was specially popular in the tenth and eleventh
centuries on account of its brilliant and gorgeous colouring.
With a wealth of enamel the Byzantines adorned crosses,
reliquaries, reredoses, icons, caskets and even crowns, rich
bookbindings, and dresses for state occasions. Enamels, in
fact, together with figured textiles represented the height of
Byzantine luxury. A few beautiful examples which bear
witness to the fine qualities of this art have happily survived:
the reliquary at Limburg, which belonged to an Emperor
of the tenth century ; the twelfth-century Esztergon reliquary ;
the admirable figure of St. Michael in the Treasury of St.
Mark's at Venice (tenth or eleventh century) ; the crowns of
Constantine Monomachus and St. Stephen at Budapest; the
cross of Cosenza; and the dazzling Pala d'Oro over the high
altar of the basilica of Venice. As Kondakov has truly said,
'nothing shows more clearly than these enamels the gross
error of those who talk of the stiffness and poverty of
Byzantine art', and nothing else can so well account for its
far-reaching influence.
From the tenth to the twelfth centuries Byzantine Con-
stantinople appeared to the whole civilized world to be a
city of marvels: in the words of Villehardouin, 'the city
sovereign above all others'. In the cold fogs of Scandinavia
and beside icy Russian rivers, in Venetian counting-houses
or Western castles, in Christian France and Italy as well as
in the Mussulman East, all through the Middle Ages folk
dreamed of Byzantium, the incomparable city, radiant in a
blaze of gold. As early as the sixth century the range of its
influence was already astonishing, and its art had exercised
a potent influence in North Africa, in Italy, and even in
BYZANTINE ART 189

Spain. From the tenth to the twelfth centuries this influence
became yet greater; Byzantine art was at that time 'the art
which set the standard for Europe', and its supremacy can
be compared only with that of French art in the thirteenth
century. For any choice work, if it were difficult of execution
or of rare quality, recourse was had to Constantinople.
Russian princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots of Monte
Cassino, merchants of Amalfi, or Norman kings of Sicily
if a church had to be built, decorated with mosaics, or en-
riched with costly work in gold and silver, it was to the great
city on the Bosphorus that they resorted for artists or works
of art. Russia, Venice, southern Italy, and Sicily were at
that time virtually provincial centres of East Christian art.
The twelfth-century frescoes of the churches of Nereditza,
near Novgorod, Pskov and Staraya Ladoga, and especially
those lately discovered in St. Demetrius at Vladimir, repeat
the creations of the masters of the Byzantine capital. The
same may be said of the eleventh-century mosaics at Kiev in
the churches of St. Sophia and St. Michael of the Golden
Heads. The bronze doors preserved in the churches of
Amalfi, Salerno, at Monte Sant' Angelo, and San Paolo
Without the Walls are Byzantine works, as is likewise the
beautiful fresco over the entrance to Sant' Angelo in Formis.
The art which arose in the eleventh century at the great
Abbey of Monte Cassino and that which in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries decorated with mosaics the churches of
Rome are profoundly marked by Oriental influence. By their
style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St.
Mark's at Venice and of the cathedral at Torcello clearly
reveal their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine
Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo, and the cathedral of
Cefalu, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at
Monreale, demonstrate the influence of Byzantium on the
Norman Court of Sicily in the twelfth century. Hispano-
Moorish art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine.
Romanesque art owes much to the East, from which it
borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some
of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed
churches of south-western France. The Ottoman renais-
sance in Germany in the tenth and eleventh centuries was
J9 o BYZANTINE ART
likewise strongly affected by Byzantine influence which
lasted on into the twelfth century. Certainly one must not
exaggerate either the range or the duration of the effect of
the East on the arts of the West. The artists who sat at the
feet of Byzantine masters were not entirely forgetful of their
national traditions, and Byzantine models tended rather, as
has been said, 'to awaken in them a consciousness of their
own qualities*. From the school of the Greeks they learned a
feeling for colour, a higher technical accomplishment, and
a greater mastery over their materials, and profiting by these
lessons they were enabled to attempt works of a more
individual character. It is none the less true that from the
tenth to the twelfth century Byzantium was the main source
of inspiration for the West, The marvellous expansion of
her art during this period is one of the most remarkable
facts in her history.
At about the same time Byzantium exercised a similar
influence in Asia. The churches of Armenia and Georgia,
though highly original, are linked by many features to the
Byzantine tradition, and there is doubtless some exaggera-
tion in attributing to Armenia, as has lately been done, a
paramount influence in the formation of Byzantine art.
Eastern Europe certainly received much from Armenia, but
in this exchange of influences Byzantium gave at least as
much as she received. Arabian art also profited greatly by
her teaching. Though Byzantium undoubtedly learnt much
from the art of Arabia, in return she made the influence of
her civilization felt there, as she did in the twelfth century in
Latin Syria.
From the end of the twelfth century one can observe a
development in Byzantine art that was to have important
consequences. In the frescoes of the church of Nerez (near
Skoplie in Serbia), which are dated to 1 1 65, there appears an
unexpected tendency towards dramatic or pathetic feeling in
the representations of the Threnos, or the Descent from the
Cross. The frescoes of the Serbian churches of Milesevo
(1236) and Sopocani (about 1 250), and of Boiana in Bulgaria
(1259), show in the expression of the faces a remarkable
sense of realism and life; and in the thirteenth-century
BYZANTINE ART 191

Genesis mosaics which decorate the narthex of St. Mark's
at Venice we find landscape, architectural features, and an
equally novel taste for the picturesque. These characteristic
tendencies mark the beginning of a transformation in
Byzantine art. Moreover the well-known intellectual move-
ment in Constantinople of the fourteenth century brought
about a revival of the classical tradition and a return to the
ideas and models of Greek antiquity. These facts might lead
us to expect, and do indeed explain, the new aspect which
Byzantine art was to assume in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries and that last brilliant renaissance in which it found
its expression.
When fifty years ago mosaics dating from the beginning
of the fourteenth century were discovered in the mosque of
Kahrieh Djami at Constantinople, they revealed an art so
different from that of the Byzantine monuments which were
then known that they gave rise to much perplexity. They
were at first taken for Italian work; it was proposed to credit
them to some pupil of Giotto, who about this time was
designing the frescoes of the chapel of the Arena at Padua in
much the same style. Discoveries made in the East during
the last thirty years have, however, demonstrated the falsity
of this hypothesis and proved that the Kahrieh mosaics were
by no means a solitary creation but one of a great series of
works scattered over the whole of the Christian East. This
powerful artistic movement can be traced in the frescoes
which decorate the churches of Mistra in the Morea, as well
as in the churches of Macedonia and Serbia: it appears in
the churches of Roumania as at Curtea de Arges and in the
Russian churches at Novgorod; it is even visible in the
mosaics of the baptistery of St. Mark's at Venice. Of the Mt.
Athos paintings, while the earliest date from the fourteenth
century, those of the sixteenth show the last flowering of this
great artistic revival. In all these closely allied works the
art is the same; everywhere we find the same love of life, of
movement, and the picturesque, together with a passion for
the dramatic, the tender, and the pathetic. It was a realistic
art, in which a masterly power of composition was combined
with a wonderful sense of colour, and thus in the history of
Byzantine art it appears as both original and creative.
i 9 2 BYZANTINE ART
One must admit that this art was influenced to some extent
by the Italian masters of Siena, Florence, and Venice; from
them it learned some lessons. And in the same way it may
be admitted that, as has been said, the fourteenth-century
Byzantine painters sought at times to revive their impover-
ished art by imitating the narrative style of their own sixth-
century models. Nevertheless imitation of Italy was always
cautious and restrained, and it cannot be doubted that this
art remained essentially Byzantine alike in arrangement, in
style, and in iconography. Its incontestable originality and
creative power are evidenced by the altered character of its
iconography, which has become richer and more complex,
reviving ancient motifs and at the same time inventing new
subjects; it is manifested in its incomparable colour sense,
which at times suggests modern impressionist art. These
new qualities are in themselves the expression of a new
aesthetic by virtue of which a particular value is attached to
beauty of form, to technical skill, to graceful attitudes, and
to the portrayal of facial emotions. One can therefore no
longer dispute either the definitely Byzantine character or
the originality of this last renaissance (from the fourteenth to
the sixteenth century) which may be called a Third Golden
Age of Byzantine Art.
The architectural creations of this period need not long
detain us. There are, however, some buildings worthy of
note, such as the charming church of the Pantanassa, at
Mistra (first half of the fifteenth century) or that of the
Serbian monastery at Decani (first half of the fourteenth
century), both interesting examples of the combination of
Western influence with Byzantine tradition. Their exterior
decoration is also very picturesque, as is that of the Serbian
churches of the Morava school (end of the fourteenth
century). On the whole the Byzantine buildings of this time
do little more than carry on the traditions of the preceding
period, and though we find in them great variety and can
even distinguish different schools of architecture, such as the
Greek and Serbian schools, there are few really original
creations. Beautiful churches were still being built, such as
the Fetiyeh Djami at Constantinople, the church of the
BYZANTINE ART 193

Holy Apostles at Salonica, the Peribleptos at Mistra, or the
church of Our Lady of Consolation at Arta, and many
others; but though their architects made ingenious use
of traditional forms, they seldom added anything new or
individual.
Further, in the impoverished state of the Empire, the arts
of luxury began to decline. The production of works in
costly material gold and silver or of those which needed
patient or difficult technical proficiency, such as ivories and
enamels, seems to have been almost abandoned. Fresco
painting, on the other hand, which more and more took the
place of the too costly mosaic, was of extreme importance in
the art of this period. The flexibility and the wider possibi-
lities of this medium responded better to the new tendencies
of an art that aimed at refinement of execution and delicacy
of colouring in its rendering of movement, expression, and
the picturesque. For this reason the period from the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century to the middle of the sixteenth,
remarkable works of which are still extant, is perhaps the
finest epoch in the history of Byzantine painting.
Between 1310 and 1320 the Great Logothete, Theodore
Metochites, caused the church of the monastery of Chora in
Constantinople (now the Kahrieh Djami) to be decorated
with the beautiful mosaics still to be seen there. It is the
masterpiece of the school that flourished in the capital at that
time. In the series of scenes taken from the life of the Virgin
and from the life of Christ which decorate the walls of the
church we find a masterly power of composition, as, for
instance, in the Distribution of the Purple, or the Taking of
the Census before Quirinius; a dose observation, and often
a singularly realistic rendering of life, as in figures of the
scene where the Christ is healing the sick; a taste for the
picturesque which finds expression in the landscapes and
architectural features introduced in the backgrounds of the
compositions, and in the tendency to transform sacred
episodes into veritable genre scenes, as in the tenderness of
the St. Anne at prayer in a flowery garden. The effect of the
whole series was greatly enhanced by the brilliant and
harmonious colouring with its deep rich tones and the lively
play of its lighting. This church, which, in its founder's
398*
1 94 BYZANTINE ART
words, had assured him eternal glory amongst those who
should come after him, is indeed a superb creation.
Similar qualities are found in the paintings in the churches
of Mistra. The unknown master who painted the frescoes of
the Peribleptos (mid-fourteenth century) has shown more
than once, it has been truly said, the expressive power of
Giotto himself, as for instance in his admirable rendering of
the Divine Liturgy. One feels that these works are the
product of an art of the utmost erudition and refinement,
penetrated through and through by the influence of human-
ism and strongly attracted by the worldly graces that were
always in the ascendant at Constantinople. The Mistra
frescoes are also distinguished by a rare colour sense. From
every point of view they may be regarded as the finest
embodiment of the new style that arose in the first half of the
fourteenth century.
The artists, certainly of Greek origin and probably sum-
moned from Constantinople, who decorated for the Serbian
princes the churches of Studenitza (1314), Nagoricino
(1317), Gracanica, and a little later that of Lesnovo (1349),
show the same high qualities in their work. Some of their
compositions, such as the Presentation of the Virgin at
Studenitza and the Dormition of the Virgin at Nagoricino
have a peculiar charm, and the portraits of their founders in
most of these churches are no less remarkable. Equally
worthy of attention are the Serbian frescoes of the end of the
fourteenth century and the beginning of the fifteenth, such
as those at Ravanitza, Ljubostinja, Manassija, and Kalenid.
But the influence of Byzantine art in the time of the
Palaeologi extended even beyond Serbia and its neighbour
Bulgaria. In the church of St. Nicholas Domnese at Curtea de
Arges in Roumania there are some admirable mid-fourteenth-
century frescoes a masterpiece of composition and tender
feeling. And even after the fall of Constantinople the
picturesque churches of Northern Moldavia, so curiously
decorated with paintings even on the outside walls, carried
on the remote tradition of the wonders of Byzantium until
the end of the sixteenth century. In Russia the churches in
and around Novgorod were decorated towards the end of
the fourteenth century with remarkable frescoes, attributed
BYZANTINE ART 195

to an artist known as Theophanes the Greek. Here, too, the
Byzantine origin of these paintings is unquestionable; they
afford another instance of the astonishing vitality and
prestige of Byzantine art in its last phase.
Once again it was in the capital of the Empire that this
last great movement in Byzantine art seems to have origi-
nated. At that time there was a brilliant school of art in
Constantinople; many of its works have survived to testify
to its excellence. From it, doubtless, were derived the two
great currents into which the movement diverged, which
have been called the Macedonian and the Cretan schools.
Each of them had its own distinctive character. The former,
open to both Eastern and Italian influence, owes to the East
its realistic and dramatic style and the arrangement of the
composition in long unbroken friezes, while from Italy came
the tender feeling shown in certain gestures and the emotion
expressed by certain attitudes, such as those of the Virgin
Mother caressing the Holy Child or fainting at the foot of
the Cross, or in the details of the grievous story of the
Passion. Yet beneath this discreet borrowing the Byzantine
foundation is always apparent. In the origin of its master
artists as well as by the nature of its themes this Macedonian
school descends from Byzantium. It is marked by a broad
and spirited technique, definitely characteristic of fresco
painting.
By contrast the Cretan school was truer to Byzantine
idealism. While not despising the graceful or the pic-
turesque, it was remarkable rather for its lucidity, restraint,
and aristocratic quality, which bear witness to its high ideal
of distinction. It was characterized also by great technical
skill. Its art was the refined and scholarly art of painters of
easel pieces and subtle icons. Like the Macedonian school
it had a profound knowledge of colour, which it applied with
even greater skill and refinement, playing on the scale of
tones and combining tone-values into exquisite harmonies.
It would seem probable that it sprang directly from the
school that flourished at Constantinople and that it learned
there the traditions of the imperial city.
During nearly three centuries these two great schools
shared in guiding the course of art throughout Eastern
196 BYZANTINE ART

Christendom. The Macedonian School flourished especially
in the fourteenth century. To this school we owe the paint-
ings in the Macedonian and Serbian churches, which con-
stitute one of the richest legacies which Byzantine art has
bequeathed to us. From this school come the masterly
frescoes of Curtea de Arges, the decorations of the Metro-
politan Church at Mistra, and those of several churches in
and around Novgorod. At about the same time the influence
of the Cretan school made itself felt at Mistra in the frescoes
of the Peribleptos, which are doubtless its great masterpiece.
From the end of the fourteenth century it ousted its rival in
Serbia and in Russia, where the great master Theophanes
the Greek was working; similarly in the sixteenth century it
was to supplant it also in the monasteries of Mt. Athos, where
the two opposing schools met for the last time.
On Mt. Athos in the fourteenth century the Macedonian
school had been at first predominant. It had decorated the
churches of Vatopedi, Chilandari, and notably that of the
Protaton at Karyes, where the paintings which survive are
perhaps the most remarkable of all those on the Holy
Mountain. Then, in the sixteenth century, the Cretan
school triumphed. We owe to it the decorations of the
Catholicon of the Lavra (1535), of Dionysiou (1547),
Dochiariou (1568), and many others. But at the same time
the Macedonian school still retained its influence, and its
work is seen in the refectories of the Lavra (1512) and of
Dionysiou (1545). The two schools were represented by two
great rival painters, namely Manuel Panselinus of Salonica,
and Theophanes of Crete. To the former, a somewhat
mysterious artist who has in turn been called the Giotto and
the Raphael of Byzantine painting, the monks of Mt. Athos
are ready to attribute every outstanding piece of work
preserved in their monasteries. The Painters* Manual says
that 'he towered above all painters, ancient or modern, as is
abundantly proved by his frescoes and panel pictures'. He
was the last and most illustrious representative of the Mace-
donian school. With no less distinction Theophanes of
Crete, with his sons and pupils, represented the Cretan
school, as may be seen in the paintings bearing his signature
which survive in the monasteries of Mt. Athos and the
BYZANTINE ART I97

Meteora. The admiration of contemporaries was divided
between these two great artists. And it is a remarkable
testimony to the versatility of this art that alongside of these
clearly distinct schools one can also recognize powerful
personalities, each having his own individual style and
manner.
There are other works from this last period of Byzantine
art which still survive. First, there are the illuminated
manuscripts. It is true that these miniature paintings seldom
have the outstanding qualities characteristic of the preceding
period. A poverty of ideas, and these often rendered by
childish daubs such is the scornful judgement which has
been passed on them. Several works, however, such as the
manuscript of John Cantacuzenus in the Bibliotheque
Nationale at Paris, or the Serbian Psalter at Munich, lack
neither beauty nor interest, and the vigorous and glowing
colour of the latter has justly received high praise. The
manuscript of the Chronicle of Skylitzes (preserved at
Madrid) in its six hundred curious miniatures seems to
reflect the historical wall-paintings which decorated Byzan-
tine palaces. In all these works one finds the same taste for
the picturesque, power of realistic observation, and sense of
colour which are found in the frescoes of that time. But
apart from paintings on a large scale it is icons and embroi-
deries that appear to have been the favourite forms of
artistic production from the fourteenth to the sixteenth
century. In particular the masters of the Cretan school seem
to have been great painters of icons, and indeed this form of
art accorded even better than fresco painting with the new
aesthetic of the age. There have survived also from the time
of the Palaeologi a large number of works in mosaic and
tempera. In more than one instance there can be traced in
these compositions the life and freedom, the love of the
picturesque, and the tender feeling characteristic of four-
teenth-century painting. The same may be said of certain
masterpieces of embroidery, such as the so-called 'Dalmatic
of Charlemagne* to be seen in the sacristy of St. Peter's at
Rome, or the beautiful Epitaphios of Salonica now in the
Byzantine Museum at Athens, which are both undoubtedly
198 BYZANTINE ART

works of the school of Constantinople. In harmony of colour
and beauty of design they both attain a very high level, and
they display the same qualities that can be seen in the
mosaics of Kahrieh Djami, in the frescoes of Mistra, and the
paintings of Serbian churches. Thus all the qualities of
Byzantine art are preserved in these works of the fourteenth
century; everywhere in the picturesque or pathetic elements
of their compositions, and in the matchless skill of their
colouring, we find the same observation of nature and life,
the same contrast between elegance and realism, and the
same creative impulse. If moreover due account is taken of
the great inventive power of the new iconography which
made its appearance at that time, it is not possible to deny
the originality of this last phase of Byzantine art, whatever
its remoter origins may have been.
At this time once more, as in the sixth and as in the
eleventh and twelfth centuries, the influence of Byzantine art
spread far and wide. We have seen how great it was through-
out the Christian East, and how Russian icon painting in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries followed the teaching of
Byzantium. In the West, especially in Italy in the twelfth
and fourteenth centuries, it was no less significant; and it has
aptly been said that 'the two worlds, so widely separated in
language, religion, customs and ideas, seem to be in com-
munion with each other through their art\ We have men-
tioned some of the resemblances gestures and poses, for
instance that seem to have been copied from Italian models.
But Byzantium in fact gave more to Italy than she received
from her. A study of the mosaics of the Baptistery at
Florence and the frescoes of the Baptistery of Parma, both
of the thirteenth century, or of the remarkable paintings
lately found in the church of St. Mary in Vescovio reveals the
unmistakable imprint of Byzantine art. Duccio, in his
famous reredos of the Maesdt, and Giotto, in his frescoes of
the Arena Chapel, have drawn freely from the treasury of
Byzantine iconography, and in spite of all that is individual
in their work it is evident that they owe much to the lessons
and traditions of Byzantium. It is indeed hardly a paradox
to maintain, as has been done, that Giotto was simply a
Byzantine of genius.
BYZANTINE ART 199

Thus in the Christian East there arose between the
thirteenth and the middle of the sixteenth century a great
artistic movement which displayed its real originality in
many remarkable creations. It was the final effort of this
Byzantine art which after the middle of the sixteenth century
was gradually to become fixed in what has been called a
'hieratic' immobility, in a lifeless repetition, from which
there was no escape. The technical handbook known as
The Painters' Manual clearly shows the importance of the
place that workshop formulae were henceforth to take in
the creation of works of art. Such manuals, dignified by the
famous names of Panselinus and Theophanes of Crete, ex-
isted from the sixteenth century. But before it reached this
decadence Byzantine art had had a glorious existence for
many centuries. It was by no means, as has often been said
of it, a stagnant art, incapable of self-renewal, nothing more
than the imitation during a thousand years of the works of
those artists of genius who in the fifth and sixth centuries
had given it a new form. It was a living art and, like every
living organism, it had known development and transforma-
tion. At first in Justinian's century, then under the Mace-
donian and Comnenian Emperors, and again in the time of
the Palaeologi, it knew successive periods of incomparable
brilliance, each with its own characteristic differences. Not
only so, but throughout every phase of its history it exercised
a profound influence upon the world without. Such was
Byzantine art, and for this reason it must always remain one
of the most remarkable aspects of Byzantine civilization and
one of its lasting glories.
CHARLES DIEHL
VII
BYZANTINE EDUCATION
To write about education in the Byzantine Empire is no
easy task. The time embraced from Constantine to 1453 is
eleven centuries, and the area covered, at least in the early
days, is enormous, for a subject of the Emperor of Con-
stantinople might be born and educated in Athens, Alexan-
dria, or Antioch. Furthermore, information is hard to collect
because, though scholars abound as the finished product,
education is so rarely described at length and the allusions
to its methods are often regrettably vague.
With this proviso we shall attempt to ascertain (r) who
were taught in the Byzantine Empire and what they learnt,
(2) who gave the teaching and where.
i . St. Gregory Nazianzen confidently states : 'I think that
all those who have sense will acknowledge that education is
the first of the goods we possess', and J. B. Bury was doubtless
right in saying that in the Eastern Empire 'every boy and
girl whose parents could afford to pay was educated', in
contrast to the West where in the Dark Ages book learning
was drawn from monastic sources. ^ Princes and princesses
might of course command the services of instructors in
public positions. St. Arsenius, 'admired for Hellenic and
Latin learning', was summoned from Rome by Theodosius I
to teach his two sons, and a daughter of Leo I studied
with Dioscurius, afterwards City Prefect. The ex-Patriarch
Photius taught in the family of Basil I; young Michael VII
learnt from Psellus, 'chief of the philosophers', and his son
Constantine Ducas was the ornament of a School kept by
Archbishop Theophylact. John of Euchaita tells us that
St. Dorotheus the Younger, sprung from a noble family of
Trebizond, spent the first twelve years of his life 'as was
natural to one well-born' under the rule of 'teachers and
pedagogues'. But middle-class children also, like St.
Theodore the Studite or Psellus, might be well educated.
Even the Scythian slave St. Andreas Salos was taught Greek
and the 'sacred writings' by his master's orders, and St.
BYZANTINE EDUCATION 201

Theodore the Syceote, son of a prostitute in a Galatian inn,
went to the village school. The fourth-century philosopher
Themistius, indeed, said that one could learn as well in a
small town as a large; Br^hier has, however, shown that rural
education was by no means completely organized. 1 The
parents of St. Simeon Stylites only had him taught to mind
sheep ; St. Joannicius was too busy tending his father's pigs
to acquire even the rudiments till at forty-seven he became a
monk; St. Euthymius when he entered a monastery could
neither read nor write.
Naturally it is chiefly from the biographies of famous men
that we can learn some details of educational practice. About
obscurer boys we know next to nothing, and in the case of
women we can only infer, from scattered hints, that handi-
crafts and a knowledge of the 'sacred writings* learnt at
home were usually, even for a scholar's child like Styliane,
daughter of Psellus, considered education enough. East
Roman girls apparently went neither to school nor to
university. Attention must therefore perforce be concen-
trated upon the education of a few outstanding personalities.
Although the Byzantines were eager to call themselves
Romaioi and to claim for their own a Roman tradition, their
training was purely Greek. Libanius in the fourth century
neither studied nor taught 'barbarian' Latin, and though
Theodosius II in A.D. 425 appointed to his University in
Constantinople both Latin and Greek teachers, the latter
outnumbered the former. Justinian, who published in Latin
his Code, Digest, and Institutes of Roman law, yet issued his
later constitutions in the Greek language that they might
more readily be understood. In 1045 Constantine IX had to
stipulate that the head of his new Law School must know
Latin, and this knowledge was probably purely academic, as
we have no evidence of spoken Latin in eleventh-century
Byzantium. From the fourth century the language and
the substance of education in the Eastern provinces of the
Empire was Greek. Only in the last two centuries of the
Empire's history the attempts to unite the Churches of
West and East necessitated a knowledge of Latin. There
1 L. Brhier, 'Les Populations rurales au ix e sifccle d'aprfes Phagiographie
byzantine', Byxantzon, vol. i (1924), pp. 177-90, at p. 182.
202 BYZANTINE EDUCATION

was, as Professor Maas has said, 'a perhaps unexpressed but
none the less binding law' to exclude Latin words from the
'Hochsprache'.
Within the Eastern provinces of the Empire, indeed, the
Latin language never took root. Berytus, with its famous
school of Roman law, must have long remained a Latin island
in a Greek sea. Latinisms, it is true, survived in the legends
upon the coinage, in the technical, legal, and military terms,
and in Court titles. Many Latin words found their way into
popular speech and are used by the writers of chronicles and
of biographies of the saints. Not a few of these Latinisms
have persisted right through the Middle Ages and are still
present in modern Greek. Psellus in his Chronogra-phia
praises Romanus III for having shared in the culture con-
nected with Italian (i.e. Roman) letters, but it may well be
doubted whether the Emperor could in fact even read Latin
texts.
Further, it must not be forgotten that the distinction was
sharply drawn between 'our', that is, Christian, learning and
the kind described as 'outside', 'foreign', or 'Hellene', i.e.
classical pagan culture. When Christianity had become the
State religion, if 'Orthography' and 'Grammar' were to be
taught at all, Christian children must of necessity still use
pagan text-books and read pagan works. St. Basil, instancing
Moses and Daniel as men who had profited by profane
learning, advised the young to study classical history and
literature, but purely for the moral conveyed. They were,
like Ulysses with the Sirens, to close their ears against any
poetry that told of bad men or evil gods, and in all literature
they were to pick out the good as bees draw their honey from
the flowers. In the Lives of the Saints we are frequently
assured that, though the holy men studied astronomy, they
piously referred all phenomena to God and not to the stars,
and though they learnt the practice and copied the grace of
Greek rhetoric, they avoided its 'babble' and 'falsities' no
less than 'the sophistical part' of philosophy. It was his
'virtue' quite as much as his 'Hellenic culture' that entitled
John of Euchaita, as the Menaion of 30 January tells us,
to pronounce on the intellectual merits of the three great
Fathers of the Church, St. Basil, St. John Chrysostom, and

St. Gregory Nazianzen, The hymn-writer Romanus sent
all pagan authors to hell. Though the Greek poets were
largely studied, they were theoretically under suspicion as
seductive liars, unless an ingenious teacher (like Psellus's
friend Nicetas) could discover some Christian allegory in
their verse. If Homer was as a matter of fact read by all, it
was partly as fairy-tales are by us, partly because men
believed with St. Basil that 'all the poetry of Homer is a
praise of virtue* disguised in a story.
It is therefore small wonder that careful parents had their
children grounded in 'our' doctrines first of all. In early
childhood boys and girls, unless sent like St. Euphrosyne to
a cloister, or handed over to some cleric at six years old like
St. Lazarus the Stylite or even at the age of three like St.
Michael Syncellus, were usually brought up by their own
parents in the 'nurture and admonition of the Lord', being
made to listen to the 'Divine Scriptures' and other 'sacred
writings', and above all to learn the Psalter by heart. The
training of the small child's memory and pronunciation was
the aim of the educators, and the Bible was their instrument
ready to hand. St. Eutychius was taught until the age of
twelve by a clerical grandfather; the father of St. John the
Psichai'te 'trained the mind of his children'. The parents of
St. Domnica made her read the 'sacred writings'; the mother
of St. Theodore the Studite (ninth century) did the same by
his sister; Psellus's mother (eleventh century) told him Bible
stories at night. The influence of the mother on the child's
education and her power to coerce or punish, even by
flogging, comes out in many biographies; thus Xiphilinus,
a patriarch of Constantinople in the eleventh century, owed
much to maternal upbringing.
But we also find 'Grammarians' giving instruction in the
'sacred writings' to tiny children, to St. Neophytus, for
example, as soon as he had been baptized and weaned, to
St. Agathonicus and Psellus at the age of five or to St.
Stephen the Younger at six years old (when he already
'ought to have been working at profane studies'); St.
Christodulus and the fourteenth-century monk Macarius
also got their early teaching in 'the art of the divine writings'
from masters and not from their parents.

Secular education began between the ages of six and eight,
and the child studied with teachers in the elementary school
of his native place the all-important ' Orthography *, i.e.
reading and writing, for in view of the change in current
pronunciation it was essential to learn with toil and pains
the old classical spelling, Libanius was allowed by his
widowed mother to idle in the country till he was fourteen,
and he left the Antioch School when he was sixteen, so he
was mainly self-taught, but this was exceptional. So also was
the early age of eight at which the soldier Germanus and the
Patriarch St. Nicephorus left their homes in Illyria and
Galatia for the capital, the one entering the 'Schools of the
grammarians* there, and the other the religious 'Museum* of
Mosellus or Mosele. 1
At ten or twelve years of age the boy turned from this
'preliminary education* to 'Grammar* which aimed at a
complete 'Hellenizing* of the speech and mind, and strove
to defend classical Greek against the inroads of the popular
language. From papyri, from the biographies of St. John of
Damascus and of St. Theodore the Studite, from Psellus's
autobiographical statements and Zonaras's remarks about
Anna Comnena, we gather that this process, in spite of any
old prejudice against 'pagan* writers, involved a thorough
study of the matter as well as the form of classical poetry.
Homer especially being learnt by heart and explained word
by word. This secondary education was sometimes described
as the 'beginning of learning* (ta frota mathemata).
Finally, unless the call to 'more perfect knowledge* had
already led to the monastic life St. Nicolas the Studite
entered a school for monks when he had 'ended his first
decade* the boy would go, like George Acropolites at
sixteen, or, like Libanius and St. Basil, not until he was
twenty years of age or over, to some university to acquire
'higher learning* by studying rhetoric and philosophy on
strictly classical lines. For rhetoric, 'the power of artistic
persuasive speech', he would read and memorize Greek
historians and orators, and write compositions or make
speeches according to classical rules and in imitation of
classical styles. In philosophy, like St. John of Damascus,
1 Cf. Anahcta BoUandiana, vol. xiv (1895), pp. 161-5.

he would 'mount' from logic to speculation, and in argument
would try to entangle his opponent in a 'Cretan labyrinth' of
perplexity. In reading he would pass from Aristotle to Plato
and the works of the Neoplatonists, Plotinus, and Proclus,
and would apply to his understanding of Platonic doctrines
all his previously gained knowledge of the natural and
mathematical sciences. One of these, astronomy, might
lead on in certain cases to theology, the contemplation of
Him Who created the stars, the'philosophyamongourselves',
'divine learning', the 'science of more perfect things'.
Of these higher studies rhetoric is pronounced by Syne-
sius to be indispensable for serving one's city, but 'philosophy
in itself is worth more'. Psellus tells us that few are proficient
in both, but he himself claims to have mastered philosophy,
rhetoric, geometry, music, astronomy, and even theology, in
short, 'every branch of knowledge, not Greek and Latin
philosophy only, but also Chaldaean, Egyptian, and Jewish'.
We must pause a moment to consider the disconcerting
looseness in the Byzantine use of educational terms. Thus
the adjective encyclios applied to education (paideia or J>ai-
deu$is\ which to Quintilian had meant 'all-embracing', was
gradually degraded to signify 'preliminary'. This change of
sense came about in a curious fashion. The twelfth-century
Tzetzes, following the etymology, seems at first sight to have
kept the old wide meaning, for his 'circle of learning' com-
prises the quadrivium of arithmetic, music, geometry, and
astronomy, and also grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy.
But when we realize that philosophy to him is merely the
pagan philosophy which ever since the days of the Greek
Fathers had been the step below theology, we see how in his
view the 'circle' has become 'preliminary' to this highest of
studies. But this is not all. Encyclios -paideia in Byzantine
literature usually means something lower still. It denotes
'school learning' as preliminary to all higher studies (e.g.
in Anna Comnena's Alexiad) or it may mean simply 'the
rudiments' as the 'foundation' for study of any kind (e.g. to
the eighth-century monk Cosmas). It is thus equivalent to
purely elementary instruction in language and die outlines
of Grammatike to which it served as an introduction. Psellus
(eleventh century) gives as the three stages of education

(i) encyclics faideusis, (2) 'grammar', and (3) 'higher learning',
i.e. rhetoric and philosophy.
Again 'grammar' by which 'Hellenic speech is regulated'
commonly means the second stage in a boy's education,
'orthography' or encyclios paideusis in the sense of 'rudiments'
being the first. But as taught by Nicetas and described by
Psellus 'orthography' is synonymous with Grammatike^ or
again 'grammar' is treated by the biographer of the seventh-
century Maximus the Confessor as part of encyclios paideusis^
and by the thirteenth-century George Acropolites as its
equivalent. Sometimes 'grammar* covers all subjects that
might be taught in a secondary school literature, history,
metre, geometry, and geography and thus precedes
rhetoric ; sometimes, together with rhetoric, it forms a part
of more advanced education. Finally 'philosophy', generally
regarded as 'the art of arts and science of sciences' the
'heights*, towering above encyclios paideusis^ grammar and
rhetoric alike is found in certain passages to include the
quadrivium.) elsewhere differentiated as 'the four servants of
true knowledge' with philosophy as their mistress. The
letters of Synesius show that under Hypatia at Alexandria
the 'mysteries of philosophy' comprised mathematics and
physics. In common parlance 'philosophy' covered not only
ethics and speculative ideas, but also logic and dialectic;
being, as we have just said, essentially 'Hellenic' and 'foreign'
it was not without danger, and the clergy especially needed
to handle it judiciously or they might fall from orthodoxy.
We have then to admit that neither the names nor the
sequence of the different branches of Byzantine education
are very clear to us. School and university subjects seem to
have overlapped. St. Gregory Nazianzen and St. Basil, full-
grown men who had passed through their encyclios paideusis
while in Cappadocia and had later studied in other schools,
worked in the University of Athens at grammar, metres,
politics, and history, as well as at rhetoric, philosophy, and
medicine. The study of medicine up to a certain point
figured in general education. Professionals like Caesarius
who was given 'first rank among the doctors' in Constanti-
nople, doubtless had a full practical training, but educated
people generally, like St. Basil, Photius, Psellus, and Anna

Comnena, would diagnose the 'causes of diseases' and pro-
nounce views on their treatment. Similarly legal knowledge
of an elementary kind was not uncommon, but embryo
lawyers or civil servants had to follow a special advanced
course. Thus an official in fourth-century Egypt went to
Elementary School, Latin School, and Law School, which he
left, like the graduates from Berytus and later on from the
law school of Constantine IX at Constantinople, as a certifi-
cated advocate, qualified to take up his profession. Law
students were early set apart from others; the Trullan
Council (692) enacts: 'Those who are taught the civil laws
may not go to the theatre or indulge in athletic exercises or
wear peculiar clothes/ Finally theology was a separate
branch of learning which was probably confined to the
patriarchal school and to monasteries ; it was studied by few
laymen. The edict of Theodosius II (A.D. 425) reorganizing
the university at Constantinople is included in the section
of the Theodosian Code headed T)e Studiis liberalibus', i.e.
the studies concerned with profane as opposed to sacred
knowledge. For though it is true that all classical literature
tended, as in the case of Nicetas' teaching, to be interpreted
theologically, yet in a form of education so wholly deter-
mined by classical tradition theology as a separate discipline

had no specific place. It was this state of things which
Alexius I (10811118) strove to remedy by precept and
example.
It may, indeed, be concluded that boys of all classes might,
and frequently did, receive instruction from their babyhood
to their twenties. The parents of St. John Calybita hoped
that 'science and letters' would ensure him a good post, and
in all the circles of trade and commerce the same motive and
practice probably prevailed. The law in all its branches had
its own requirements, imperial secretaries needed training in
'speed-writing', monks learnt fine calligraphy and brush-
work, and soldiers would turn early to 'military matters'.
But for the mass of the population the routine was: first, oral
religious teaching at home, next, 'orthography* in the local
elementary school. Beyond this primary education many
children never went, but for those who continued their
studies there was 'grammar* a comprehensive term to

be learnt in the middle school, and the course would be
completed in some university by rhetoric and philosophy,
the two broad classifications into which Psellus divides true
learning.
The thoroughness of the education can be judged from
the reputation and the writings of those educated. Krum-
bacher's History of Byzantine Literature tabulates the
enormous output of those eleven centuries in poetry and
prose; here a few examples must suffice.
Beginning with the Emperors, we must take it on trust
that Theophilus studied Greek, Latin, astronomy, natural
history, and painting, copied manuscripts, invented a lamp,
and argued with theologians, but we know positively that he
had a learned wife, for some of her verses survive. Leo III
revised the laws. So did Basil I and his son Leo VI, 'most
philosophical of Emperors', who also composed poems,
sermons, and a Life of his father. Constantine VII wrote and
caused others to write volumes of encyclopaedic learning,
while his daughter Agatha acted as his private secretary.
Michael VII pored over books, neglecting his imperial
duties. But the most numerous literary achievements come
from the Comneni. Alexius I, though he wrote some verse,
was essentially a controversialist, and he and his wife Irene
put theology above all other study. But his son Isaac has
been held to be a minor poet, his grandson Manuel I was an
authority on dogma and had a 'most Homeric* wife, and his
daughter Anna Comnena has given us in her Alexiad not
only one of the finest products of Byzantine literature, but
also a proof of her own wide education, though how that
education was acquired we are not told. After the Restora-
tion of 1 26 1 Michael VIII (Palaeologus) appears as a patron
of education and also as his own biographer. Finally John
VI and Manuel II have left us, from the death-bed as it were
of the Empire, remarkable specimens of letters, history, and
polemics.
In less exalted stations we find writers of every kind con-
stantly imitating and citing the classical masterpieces on the
study of which their education had been based. To the
minds of ecclesiastical writers the Bible is always present;
thus St. John Chrysostom, holding that 'ignorance of the

Scriptures is the cause of all evils', makes 7,000 quotations
from the Old Testament and r 1,000 from the New. Photius
is said even by an enemy to have rivalled the ancients and
excelled all moderns in 'almost every branch of profane
learning'. He composed a dictionary, school-books, and
treatises; in his letters he corrected his friends' grammar and
prescribed for their ailments ; he helped Basil I to revise the
laws, and held in his house a debating society and study
circle. His Bibliotheca, summarizing for an absent brother
the 270 books read by this circle, shows a marvellous range;
poetry only is excluded. Another encyclopaedic scholar s
Psellus, has left poetical and prose works on philosophy,
history, law, medicine, theology, and occult science, while
his study of and love for Plato and his enthusiasm for all
learning helped to pave the way for the fifteenth-century
Humanists. John of Euchaita begins a religious poem with
an obvious reminiscence of Euripides' Hippolytus. The
letters of Michael Italicus show familiarity with a remarkable
range of subjects, exclusive, however, of Latin and legal
science. And shortly before the catastrophe of 1453 we have
one last great scholar in Joseph Bryennius, who after
mastering grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, and the quadrivium
proceeded to philosophy. He is well read in the Bible and
the Greek Fathers, and even quotes Augustine and Thomas
Aquinas; the Renaissance, with the mutual interpenetration
of East and West, is near at hand.
2. Passing to Byzantine teachers we are struck with the
importance of their position. Private masters might com-
plain of poverty, like Palladas or Prodromus or the Antioch
guilds of rhetoricians who sold their wives' jewellery to
satisfy their bakers, but public professors, paid by the State
or municipality primarily to train efficient civil servants,
lived, in Synesius's words, 'magnificently'. Under the
thirteenth-century Emperors of Nicaea teachers of rhetoric,
medicine, and mathematics were financed by the munici-
palities; teachers of law and philosophy had to be content
* .IT.
with the pupils' fees. Teachers were a necessity; Anna
Comnena hints that only the crazily conceited try to study
alone. Parents made real sacrifices, sometimes surrendering
mules or asses to be sold for their sons' tuition fees; to pay
3982 P

his own, one youth worked as a stoker in the bath. Libanius
has depicted fourth-century student life. The masters were
in loco parentis and could flog or even dismiss their pupils if
'the whip' failed, as Psellus would say, to 'draw them to
learning"; but, as private teachers lived on the precarious
fees settled by individual contracts, they wished to keep old
students and acquire new. The 'choruses' of these young
men acted as their professors' press-gangs; Libanius on
reaching Athens was coerced into becoming the 'listener' of
an Arabian, and was initiated with bath and banquet. In
Constantinople at a later date his popularity and the increased
number of his pupils made other teachers jealous. The
personal element was strong: Photius boasts of his adoring
'wise chorus' of scholars; Psellus claimed to attract as
followers Celts, Arabs, Egyptians, Persians, Ethiopians, and
Babylonians ; in religious controversies Nicephorus Gregoras
counted on his pupils as his army. Grateful addresses to or
funeral eulogies on teachers are common, and presentation
portraits or busts are not unknown.
The responsibility of professors for their scholars makes
St. Gregory of Nyssa implore the pupils of his brother St.
Basil to be worthy of their master; men judge teachers by the
results of their teaching. Mosellus (Mosele) taught St.
Nicephorus 'sacred Scripture only', fearing that profane
studies might indelibly stamp evil on his young mind. The
father of St. John of Damascus searched all Persia for a
master who would not inspire in his son a passion for
archery, soldiering, hunting, or athletics. There is a
paternal tone in the 'Princely Education' addressed by
Theophylact to Constantine Ducas, and in Psellus's entreaties
to his university pupils not to be kept away by bad weather
or the usual seductions of student life, the theatre, dice,
sports, or banquets. These are similarly deprecated by
Libanius, by the biographers of St. Gregory Nazianzen and
St. Theodore the Studite, and by Anna Comnena and
Theodore Hyrtacenus (fourteenth century). Again, Psellus
implores his hearers not to come to the classes late and half-
asleep, and not to ask stupid perfunctory questions when he
strives so hard to arouse their interest, often working over
his lectures all night.

Byzantine youth came under various instructors. In the
early home years the 'pedagogue' slaves heard lessons recited,
or a mother, Theodote, helped her child Psellus. St. John
Chrysostom speaks of the troubles of small scholars, labour-
ing with stylus and wax tablet. Though university pro-
fessors were not allowed to teach private pupils, an ordinary
teacher, even if he might not teach in public, might open a
private school anywhere; John of Euchaita and Michael
Italicus taught in their houses, Libanius in a former shop.
Public teachers officiated in a basilica, church, or municipal
building. Private and public teachers alike taught a variety
of subjects; the 'School' might also be termed museum^
auditorium^ or didascaleion. The boys stood in line or sat on
benches or on the floor round the teacher's 'throne', holding
on their knees copies of the texts to be expounded. Teaching
at Antioch was in the forenoon. At Berytus in the fifth
century and down to 533 classes were held every afternoon
except Saturday and Sunday, while the mornings were
devoted to preparation by the scholars. In St. Theodore the
Syceote's village the boys had morning and afternoon
lessons and, unless kept in for bad work, went home to a
midday meal, an arrangement later advocated by Michael
Apostolius (fifteenth century). Sometimes they brought
food, which young ascetics, like St. Neophytus, would give
away to poorer companions. 'Pedagogues' from home
escorted the richer boys and carried their books; when St.
Nicephorus's mother performed this office it was probably
because his way lay 'through the market' with its question-
able attractions. The pupils read aloud or recited or held
discussions or wrote, as the master might order; some of their
lecture-notes still survive. They had to answer questions
and might also ask them. Teachers composed verses to help
their scholars' memories; Psellus has left several, and a
contemporary of his fitted grammatical rules into the metre
of a hymn. One School Catechism of the eleventh century
is presumably not typical, as the pupil is throughout scolded
for ignorance. The teacher here supplies both questions and
answers on grammar, rhetoric, philosophy including physics,
the quadrivium, Platonism, Neoplatonism, and law.
The boy studying away from home lived in lodgings.
2i2 BYZANTINE EDUCATION

St. Gregory Nazianzen and St. Basil shared rooms in Athens ;
St. Marcellus boarded with a pious household in Ephesus.
Often students visited successively three seats of learning, or
occasionally even four as did Nicephorus Blemmydes.
Private masters might be followed from one place to another,
for they were always liable, like Libanius, Stephen of
Alexandria, and Leo the Mathematician, to be called into the
more honourable service of public education. The Emperors
supported professors throughout the Empire; when Justi-
nian ceased to pay salaries at Athens he virtually killed the
Platonist School. Teachers received no special training; the
great masters, St. Gregory Nazianzen, Photius, Psellus, John
of Euchaita, and Michael Italicus seem to have taught
directly their own student course was finished. All could
draw from the supreme source of education, namely, books.
Manuscripts of the Classics, many of them unknown for
several centuries in the West, were transcribed by experts
in the Palace from the fourth century onwards and by many
other laymen, the number of surviving copies proving the
prevalence of private reading. Furthermore, right down to
the fall of the Empire, the Byzantines wrote text-books for
every conceivable study, from syntax to high philosophy;
very many are still extant, though unpublished. Univer-
sities, schools, churches, monasteries, palaces, and private
houses had their collections of books. The noble Caesaria
spent all night reading her 700 volumes of the Fathers; it
was with books in a neighbouring church that St. Lazarus
the Stylite consoled himself after a flogging. Constantine
VII thought campaigning Emperors should carry a travelling
library; Cecaumenus urged generals on leave to study
'histories and the Church's books', culling tactics from the
Old Testament and moral maxims from the New. The
charge of the law library in the renewed university was
committed by Constantine IX to the chief law officer of the
Crown. From the Patmos monastery, where 260 manu-
scripts still exist, we have three catalogues (1201, 1355, and
1382); the wealth of Mt. Athos in original documents is
proverbial. ^ A twelfth-century Archbishop reproved the
monks in his diocese for selling their literary treasures and
leaving their shelves as bare as their souls. Tzetzes boasts of

his library, and only poverty keeps Prodromus from buying
books.
We must now enumerate the Byzantine centres of learn-
ing, almost all destroyed by the Arab conquest. The first is
Athens, 'mother of learning', especially pagan philosophy.
According to Synesius her scholars despised all others, and
behaved 'as demi-gods among mules'. Even after Justinian
closed her schools Theodore of Tarsus studied here before
becoming an English bishop. But the palmy days were over,
and in the twelfth century an Archbishop of Athens bewails
her desolate condition, though even his gloomy letters show
that culture had not completely deserted the city. Next
comes Alexandria, 'workshop of varied education'. Before
Hypatia's day it was visited by St. Gregory Nazianzen for
the sake of its library and by his brother Caesarius for its
medical school. In 484 Severus of Sozopolis attended its
'museum', learning grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, Latin,
and law, in preparation for a legal training at Berytus. Both
Caesarea, with its library of 30,000 Christian books, and
Gaza had renowned schools of rhetoric. Antioch in Syria
was the birthplace of Libanius, who taught there most of his
life, keeping a day school with assistants under him; here,
too, was born St. John Chrysostom, who completed his
education by attending the local law-courts. The city never
recovered from the 300 years of Saracen rule (635969),
though the Antiochene second wife of Manuel I is described
as highly educated. At Ephesus St. Marcellus studied
theology; nearer the capital we find great culture at Nicaea,
which after the capture of Constantinople by the Latins
became the seat of Empire (1204-61). The theological
school of Edessa played an important part during the fifth
century in the Christological controversy. For this a know-
ledge of Greek was essential, and the Syrian scholars both
spoke and wrote Greek. Later Syria became Monophysite.
It is to Edessa of the sixth century that we owe the Chronicle
of Joshua the Stylite (which gives a contemporary's account
of the events of the years 495506) and also the Edessene
Chronicle (written about 540).* In the ninth century
1 For Edessa in the fifth and sixth centuries see R. Duval, Histoire potittque,
rtkgieuse
ctUttfratred'Edessejusqu'd la premiere Croisade (Pans, Leroux, 1892), chs. x and
xi.
2H BYZANTINE EDUCATION
Edessa supported a public teacher under whom Theodore of
Edessa learnt grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy.
But the most interesting provincial institution is the
School of Law in Berytus, the principal training ground of
lawyers and civil servants until the earthquake of 551
shattered the city. Justinian's Constitution recognizing
Berytus, 'nurse of laws', as one of the three sanctioned legal
schools (the other two being Rome and Constantinople)
enacts that its students, whose 'associations' were addicted
to riotous living and (as we learn elsewhere) to magic, were
to be controlled by the Governor of Phoenicia, the Bishop,
and the professors. So great were the temptations of the
place that young Christians, for fear of falling away, would
wait to be baptized till their studies were over. The School
under its rectors (bearing the title of 'oecumenical masters')
was at its zenith in the fifth century. The usual course of
study lasted four years, with an optional fifth, and drew
pupils from all parts of the Empire.
Since the discovery of the Scholia Sinaitica we have gained
a clearer conception of the methods adopted in teaching by
the professors of the Law School. In the fifth century the
teaching was in Greek, but students had in their hands copies
of the Latin texts. Parallel passages would be cited and the
opinions of different jurisconsults compared. Teachers
would report their own opinions on disputed points as given
to their clients. Students would be advised to 'skip' certain
chapters of works, while important sections would be com-
mented upon at length. To a modern teacher these Scholia
bring a curious sense of actuality: the Byzantine professor of
law seems much less remote.
It is surprising how little we know of Byzantine literary
education in the provincial centres of the Empire. It is of
the culture of Salonica in the fourteenth century that we
can gain the clearest idea. The city at this time was full of
intellectual activity, thus carrying on the tradition which
Eustathius's commentaries on Homer had inaugurated in the
twelfth century. Here thought was freer than in the capital :
the control exercised by the Patriarch was not so rigorous.
Cabasilas could contend that the saints themselves were
incomplete personalities if they had not received sufficient

instruction in this world. Plethon overstepped even the
liberty admitted in Salonica and urged a return to classical
paganism. Here Hellenic feeling is so strong that the term
'Hellenes' need no longer be used as synonymous with
'pagans': it can revert to its older sense: the Byzantine
monarch is not 'Emperor of the Romans', he becomes the
'Emperor of the Greeks'. A correspondence was maintained
between the scholars of Constantinople and those of Salonica;
writers exchanged their works and visited each other. There
was much interest in education : parents were urged to send
their children to school they should postpone the teaching
of a trade until adolescence. Higher education was in the
hands both of lay teachers and of the clergy. In the city
budget salaries were included for professors of medicine,
mathematics, and rhetoric, while professors of philosophy
and of law, since they 'despised money', received no salary. 1
In the Byzantine Empire three types of educational
institution must be distinguished: the secular university in
Constantinople, the Patriarchal School, also in the capital,
and the schools attached to the monasteries, (i) To these
monastic schools St. Basil was prepared to admit the children
of laymen the children belonging to the World outside the
walls of the monastery. But this practice was forbidden by a
canon of the Council of Chalcedon which was later reaffirmed
and was consistently observed. The monastic schools were
confined to those who in early years had been dedicated by
their parents to the life of the monk. Here there is a striking
difference from the monastic schools of western Europe, which
were freely attended by children who were not being trained
for monastic asceticism. In the Eastern Empire it was only
in the thirteenth century that the traditional rule was violated,
when Planudes trained students for a public career in the
civil service, the army, or in medicine. The teaching in the
monastic schools was narrowly confined in its range: thus of
the school of Mosellus or Mosele in the tenth century we are
told that instruction was limited to the scriptures. The
monastic libraries were composed in the main of the works
of the Fathers of the Church: there was little opportunity for
1 See an interesting- chapter on the scientific, literary, and artistic movement
in
O. Tafrali, Thessalonique cm quatorx&me sihle (Paris, Geuthner, 1913)9 pp. 1
49-69.

any wide learning and the preservation of the literature of
classical Greece was, it would seem, due for the most part to
lay scriptoria. Monks would copy and illuminate theological
works and would paint the icons which held so outstanding a
place in the devotion of the East Romans. In the monasteries
were written those chronicles which for some periods are
our only sources for the history of the Empire, and it is to the
monasteries that we owe the works of the Byzantine mystics
which to-day are being studied with a new interest and a
fuller understanding.
(ii) The University of Constantinople unfortunately
omitted by Rashdall from his study of medieval universities
depended directly upon imperial initiative and the support
of the State. It is probable that Constantine founded in his
capital the school where Libanius and Themistius subse-
quently taught: it is certain that in A.D. 425 Theodosius II
appointed thirty-one professors paid by the State, freed from
taxation, and strictly distinguished from private teachers.
While Alexandria was famed for its school of medicine,
Constantinople, together with Rome and Berytus, was a
centre for legal study. The Eastern capital often drew its
professors of Latin from Africa. In the fifth century the
teachers of philosophy were frequently pagans : it was only
with Justinian that pagan teachers were finally banished from
the university.
Under Phocas (A.D. 602-10) all culture suffered, but
with Heraclius there was a renewed interest in learning. It
was in the metropolitan university that Cosmas a century
later acquired that vast learning which he imparted to St.
John of Damascus. Here, too, St. John the Psichaite
'despised* the curriculum which his biographer gives in full:
grammar, classical literature, rhetoric, secular philosophy,
dialectics, astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic.
Of the fortunes of the university under the Iconoclasts
we have no certain knowledge. The statement, made by late
writers who sought to blacken the memory of the Iconoclasts,
that Leo III closed an institute of higher studies and burnt
alive its professors is now generally regarded as a legend
without historic foundation. We cannot use this report in
any attempt to reconstruct the history of the university in

Constantinople, though it may truly reflect the policy of
Leo III to favour the military class at the expense of the
teachers of the university.
After the restoration of the icons Bardas, the uncle of
Michael III, wishing perhaps to emulate Bagdad, reor-
ganized the university in the Magnaura Palace. He did so
on strictly secular lines, though the head of the school, Leo
the Mathematician, had previously lectured on philosophy
in a church and had then become an Archbishop. Here
Photius and others taught, and Cyril, the Apostle of the
Slavs, learned all 'profane* branches of science but no
theology. Under Constantine VII, with his passion for
encyclopaedic knowledge, we hear of four chairs those for
philosophy, geometry, astronomy, and rhetoric, with supple-
mentary teaching in arithmetic, music, grammar, law, and
medicine. From the professors and students the Govern-
ment, the Church, and the Courts of Law drew their highest
officials.
The reigns of the military Emperors Nicephorus II,
John Tzimisces, and Basil II seem to have brought educa-
tion to a low ebb. It is true that Simeon the Younger found
teachers about A.D. 1000, and Psellus learned from Nicetas
and John of Euchai'ta, but unless the latter's complaints are
purely rhetorical he and his fellow student Xiphilinus had to
teach each other law and philosophy. In 1045 Constantine
IX, wishing to create a body of intelligent public servants,
re-founded the university and laid down the conditions under
which the professors and students should work. The
university was divided into two Schools one a school of
philosophy with Psellus at its head, the other a school of
law with John Xiphilinus as its director (nomophylax).
Admission to the university was to be open to capacity
without payment of fees and here future judges and adminis-
trators would receive their training. It would seem that from
about A.D. 1 150 the important post of director of the law
school was generally held by one of the clergy attached to
the church of St. Sophia. The last outstanding nomophylax
was Harmenopulus (fourteenth century), who began to learn
law at sixteen and to teach it at twenty-two years of age.
The position of 'Chief of the Philosophers' was both

arduous and dangerous. Psellus taught, besides philosophy,
eleven subjects, including geography, music, and astrology,
and was 'the soul of the university' 1 as well as one of the
imperial counsellors, yet he was compelled to make a public
profession of the orthodox faith, while his successor John
Italus fell into disgrace with his Emperor for teaching heresy.
At one period of acute dogmatic dissension the office was
vacant for fifty years, till Manuel I filled it with a deacon of
St. Sophia. In 1 204 all that was left of the university moved
to Nicaea, and the application of Baldwin I to the Pope for
leave to found a 'Latin* School in Constantinople was
frustrated by the jealous Faculty of Paris. Michael VIII
restored the School of Philosophy under the Court official
George Acropolites> who lectured in St. Sophia on mathe-
matics and Aristotle, but not on Platonism, which the
Emperor considered 'unsound'. The next head, Manuel
Holobolus, once an imperial secretary, was proposed by the
Patriarch and called 'Rhetor of the Great Church'. It was
desired that provision should be made so as to allow the
clergy to share in the lay education. The letters of the
schoolmaster Theodore Hyrtacenus show that by A.D. 1300
State-paid teachers were regular Government officials, but
private education had become popular, and the erudition of
Nicephorus Gregoras and Theodore Metochites was both
acquired and imparted in private houses. In 1445 John
VIII transferred the School of Philosophy to another build-
ing because Argyropulus reported that schools in Italy were
better housed. But Pope Pius II (1405-64) could still write
of Constantinople as the 'home of letters and citadel of high
philosophy' and the end came only with the Turkish con-
quest in 1453.
(iii) Of the School of the Patriarch no history can be
written, for our sources are totally inadequate, but it would
seem probable that this school existed side by side with the
university throughout the history of the Empire. While the
regular subjects of instruction were taught in the school, these
subjects were all designed to lead up to the study of theology.
The Rector of the School the 'oecumenical teacher' was
1 Cf. F. Fuchs, Die hoheren SckuUn <uon Konstanttnopel im Mittelalter (= Byza
n-
ttmsches Archw, ed. A. Heisenberg, Heft 8), Leipzig & Berlin, Teubner, 1926,
p. 3 1.

entrusted with the exposition of the Gospels, while there was
a special teacher for the Epistles. There may have been
several schools under the control of the Church. Thus under
Constantine VII we find schools in two of the churches of
Constantinople, though practically nothing is known of their
teaching. An eleventh-century teacher begs the Patriarch
to transfer him from a small school to a larger one. The
institution where Alexius I educated his soldiers' orphans
was attached to St. Paul's Church, but though Anna
Comnena mentions the subjects of study it is not clear
whether it was under Church or State; certainly Michael
VIII reopened it after 1261 as a 'School for learning
Grammar', and honoured both teachers and pupils with his
personal favour. Brehier believes that it gave secondary
education in connexion with, yet distinct from, the uni-
versity. Near the present Fetiyeh Mosque, 1 once the Church
of the Holy Apostles, stood a school described about 1 200
by Nicolas Mesarites, and it is open to question whether this
was the old university under new patriarchal supervision, or
merely a patriarchal school of special eminence. Ordinary
elementary education was given in the halls around, but in
the centre the higher branches were handled by the students
themselves, who met in small groups seminars for (often
noisy) discussion, when no Professor presided. The
Patriarch John Camaterus went daily to settle disputes and
answer questions. Finally, as the 'oecumenical palace
School', where Bessarion and Gennadius studied in the first
half of the fifteenth century, was directed by a celebrated
'Rhetor', a deacon of St. Sophia, we may fairly conclude that,
from the time of the dogmatic controversies under the
Comnenian Emperors till the fall of the Empire, public
education even when provided by the State was largely con-
trolled by the Church and its Patriarch. And after the fall of
Constantinople (1453) it was the Church which kept the
Hellenic consciousness alive: it was in the schools maintained
by the Church that was fostered the spirit which led to the
War of Independence. A German scholar has written: the
'desire for schooling is implanted in the Greek nature from
the times of late antiquity and ... it has prevented the Greeks
1 See p. 192.

from losing their national consciousness. Even the Church is
held so sacred by the Greeks only because she has been the
bearer of national ideals in the times of slavery/ 1 Such was
the persistence of the Byzantine educational tradition.
GEORGINA BUCKLER
1 Karl Dieterich, Hellenism in Asia Minor (Oxford University Press, New York 3
1918), p. 44.
VIII
BYZANTINE LITERATURE
BYZANTINE literature as a whole is not a great literature; few
would study it for pleasure unless they were already inter-
ested in the culture of the East Roman Empire.
Trnrrnr nf By^nrine civil iV^tjon this literature.
significance. It is not on purely
standards that it must be judged; in form and in language

the works may be traditional, but the men who wrote them
are representative of the vigorous life which sustained the
Empire and it is they whom the reader seeks to know through-
Ac traditional medium. The Byzantine writers can never
forget that they are the heirs of a great past which has created
the literary moulds to which they must to the best of their
ability loyally adhere. The form is determined: it is the task
of a sympathetic scholarship to recover the individuality of
the writer as it is expressed through that inherited form.
Throughout the long history of Byzantine literature there
is continuity; here there is no break with the ancient world
as there is in western Europe. But in that continuous history
it is possible to distinguish certain periods which have their
own characteristic features. And the first of these is clearly
marked: it stretches from the early years of the fourth
century to the beginning of the seventh century from the
reign of Constantine the Great to that of the Emperor
Heraclius. It is essentially the period of transition from the
culture of the ancient world to the distinctively Christian
civilization of the Byzantine Empire. This period saw the
decline and extinction of pagan literature, while in nearly
every sphere of literary composition it-created the new forms
which were to serve as models for later Christian writers.
Thus the literature of these centuries can naturally be con-
sidered from two very different standpoints. The student of
classical literature regards it as the melancholy close of a
glorious achievement: he stands at the patient's death-bed;
to the historian of Christian literature the fourth and fifth
centuries will appear as the climax of the patristic age, the
period when the Church entered into and in large measure
222 BYZANTINE LITERATURE

appropriated the classical inheritance of ancient Greece,
abandoning in fact, despite many protestations to the con-
trary effect, its earlier hostility to the culture of the pagan
world. It was not for nothing that the Christian scholars of
Alexandria had become the disciples of the Greeks : the views
of Origen might be condemned as heretical, but Origen's
influence remained of paramount significance. The leaders
of the Eastern Church in the fourth century had studied at
the same universities as their pagan contemporaries, and the
rhetoric which all alike had learnt did not fashion pagan
eloquence alone, it moulded also the form of Christian
literature. The Church had allied itself with ^ the imperial
Court: with Eusebius in the reign of Constantine the Great
a new courtly style arose to fit the changed conditions. The
curiosity and subtlety of the Greek intellect were not dead:
they did but take fresh spheres for their exercise: they de-
serted pagan philosophy for Christian theology and on this
ground fought their old battles. The creeds of Christianity
stand as permanent witness to the debt of the Church to
Greek thought. Thus, as pagan writers wearied and gave up
the unequal struggle, Christian authors pressed into the new
land, fired by the very novelty of their effort to a truly
creative activity. Zosimus (fifth century) is the last of the
pagan historians of the Empire, but the sixth century saw in
Procopius, who recounted the triumphs of Justinian, a
Christian successor in no way inferior to the champion of the
older faith. In this period ecclesiastical history, which begins
with Eusebius, comes to a close with Evagrius: only the
monastic chronicler remains to record the history of the East
Roman Church. Eunapius, the pagan, wrote the biographies
of the Neoplatonist philosophers of the fourth century, but
these are the memoirs of a narrow circle of enthusiasts : their
disciple, Julian the Apostate, in his Misopogon acknowledged
that their credo could win but little response from the
citizens of Antioch, the capital of Roman Asia. But in
Egypt a new 'philosophy* had been born, the asceticism of
the Christian monk, and the greatest literary work of Athana-
sius, the Life of Antony the Egyptian solitary, is a religious
classic which was read alike in the East and, through the
medium of a Latin translation, in western Europe. This
BYZANTINE LITERATURE 223

Christian 'philosophy* peopled the deserts which bordered
the valley of the Nile and spread monasticism through the
Western provinces of the Empire. The Life of Antony
became the model which was followed by later Greek hagio-
graphers. Neoplatonism itself profoundly influenced the
theology of the Cappadocian Fathers, Gregory of Nazianzus
and Gregory of Nyssa, while somewhere, it would seem,
about the year A.D. 500 the unknown author who issued his
writings under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite, the
contemporary of the Apostle Paul, borrowed largely from
the work of the Neoplatonist Proclus. When those writings
had once been accepted as the product of the Apostolic age,
Neoplatonic thought became part of the orthodox theology
of the Eastern Church. Proclus wrote Neoplatonic hymns,
but in the first decade of the fifth century the pagan Synesius
became a Christian bishop and on the model of the poetry of
the classical world gave to the Greek Church some of the
earliest of its Christian hymns. In the sixth century Greek
religious poetry reached its climax in the hymns of the
converted Jew Romanus, but these were no longer written
in the quantitative metre of classical poetry, but in the
accentual rhythm which was natural to the Christian congre-
gations which thronged the churches of Constantinople.
Under the early Empire the Stoic and Cynic missionaries
had journeyed through the Roman world carrying their
message to the common folk through the medium of the
sermon (diatribe): the intellectualism of the Neoplatonist
had no such popular message, but in Antioch, the city which
had remained unresponsive to the religious zeal of Julian the
Apostate, Chrysostom filled the Christian churches, and to a
populace attracted by the spell of his oratory proclaimed
alike on Sundays and on weekdays the moral demands of the
new faith. The Neoplatonist could appeal to the lettered
aristocracy of the Greek world: the Christian preacher could
hold a wider audience. The same transformation can be
traced in other branches of literature: the pagan epigram dies
but the Christian epigrammatist follows only too closely the
ancient models. In the fifth century Nonnus produces his
Dionysiaca the last pagan epic; in the seventh century
George of Pisidia as poet laureate of the East Roman Court

writes his Christian epics, in which he celebrates the victory
of the Emperor Heraclius over Rome's hereditary enemy,
the Persian : the altars of the fire-worshippers are overthrown
and the True Cross, rescued from Persian captivity, is
restored to the Holy City, Jerusalem. But this Christian epic
is no longer written in hexameters : it preserves with faultless
accuracy the quantitative iambic metre of the classical age,
but in feeling it is already a twelve-syllabled line of accentual
verse with an accent on the last syllable but one.
These examples may serve to illustrate the character of
this first period of transition and re-creation. It is followed
by a gap in literary history of some 200 years (A.D. 650-850).
The Empire was fighting its life and death struggle with the
Arab invaders and the early Caliphate: Africa, Egypt, and
Syria were lost to the infidel: new foes the Slav and the
Bulgar were threatening Rome's hold upon the Balkan
peninsula. Men wielded the sword and not the pen. The
literature of the Iconoclasts has perished, and even from the
side of the defenders of the icons, apart from theological
writings, we have only the world chronicles which were
produced within the shelter of the monasteries. It is in the
seventh century, however, that Maximus the Confessor
carried on the mystical tradition of Dionysius the Areopa-
gite, while in the eighth John of Damascus restated in
classical form the orthodox faith of the East Roman Church.
The third period begins with the literary revival of the
ninth century, which is associated with the name of the Pa-
triarch of Constantinople, Photius. The University of the
capital is re-founded. After the victories of the Macedonian
house men have time to study once more their inheritance
from the past, and in the tenth century the imperial traditions
are renewed by the scholar Emperor Constantine Porphyro-
genitus: the preservation of those traditions was in his view
a service rendered to the commonwealth. Towards the
middle of the eleventh century the popular songs which had
celebrated the military triumphs of the Amorian and Basilian
emperors are taken up and woven into the earliest form of the
epic of Digenes Akritas, the defender of the Asiatic march
against the Saracen emirs. 1
1 See p. 245 infra.
In the literary revival of the eleventh century Psellus is
the outstanding figure. Philosophy is studied and Neopla-
tonism challenges the supremacy of Aristotle. Byzantine
mysticism reaches its height in the hymns of Simeon the
Young, and Anna Comnena, the Byzantine princess, writes
her history of her own times.
In A.D. 1 204 the Fourth Crusade, by the capture and sack
of Constantinople, strikes the felon blow from which the
Empire never recovered. But some sixty years later, with the
restoration of a Greek sovereign to the city of Constantine,
literary activity revived and there follows the age of the
Byzantine encyclopaedists scholars such as Nicephorus
Gregoras and Pachymeres. The continuity of tradition is
reasserted with renewed enthusiasm, and the legacy of the
past is studied afresh, though that study is not marked by
any outstanding originality.
Throughout the literary history of East Rome the centres
of production are the Court and the monastery. Popular
literature received little encouragement, and the centraliza-
tion of the Empire's life in the capital did not favour the
growth of any literary activity in the provincial cities. Thus
it is only from popular hagiography that we can hope to
recover in any detail the daily life of the middle classes or
that of the people. Byzantine literature is limited in its
interests. East Roman writers either hold official positions
or they are ecclesiastics, and many of the problems which
perplex a student must perforce remain unsolved. In the
present survey it will be unnecessary to consider technical
works such as the military handbooks, while there is little to
detain us in the fields of drama, of lyric poetry, or of secular
oratory. It will be best to select a comparatively few writers
as representatives of different types of literary composition :
a mere enumeration of names would be at once futile and
wearisome.
The main division is naturally into Prose and Poetry.
Prose may be subdivided into Theology; History and
Chronicles; Hagiography, Biography, Letters, and Funeral
Orations; the Novel; Satire and Miscellanea, Poetry into
Hymns; the Epigram; the solitary 'Drama', the Christus
pattens \ Romantic and epic poems; Lyric poetry as revived
3982

tinder Western influence; and Miscellanea, including satiric,
begging, and didactic poems.
PROSE
Theology. If its bulk were the criterion, Byzantine theo-
logical literature would occupy a considerable part of this
sketch. But it is convenient to regard it, broadly speaking,
as a technical part of Byzantine writing, parallel in a sense
to the technical treatises on military and naval tactics which
it has been decided to exclude. Moreover, after the sixth
century, apart from the revival associated with the Icono-
clast controversy, it is only in the development of mysticism
that Byzantine theological literature shows any marked
originality. It is noteworthy that the three great theologians
of the fourth century, Basil of Caesarea, his younger brother
Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus, all come from
Cappadocia, and it is perhaps to Eastern influences that their
asceticism may be attributed. At the same time they show
kinship with Hellenism in their leaning towards rhetoric and
speculation ; most of their writings, unlike those of Chryso-
stom, are learned and in no sense addressed to the masses.
They are all under the influence of the Arian controversy of
their time, Basil, in addition to drawing up rulings for
reformed monasticism, wrote against the extreme Arian
Eunomius, His expository side is illustrated by his homilies
and commentaries. In his reform of Eastern monasticism
common-sense labour was to accompany ascetic abstinence.
'The ascetic*, he says, 'should pursue fitting occupations,
provided that they are free from all trading, overlong atten-
tion and base gain/ In the face of the Arian peril Basil the
statesman sought unremittingly to establish an alliance
between the Western and Eastern Churches in defence of
orthodoxy; despite successive rebuffs he persisted in his
efforts to win Pope Damasus to his views. In the organiza-
tion of asceticism on the basis of the common life that same
statesmanship was crowned with success. The Byzantine
monk as distinguished from the Christian solitary continued
through the centuries to look to Basil as his teacher and
guide. The sobriety of Basil's literary style represented a
return to Atticism, so far as that was possible without

pedantry, and that style reveals a familiarity with the
masters of Greek prose, especially with Demosthenes and
Plato.
Basil's brother Gregory was also an ardent foe of the
Arians and Eunomius, against whom he wrote polemical
treatises. Like his brother he composed homiletic works
on various parts of the Bible, and his ascetic side is illustrated
by his tract 'On the true aim of the ascetic life', the motto of
which may be said to be: 'It is the will of God that the soul
be cleansed by grace.' His eloquence and richness of style
are manifested in his funeral orations and letters.
Gregory of Nazianzus became at Constantinople the
champion of the Orthodox against the Arians, but his
polemics were relieved by the inculcation of a true Christian
spirit, as shown in his speech 'On the love of the poor'. He
earned his title of 'Theologus' by his discourses on the
Trinity. If his invectives against the Emperor Julian the
Apostate repel the modern student by their unmeasured
violence, they are yet of the greatest value as a historical
source for the Emperor's conception of a reformed paganism,
while his letters are marked by naturalness and wit. His
poems are of the greatest literary importance: in two of
these the Evening Hymn and the Exhortation to Virgins
we have the first examples of the use of the new accentual
metre as distinguished from the quantitative poetry of the
ancient world. Gregory's autobiographical poems have often
been compared with Augustine's Confessions.
Evagrius, a contemporary of the great Cappadocians, is of
significance as reviving in the fourth century the thought of
Origen. With Evagrius the monk takes his place in litera-
ture. He first outlines the aims of Byzantine mysticism, and
though his writings were condemned as heretical under
Justinian, they formed the source of the ascetic works of the
orthodox Maximus the Confessor in the seventh century,
and thus permanently influenced the later development of
Byzantine theological thought. The other primary source of
East Roman mysticism is Dionysius the Areopagite (c. A.D.
500)5 on whose works commentaries continued to be
written until the thirteenth century. The aim of devotion
for Dionysius is the ecstatic vision of God, when the soul in

complete passivity after long purification is enlightened from
above -nd is united with God. Purification, illumination,
union with God are thus the stages of man's mystical
ascent.
The triumvirate of Basil and the two Gregories marks the
acme of cultured Byzantine orthodox literature; there follow
the morasses f ~ * lonophysite and Monothelete controversy.
But the Icono .ast struggle, which began in 726 and con-
tinued at intervals until 842, created a kind of revival in
religious literature. The writings of the Iconoclasts are not
preserved, but the works of the defenders of the icons may
be represented for us by those of John of Damascus and
Theodore the Studite. John of Damascus, whose literary
activity was prosecuted in the famous Sabas Cloister in
Palestine in the time of Leo III, stoutly maintains in three
treatises that the adoration of images rests upon ecclesiastical
tradition, and that *it is not the part of Emperors to legislate
for the Church*. His great work, The Fountain of 'Knowledge,
has been called the Dogmatic Handbook of the Middle
Ages. It is a compilation, starting with Aristotelian defini-
tions of Being, going on to inveigh against heresies, and
ending with an exposition of dogmatic theology. We shall
meet with another side of this remarkable man's activities
when we consider Byzantine Hymnology.
Iconoclast controversy occupied a relatively small part
of the writings of that noble figure, Theodore, abbot of the
monastery of Studius at Constantinople from the year 798,
who exercised so great an influence on the reform of monastic
life. In him we find a link with Basil the Great, for it was
that father's ascetic teaching and his views on the duty of
common labour within the monastery which inspired the
abbot's reforms. Theodore held that Iconoclasm was a kind
of heresy. His arguments against it are contained in three
formal tracts, as well as in his letters. They are based on the
principles that there was a human side of Christ's nature and
that symbolism in religious worship is a necessity. The
defenders of the sacred icons admitted that God the Father
could not be depicted in art, but since man could be thus
represented, to deny the legitimacy of icons of Christ was in
fact to deny the Incarnation. It was false to maintain as did

the Iconoclasts that the symbol must be of the same essence
as that which it symbolized. Had that been true, the
defender of images must have agreed with the Iconoclast
that the only legitimate icon of Christ was the sacred ele-
ments after the prayer of consecration.
In the eleventh century Byzantine mysticism reaches its
climax in the work of Simeon the Young. The Greek text of
most of his writings is still unpublished, but even through
the Latin translation of Pontanus the passion with which he
sought the ecstasy of the vision of the Divine Light that
'deification* which is the supreme goal of Byzantine piety
is profoundly impressive. Here is the immediacy of spiritual
experience.
Theological writing was continued under Alexius
Comnenus (1081 1 1 18). A representative figure is that of
Euthymius Zigabenus, a monk In the monastery of Our
Lady the Peribleptos (the 'Celebrated') at Constantinople.
It was at the order of the Emperor, who himself had entered
the arena against heretics, that Zigabenus so Alexius's
daughter Anna Comnena tells us compiled his Dogmatic
Panoply, an armoury for the Orthodox theologian. It con-
sists of dogmatic statements of Orthodox views on the
Trinity, and attacks all kinds of heretics, among whom
Zigabenus included Iconoclasts, Armenians, Pauliciajns,
Bogomils, and Saracens. The author relies much on the
three great Cappadocians, and thus Byzantine theological
prose ends, as it had begun, on a note of dogma.
History and Chronicles. In profane Byzantine literature the
writing of history undoubtedly stands out most prominently.
The educated classes, owing to their employment in the
bureaucracy, were compelled to take an interest in foreign
affairs, whilst the man in the street was daily brought into
contact with folk from other countries, and was often alarmed
by threats to the city from Persian, Arab, Slavonic, and,
later, from Turkish invaders. Under these circumstances it
is not surprising that Byzantine historical writing falls into
two well-marked classes history proper, written by men of
high education in a style reminiscent of the ancient Greek
historians and intended for the intelligent reader, and popu-
lar chronicles designed for the consumption of the masses.
2 3 o BYZANTINE LITERATURE
These last were as a rule the work of half-educated monks,
and consequently redolent of the cloister.
As representatives of historical writing proper may be
selected Procopius (sixth century), Constantine Porphyro-
genitus and Leo Diaconus (tenth), Anna Comnena and
Nicetas Acommatus (twelfth), and the four historians of the
fall of Constantinople Laonicus Chalcocondyles, George
Phrantzes, Ducas, and Critobulus of Imbros (fifteenth). Of
the long line of Byzantine chroniclers, we may choose John
Malalas (sixth century), George the Monk (ninth), and John
Zonaras (twelfth).
' Procopius, who heads our list, is a good representative of
the highly educated Byzantine historian. Trained as a jurist,
he became secretary to Justinian's famous general Belisarius,
whom he accompanied on his campaigns. His great historical
work is his description of Justinian's wars against the
Persians, Vandals, and Goths, based mainly on his own per-
sonal experiences. In style he is a follower of Herodotus and
Thucydides. The work is of high merit and historical value,
especially for the information it gives on geography and the
peoples lying outside the Byzantine Empire, Apart from
the panegyrics on Justinian the histories of Procopius are
marked by a love of truth. As a supplement, he wrote later
the famous Anecdota^ the Secret History, which purports to set
out facts formerly suppressed out of fear of Justinian and
Theodora, who are now unsparingly attacked. *It was not
possible', he says in the Preface, 'to record in a fitting manner
events while the actors in them were still alive. It would
have been impossible to escape the attentions of the swarms
of spies, or avoid being detected and perishing most
miserably.' Though this outburst may lower our opinion of
Procopius as a man, it does not shake his credit as a historian.
It well illustrates the difficulties which beset a Court-
historian, and the duty of writing his master's panegyric
finds an outlet in a third work of Procopius, On the buildings
of Justinian. As a whole Procopius is characterized rather by
accuracy in fact than by a wide philosophic outlook.
In Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus 1 of the tenth century
.
1 For Constantine's literary activities, see A. Rambaud, UEmfire grec au
dixilme stick (Paris, Franck, 1870), pp. 51-174.
UYZANTINE LITERATURE 231

we reach the imperial historian and master of compilation,
the fashion of which had been set in the previous century by
the Patriarch Photius with his Myriobiblion. We may pass
over with a bare mention the great historical compilations
inspired by this monarch The History of the Emperors by
Genesius, the Continuation of the Chronicle of Theophanes
(Constantine's uncle), and the great Historical Collection in
fifty-three books (only fragments of which are extant), and
give a very brief account of the works in which Constantine
seems to have taken a considerable personal share. The book
On the Themes may be dismissed shortly as a youthful work
based almost entirely on out-of-date library information of
the sixth century. The Ceremonies is a patchwork, dealing
with Emperors who preceded and followed Constantine
it thus embodies later additions and containing catalogues
of tombs, robes, and valuables, as well as descriptions of the
ceremonies which justify the title. But these descriptions are
of great value, as they give us much information about the
Byzantine bureaucracy and the elaborate Court and religious
ceremonial. Probably nearly contemporary with the earlier
chapters of the Ceremonies is the handbook drawn up for the
guidance of Constantine's young son Romanus, afterwards
Romanus II; this work, generally known as the De admini-
strando Imferio^ may be dated between 949 and 953. The
style is somewhat bombastic, but the writer betrays a real
pride in and affection for his son, and the book is a store-
house of information concerning the peoples bordering on
the Byzantine Empire. The Life of Easil^ Constantme's
latest work, is a defence of his grandfather, and is chiefly
remarkable for its skilful slurring over of the worst features
of Basil Ts career, the murders of the Caesar Bardas and
Michael III.
Lgo_ the Deacon was born about 950. His history
describes in ten books the events of his own times (959-75),
and embraces the important wars waged by Nicephorus
Phocas and John Tzimisces against the Arabs in Crete and
Asia, and against Bulgarians and Russians. His information
is good, based partly on his own observation and partly on the
authority of contemporaries, but compared with Procopius
he is deficient in literary education, and his endeavours to

imitate Procopian style result in heaviness, affectation, and
monotony. He is honest, but not free from the superstitions
of his age.
The historians of the twelfth century are marked by a
great increase of learning, a continuation of the revival of
literary studies ushered in by the polymath Michael Psellus
(eleventh century), who included history-writing in his multi-
farious activities. This tendency is well illustrated by the
work of the princess Anna Comnena, daughter of the
Emperor Alexius I, who wrote a history of her father's
achievements under the epic title of the Alexiad. Though an
easy mark for ridicule on account of her pride in learning
and horror of the vulgar, Anna is for all that an outstanding
figure among Byzantine historians. In contrast to the
ecclesiastic Leo she is a humanist, steeped in classical reading
as well as in that of the Bible. She says in her Preface: 'I was
not without share in letters, but had brought my study of
Greek to the highest pitch; I had not neglected rhetoric, but
had read thoroughly the works of Aristotle and the dialogues
of Plato/ The Alexiad is really a continuation of the history
written by her husband, the Caesar Nicephorus Bryennius,
whom she lauds in her work, but subsequently accused of
weakness for failing to support her attempt to win the
Byzantine crown; the frustration of her hopes led to her
retirement into a convent, where she had leisure to com-
plete her task. There is no reason to suppose that Anna
deliberately departed from the high standard of truth which
she set herself, but she obviously tries to place the career of
her father in the best light. Yet even so her history, based on
personal and contemporary information, is a remarkable
account of a remarkable man. Its deficiencies spring from
an imperfect mastery of chronology and a feminine tendency
to be led away by externals. Anna shares to the full, and not
without some justification, the normal Byzantine prejudice
against the Western Crusaders.
Nicetas Acominatus, the historian of the capture of Con-
stantinople by the Latins in 1204, is a contrast to Anna in
more ways than one. Born at Chonae in Phrygia about 1 1 50,
he received his education at Constantinople, and rose high in
the imperial service. He lacks the classical leanings of the

authoress of the Alexiadi he shares her weakness in chrono-
logy, but is less carried away by personal feeling. He begins
with the reign of John Comnenus in order to link his history
with the times of Alexius, but he pays chief attention to the
period 1 1 80 to 1206 as lying within his own experience, and
in his Preface he claims the reader's indulgence on the plea
that he is making a track through virgin soil. His sources,
personal and contemporary, are good, and, though hostile
to the Crusaders, he is on the whole fair and unprejudiced.
A noteworthy feature is his interest in works of art; he gives
a detailed description of the destruction of a bronze Athena
in the Forum of Constantine, perhaps the Athena Promachos
of Pheidias, by a drunken mob in 1203, and also wrote a
valuable appendix on the artistic treasures destroyed by the
Latins.
A brightness is shed on historical prose at the close of
the Byzantine Empire by the comparative excellence of four
historians who recorded its overthrow. In the second half of
the fifteenth century Laonicus Chalcocondyles of Athens, a
man of good family, composed a history of the period 1298
1463, narrating the rise and progress of the Turkish Empire,
and the momentous events, particularly the overthrow of the
Byzantine Empire, brought about by that rise, a theme,
which, as he asserts with some truth, is second in importance
to none. Ducas writes of the progress of the Turks after the
battle of Kbssovo (1389). He was deeply religious, an
advocate of the union of the Eastern and Western Churches,
a patriotic Greek, and an ardent foe of Mahomet II.
Though not an attractive stylist, he can occasionally rise to
eloquence; he is honest, and valuable for his first-hand
knowledge of the conditions of the western coast of Asia
Minor and the adjacent islands. George Phrantzes records
in detail events between 1402 and 1478. He again was a
man of action and a trusted servant of the imperial family,
particularly of Constantine Dragases, last of the Byzantine
Emperors. His account of the siege and capture of Con-
stantinople is especially valuable, since he was an eyewitness.
He is also interesting for the strange vicissitudes of his own
career. His style, unlike that of Ducas, is attractive. Crito-
bulus of Imbros is the panegyrist of Mahomet II. He is

an avowed imitator of Thucydides, and changes contem-
porary place-names into classical forms. His history is
dedicated to the Conqueror, and is an account of his exploits.
As a Greek he apologizes for this attitude, declaring that he
is not deficient in sympathy for the misfortunes of his own
nation. His account of the siege is good and reliable, and
the history of Mahomet is of great value as written by an
educated Greek from the Turkish standpoint.
If in the writing of history the Byzantine owed his inspira-
tion primarily to the writers of classical Greece, it would
seem that the Jew of the Hellenistic period first fashioned
the type of popular chronicle of world-history later adopted
by the Christians of the Eastern Empire. Here the Old
Testament story was the common basis*
The series of Byzantine world-chronicles is opened by
John Malalas in the sixth century. He provided the model
for many successors. He was a Syrian, born at Antioch, and
his view of world-history is dominated by Antioch and Con-
stantinople. His work extends from legendary Egypt to the
end of Justinian's reign. It is a monkish production, utterly
uncritical; snippets of undigested and often erroneous 'facts'
are offered to the reader in the manner of popular journalism.
Sallust, for example, is a distinguished poet. Chronology is
mixed with complete insouciance: 'And then twenty-three
other (Macedonian) kings reigned up to Philip. At that
time there were teaching Greek affairs, as philosophers and
poets, Sophocles and Heracleides and Euripides and Hero-
dotus and the great Pythagoras.' Items culled from the lives
of the saints bulk large, but are presented in the coarsest
fashion. The curious and the miraculous especially appeal
to Malalas: we have the itinerant Italian's dog of the time of
Justinian, which picked out buried rings and returned them
to their owners, distinguished coins of different Emperors,
and in addition showed an embarrassing knowledge of
human character. But the whole is rendered amusing by its
unconscious humour, and the style, evidently well preserved
in the single surviving manuscript at Oxford, is instructive
as an example of the popular Greek of Malalas's day.
Our next typical chronicler is George the Monk, known
also as Hamartolus or The Sinner. His work was written
under Michael III (842-67), and claims modestly to be
nothing but a compilation put together from the products of
various chronographers. In time it stretches from Adam to
the death of the Emperor Theophilus in 842, though there
is a continuation to 948 by later hands. It has not the naive
amusingness of Malalas, some use of whom is 3 however,
discernible; its principal source is Theophanes Confessor
(died 8 1 7). It is a typical monkish production, its author
showing a preference for Greek mythology and monasticism.
'It is better*, says George, 'to stammer in company with
truth than to platonize with falsehood/ So we are not sur-
prised to find fanatical attacks on the Iconoclasts like this :
'Leo the Isaurian, that swinish man, hearkened to the counsel
of the deceivers and turned all the churches of the East in
his Empire upside down/ The work, which throws much
light on monasticism at the writer's period, was borrowed
from by the excerptors employed by Constantine Porphyro-
genitus and by later chroniclers; as in the case of Malalas,
George the Monk was used by the compilers of the Slav
chronicles.
John Zonaras, who completed his chronicle towards the
middle of the twelfth century, produced a work of a rather
different type. He was a man of superior education, who
rose high in the imperial service, but subsequently withdrew
to a monastery on one of the Princes' Islands, where he com-
piled his Epitome of Histories. He describes how he was
urged to the work by his friends who said: 'Use your leisure
to produce a work of common benefit, and you will have
recompense from God laid up for you from this also/ The
Chronicle begins with the Creation and ends with the acces-
sion of John II Comnenus in 1 1 1 8. Zonaras takes a higher
rank than his predecessors in the same field. He uses better
sources while thinking it necessary to apologize for his
interest in profane history. He draws upon Herodotus,
Xenophon, Josephus, Plutarch, and Dio Cassius, as well as
Procopius, George the Monk, and Psellus for later times.
In style he is fairly fluent, but not uniform, being influenced
by that of his sources.
It is easy to criticize the manifold deficiencies of these
popular historians. But the world owes a debt to the long

line of monks, since they at least provided^some intellectual
food for the masses, who would otherwise have been in
danger of mental starvation, while for some periods they are
our only historical sources.
Hagiography, Biography, Gfe. The lives of the saints
stand in close relationship to the chronicles, for which, as we
have seen, they supplied material; like the chronicles, they
were intended to interest and edify the masses, and ^ were
usually written in the popular language. When the period of
the persecutions ceased, the saint took the place which the
martyr had held in the early Church. It was to his mediation
that the folk of East Rome trusted; it was the Virgin or the
saint who was the most powerful defender of the cities of the
Empire; the relics of the saints were eagerly sought for and
highly prized. The Life of Antony, written by Athanasius,
formed, as was noted above, the model for subsequent bio-
graphies. It is in the sixth and seventh centuries that Greek
hagiography is seen at its best in the work of Cyril of
Scythopolis and Leontius of Neapolis (in Cyprus). The
former wrote, as a contemporary, memoirs of the great
solitaries of Palestine, while Leontius in his life of John the
Almsgiver, Patriarch of Alexandria, paints vivid pictures of
life in the Egyptian capital. In the biography of John the
Almsgiver we see the Patriarch, 'like a second Nile*, pouring
forth a rich stream of charity helping refugees from the
Persian invasion of Syria, founding poor-houses and
hospitals, and not disdaining to secure the employment of
just weights. It is these earlier biographies that are of most
value. Simeon Metaphrastes, who in the eleventh century
(as recent researches seem to show) collected and rewrote in
the rhetorical style of his day the older and simpler docu-
ments, has thus often destroyed the element which gives to
them their freshness and their charm, though he affords us
an indication of the extent of the material we have lost.
Another life full of interest is that of Nicon Metanoites 1
(died 998), who was the apostle of Crete after its recovery
from the Saracens by Nicephorus Phocas. Nicon recon-
verted the islamized inhabitants to Christianity, and subse-
1 See Schlumberger, Un Empereur byzantinaudtxitme nlcle (Paris, Firmin-Didot,
1890), p. 96.

quently transferred his beneficent activities to Sparta. The
biography of Nilus of Rossano 1 (died 1005), founder of the
monastery of Grottaferrata, is instructive for lay and eccle-
siastical conditions in Italy in the tenth century. The saint's
life was full of varied activity; he lived as an ascetic in caves,
held diplomatic interviews with marauding Saracens, resisted
extortionate Byzantine officials, and introduced Basilian rul-
ings into Italian monasteries.
also a valuable source of biography.
Striking examples are those pronounced by Theodore of

the monastery of Studius (759-826) over his mother
Theoctista, who stands out as the type of pious but practical
Byzantine lady, and over his uncle Plato, abbot of the
Saccudion monastery, whose rules supplied a pattern to
Theodore for his own monastic reform. Michael Psellus
(1018-78?) delivered funeral speeches over the famous
Patriarchs of his own time Michael Cerularius, Constan-
tine Leichudes, and John Xiphilinus. The letters of both
Theodore and Psellus also throw light on contemporary
conditions, while those of Michael Acominatus (c. 1 140-
1220), which he wrote when Archbishop of Athens, depict
the plight of the city, whose inhabitants were clothed in rags
and fed mainly on barley-bread.
Two special monographs of a historical character deserve
mention on account of their intrinsic interest. In 904 the
Byzantine world was stirred at the news of the terrible sack
of Salonica by Saracen corsairs under their renegade leader
Leo of Tripolis. We have a graphic account of this event
from the pen of John Cameniates, a priest of the city, who
with other members of his family was carried off into cap-
tivity. The account was written at Tarsus, where Cameniates
was awaiting exchange. The picture of the prosperity of
Salonica, with its surrounding non-Greek population, is
well drawn. The sufferings of the 22,000 young of both
sexes in the heat and confinement of the galleys are described
with unsparing realism, as are the circumstances of their
sale into slavery at Chandax in Crete. Though not a man of
very high education, Cameniates writes in a tolerable style.
1 See J. Gay, L'ltaUe mtridionaU et F Empire byxantin (Paris, Fontemoing,
1904), pp. z68-86.

The second monograph is the Strategicon of Cecaumenus, a
Byzantine aristocrat, composed in the eleventh century. The
work cannot be dismissed as purely technical, for besides the
remarks on the art of war, it contains rules for good morals,
Court-behaviour, and housekeeping. Its most valuable
feature is the information it gives about the various peoples
brought into contact with the Byzantine Empire. There are
besides passages containing miscellaneous historical items
from the time of Basil II to Romanus IV Diogenes. Cecau-
menus considered that Constantine IX Monomachus ruined
the Empire by paying tribute to frontier enemies instead of
maintaining troops to repel them,
The Novel. This is represented by a single work, an
'edifying' tale of high merit, Barlaamjznd loasaph. It is of
Indian origin, and is a life of Buddfia turHe3 into Christian
Greek form. The Greek adapter, John the Monk of the
cloister of St. Sabas, wrote it probably in the first half of the
seventh century. 1 'It is a tale', he says, 'told me by pious
men of the interior country of the Ethiopians, whom report
calls Indians, having translated it from trustworthy memo-
randa/ It is noteworthy that the second century Apology of
Aristeides, discovered in a Syriac version in 1889, âs been
incorporated in the Greek tale. The story relates how
Abenner, a king 'of the Hellenic faction' in India, learned
by astrology that his son loasaph would be converted to
Christianity. To avert this he built his son a splendid palace
in a remote spot. But his design failed, for even in his
isolation loasaph could not be kept from the sight of the
sick, the blind, and the dead. Under stress of feelings thus
inspired, he met the ascetic Barlaam, disguised as a merchant
and feigning to carry a stone of great price. Barlaam turned
him to Christianity, whereupon the prince renounced the
half of the kingdom bestowed on him by Abenner, con-
verted his father, and ended his days as a pious hermit. His
church-tomb became a place of miracles.
This medieval Greek novel is written in a fluent and
rhetorical style, and the character-drawing is good. The
1 The adaptation has been attributed to John of Damascus. Cf. the English
translation by G. R. Woodward and H. Mattingly, St. John Damascene, Barlaam
and loasaph, in the Loeb Classical Library, London, Heinemann, 1914.

tale has spread far and wide ; the Western versions begin in
the twelfth century, and it is also diffused in Slavonic and
Armenian editions.
Satire and Miscellanea. There are three remarkable
Byzantine prose-pieces which can be placed under the head
of Satire, though this classification is least applicable to the
earliest, the Philopatris. The situation revealed by it fits the
reign of Nicephorus Phocas (9639); there are discontents
in the capital which threaten the security of the Emperor,
such as those brought about by this monarch's heavy taxation
and limitation of church property, while on the other hand
there are victories over the Persians (Arabs) and Scythians
(Russians). In the first part of the work the author attacks
the 'pagans' of Constantinople the humanists who by their
enthusiasm for the literature of classical Greece were once
more introducing the gods of the ancient faith; in the second
part he is more serious : here he turns against those who are
plotting against the State. The true Patriot (Philopatris) will
free himself from both. Religious orthodoxy mated with
unquestioning loyalty to the commonwealth is the writer's
faith. The two other Byzantine satires the Timarion and
the Mazaris are frank imitations of Lucian's Nekyomanteia\
they belong to the twelfth and fifteenth centuries respec-
tively. 1 The Timarion has much the greater literary merit,
and satirizes types, such as physicians, rhetoricians, and
sophists, in an amusing way.
A brief mention of one curious work may here find a place.
The Christian Tomography of Cosmas was written in the sixth
century and in it the author, a merchant who had traded with
India and on his retirement had withdrawn into a monastery,
sought to prove from the Scriptures that the earth was flat
and not spherical. Geographers have always made use of the
accounts given by Cosmas of Ceylon, of the ports, commerce,
and animals of India, and of the Kingdom of Axum in
Ethiopia. But his work has a further interest, for Cosmas
can ask unusual questions, e.g., why did God take six
days to create the world? And the answer which he gives
to that question is unexpected: it was that the angels might
1 For a full analysis of both these works cf. H. F Tozer's article in the Journa
l
of Hellenic Studies, vol. h (i8Si), pp. 233-70, on 'Byzantine Satire'.
gain a full understanding of God's purpose so that they
might not fail in their service of man despite constant
disappointments due to man's sin and perversity. Having
been led gradually into a comprehension of God's ultimate
aim they could take fresh heart and persevere. While
Cosmas's study of Gospel texts is remarkable, his account of
the widespread expansion of Christianity forms a striking
picture. His curiosity is alert and eager; in Ethiopia he
copied inscriptions and incorporated them into his book.
It is thus to him that we owe our only record of the expedi-
tion which Ptolemy Euergetes made into Asia soon after
247 B.C. Cosmas is one of the comparatively few Byzantine
authors who have been translated into English: his work, if
one has learned the art of 'skipping 7 , is well worth reading.
POETRY
Hymns. Antiphonal hymns were very early in use amongst
the Christians, as we know from Pliny's famous letter to
Trajan. The first Greek hymns were in classical metres
hexameter, elegiac, iambic, anacreontic, and anapaestic;
such were those composed by Gregory of Nazianzus and
Synesius in the fourth and fifth centuries. The gradual
transition of Greek from a quantitative to an accented
language brought about the great change associated with the
name of Romanus, whereby the character of Greek hymno-
logy was finally established. The discoveries of Cardinal
Pitra confirmed the reputation of Romanus as the most
forceful and original of Greek hymn-writers. Of his life
little is known, save that he was born in Syria and became a
deacon of the church at Berytus, He migrated to Constanti-
nople in the reign of Anastasius I, and it was under Justinian
that the greater number of his hymns were composed.
Romanus was, it would seem, influenced by the poetry of
Syria, the land of his birth, though the origin of the elaborate
metrical scheme of his hymns is still obscure. Ephraem the
Syrian in his hymns had dramatized Bible stories and intro-
duced into them vivid dialogues which reappear in the poems
of Romanus. The hymns of Romanus are sermons in poetic
form, and they have much in common with such rhythmic

prose as that of the sermons of Basil of Seleucia. The music
to which they were sung is lost; their content would suggest
that they were rendered in a kind of recitative, the congrega-
tion joining in the refrain. With Romanus the Greek hymn 1
took on its specific form, consisting of a heirmos^ which fixed
the rhythm of the succeeding troparia, or stanzas; these
correspond to the heirmos in the number of syllables, in
caesura and accents. Some idea of the caesura can be gained
from the pointing of the Psalms in our own Prayer Book
version. A number of stanzas from three to thirty-three
make up the Ode or Hymn. Romanus is said to have
written a thousand hymns, some eighty of which are pre-
served. The subjects range widely, and include Old Testa-
ment stories such as that of Joseph, New Testament episodes
like those of Judas's Betrayal, Peter's Denial, Mary at the
Cross, and activities of Saints and Prophets; there are also
hymns for festivals, e.g. Easter and Christmas. The hymns
are characterized by their dramatic qualities, and bear some
resemblance to oratorios, being of considerable length. This
length and a certain dogmatic discursiveness tend to obscure
for Western taste Romanus's undoubted poetic qualities. In
the Christmas hymn the Magi discourse on the moral
condition of the East, and the Virgin instructs them in
Jewish history; on the other hand, in the Easter hymn the
women's announcement of the risen Lord is full of poetic fire.
A famous hymn, perhaps composed by the Patriarch
Sergius, is the 'Acathistus', still sung in Greek churches in
the fifth week in Lent. As its name implies, it is sung with
the congregation standing. It consists of twenty-four stanzas
in honour of the Virgin Mary, whose protection delivered
Constantinople from the Avars and Persians in 626.
As time went on, Greek hymns increased in elaboration
of form, a change illustrated by the Canons, which consist
nominally of nine Odes, but practically of eight. 2 They were
mainly composed during the period of the Iconoclast
1 See the introduction to J. M. Neale's Hymns of the Eastern Church, 4th ed.,
1882 (Neale, however, had not the advantage of Pitra's discoveries) j Alice Gard
ner,
Theodore of Studium, pp. 236-52. See, further, the Bibliographical Appendix
at p 412 infra.
2 Some idea of their content can be gained from the translations of portions
given by J. M. Neale, op. cit., though the metres are admittedly changed.
3982 P

controversy. The principal names associated with the
writing of the Canons are those of Andrew, Bishop of Crete,
author of the Great mid-Lent Canon, John of Damascus, and
Theodore of the monastery of Studius, all of the eighth and
ninth centuries. The main characteristic of these long hymns
is an advance in refinement and elaboration, accompanied by
some loss of spontaneity. This tendency grew in the ninth
century and led to a progressive loss of feeling and vitality,
with the result that Byzantine hymn-writing practically died
out by the eleventh century.
The Epigram. The Byzantine fondness for the epigram is
an example of the links which unite Byzantine to Alexan-
drian civilization. The epigram was alive from the fourth to
the eleventh century. From the fourth to the sixth the
classical tone predominates. Representatives of this period
are the purely pagan Palladas of Alexandria, whose gloomy
spirit is summed up in the pessimistic couplet:
Thou talkest much, but soon art reft of breath;
Be silent, and yet living study death,
and Agathias and Paul the Silentiary, who illustrate the
revival of the epigram in the reign of Justinian. Some Attic
grace still clings to them, as in Paul's verse inscription for a
drinking-cup :
From me Aniceteia wets her golden lip;
Be mine to give her bridal draught to sip.
In the eighth and ninth centuries the tone is chiefly Christian.
Theodore the Studite generally uses the iambic trimeter, and
his epigrams deal with saints, images, churches, and all sides
of monastic life. The most interesting are those addressed
to the humbler servants of the monastery, such as the shoe-
maker or the cook. The shoemaker is bidden to remember
that his work is the same [sic] as that of the Apostle Paul, and
in general 'making drudgery divine' is the prevailing idea of
these epigrams. They are a welcome change from the elegant
trifles of an Agathias.
John Geometres, who attained high rank in the tenth
century, is typical of the mixture of the pagan and Christian
elements which appear in the epigrams of this and the
following century. He writes on Nicephorus Phocas and

John Tzimisces as well as on Plato and Aristotle, but does
not neglect the Fathers of the Church, saints, and hymn-
writers. A similar mingling of the sacred and profane
characterizes the graceful epigrams of Christophorus of
Mytilene in the eleventh century; with him and his con-
temporary John Mauropous the Byzantine epigram dies out.
A word, however, should be said on the two great collec-
tions of Greek epigrams made respectively by Cephalas,
probably under Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the tenth
century (the Anthologia Palatina)^ and by Maximus Planudes
in the fourteenth. The latter is based on Cephalas's collection,
but contains nearly four hundred additional epigrams. These
anthologies are good examples of the Byzantine love of
collecting to which the world is considerably indebted.
The Drama. There has been of late much discussion of
the question whether there was in the Byzantine Empire any
acted religious drama corresponding to the mystery-plays of
Western Europe. It was formerly thought that Liutprand
of Cremona had reported 'the taking up of the prophet
Elijah in a stage play' as happening during his visit to Con-
stantinople, but it would now appear that this view is based
upon a mistranslation: Liutprand was objecting to the
performance of scenic games upon a religious festival com-
memorating the ascension of the prophet Elijah. The
evidence for the performance in tenth-century Constanti-
nople of something in the nature of a mystery-play thus
disappears. There is one literary religious drama the
Christus Fattens which has been preserved, but this is a
learned work and it is unlikely that it was ever acted. In it
the central figure is the Virgin as the author himself indicates
in the lines :
Her first my story will to you present
Mourning, as mother should, in hour of woe.
The date of the work is probably the eleventh or twelfth
century; the language is an almost comic mixture of Euri-
pides, Sophocles, Aeschylus, and the Bible. The author
starts by saying:
Now in the manner of Euripides
I will the Passion tell which saved the world.

The commingling of pagan and Christian elements in the
play is very characteristic of the period.
In 1931 Vogt published the text of a Greek mystery-play
on the Passion. The manuscript which contains this text
comes from Cyprus and the play, it appears, must have been
composed under the Lusignan rule of the island. It is to be
regarded, writes Samuel Baud-Bovy, as an effort to acclima-
tize on Greek territory the mystery-plays which were then
flourishing in the West. It is probable that the attempt was a
failure. This is the sole text which gives clear evidence of an
acted religious drama amongst the Greeks of the Middle
Age, and Baud-Bovy has no hesitation in asserting that
'Byzance n'a pas connu de th&itre religieux'.
The Byzantine theatre knew only mime and pantomime,
revues and music-hall sketches, dances and satiric interludes.
Cultured students read the classic tragedies and comedies,
but they were not acted. Of the ephemeral mimes no texts
have been preserved, and thus, in a chapter on Byzantine
literature, a discussion of the evidence for the influence of
the Byzantine theatre would be out of place.
Romantic and Epic Poems. The writers of the East Roman
capital produced no genuine epics and we have only the most
miserable specimens of Byzantine romantic poems. But in
the provinces an important epic could be produced, as well
as poems of real romanticism, when Greek imagination was,
as it were, revivified by the fresher breezes blowing in from
the West.
The Byzantine 'romantic' poem is represented by two
names Theodore Prodromus, with whom we shall meet
again, and Nicetas Eugenianus, both of the twelfth century.
Their iambic trimeter productions are respectively Rhodanthe
and Dosicles (based on Heliodorus), and Drosilla and
Charicles (derived from Achilles Tatius and Longus). To
the same class belongs the prose romance of Eustathius
Macrembolites called Hysminias and Hysmine, also of the
twelfth century. The machinery of all three is similar
capture of the beloved one, parting of the loving pair by
pirates, and their miraculous reunion, or, as the argument
prefixed to Eugenianus's work puts it: 'Flight, wander-
ings, waves, captures, violence of brigands, imprisonment,

pirates.' They are centos of the worst variety, marked by
extreme coarseness. On the other hand, the romantic poems
which appear in the next century reach, under Western
influence, a higher plane. Such are Callimachus and Chry-
sorrhoe (thirteenth century), whose theme is the rescuing of a
princess from a dragon by a prince and includes a wealth of
magical apparatus, and Lybistrus and Rhodamne (? fourteenth
century), in which a princess is won by a Latin prince from a
Prankish rival at a tournament. Equally touched by Prankish
influence is the interesting romance of Belthandrus and
Chrysantza. 1 The three poems mentioned are all in the
popular fifteen-syllable 'political' metre, as is an attractive
poem of a rather later date (fifteenth century), Imberius and
Margarona, which is entirely based on a French romance,
though this has been modified to suit Greek taste. The poem
describes the winning of the Neapolitan princess Margarona
by the Provencal prince Imberius, and the remarkable
adventures of the pair. It is worth noting that this poem
influenced the author of the great seventeenth-century
Cretan romance, the Erotocritus.
[At my request Professor Mavrogordato has generously contributed
this section on the Digenes Akritas Epic: it is to be hoped that he will
publish an annotated English translation of the poem. N.H.B.]
The Epic. The Epic of Digenes Akritas occupies a place
of peculiar importance in Byzantine literature. It is notj as
is sometimes said, the picture of a secular conflict between
East and West. Such a notion would have been meaningless
in the Byzantine world. The hero of the epic who gives to it
the name of his origin and occupation brings peace to the
borders of the Empire. It marks with its associated tales and
ballads a transition between medieval and modern Greek
literature. It draws not only on Byzantine histories and on
local chronicles, but also, to an extent hitherto unrecognized,
on Hellenistic writings and on a mass of folk-lore much of
which is still current in the Greek world, and being untouched
by Western influence it may be said to transmit through
romance and ballad a faint folk memory of the ancient world.
1 This and Lybistrus and Rhodamne have been translated into French by Gidel
in his Etudes sur la httfrature grecque moderne (Paris, 1866).
The epic tells how there was once an Arabian Emir who
was a prince in Syria. One day he came raiding over the
frontier into Cappadocia and carried off the daughter of a
Roman general of the Doukas family who had been banished
from his estates. Her five brothers ride in pursuit and over-
take the Emir who, having been outfought, reveals that the
girl, sometimes named Eirene, is unharmed; if he may
marry her he will come over with all his followers into
Romania (the Roman Empire). His name is Mousour, and
he tells them that he is a son of Chrysocherpes, a nephew of
Karoes, and a grandson of the great Emir Ambron. His
father is dead and he was brought up by his Arabian uncles
as a Muhammadan. So they all returned rejoicing to Roman
territory, where he was baptized and married to Eirene. A
son was born to them called Basil, afterwards known as
Digenes, because he was born of two races, and Akritas,
because he chose to live alone on the frontiers. The Emir's
mother writes to him reproachfully from Edessa, and after
some disagreement with his brothers-in-law he rides off to
visit her and soon converts her, too, with all her household and
brings them back with him rejoicing. The fourth book turns
to the hero of the poem, the young Basil, and describes his
first acquaintance with wild beasts and robbers and his court-
ship of Evdokia, daughter of another general of the Doukas
family. He carries her off by night, forces her father and
brothers to consent, and takes her back to his own father's
castle for the wedding. The presents from the bride's father
included embroidered tents, golden icons, hawks, leopards,
the sword of Chosroes, and a tame lion. Afterwards Digenes
and his bride rode out to live alone; he destroyed many
robbers and kept the peace on all the frontiers of the Empire.
His fame reached the ears of the Emperor who rode down
to the Euphrates (mentioned here for the first time) to
congratulate and honour him while Digenes lectured the
Emperor on his imperial duties. The next two books con-
tain a collection of disconnected episodes. In the month of
May he defends his bride against brigands and wild beasts.
He describes some of his past adventures in love and fighting ;
these culminated in a meeting with the Amazon Maximo.
The picture of Maximo, appearing on her black horse before

daybreak on the river bank, has a poetical quality not attained
elsewhere in the epic. Digenes built a palace on the Euphrates
and made a garden, and here he lived devoting his wealth
to good works and to the maintenance of peace. Here
he fell ill and died after recalling to Evdokia the lovely
adventures of their life in the wilderness, and she, seeing
him die, fell dead in the middle of her prayer; so ends all
earthly glory.
Of this epic there are seven versions extant and there are
also Ballads of the so-called Akritic Cycle: these picture a
different world of supernatural exploits, magic weapons, and
talking animals in which Digenes is only one among a
number of half-effaced heroes. They represent a different
level of interest in the same community: they are not to be
regarded as the direct sources of the epic.
Some of the characters of the epic have been identified :
Chrysocherpes, father of the Emir Mousour, is Chrysocheir,
a leader of the Paulician heretics who was defeated by the
Byzantine forces in A.D. 873. Karoes, uncle of the Emir,
reflects Karbeas, another Paulician leader, and Ambron,
grandfather of the Emir Mousour, represents the Syrian
Emir, Omar of Melitene, who became the ally of the
Paulician Christians in the revolt against the Empire. The
supposed period of the Digenes Epic is the century A.D. 860
960; its scene is laid in the parts of Mesopotamia between
Samosata and Melitene, and also in Cappadocia where the
Paulicians were persecuted. But the writer of the epic never
mentions the Paulician heresy. He names the Paulician
leaders only as brave enemies hardly distinguishable from
the Arabs. The hero is set in a Paulician environment, but
the resistance of the heretics is only a faded backcloth to the
poem : its interest is not religious.
The poem must have been written at a time when tran-
quillity had been restored on the Euphrates frontier, which
would point to the reign of Constantine IX Monomachus
(1042-54): its composition may thus be placed about the
middle of the eleventh century.
Romantic histories like that of Alexander the Great,
romantic biographies like those of Barlaam or of Apollonius
of Tyana y biblical romances like the story of Joseph as told
*4& BYZANTINE LITERATURE

by Josephus, novels containing one or two historical names
like Chariton's Chaireas and Callirrhoe (in which the heroine is
a daughter of the Syracusan general Hermocrates) had
established in Hellenistic literature a firm tradition of more
or less historical romance. The writer of Digenes was well
in the line of this tradition. Of the Alexander Romance he
has many clear reminiscences. The figure of the Lonely
Sage with the privilege of outspokenness in the King's
presence was authorized by Barlaam and by Apollonius and
also by any number of Byzantine saints. For descriptive
passages he borrowed freely and verbally from the pure
novels of adventure, from Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius.
The idea of the double descent of Alexander and other great
men is a commonplace of Greco-Oriental romance. Kyria-
kides has shown that Byzantine historians emphasized the
double descent of Leo V (8 13-20) of whom the very word
digenes is used and of Basil I (86786). Our poet may
have had local chronicles of places like Edessa and Samosata.
He may have had some folk-chronicles in verse like those
produced in Crete after the insurrection of 1770. He would
have found in Mesopotamia a reservoir of legend drawn
from all the countries of the Near East and rediffused in all
the languages that there overlapped. He clearly had access
to both literary and popular sources and he had, further, the
intellectual grasp to blend both in the popular medium of
the fifteen-syllable 'political* verse.
Although the poet lacked emotional depth, he had enough
originality to give his romance a purpose its theme good
government and the guarantee of peace by a union of
Christian and Arab. The first three books are entirely con-
cerned with the hero's father, the Emir Mousour: he, as son
of Chrysocheir-Chrysocherpes the Paulician Christian who
married Omar's daughter, was himself a digenes, the son of a
mixed marriage uniting two creeds and two races. Thus the
poem is a duplication of the same story, two complementary
versions, the first about the father and the second about the
son, both father and son being heroes who were neither pure
Christian nor pure Arab, but the best of both. In Digenes
Akritas we have a double story of double descent, a romance
reflecting old alliances between Syrian Arabs and Paulician

Christians from Commagene and Cappadocia presented as a
message of peace upon the troubled eastern frontiers of the
Byzantine Empire.
JOHN MAVROGORDATO
Lyric Poetry. Of genuine lyric poetry, before the influence
of Western chivalry made itself felt, Byzantine literature had
nothing. In a fifteenth-century manuscript, preserved in the
British Museum, is contained an attractive group of love-
songs, known, without much justification, as Rhodian. 1
They form a kind of lover's handbook. The lyrics include a
dialogue between a youth and a maiden, arranged in alpha-
betical stanzas, complaints of a lover, also arranged alpha-
betically, and a love-test for a short and bashful youth, in
which he has to compose a hundred stanzas beginning with
the numbers one to a hundred, a sentence which is subse-
quently reduced. The girl says :
Young one, upon a hundred words I will now question thee;
If thou resolvest these aright, kisses in full there'll be.
In reality these so-called Rhodian love-songs are popular
songs belonging to the Archipelago, reminiscences of which
can still be heard, though the freedom accorded to women
is perhaps a Prankish trait. There seems little doubt that
they go back to a date earlier than the fifteenth century.
Miscellanea. In late Byzantine literature there is a large
class of miscellaneous poetry in the popular fifteen-syllable
'political' metre, at first unrhymed, then rhymed. Verses of
a popular character emerge here and there at an early period,
and they appear to have been used to give vent to the satiric
strain inherent in the populace. Such were those shouted by
the crowd to the Emperor Maurice at the end of the sixth
century with allusion to his numerous illegitimate offspring,
or to Alexius Comnenus in recognition of his cleverness in
counteracting a plot against his family. A popular song of a
different type is the spring-song quoted by Constantine
Porphyrogenitus. Satiric poems were composed by the ever-
fertile Theodore Prodromus in the twelfth century in the
form of beast and bird fables; those of Archilochus and
Semonides of Amorgos remind us how long a tradition lies
1 See Hesseling and Pernot, Chansons d* Amour (Paris, 1913).

behind this form of composition. Others embodied a
lamentation over his married life and a complaint against
two abbots who presided over a monastery in which he was
a monk. By other writers even religion is parodied after a
fashion set by Michael Psellus in the eleventh century, when
he attacked the drunken habits of a fellow monk in verses
which are a parody of the Mass. This tendency to parody
sacred things reaches its extreme form in the prose satire
'On a Beardless Man 7 , which consists of a series of curse-
formulae arranged on the lines of the Mass.
In the twelfth and following centuries flourishes the
*Begging' poem, and here again Prodromus is forward with
his grovelling, but not unamusing, compkints to the
Emperor Manuel Comnenus. The concluding lines give
the key to the whole production:
Deliver me from poverty, save me from hunger's pains;
Drive off my creditors' assaults and all the world's disdains.
An even lower pitch of grovelling is reached by Manuel
Philes in his begging requests to the Palaeologi; his ambi-
tions seem never to rise above the acquisition of food and
clothing.
A fondness for the moral didactic poem is characteristic of
later Byzantine times, perhaps because the period was by no
means distinguished for a high standard of morality. Such
poems mainly advocate worldly wisdom as a means to attain-
ing practical success in life. The most prominent of these
poems is the Spaneas, which takes the form of an admonition
by Alexius, son of John Comnenus, to his nephew (twelfth
century). It is written in popular Greek, and the advice,
though platitudinous, is on the high plane of 'Love thy
neighbour*. The poem was freely imitated in later versions,
and in these the moral standard shows a decided change for
the worse.
Special mention may perhaps be made of the descriptive
poem in Byzantine literature. The tradition here is un-
mistakably Greek. It is as old as Homer's portrayal of the
Shield of Achilles, and the treatment of such themes, con-
stantly imitated and improved upon during the whole
classical period, had attained a notable standard of excellence.

The best-known Byzantine example is, perhaps, Paul the
Silentiary's contemporary description, in hexameters, of
Justinian's reopening (probably in 563) of his great Church
of the Holy Wisdom, which had been damaged by an
earthquake. Its main interest for modern readers lies in its
accurate and scholarly delineation of the architectural
features of St. Sophia. But the author, despite derivative
mannerisms and occasional frigidity of treatment, was a true
poet. In a memorable passage he pictures the great dome at
night, with its illuminated windows shining reassuringly
over city and harbour, and welcoming the sailor as he leaves
the storm-tossed Euxine or the Aegean and faces the last
perils of his homeward voyage. 'He does not guide his laden
vessel by the light of Cynosura or the circling Bear, but by
the divine light of the church itself. Yet not only does it
guide the merchant at night, like the rays of the Pharos on
the African shore; it also points the way to the living God. 9
Many features in the epic of Digenes Akritas^ in the
Romantic poems, the 'Rhodian' lover's handbook, and in
satiric verse point forward to modern Greek literature, where
the love-song is prominent, the satiric element is common,
and a high standard of morality and family life is inculcated.
The centralization of life in Constantinople, which, it was
noted, did not favour literary activity in the provinces in the
earlier Byzantine period, gave way before Western influences.
Thus it is that after the period of the Crusades a link is
established between Byzantine and modern Greek literature.
F. H. MARSHALL
IX
THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE
BYZANTINE PERIOD
THE political results of the conquests of Alexander the
Great could not but exercise a vast influence upon the
language of Greece. The congeries of dialects, local and
literary, which had hitherto constituted the Greek language,
was now called upon to produce from its own resources a
medium of intercourse fitted for the use of an immense area
of the world, in much of which other and quite alien lan-
guages had hitherto flourished, A certain simplification of
die inflexions was natural, and a loss of the peculiar delicacies
of Attic syntax was inevitable; the non-Greek world could
hardly wield the idiom of Plato and of the orators and poets
of the older Hellas. To this need the response of the Greek
was the formation of the Hellenistic koine, 17 KOIVTJ SiaAe/cros-,
the 'common language'. The very existence of such a
generally accepted form of the language, whatever local
differences it may have had within itself, was sooner or later
fatal to the old dialects : the basis of modern Greek is quite
naturally the koine.
To this clean sweep of the ancient dialects we have one
interesting exception : the dialect still spoken by the Tsako-
nians in the Peloponnese does undoubtedly, in spite of recent
objections to this view, retain among much that has come to
it from the surrounding districts large elements from some
ancient Laconian dialect* Beyond this the remains of the
ancient dialects are very scanty. 2
1 There is a list of the Dorisms in Tsakonian in Hatzidakis's Etnlettung in die
neugnecMsche Grammatik (Leipzig, 1892), pp. 8, 9. The anti-Doric view is ex-
pounded by H. Pernot in Revue pkanttjque, vol. iv (1917), pp. 153-88. This
opinion Pernot has revised in his Introduction cL Vttudc du dialcctc tsa&ont
en (Paris,
i934)> p. 102. He now thinks that Tsakonian is based on a local kome with a
strongly Dorian tinge.
2 Hatzidakis, Emkitung, p. 165. There is also a list of Dorisms in Hatzidakis's
MiKpa ovppoXrj (Comptes rtndus deFAcad* d*Atfanes, vol. lii (1926), p. 214). The
se
have been disputed by Pernot in BtbL de rcole des Hautes Etudes, vol. xcii, pp.
52-
66, where he again deals with Tsakonian.
GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE BYZANTINE PERIOD 253

This disappearance of the old dialects worked towards a
certain uniformity in the language, but before it could be
complete and how far the old dialects may have lingered
in out-of-the-way places, no one can say the changes which
were leading to the formation of modern Greek were well on
their way, and with them came the entirely fresh dialect
divisions which mark the new language. To assign dates is
not easy, but Hatzidakis shows reasons for believing that
these processes belong to the long period between Alexander
the Great and the reign of Justinian in the sixth century A.D.,
and that in any case the modern language was in its main
features formed long before the tenth century. 1 The
changes involved were naturally carried out more rapidly in
some places than in others, and of this we have very strong
evidence in the conservative character of some of the con-
temporary spoken dialects. 2 These dialectic differences
throw, as we shall see presently, much light on the character
of the spoken language of Byzantine times.
But the victory of the koine and its progeny was not at
first complete. To men with a scholarly or antiquarian turn
of mind it seemed an inelegant declension from the ancient
standards of literature: hence began the atticizing school,
represented most typically by Lucian, and all through the
Byzantine period writers were imbued with this same purist
spirit, though their standard was no longer Attic but the
koine itself. And as this was also the language of the Church,
fixed and liturgical, it was possible to check the processes of
linguistic change to a really very remarkable degree. This
standardizing of Greek was not without its good effects, but
it inevitably produced a certain deadness, as learning and
literature became the close preserve of trained scholars rather
than a field open to all comers. A crabbed obscurity was
admired, and writers forgot the truth embodied in the dictum
1 Afejr<uo>w*a tcaivca 'JEAAijvwca (Athens, .R/&io0iJKij flfapaaAiJ, 1
905), vol. i, pp. 406,
480.
2 Notably in the dialects of Asia Minor I speak of the time before the cata-
strophe of 1923 Cyprus, south Italy, and certain oases, such as Chios, Rhodes,
and Thrace: for which see Psaltis in Acfucaypafacov 'Apx&w (published by the
National Dictionary now being compiled in Athens), vol. v, p. 258. For a summary
account of the dialects, see The Dialects of Modern Greece', m the Trans, of the
Philological Society, 1940.
254 GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE BYZANTINE PERIOD

of Koraes, that it is not enough for a writer to be learned and
clever (ao<os); he must be clear (OO^TJS) as well.
In the development of Greek we have therefore to follow
up two parallel but interacting currents: one is of the spoken
language and the other is of the Greek of the written, classical
tradition. For the second our task is plain; we have only to
examine the voluminous literature of Byzantium, nearly all
of which is in this form of the language. But this very fact
has inevitably concealed from us a great many steps in the
shaping of spoken Greek; of its local developments earlier
than the thirteenth century we in fact know very little more
than nothing. For what happened earlier than this date we
have to depend upon contemporary documents papyri and
inscriptions and still more upon the prohibitions of gram-
marians and their distinctions between classical and vulgar
words and expressions, and upon the slips and errors of
writers who were all the time aiming at writing anything but
the popular Greek whose course we are trying to trace. It is
fortunate that by the side of the learned historians we have
the more popular chroniclers, such as Malalas of the sixth
and Theophanes of the eighth century, and the writers of
lives of the Greek saints, all of whom allow themselves to use
a less classical style. Here, of course, a knowledge of the
modern language is indispensable; it alone enables us to read
the evidence correctly by letting us see the end towards
which the language of the Byzantine period was tending.
For the twelfth century and onwards we have a series of
texts, beginning with the satiric poems of Theodore Ptocho-
Prodromus, written with more or less consistency in the
spoken language : in all these writings we find a mixture of
old and new forms, the latter steadily advancing at the
expense of the former. Much obviously depends on the
method of interpretation applied to these texts, and their
evidence has, in fact, been read in two very different ways.
Hatzidakis held that the inconsistency of their language
arises from the writers using sometimes the ancient forms of
the written tradition, and sometimes the forms with which
they were themselves familiar as a part of the ordinary
spoken Greek of the day, and that therefore what we are to
see in these texts is the already formed modern language
gradually forcing itself into literary use. By the side of these
texts in popular Greek there are always the learned texts in
which the authors as consistently as they could steadily
followed the written, classical tradition.
To this view of the matter Psychari was fundamentally
opposed. He rejected Hatzidakis's view of the mixed
language, and therefore elaborately tabulated the increase in
the texts of certain modern formations, and held that this re-
flects not their gradual adoption into written Greek, but their
actual creation and spread in the spoken language. 1 From
this it results that he put the formation of the modern
language centuries later than Hatzidakis, and held that the
most we can say of the period before the tenth century is that
the koine was then weakening; that from then to about the
year 1600 modern Greek was shaping itself, and that this
process was only complete in the seventeenth century.
Hatzidakis's evidence for the earlier centuries is largely
drawn from the formation of new types of nouns and verbs
regarded as involving the deep change in the language by
which modern Greek was formed. All this very cogent
evidence Psychari was able to set aside by a simple assertion
that morphology, word-formation, and phonetic changes,
being three different and separate things, may occur quite
independently one of the other. I have no hesitation in
following Hatzidakis in this matter.
In discussing the double current of all later Greek it will
be convenient to begin with the language of the written
tradition, the parent of the 'purifying speech', the katha-
revou$a y of our own day.
In no department of life is the innate conservatism of the
Byzantines more marked than in their adhesion to the old
written tradition of literary Greek. Pride in their nationality,
in their culture, and in their past; the haughty distinction
between themselves and the outside barbarian peoples; all
1 Psychari's views are expressed in his Essats de grammaire htstorique nto-grecq
ue,
part i (Paris, 1886), especially pp. 164-88. Hatzidakis criticized this paper ve
ry
severely, both the method and the way in which it was applied, in the Zeitschnft
fur
vergletchende Sprachforschung, vol. xxxi (1892), pp. 103-56, and gave his views
on the early development of the modern language in his Emlettttng in die neugr.
Grammatik (1892), pp. 172-229, repeated in Meacuwvuca ical via 'EXXyvucd, vol. i
,
pp 406-81, with a further criticism of Psychari, ibid., pp 482-536.

these tended to confer on the language as handed down to
them by a long chain of writers, always scholars and often
saints as well, an almost sacred character, and produced
from time to time revivals of classical style, when the written
language was in the natural course of events showing signs
of yielding to the pressure of the vernacular and following
the new developments of the spoken Greek. Hence it is that
later authors often write more classically than their pre-
decessors : Photius in the ninth century is more classical than
Theophanes in the eighth; Psellus in the eleventh and
Eustathius of Thessalonica in the twelfth than the Emperor
Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the tenth. 1 Such a revival
was indeed very marked in the period of the Comneni, and
Anna Comnena conspicuously uses a purer style than some
of the earlier writers. These backward movements present
us with the extraordinary result that in point of classical
correctness there is not very much to choose between, say,
Procopius, writing at the beginning of our period, and
Critobulus, recording the conquests of the Turks and the
end of the Greek Empire in the fifteenth century. The same
tendency towards an artificial purism, again with the same
patriotic motive behind it, was very apparent in the literary
movement associated with the regained freedom of Greece
in the early years of the nineteenth century. The Orthodox
Church with its long, complicated, and much-loved liturgies
and services disposed people in the same direction. Member-
ship of the Church was a mark of nationality, and it is due
to the use of the liturgical language that a great many words
not used in ordinary speech are for all that perfectly intelli-
gible to almost any Greek. 2
Psellus was the great literary figure of the eleventh
century. He uses the purest written Byzantine style, which
he himself calls the koine^ a Greek which is in the direct line
of ascent from the 'purifying speech* of the present day. This
Greek may be briefly described as being as classical as the
writer could make it. 3 In accidence Psellus keeps in the
1 So Hatzidakis in Zettschriftf&r vergleichende SprachforscJtung, vol. xxxi,
p. 108.
2 See Hatzidakis's pamphlet JTepl TTJS evon?ro? -njs *E>Xrjvueijs rXtfooijs (
*J&rcrg/>l$
TO *E9vucov /7avcm0rq/i6>v, Athens, 1909), p. 141.
3 Here I follow Smile Renauld, tude de la langue et du, style de Michel Psellos
(Paris, 1920).

main to the old rules, yet, when he comes to employ exactly
those forms which we are most certain had been for a long
time out of spoken use, there are distinct signs that he found
himself in the difficulties natural to a man writing a language
which he does not speak. Notably the verbs in pi are very
much broken down, and the pluperfect has very often
dropped its augment. In syntax we have the same story: by
the side of classical constructions we find what we can only
call 'Byzantinisms', cases in which Psellus' s lack of familiarity
with ancient idiom caused him to make what, considering his
aims, it is not unfair to call blunders. And another mark of
artificiality is his predilection for precisely the forms which
in the spoken language were most dead. Thus he has a
particular liking for the dual and a strong tendency to over-
work the optative, both being marks of forced purism, and
to be seen as such when we remember that in the natural
Greek of the New Testament the dual is not used at all and
the optative is extremely rare. The perfect too is handled in
a way that suggests that it is a dead and not a living form.
Equally significant is the tendency to confuse the present
and aorist imperative, a confusion which is at the back of the
modern Cappadocian rule by which the contracted verbs use
only the present, and all the other verbs only the aorist of the
imperative, without any distinction of meaning. 1
Rather more than a century later comes Anna Comnena. 2
Her purist ideals are the same as those of Psellus, and she
dislikes to record even the names of barbarians, for fear that
they may defile the pages of her history. But she is less
successful than Psellus in her imitation of the ancient models.
We may even find a sentence in which she uses in successive
principal clauses a future indicative, an aorist subjunctive,
and an aorist optative, without any distinction of meaning.
The prologue of the Alexias> her history of her father's
achievements, gives us her notion of the proper equipment
for an historian. After remarking that history alone can
save the memory of events from being swept away by the
1 R. M. Dawkins, Modern Greet in Asia Minor (Cambridge, 1916), p. 139.
2 Georgina Buckler, Anna Comnena, a Stuffy (Oxford, 1929, p. 483). The
sentence I refer to is in Alexias, xiii, p. 410 D. For her horror of 'barbarian'
names cf. ibid., vi. 14, p. 182 B; x. 8, p. 289 D; xiii. 6, p. 393 C.
3982 .

stream of time, she announces herself proudly as 'nurtured
and born in the purple, not without my full share of letters,
for I carried to its highest point the art of writing Greek,
nor did I neglect the study of rhetoric: I read with care the
system of Aristotle and the dialogues of Plato, and fortified
my mind with the quadnviuin of sciences.' The ideals of
the writer of a traditional style could hardly be put more
clearly.
At the very end of the Empire we find the same ideals :
Critobulus writes in the same purist style, and his opening
words set the key to his book as a whole. 1 Just as Thucydides
the Athenian announced himself as the author of his history,
so nearly two thousand years later Critobulus of Imbros begins
his book with the words : 'Critobulus the Islander, who traces his
origin to the men oflmbros, wrote this history, judging it not right
that matters so great and marvellous, happening in our own time,
should remain unheard, but that he should write them down, and
so hand them on to the generations which will follow us*
But all the world does not go to school. No doubt the
level of education in Byzantium was high, nor was there any
lack of successors to the pedantic Ulpian, the orator of Tyre,
who would never sit down to a meal without first making
sure that every word on the bill of fare was to be found
(fcctrat) in the classical authors, for which he earned the
nickname Keitoukeitos, a man who asked always 'Is the
word classical or not?' (/cetrcu; ov /cetTai;) 2 We may be sure
too that pains were not spared to keep the language spoken
at the imperial Court and in official circles at least very much
nearer to the classical norm than the Greek of the streets
and of the market-place. 3 But at the same time no efforts
can keep a spoken language entirely stable. Beneath the
language of the written tradition the conversational idiom of
everyday life was continually developing fresh forms, and
1 Published in Carl Muller's Fragments, histortcorum graecorwn, vol. v (Paris,
1873). The prologue (p. 54) runs in the original: ]&T6fkvXosovvawrtis,T*'npi
aTaT<ov
*Itipuar&v, rfjv gvyypatfyv -n/vSc f uveypcu^c, SiKOtwaas ^ flrpay/iara oura
> peyaAa KOU
Bavfjutora c^* ijjuuv yeyovara /icivcu anficouora, aAAd fvyypculrdfj&vos ira
paSowai rats
2 Athenaeus, Book I, ch. i. In the Loeh edition, voL i, p. 6, line 5,

3 Evidence for the purity of the Greek spoken by the much secluded ladies of
the Byzantine aristocracy is to be found m a letter of 1451 from Filelfo to Sfor
za.
The passage is on p, 183 of the 1478 edition of Filelfo's letters.

perhaps all the more easily as its work was untouched by the
efforts of scholars, who were devoting themselves primarily
to the preservation of their treasured inheritance, the
written language, to the avoidance of solecisms and of such
incursions of the spoken language into it as would seem from
their point of view to be simply barbarisms.
Here the question arises : what do we legitimately mean
by the very frequently used word 'barbarism* P 1 If we look
impartially at the formation of the modern language, we
cannot call everything non-classical a barbarism; to call the
use of dm with the accusative a barbarism is patently
absurd. Yet the word has a real meaning. What may
properly be called a barbarism is an error made in speech or
writing by a man trying to use a language of which he has no
real knowledge, or aiming at using an obsolete type of his
own language; of barbarisms of this latter sort the medieval
Greek texts are fulL Such errors are very instructive, for
they tell us at once that the word or form so used was no
longer a part of the living language ; it was a thing for the use
of which -there was no longer a genuine linguistic conscious-
ness. I give some examples. In ancient Greek ctV with the
accusative and &> with the dative are kept distinct: in modern
Greek both senses are rendered by ek with the accusative,
and this began very early. So when Byzantine authors use
v with the dative it is a purist archaism, and when they
carry it so far as to use their e> to express 'motion towards',
they are committing a barbarism, and one that tells us that,
in fact, & with the dative must at that time have been a dead
form. This barbarous use of the preposition is, indeed, very
common. Again, in the Chronicle of the Morea we find an
aorist participle d/cowcm>, and this is used for both the
singular and the plural: 2 from this we can deduce that the
writer was not really familiar with aorist participles, certainly
not in their classical form. The present participle, on the
other hand, supplies us with a set of examples which cannot
properly be called barbarisms. Already in the papyri the
1 The subject of 'barbarisms' I have treated at some length in a paper called
'Graeco-barbara*, in the Trans, of the Philological Society for 1939.
3 John Schmitt's edition (London, 1904), line 701, where the codex kafniensis
reads *Aieovat>v ravra o* apgovre? TOW <f>payKiKov faoadrov, and the pa
rtstaus, not
much better, rjicovoas, ic.rX There is another example in line 744.

masculine terminations of the present participle active are
used for the feminine: an example is (the nominative)
ywaiKs ofwvovras, women swearing. Then later the accusa-
tive singular masculine is used without distinction of gender
or number or case. These uses have been called barbarous,
but when we find in modern Greek the indeclinable par-
ticiple in -ovra and the more developed form in -ovras, we
shall be likely to think that all these seemingly barbarous
forms were in actual use: they are not real barbarisms, but
rather they prove that in actual usage the linguistic sense for
the declined participle was breaking down, and that the
undeclined participle of the modern language, with its
special use, was gradually taking its place. 1 A real barbarism
is a sort of linguistic Melchisedek, 'without father, without
mother, without descent': these masculine for feminine
forms are a part of the history of the language.
The use of the third person of the reflexive pronoun for
the first and second persons is found already in Hellenistic
Greek, and continues to be common: thus the eleventh-
century text Barlaam and loasaph contains a number of
examples. 2 This again we cannot call a barbarism, because
in modern Greek eavro^, and even though less commonly
/*avro(v, is used for all three persons : an example is Kvrraga
rov eavro /AOV, I took a look at myself 2
Modern Greek usage can therefore help us towards a
knowledge of the spoken language of the Byzantine period.
Sometimes, however, in the medieval texts we meet with
forms that belong neither to the classical nor to the modern
language. Such forms, if well established, are not to be
rejected as mere barbarisms, but are to be regarded as inter-
1 For this see Hatzidakis, Etnleitung in die neugriechtsche Grammatik, p. 144,
with many examples, from which I take the one in the text.
3 e.g. on p. 270 m the Loeb edition (St. John Damascene, Barlaam and loasapt,
London, 1914) we find Orjaaupov ecurroi fl$ TO /icAAov ocrvAov (hjaavpiaov, and
on
p. 290: rats operais 30t eavrov. I accept Peeters's argument that this text is n
ot
by John of Damascus, but by Euthymius, Abbot of Iviron on Athos. For further
discussion see Analecta boUandianoj voL xliz (1931)9 pp. 276-312; and Byxantton,
vol. vii, p. 692.
3 For this and many other examples see Louis Roussel, Grammaire descriptive
du Rometque Utteraire (Pans, n.d [1922 ?]), p. 125. For instances of the usage
in Barlaam and loasaph see Loeb edition (cited note a supra) at pp. 40, 270,
284, &c.

mediate between the old and the new. 1 Thus the instru-
mental dative went out of use very early, and gave place
successively to & with the dative, 8x with the genitive, ^w-ra
with the genitive, and finally to what is in use to-day, perd or
/AC with the accusative. 2 Here is a whole series of inter-
mediate forms. Again, between the old synthetic future and
the modern future made with 6d and the subjunctive we have
the medieval form made with e\;a> and the aorist infinitive;
a form which still exists in the modern language, but
expresses not the future but the perfect. 3 A study of popular
Greek will yield many more such instances. Thus we have
already seen that the present participle has now been reduced
to an indeclinable fragment of its old self. Yet there was in
Byzantine Greek a tendency to extend its use by combining
it, and other participles as well, with the verb to fo, and
in this way forming analytical tenses. We find plenty
of examples in Barlaam and loasaph: thus awaJSpoi&v fy
and fy cwroareiAas' are equivalent to an imperfect and a
pluperfect, whilst awSiaiwvl&v Scry is a durative future. 4
For this idiom there is no room in modern Greek with its
loss of the participles, and it is a feature of the medieval
language which led to nothing, but before it perished its
extension was considerable. In the eighteenth-century
translation into popular Greek of the Lausiac History 5 this
usage is so frequent as to be a real mark of the style of the
book; it has been preserved, too, in Tsakonian. Here the
present and imperfect of the indicative have been lost
though not the subjunctive present and in their place the
present participle is used with the present and imperfect of
the verb to be. Thus / see is for the masculine opovp i&i
(= p$v clfjLoi) and for the feminine opovap & (=
1 For these forms see Hatzidakis, Emkititng m die neugrtechische Grammatzky

p. 15, and also his McaawaviKa. xol via. 'EhXyviKO., vol. i, p. 373.
2 From Jean Humbert, La. Disparition du datifen Grec (Paris, 1930), pp. 99-160
and p. 199.
3 This form and the change in its meaning are discussed by Hatzidakis in
Meacuwvuca teal pea 'EAAiptJca, pp. 598-609.
4 The references to the Loeb edition (see p. 260, n. 2) are pp. 518, 45$, and 60
2.
Renauld finds examples in Psellus, though he takes occasion to remark that they
are not quite equivalent to the corresponding tenses of the verb whose participl
e
is used in this way; see tude de la langue et du style de Michel Psellos, p. 378
.
5 AaxauiKav. cjcSooi? vea. Vtflgpac. 1913, j&i/fttomuAcww B. Kb/uroyta.

cl/mi), and we see is opouvTcp Zpt for both genders, the
specifically feminine participle having been lost in the way
already described. 1
On these two lines the language developed, and it is not
an exaggeration to say that these two currents of Greek,
classical and popular, have existed side by side from the
very beginning of our period, and very probably even a
great deal earlier, right down to the present day with its
disputes on the 'language question'. What is particularly
obnoxious to the modern champions of popular Greek is
any coexistence of different forms of a language : any such
'doubleness of language' (StyAwaaia) they regard as harmful
and absurd. 2
From the fifteenth century we have an interesting piece of
testimony that the Greeks themselves were very well aware
of this state of affairs. The Cypriot chronicler Makhairas
says that before the Prankish crusaders had seized the island
the people had been capable of writing 'good Greek',
pcDfjuLiKa /ca0oAca, and had used it for correspondence with
the Emperor, but that when French was brought into the
island and they were cut off from their cultural headquarters,
then their Greek became barbarous. He puts it in this way:
'we write both French and Greek, in such a way that no one
in the world can say what our language is'. 3 The traditional
written Greek kept up by their connexion with the capital
was lost, and the islanders were left with their uncultivated
vernacular to which was added, as a further element of
corruption, the influence of the language of their French
conquerors.
The Hellenistic 'common language' began very early to
split up into dialects, of which the descendants are being
spoken to-day. Evidence for the age of these fresh divisions
may be seen in the preservation in certain districts of features
of the ancient language which began very early to change
in the direction of the norm of modern Greek. An example
is the ending -as of the accusative plural; this began to dis-
1 Forms quoted from C. A. Scutt, Annual of the British School at Athens, vol. xi
x
(1942-3), p. 168.
2 Representative here is Greek Bilingualtsm and some Parallel Cases, by Peter
Vlasto; Athens, at the 'Hesda* Press, 1933.
3 The Chronicle of Makhairas, ed. Dawkins, 1932, vol. i, p. 143.

appear in favour of -cs- as early as the reign of Nero. But it is
still preserved in Pontiis as well as in Ikaria, and sometimes
in Chios and Rhodes: in these islands it is still distinguished
from the -es of the nominative. 1 To take another example;
the velar consonants K and x began very early to acquire a
palatal sound before e and *', and the earliness of this change
is attested by its spread over the whole area of modern
Greek excepting the island of Therasia and certain villages
in Karpathos. In these places there has never been any
palatalization, and the old velar sounds of K and x are pre-
served throughout, so that the K in, for example, /cat, has the
same sound as the K in K<iva>. 2 Again, at least as early as the
eleventh century, the feminine plural of the article followed
the masculine, and for oi, al we have of, of, pronounced /; but
in the Terra d'Otranto villages the at has been kept and the
plural runs masculine z; feminine <?, and the only difference
from ancient Greek is that the neuter is not rd but a.* It is
interesting to note that in Kastellorrhizo there has been a level-
ling change in the opposite direction and af, so far from dis-
appearing, now serves for both masculine and feminine and
for both numbers. 4 As a last example, an accented / before
another vowel now, as a rule, throws the accent on to the
second vowel, so that, for example, ira&ia is pronounced muSia.
But in Terra d'Otranto, in Pontus, and in certain districts
which fringe mainland Greece Athens in its old dialect,
Megara, Aegina, Mani, and in some of the Ionian islands
we still have the old accentuation ira&ta preserved. 5 This shift
of accent cannot, so far as I know, be dated, but it is certainly
old enough to have formed a distinction between dialects in
the Byzantine age. And these 'fringe* dialects still resist to
some extent the itacism which marks modern Greek, for in
1 For the significance of several of these dialectical variations see Hatzidakis
in
Mftr. K. vea 'EM , vol. i, p. 381; vol. ii, p. 438.
2 MixvnM&iJs-Novdpos, Ji;/*oriica rpayovSta Kapircidov (Athens, 1928), pp. 1
3, 14,
with a review in the journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xlvni, p. 249.
3 Hatzidakis, Einl. in d, neugr. Grammatik, p. 14, and for actual forms see
Morosi, Studi sui dialetti Greci deUa Terra d'Otranto (Lecce, 1870), p. 118.
4 Forms are to be found in Diamantaras's collections mZtaypojêios Myoivin $iAoA
.
JSvAAoyoy K/ir6Xca>$ 9 vol. xxi (1892), pp. 3 15-66. Examples are c ovpav6s t
* Q&avaa,
<Ppavrcroi, the Franks.
5 Thumb, Handbuch d. neugr. PoUtssprache y 2nd ed. (Strassburg, 1910), p. 9.
There is an English translation of this edition, Edinburgh, Clark, 1912

them v still retains its old pronunciation or #, and has not
as elsewhere become i. 1
Similar evidence is provided by a study of the vocabulary
of the spoken peasant dialects. 2 In them many words are
preserved that have either entirely disappeared from the
language as a whole excepting of course the high written
style or else are represented in it merely by a few com-
pounds, while at the same time the commonly used equiva-
lents are sufficiently old to show that all through the
Byzantine age the pairs of words existed side by side in the
spoken language though in different areas. Thus o<0oA/ios
has everywhere given place to pan (= o/û,<mov), except that
at Pharasa in the Taurus they used frappi: elsewhere
survives only, so far as I know, in the island verb
y to give the evil eye. Door is everywhere Tropra,
just as of/cos has given way to the equally Latin amn
(hospitium\ but in Cappadocia Ovpa was in use. In the Terra
d'Otranto we have phrea and liri for well and rainbow,
instead of TnjyaSt and Sod/>i. The word for lone is now
KOKKaXovy but in Terra d'Otranto we find steo, at Pharasa oro,
and at Sinasos in Cappadocia orou'St; all from oorow. The
rarer word sometimes has a very much larger area. Thus for
sick) appaxrros is usual; in the Greek of Cyprus and Asia
atrreirfs is preferred. 3 Of irvp only a few derivative com-
pounds are left; the common word foxfire is ôm<. But in a
song from Pharasa (unpublished) I find imvp* TO favpvo for
-put (imperative) fire into the oven, and in Cappadocia forms
from <ma were used; in Pontus cityi/zo from aTmo; in Cyprus
Xapn-pov ; all of them are ancient words and, except Xaprrpos,
not usual in any sense outside these special areas. Such
variations must go back to the very beginning of modern
dialect division if they do not go further and point to
1 Hatzidakis, Mea. K via 'J&A., vol. i, p. 53.
2 It is in household and country words that these survivals are for the most par
t
to be sought. In Karpaihos I note TO Tavrrdpi, afterbirth^ a diminutive of Kvrra
pos
(MixanjM&qs, AcuyypoîKO, ouju/ietfcra KapirdBov p. 98); Xcjudoxoprov, Acj3i
#oxo/>ro (in
which lAfuv? is preserved), a seaweed used as a vermifuge^ and many others.
3 Other such 'easternisms' are owotxrapt for icAeiSt, apra/za for ;ia)J, 0a>p
a> for
/U&rcu, /ian for wrowt/uao (shtrt). A list of these words is in Dawkins, Phi
lological
Society's Transactions, 1925-30, p. 318. For local differences in the koine itse
lf and
especially the question of an 'eastern koine ', see Thumb's Die Gnechische Sprac
he
im Zeitalter des Hellenismus (Strassburg, 1901).
differences in the koine itself. Medieval Greek was, as
Hatzidakis has said, anything but the plain and uniform
successor to the koine which we find in the Byzantine authors
of the written tradition. 1 To show its possible variations I
give a piece from the story of the Cross ; first as it appears
in a version written probably somewhere in northern Greece
and then as it is rendered into fifteenth-century Cypriot by
Makhairas.
Kal eZScv oveipov BCIKOV, STL lva$ veos avdpwTros TTJV lAcyev 'Kvpia
'jEAevrj, KaOcbs KCL[JL$ els TTjv '/(epowdjAq/jL Kal MKoSopyacs irohXovs
vaoife, TL vatKapqs /cat eScS.'
In Cypriot we have :
Kal t8ev evav opwpav, OTI evas TratSios avdpuiros ehrev TTJS' t Kvpla JJLOV
*EXevi], a>s yoiov eTroi/ces 1 i$- rrjv * lepovcraXrjp, Kal KTLCT$ TroAAois"
vaov$ t
Troiae Ka alSe/ 2
These local dialects no doubt seemed very rough and

rustic to educated persons. Thus the fifteenth-century
satirist Mazaris, professing to give a few words from the
Tsakonian dialect, in fact heaps together a few colloquial and
dialectic forms, which would seem so uncouth and pro-
vincial that they might well be from the incomprehensible
speech of the Tsakonian peasants. Among the words he
gives are two third plurals of the imperfect middle, epxovrrjcrav
and KCLBe&vrrjcrav, which in fact belong to the Peloponnesian
speech of to-day, and some imperatives in -ov, which belong
to-day, and probably then also, only to the Greek of Pontus
and of south Italy. The forms are macro? ra, Scocrov ra, <r$ ov ra. 3
In the tenth century, too, the speech of Old Greece seemed
barbarous to the educated. We have an epigram of this date :
'It was in no barbarous land but in Hellas that you became a
barbarian both in speech and manners/ 4 Again, at the be-
ginning of the thirteenth century we find Michael Acominatus,
the Bishop of Athens, writing that long residence at Athens
1 Hatzidakis, MiKpa au/j/toAij elf r. laropiav T. eAAiptK^s yAoMHn^; Comptes ren
dus de
VAcadtmie d*AtfneSi vol. m (1926), p. 214.
a Dawkins, The Ckromcle of Makhairas, vol i> p. 6; vol. ii, p. 14; see also K
Wpteuca
Xpovuai, vol. xi (1935), p. 10.
3 EUissen's Analekten (Leipzig, 1860), vol. iv, p. 230.
/$appapa)(h]s Ktu Aa'yov /ecu TOV rpovov.
Printed in G Soyter's Byzantmische Dichtung (Athens, 193^), p 24, and also in
Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelaltcr, Bk. I, ch. vii.

had made him a barbarian : /fcjSap/Ja/jtu/âi x/ooVio? & &> 'ABrjvais
. 1
The Turkish conquest could not put an end to these
tendencies in the language. The popular style, which had
already appeared in writers of the period of the Comneni,
came more and more to the fore, and Greek began to be
written in a form closely resembling the common speech
of everyday life. Good examples of this style are the books
of the eighteenth-century geographer Meletius and the
Chronicle of Dorotheus of Monemvasia. By its side the old
classical style, increasingly filled, however, with Turkish
words, continued its course, and after 1821 unfortunately
eclipsed its rival, and the modern purifying language, the
KaOapevowoL, took shape and became the language of the
nation. Its excesses produced the anti-classical movement of
Psychari and Pallis, which has certainly had the result of
moderating the classical excesses of the purists. It would
seem now that Greece has entered upon a fresh period of
'diglossy*, by some writers regretted, by others regarded as
the only means by which a writer can have at his command
the whole resources of the language.
The relations of the Byzantine Greeks with neighbouring
peoples naturally made their mark to some extent in the
language. But these contacts were never so intimate as to
have any influence on the morphology and syntax; the
frequent gallicisms in modern phraseology and the quasi-
Turkish syntax of the Asia Minor dialects belong entirely to
the world of post-Byzantine Greek, 2 and we are left here with
nothing to discuss but the loanwords. 3 Space compels us to
leave aside the few stray words, many for merchandise, from
the Arabian East, and also the mainly rustic words brought in
by Slavs and Roumanians and later by Albanian immigrants.
Nor can we do more than mention the Frankish words
introduced by the Crusaders, notably in Cyprus and the
Peloponnese, where Ramon Muntaner, the Catalan writer,
was able to say that as good French was spoken as in Paris. 4
1 Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter, Bk. I, ch. vii.
2 For mutual influence of Balkan languages see Kr. Sandfeld, Linguistique bal~
kanique (Paris, 1930).
* Collected in the not very critical book of M, A. Triandaphyllidis, Die Lehn-
e wdrUr der mittelgrtechischen Vidgarhteratur (Strassburg, 1909).
4 Ch. cclxi: eparlauen axi bell Frances com dins el Paris.

These French words have for the most part disappeared, and
the immense number of Italian words brought to the Greek
East by merchant colonies from Venice and Genoa and by
the later Italian conquerors belong only to the end of our
period.
But a little more space must be given to the Latin words.
Byzantium was a New Rome, and Roman administration,
Roman law, and the Roman army system inevitably brought
with them a great number of Latin words. 1 How deeply
such professional words entered into the language of ordinary
life may be doubted; nor can the test of survival be applied,
as all such words naturally disappeared when the govern-
ment fell into the hands of the Turks. But so many Latin
words adopted for the common objects of life are still
surviving that we may be sure that the Latin element played
a real part in the ordinary language of Byzantium, spoken as
well as written. We give a few examples of these words as
collected by Gustav Meyer: 2 dfcou/wa), accumbereâp^d^fem^
arma\ apjuapt, armarium\ /JapjSaros, iarbatus (stallion); jSiyAa,
*oigffilare\ jStoAa, viola \ jffouAAa, butta\ Scâ/Seuco, defender e\
KoA/yi, caliga. Then come the names of the months: Fcvapis,
$ppovdpi$ y and popularly QXcpdpis under the influence of
ÂejSa, because of the swelling of the springs, Mdpris, 'An-plXis,
and the rest. Further examples are <reAAa, saddle ; omrt;
Tro/rra; arpara, road\ <fx>vpvos, oven; o/eaAa, steps^ landing-place
Latin words heard every day in Greece, though many of
them have always belonged to the spoken rather than to the
written language. It is to be remarked, however, that until
the nineteenth century the extremest conservatism of Greek
was shown rather in matters of morphology and in the
preservation of ancient words than in any great dislike of
foreign words; Latin words also were so closely entwined
with the very centre of Byzantine life that, even if they were
recognized as non-Greek, they were regarded as free from the
stigma of barbarism which attached itself to later comers.
R. M. DAWKINS
1 Studiedly L. Lafoscade, Influence du Latin sur le Grec', in BibL de Vtcole
des Routes ttudes y vol. xcii, followed by Triandaphyllidis's Lexique des mots l
atins
dans Thfopkile et Us navelles de Justmien
2 In Neugnechische Studien, vol. iii (Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien,
PhiloL-hist. KL, Band cxxxii (Vienna, 1895).
THE EMPEROR AND THE IMPERIAL

ADMINISTRATION
I. THE BYZANTINE AUTOCRACY
FOR more than eleven centuries the absolutism of the
Emperors was the mainstay of the State which throughout
its history proudly bore the Roman name, although its
territory soon became limited to the Greek-speaking East.
As the bad years of civil war had at one time opened the way
to the Principate of Augustus and so to the monarchy, in
the same way the bitter experiences of the third century forced
men to set their hopes upon an Emperor whose will alone
should be the supreme authority in every department of public
life. In internal affairs a closely organized bureaucracy, in
foreign affairs an army and a diplomatic corps furthered the
execution of the imperial will. Foreign enemies, although they
varied in the course of centuries, rarely allowed the Byzantine
Empire any considerable period of peace; this pressure
explains the fact that the necessity for the imperial autocracy
and its instruments was never questioned by the subjects of
the Empire, in spite of occasional opposition to individual
Emperors.
The Byzantine Emperors considered themselves the true
heirs of the Roman Caesars. In this they were right, if we
are considering the Roman Emperors of the Diocletiano-
Constantinian type. The absolute monarch had developed
from the first citizen, the princeps, who, by the grant of the
name of Augustus, had from the first been raised above
common humanity, and who, on his death, had been num-
bered amongst the gods. Now he was decorated with the
diadem of the Hellenistic kings, as if to show by an external
sign that the Hellenistic conception of the ruler as a divinity
become man had won the day; indeed, in the Eastern pro-
vinces the Roman Emperor had been thus regarded from the
beginning, and subsequently the view had spread through-
out the Empire. For his subjects the Emperor was Lord
and God; and, to a greater extent than before, everything
THE EMPEROR AND IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATION 269

connected with his person was regarded as holy. And this
remained so, even after Constantine, when the Emperors
had become Christian, and when the conception of the God-
Emperor had to give way before the belief in a special
sanctification of the ruler conferred on him through God's
grace. Even then Adoratio, the proskynesis^ remained: every
subject when allowed to approach the Emperor a con-
cession obtained with far greater difficulty than in former
times was obliged to throw himself at his master's feet in an
attitude of devotion. This ceremony and indeed the whole
punctilious Court ceremonial with its hierarchy of rank
were oriental in origin; so, too, were the Emperor's robes,
glittering with pearls and jewels. Here Sassanid Persia pro-
vided the model ; and the general effect of the ceremonial
at which both Courts aimed was the same: the superhuman
unapproachable character of the Emperor's person was de-
liberately stressed. In pictures the Emperors are represented
with a halo. Resistance to the will of the sovereign was a
crime against something inviolably sacred : it was a sacrilege.
The title of the Emperor remained for a time the old one,
Imperator Augustus, and in the Greek official language
Autokrator Augustos. Only in 629, after the final defeat of the
Persians by Heraclius, was the Emperor called Basikus y
the Greek word for king, which had always been used for
the Emperor in non-official language. The names Autokrator
and Augustus then fell into the background ; the Empress was
always called Augusta. After the coronation of Charlemagne
as Emperor, the Byzantine ruler, as the true heir of the
Roman Emperors, called himself Basileus Rhomaion
'Emperor of the Romans'. In the tenth century the title of
Autokrator was again added when the Tsars of the Bulgarians
took the title of Basileus. Apart from being a title, the word
Autokrator became the epitome of absolute power: hence our
word autocracy.
Another Roman heritage was the method of conferring
Empire on the ruler. In principle the Emperor was elective.
The Senate, the army, and the people co-operated. When the
throne became vacant, the Emperor could be proclaimed
either by the Senate, which in course of time had in fact
dwindled to a small body consisting: of the highest officials
270 THE EMPEROR AND IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATION

of the Empire, or by the army, where again a small part acted
for the whole body. The consent of the other electoral body
was needed to establish a completely constitutional proce-
dure; hence the acclamation of the people which was repre-
sented by the citizens of Constantinople assembled in festal
array. This was a right which was maintained until the time
of thePalaeologi. Finally, afterthereign of Leo I (457), there
was added the coronation, an important act which from the
seventh century was usually performed in St. Sophia by the
Patriarch. However, in contrast with the coronation of
Western Emperors, which the Papacy made one of the
most important rights of the Church, the Patriarch officiated
at the coronation not as representative of the Church but as
representative of the electors; and his co-operation was not
regarded as essential for the legal institution of the Emperor.
But only a relatively small number out of the long line of
Emperors came to the throne in this way, for, by ancient
usage, the sovereign chosen in that manner had the right to
settle the question of succession during his lifetime by the
nomination of one or more co-Emperors whom he selected
freely according to his own judgement. On such an occasion
the reigning Emperor usually performed the ceremony of
coronation himself, as he always did when the Empress
(Augusta) was crowned. The Emperor, the possessor of the
undivided sovereignty, transferred the imperial power by
conferring the diadem as symbol of office. On the occasions
when the Emperor left the act of coronation to the Patriarch,
the latter acted as his master's servant and by his commission.
After the seventh century the position of 'co-Emperor' no
longer involved active participation in the government. It
is true that there were often more Emperors than one at the
same time, but there was never more than one ruler. All the
co-rulers shared in the imperial honours, but only one
possessed the imperial power which passed automatically to
his successor at his death. The Emperor frequently crowned
his own son. Thus, in spite of the elective principle, it was
possible to build up dynasties; for instance there was the
dynasty of Heraclius; then the Isaurian dynasty after Leo
III ; and, most markedly, the Macedonian dynasty of the
descendants of Basil I. The subjects of the Empire con-
nected the idea of legitimacy with their feeling for a dynasty.
We already find tendencies in this direction in the time of
the families of Constantine and of Theodosius the Great.
But the idea of legitimacy grew especially strong with the
advent of the Macedonian dynasty. The Porphyrogeniti, that
is to say the children of the reigning sovereign who were born
in the Porphyry Chamber of the palace, were regarded more
and more as the legitimate successors to the throne. Finally,
the succession could be bestowed upon one of the imperial
issue simply by the expression of the ruler's desire and
without being preceded by a coronation. If the Emperor was
under age or lacked the necessary qualities of a commander-
in-chief, in the interests of the Empire the way out was
found by granting the ruling power to a 'co-Emperor' the
government would then be carried on by him alone or a
council of Regency might be appointed; during this time
the rights of the legitimate successor to the throne were to be
protected. It was certainly a popular step when such a ruler
through marriage with an Emperor's widow or with an
Emperor's daughter acquired a kind of claim to legitimacy.
Loyalty to dynastic succession even brought women to the
throne; this happened with the Princesses Zoe and Theodora
(1042); their joint rule was the sole instance of a division of
the supreme power. When Zoe in the same year took Con-
stantine Monomachus for her third husband, the interlude of
female government was ended; but it was revived for a short
time after Constantine's death when Theodora was the only
sovereign. This brings to mind the Empress Irene, who
transformed the guardianship of her son into a personal
sovereignty. That personal sovereignty met with no opposi-
tion, but the anomaly was expressed in the official titulary
where Irene appeared as 'the Emperor' (Basileus). Such
cases remained exceptions.
When an Emperor was once on the throne, there was no
constitutional way of deposing him. If, however, his rule
gave reasonable ground for discontent, recourse was had to
the last resort of the subject, i.e. revolution, an expedient
which was indeed at times abused. A new Emperor was
proclaimed. If the coup failed, he met with the shameful
death of a usurper; if it succeeded, his victory was the sign

that God's favour had abandoned the dethroned Emperor.
Not a few Emperors were forced to abdicate, or met a violent
death as the result of revolts either in camp or in the palace.
Success legitimized the revolution. In a somewhat modified
sense Mommsen's description of the Principate 'the
imperial power is an autocracy tempered by the legal right
of revolution* is applicable also to the Byzantine Empire.
Another quotation from the same historian is not less
applicable here; arguing from the fact that the will of the
people both raises the Princeps to the throne and overthrows
him, he writes : 'the consummation of the sovereignty of the
people is at the same time its self-destruction'. For the
Emperor, once he was acknowledged, was the only being in
whom sovereignty rested. It is true that even as late as the
reign of Justinian one can find in the legislation a memory of
the fact that all power was conferred upon the Emperor by the
people in virtue of an old law, the lex regia or lex de imperio.
Though Leo I in his order of the day to the army might say:
'the almighty Lord and your choice have appointed me
Emperor', Justinian begins one of his novels with the words :
'since God has placed us at the head of the Roman Empire'.
No matter by what means an Emperor had reached the
throne, the idea that his sovereignty was derived directly
from God was always preserved. He is the ruler whom God
has crowned and is greeted as such; and the Emperors them-
selves make this conception their own. Michael II, writing
to Louis the Pious, said that he held his power from God; and
Basil I, who had risen from peasant stock, wrote in his advice
to his son Leo: 'you receive imperial power from God', and
*you receive the crown from God through my hand'. No
wonder that imperial power seemed to the Byzantines to be
but an earthly image of the divine power. The thought is as
ancient as the Christian Empire itself; it had already been
expressed by Eusebius in the fourth century. 1 So Constan-
tine Porphyrogenitus saw in the rhythm and order of the
by the Creator of the world. The Emperor was the chosen

of God and the Lord's anointed, to whom, like Peter, God
1 Cf. Annumre de Flnstotut de Phtklogte et d*Htstotre ortentalcs, vol. li (1934)
(Melanges Bidez), pp. 13-18.

had given the commission to feed his flock; this belief found
its symbolical expression in the anointing of the Emperor,
a rite which was probably introduced though this is not
certain as early as the ninth century. The Patriarch
anointed the Emperor with the consecrated oil, and thus
gave expression to the divine will.
But God's will could only be that a Christian sovereign
should rule over a Christian world. A necessary condition
for succession to the throne was membership not only of the
Empire but also of the orthodox Church, as well as the full
possession of bodily and mental powers. The Christian
'Autokrator* is the heir of the idea of a universal Emperor,
and at the same time he is the representative of Christianity,
which is also conceived as universal. The whole world, the
oikoumene, forms the ideal limit and the goal of his rule. He
alone has the right and the claim to be overlord of the
universe. In disregard of the facts the theory was still
firmly held that other Christian princes could be, as it were,
only the representatives of the Christ-loving Emperor, and
that territory formerly belonging to the Empire but now
in possession of unbelievers must some day return to him,
the lawful sovereign, the protector and disseminator of the
Christian faith. So the title of Basileus was again and again
refused to the German Emperors Isaac Angelus called
even Frederick Barbarossa simply rex Alamanniae ; this clearly
expresses the persistent nature of the fiction of the one
and only God-guarded Imperium an Imperium which is
represented by the Byzantine Emperor.
His imperial power, founded in this way and fettered by
no written constitution, was, theoretically at least, unlimited.
Everything was subject to the imperial majesty. As in
former times, the Autokrator held the supreme command
over the army, and, not being obliged to follow the counsel
of his advisers, could himself decide for war or for peace.
A long line of capable soldiers exercised this right, down
to the last Constantine, who was killed while fighting for
his capital. Furthermore, the Emperor was the sole and
unrestricted legislator. In this capacity he organized and
supervised the administration. He appointed the officials
and officers, allocated their powers, and determined their
3982 _

rank* He gave special care to the financial administration,
for its successful management was an essential condition for
the welfare of the State. He decided what taxes should be
levied and how the moneys raised should be applied, and he
alone controlled the income of the imperial treasuries. The
Emperor was also supreme judge, for he was the final inter-
preter of the laws.
Another duty of the Christian ruler was the welfare of the
Christian Church, whose unity was to be the strong cultural
bond which held together the Empire. That conviction had
been formulated at the outset by Constantine the Great as
one of the axioms of imperial duty. Therefore the regulation
of the Church as the support of the State was an essential
duty and at the same time a right of the Emperor. The
Church had become the State Church; it was within the
State and was part of the State organization. Its victory had
been gained with the assistance of the Emperors. That fact
was never forgotten by the Church of the Eastern half of the
Empire; it acknowledged the ruler's authority. But the
Emperor drew permanent constitutional conclusions from
individual precedents. It is highly significant that Justinian's
code, the codification of the imperial legislation in the name
of our Lord Jesus Christ, should begin with a section on the
sublime Trinity and the Catholic faith, and should combine
in the same first book the laws relating to the order of the
Church and to defence against its enemies with the laws
concerning the position of imperial officials. In this way the
Emperor co-operated in the formation of canon law. He
did this in another way too : following Constantine's example,
he summoned the General Church Councils and presided
over their sessions either in person or by deputy. He con-
firmed their canons, gave them the force of law, and took
measures for their execution. Resistance to the decisions of
the Councils was heresy, but at the same time it was opposi-
tion to the authority of the State. When the Emperor
appointed bishops and removed those who opposed him, so
long as he did not violate the traditional forms of episcopal
elections, he might well count such intervention as part of his
duty to maintain good order in the Church.
In this way the State preserved ecclesiastical discipline,

while at the same time it upheld the dogmas of the faith. It
is therefore not surprising that Emperors who were inter-
ested in theology should also have sought personally to
influence the formulation of dogma. Justinian can again be
regarded as the model of such an Emperor. The Icono-
clast controversy was the main occasion on which the
claim of the Emperor to decide ecclesiastical questions by
the authority of the State was emphasized.
This autocracy, which expressed itself both in temporal
and in ecclesiastical matters, has been described as a
Christian caliphate or sacerdotal monarchy; it is more often
known by the name of 'Caesaropapism'. But when all is said,
it is possible that the resemblance of this autocracy by the
grace of God to a theocratic government has been over-
stressed. It is true that the Emperor Marcian was acclaimed
as Hiereus (priest) and Easikus (king) at the Council of
Chalcedon, and before and after him Theodosius II and
Justinian were even greeted as Archiereus. But the question
may at least be raised: How great a part was played by
memories of the title pontifex maximus borne by earlier
Emperors and long since abandoned? Justinian himself
clearly distinguishes in a law between sacerdotium and
imperium as two gifts of God's mercy to humanity, a thought
which was also on occasion expressed by John Tzimisces. A
reminiscence of this idea of the equality of these rival powers
seems to live on in the ceremonial of the tenth century when
both Emperor and Patriarch pay to each other the tribute of
formal Proskynesis. Moreover, when in the above-mentioned
law Justinian puts forward a claim to the Emperor's right of
supervision of the affairs of the Sacerdotium^ he does so not
by virtue of any sacerdotal authority; this is also the case
when he makes use of legislation to guard the souls of his
subjects from the dangers of heresy. Again, this holds good
when his Patriarch Menas expresses the subordination of the
Church to the State in the words that nothing should be done
in the holy Church contrary to the intention and the will of
the Emperor. This does not prove that the Emperor was
infallible in the spiritual domain as he was in the temporal.
If that had been so, why should Justinian have needed the
signatures of the Patriarchs or even of a general council for

the recognition of his legislation on points of dogma ? Even
if an Emperor called himself 'Emperor and priest' in the
heat of the Iconoclast controversy, yet at the same time the
champions of Church independence were vigorously main-
taining the lay character of the imperial power. Not even
the fact that the sacred person of the Emperor was admitted
to the sanctuary, which was otherwise reserved for the clergy,
makes him a priest. And the increasing penetration of
ecclesiastical customs into the ceremonies of the Court has a
parallel in the daily life of every single Byzantine which is
equally regulated by religious usages. Can one really speak
of 'Caesaropapism', when one remembers that even in those
times when the Church was prepared to recognize the
supreme right of imperial supervision over itself, the
Patriarch as guardian of the discipline of the Church was
able to excommunicate an Emperor? It is true that such an
action was directed only against the person of the Emperor,
not against the institution. Yet in this right of the Patriarch
we may see an indication that arbitrary despotism was kept
within limits.
Similar limits restricted the Byzantine imperial dignity in
other ways, although the existence of the autocracy was based
on the fact that there was no institution of equal authority
which could legally oppose its will. For it was expected of
the Emperor that he himself should observe the laws,
although he was the only lawgiver; yet God had subor-
dinated even the law to him in so far as He sent him to man-
kind as a 'living' law; in these words of Justinian, we can
catch yet another echo of Hellenistic constitutional theory.
Justinian's code conformed to this expectation by adopting a
passage from an edict issued by Theodosius II, in which the
sovereign professed himself bound by the law (adligatum
legibus) : 'for our authority depends on the authority of the
law, and in fact the subordination of sovereignty to the law
is a greater thing than the imperial power itself. The law,
it is true, included also administrative regulations and in this
sphere there were naturally many changes in the course of a
long and agitated history. Yet the conservatism which can
be traced even in this sphere and the term 'conservative'
does not necessarily mean 'fossilized' is due to the binding

force of legal tradition. Moreover, Byzantine officials may
often have felt some sympathy with the opinion of the
quaestor Proclus who on occasion would oppose his Emperor
Justin I with the words: 'I am not accustomed to accept
innovations ; for I know that in the making of innovations
security cannot be preserved/ In this way the Senate could
exercise its influence even without constitutional rights, and
in particular could impose its will on a weak Emperor, con-
sisting as it did of high dignitaries, and being able to act in
its capacity of a Council of State. And it must be remembered
that down to the seventh century the people of Constanti-
nople, politically organized in their demes^ usually known as
the parties of the Circus, frequently compelled the Emperor
to parley, and even when the demes had lost their political
significance and played their part only in an inherited
ceremonial, the resistance of the people was often expressed
in riots and rebellions, in which fanatical monks not seldom
took the lead.
A remarkable instance of the limitations imposed by the
Emperor on himself was the obligations which the newly
chosen ruler undertook towards his electors. Thus Anas-
tasius I took an oath that he would forget former enmities
and would govern the Empire conscientiously. Besides this,
being suspected of heretical inclinations, he signed, on the
demand of the Patriarch Euphemius, a solemn declaration
never to introduce innovations into the Church. There was
thus a kind of pledge on election which had the effect of
binding the Emperor morally, if not legally. Finally we
do not know exactly when this developed into an arrange-
ment by which a regular coronation oath was sworn. In this
oath the Emperor assured the people of his orthodoxy, and
promised to preserve inviolate the decrees issued by the
recognized Councils, and also the rights and privileges of
the Church; furthermore he undertook that towards his
subjects he would be a mild and just sovereign, and that so
far as possible he would refrain from inflicting the death
penalty or mutilation. Justin I had already at his coronation
made a similar promise to govern justly and mildly, while his
predecessor Anastasius had expressed such sentiments more
generally when he implored the Almighty to give him

strength to govern in accordance with the hopes of the
electors. The later coronation oath shows what the subjects
expected from their sovereign. The theme of the Emperor's
duties occurs once; but the reference is not to the heavy
burden of daily routine work and the toils borne by a pains-
taking Emperor as the circle of his work widened, but
rather to that spirit which was supposed to underlie all his
actions. Here again we find an echo of an ancient tradition
appearing as one of the principles binding on the autocrat.
The conception of the love of mankind, of Philanthropic as
conceived by Hellenistic philosophy in its picture of the ideal
ruler, is applied to Constantine by Eusebius in his pane-
gyric, and translated into the sphere of the Christian Empire.
In the next generation the orator Themistius derived all the
duties of the imperial office from this general conception of
Philanthropist. This subject was taken up again and again.
And it did not fail to make an impression on the Emperors.
Justinian used similar formulas, including precisely this
conception of Philanthropia^ as the foundation of his legisla-
tive activity. In one case where he prescribes the death
penalty he gives his reasons in the following words : 'this is
not inhumanity (apanthropia); on the contrary, it is the
highest humanity (j>hilanthropia\ for the many are protected
by the punishment of the few/ From beginning to end the
idea persisted that 'philanthropy' was the duty of the
Emperor, who saw his task as justice and the protection of
his subjects. There were exceptions enough. But the ideal,
once accepted, was again and again a restraining force, all
the more so since the sovereign's actions were also always
kept within certain limits by public opinion. However,
neither this latter consideration nor the guidance of a moral
standard could really be called a constitutional obligation,
any more than the fact that the conception of imperial
authority as a gift of God, in accordance with the prevalent
religious feeling, cpuld increase the sense of responsibility
even of the ablest sovereigns.
The extent to which a Byzantine Emperor was bound by
tradition is shown yet more clearly in what might seem
at first sight to be mere formalities. The Court ceremonial
with its usages set a limit which the arbitrary caprices of

the autocrat never broke through. This is all the more re-
markable since here in the pomp of these ceremonies the
unapproachable majesty of the Emperor found its fullest
expression. Constantine Porphyrogenitus indeed, who
personally supervised the composition of a 'Book of Cere-
monies', gives the motive for this activity, which he classes
among the necessary duties.; he states that the imperial
power shines in greater splendour and rises to greater dignity
through a laudable ceremonial; and thus foreigners as well
as his own subjects are filled with admiration. This Book of
Ceremonies has rightly been called the codification of Court
ceremonial and recognized as an essential characteristic of
Byzantine statesmanship. The details of the ceremonies
which were obligatory on all sorts of occasions pass in a
lengthy catalogue before the reader, as for instance the pro-
cessions at important Church feast-days, the solemn formali-
ties of festivals in the imperial family, the reception of
ambassadors, and the part taken by the Court in traditional
popular festivities. Whether the matter in hand was the
coronation of the Emperor or merely one of His Majesty's
excursions, the investiture of a high dignitary or a Court
dinner party, all the arrangements were predetermined down
to the last detail, with particulars of the time and place, the
circle of those taking part, their dress, their behaviour, and
their words of salutation. These fixed rules were laid down
for the Emperor from the moment of his accession to the
throne; they surrounded an imperial prince from the cradle
to the grave. The christenings and the celebration of birth-
days and weddings follow these rules in the same inevitable
way as the funerals and the Court mourning. The attendance
of a large imperial household, of numerous dignitaries and
servants, of palace guards and of the people, the order of
precedence which was always observed, all combined to
increase the conservative effect. We discover the importance
of such institutions when reading the kletorohgion of the
Atriklines, the Court marshal, Philotheus, which is a treatise
on the regulations governing precedence at a Court dinner
in the year 899, Further proof of the strength of a tradition
of many centuries which lasted until the Empire's fall may
be seen in the fact that, as late as the fourteenth century, at a

time when the splendour of the Empire was already dimmed,
a book on the Offices, wrongly attributed to Georgius Codinus,
discussed the same theme of the ceremonial, of the order of
precedence, and of official and Court apparel. But the
Emperor always remained the centre. Everything had
reference to him; his presence was essential for the ritual
and that presence determined the whole ceremonial.
When all this is borne in mind, it becomes difficult, in
fact impossible, to place this Byzantine autocracy within any
category of the usual modern constitutional theories. It was
taken as so much a matter of course by the Byzantines that
it did not occur to them to theorize about it. It was so
exclusive in its nature that no one ever thought of comparing
it with other forms of government. But the fact that this
institution as such was never questioned, apart from Utopian
experiments in the last period of decline, is a proof that this
autocracy in its own particular nature was admirably suited
to the circumstances of its time.
II. THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
A modification of the administrative system of the Empire
was introduced simultaneously with the final autocratic
development of the imperial power. This reform was
intended to provide means for the defence of the Empire and
for the administration of internal affairs, and at the same
time to draw together the heterogeneous elements so as to
form a united realm; for this purpose it aimed at building up
a bureaucracy controlled down to the last detail. The
system was centred in the will of the Emperor and the aim of
the system was to render the expression of that will effective.
Former Emperors had, of course, prepared the way. The
permanent principles of the new administrative system were
first established under Diocletian and Constantine. In spite
of many changes and adaptations in detail these principles
continued to be of great service in after years, and even sur-
vived the revolutionary reforms of the seventh century. This
fact serves to explain a certain rigidity in the system of
administration, which was more the result of the pressure of
circumstance than of any subtle theorizing. For just as the
autocracy was necessary for the existence of the Empire, so

external pressure, which hardly ever relaxed, caused a state
of continuous strain upon all the resources of the Empire;
thus to develop and control all these resources the establish-
ment of the administrative system with its countless bureau-
crats was in its turn a necessity. However, the maintenance
of this bureaucracy, together with the defence of the Empire
and the expense of a magnificent Court, entailed a con-
siderable drain on the finances and was partly responsible for
the fact that an inexorable fiscal policy, with all its conse-
quences, gave the State its particular character.
In order to protect the Emperor from a dangerous rivalry,
which could have arisen if great military and civil power had
been combined in one person, civil and military authority were
completely separated. The division of large provinces into
small administrative districts served the same purpose, and
the governor profited by this arrangement, as he was able to
manage his judicial and administrative work with greater
efficiency. Several provinces formed a diocese, several
dioceses formed a prefecture. There were two prefectures in
the Eastern half of the Empire: Oriens with five dioceses
(comprising the Asiatic territory, Egypt, and Thrace), and
Illyricum with two dioceses (comprising the rest of the Balkan
peninsula as far as the Danube). To tie Praetorian Prefect,
now the highest civil official, fell the supervision of the
administration and an extensive jurisdiction, which func-
tioned as the highest court of appeal. He exercised supreme
authority over the police, and, above all, controlled the
administration of the important land tax, the annona, from
the revenue of which he had to pay the salaries of the
officials and the soldiers, and to feed the army. The dioceses
were under the control of the representatives of the Prefect,
the vicarii, who could also report directly to the Emperor,
while an appeal lay from their decisions to the Emperor's
court. Similarly the Emperor was in direct communication
with the vicarii and with the provincial governors, and sent
special deputies to inspect the administration when the
necessity arose. In this way a system of mutual control was
established: such a system, it was true, might produce dis-
putes between rival authorities through overlapping of their
spheres of duty or from questions of precedence, but this the

Government was content to accept, in order to increase its
own powers of supervision. The same result was produced
by the joint responsibility of the subordinates forming the
staff (qfficiutti) of a high official; these subordinates, in the
event of any error on the part of their superior officer, were
held jointly liable and were therefore exposed to punish-
ments which were often serious. Although decentralization
obtained when the system of prefects was introduced in
order to lessen the burden of the direct transaction of
business by the Emperor, yet there was continuous opposi-
tion to all attempts to establish too great an independence of
the central Government. In spite of this the influence of the
Praetorian Prefects was strong enough to secure in course of
time that the officials who were in competition with them
became more and more their own executive organs. In
particular the officials charged with the collection of the
taxes, working under the control of the prefecture, steadily
gained in importance at the expense both of the provincial
governors and also of the staffs of the central bureaux. The
organization of the Taxation Department, which was under
the scriniariiy increased in size as well as in influence in the
civil service, and in the fifth century it had a number of
subordinate departments of its own, among which were
those for the pay and the commissariat of the army, for
public works and arsenals; the prefect's treasury was
separated into two sub-departments, a special department
for the salaries of the officials directly under the prefecture,
and the general pay office for the rest of the salaries. The
prefecture of the East had its official seat in Constantinople.
The administration of the capital was carried out by the city
prefect, who was next in rank below the Praetorian Prefect.
He was supreme judge over all senators in civil and criminal
causes arising within the boundaries of the capital. He was
also responsible for the supervision of food supplies and of
the collegia^ the guilds,
Constantinople, as the seat of the imperial Court, was also
the seat of the central administration, with a number of high
officials whom we may call ministers, although with some
hesitation. Of these the most important was the Magister
officiorum> who supervised the imperial chanceries (the

Scrinia), the arms factories, and the postal system, and had
command over the bodyguard. As master of the ceremonies
he also introduced embassies from abroad, thus performing
the functions of a foreign minister. Assisted by Agentes in
Rebus, who were at the same time couriers and secret police,
he became the highest instrument of imperial control. From
the Agentes in Rebus he formed his own staff; and he filled
many of the highest posts in the civil and military administra-
tion by sending seniors in rank to act as chiefs of staff
(principes). The Quaestor Sacri Palatii was the chairman of
the imperial State Council, the Consistorium> and minister of
justice; in this capacity he drew up drafts of legislation and
answers to petitions with the assistance of the staff of the
Scrinia. Secretaries of State, Magistri Scriniorum, were at his
disposition for other branches of the imperial correspondence.
As finance ministers the Comes Sacrarum Largitionum and
the Comes Rerum Privatarum should be mentioned. The
former derived his name from the largesses (largitiones]
which the Emperor used to distribute to his soldiers on
certain occasions. He administered the Treasury proper,
which succeeded the Fiscus, into which flowed the tribute
paid in money, taxes paid by the senatorial order, taxes on
trade and industry, and other revenues. Mines and the mint
were also under his control. The Comes Rerum Privatarum
administered the extensive domains belonging to the State,
of which one part was set aside for the exclusive use of the
Court; he also administered the imperial privy purse. The
fact that the lower officials of the central finance departments
were known as Palatini shows the extent to which these
departments were regarded as offices of the Court. It is
therefore not surprising that the highest Court official, the
Lord Chamberlain, Praepositus Sacri Cubiculi, not only
enjoyed a rank equal to the highest State officials, but was
also at an early date entrusted with the administration of the
domains reserved for the upkeep of the Court. Finally a
new official arose to manage the Privy Purse, the Sacellarius,
'steward of the Privy Purse*. As this Privy Purse had again
and again to cover the deficit of the Comes Sacrarum Largi-
tionum^ inevitably it also became a State Treasury, and the
Sacellarius finally replaced the Comes.
284. THE EMPEROR AND IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATION

The precedence of the officials was settled comparatively
early by dividing them into classes of rank. The high officials
belonged to the classes of ittustres^ spectabiles, and darissimi.
The liberality of the Emperor in distributing titles caused
these to become increasingly pompous; 'Magnificence* and
'Excellency* survive to the present day. The original official
name of an imperial attendant, Comes, also became a title of
rank and was graded in three classes. The highest honour
which was not connected with an office was that of a Patri-
cian, which had been created by Constantine. It was sur-
passed only by the Consuls, present and past, known in
Greek as the Hyfatoi, until finally, after the abolition of this
magistracy, which for a long time had been an expensive
distinction without real administrative authority, the office
of honorary consul was turned into a new title of rank, that
ofHypatos. Furthermore, the names of offices which had not
become sinecures could also be granted as honorary titles,
and later they, too, could become mere titles of rank.
Admission to office and attainment of the highest honours
were open to all, except to those who were bound to another
class by hereditary obligation. Further, the lower officials
needed the approval of the Emperor before taking their first
post. Promotion followed in order of seniority. It must not
be forgotten that very important positions could be reached
in the staffs of the bureaux, from which promotion to higher
posts was possible, and in some cases certain. The number
of officials employed in both the Eastern prefectures was
reckoned to be about ten thousand. The salaries of the
officials formed an important part of the budget. In addition
they received all sorts of extra fees (sportulae) which can
almost be called indirect taxes. The bureaucratic machine
was never entirely free from corruption, against which the
Emperors struggled with varying success. The administra-
tive organization, when once instituted, showed, both for
good and for evil, a capacity for passive resistance to the
imperial will which is not to be underestimated. The chief
officials were often changed, but their highly trained sub-
ordinates were more reliable agents for the effective dis-
charge of business and at the same time jealous guardians of
administrative tradition. Johannes Lydus, who had himself

worked in the office of the Praetorian Prefect, gives examples
of this in his book On the Magistracies. And the difficulties
with which reforming Emperors had to contend in these
offices are reflected in the imperial decrees, even in those of
Justinian, although he had received the support of a man as
energetic as the Praetorian Prefect John of Cappadocia.
The gradation of the effective offices and of a small
number of high ministers and correspondingly high military
officers in the central department (see III) is shown in the
State manual, the Notitia Dignitatem^ which dates from the
fifth century, and apart from a few modifications the order
remained the same until the sixth century. Philotheus's
above-mentioned 'list of court officers', written in the last
year of the ninth century, gives us a completely different
picture. The number of officials placed directly under the
Emperor had considerably increased. The former system of
subordination in the administration had been replaced in the
course of time by an extensive co-ordination; this did not
affect the order of ranks, which by then had been con-
siderably further developed. Heavy fighting with Persia
had forced the Emperor Heraclius to introduce a new mili-
tary organization, the system of themes or military districts
(see 111), which had perhaps been borrowed from his
Persian opponents. As civil authority had been once more
joined with the military command, these military areas had
become new administrative districts. The themes took the
place of the provinces, and this change was the more con-
spicuous when smaller districts were formed from the themes
which originally had been of very wide extent. The union of
civil and military powers had already begun in those Western
districts which had been reconquered for the Empire under
Justinian ; the exarchs combined the duties of a Master of
Soldiers (magister militum\ see 111) with those of the
Praetorian Prefect. Justinian had also made the same
arrangement for some of the Eastern provinces. The new
order introduced by Heraclius came fully into operation in
the time of the Isaurian Emperors, but neither here nor in
the rearrangement of the central offices can any uniform and
single plan be traced. The Praetorian Prefecture disap-
peared. It lost its significance when civil and military

jurisdiction were joined. Besides, its financial department
had increased to such an extent that it was finally split up
into independent offices directly under the Emperor's control.
It seems that the intention to do away with the former
decentralization and the independence which was its conse-
quence played an important part in these developments.
The reduction of the size of the Empire, especially after the
Arab conquests, made a strong policy of centralization easier.
The gradual dissolution of the all too influential central
office of the Magister Offidorum is in keeping with this
general policy. The duties of the Lord Chamberlain, the
Praepositus Sacri Cubiculi, were also divided up and carried
out by different independent officials. The names of the
offices which had thus disappeared remained as titles of
rank. While Latin was very much in the background in the
naming of the effective offices for which the uniform Greek
official language was used, yet a relatively large number of
Latin names was retained among the titles of rank. At the
beginning of the tenth century there were fourteen such
titles, and accordingly there were fourteen classes of rank,
apart from those reserved for members of the imperial
family and for the eunuchs of the Court. The highest rank
was that of & Magister ; then followed the Patricii Anthypatoi>
a revival of the Greek name for proconsul; then the Patricti,
and so on down to the rank of a former prefect (Apo Efar-
chon] or of a general (Stratelates}. The privileged position of
those personally serving at Court is reflected in the prece-
dence granted to eunuchs over others of equal rank. Apart
from his official designation, as a rule every higher official
bore such a title of rank, which was conferred on him by the
Emperor in a ceremonial audience: a diploma or sign of rank
(brabeiori) was given him to be held for life. A Magister
received a tunic interwoven with golden threads, a cloak
laced with gold, and a belt set with precious stones. The
Spatharii wore a sword with a golden hilt. Others received
specially designed necklaces.
The offices were conferred by an order from the imperial
Cabinet. The Emperor alone controlled appointments,
promotions, and dismissals. The prospect of promotion and
with it a rise in rank and salary was the chief way of en-

couraging the ambition of officials. The personal dependence
of high officials on the Emperor was perhaps most clearly
expressed in the scene when in the week preceding Palm
Sunday the Sovereign, in one of the audience-rooms of the
Palace, paid out the salaries with his own hands; this pro-
cedure did not fail to make an impression on Bishop Liut-
prand of Cremona, the ambassador of Otto I. Such a close
connexion with the Court increased the self-respect of the
high officials. There were still offices solely connected with
the Court, mostly belonging to eunuchs, who served the
sovereigns directly and conducted the administration of the
household. At the head of every palace stood a Papias (or
Warden of the Gate) and also the Protovestiarius, who was
the head of the imperial private wardrobe and of the treasury
connected with it. Largesse was given out of this treasury on
festival occasions. The office of Praepositus survived in the
more modest position of a master of ceremonies. The most
influential member of this group was, however, the Grand
Chamberlain, at this time styled the Parakoimomenos (i.e. one
who slept next to the imperial bedchamber). The holders of
this office often enjoyed considerable influence; Basil, for
instance, the all-powerful minister under John Tzimisces
and his successor, made use of his position to acquire a huge
fortune. The possibility of such abuses was not overlooked,
but it was realized that eunuchs were in all circumstances
excluded from the imperial throne, and could therefore
never become usurpers, nor had they descendants on whose
behalf they might exploit their opportunities.
The central imperial administration, with its seat in Con-
stantinople, included only civil offices. The generals sta-
tioned in the capital and the admiral of the home fleet had
nothing to do with the administration, not even later when
the Great Domes ticus had become commander-in-chief of the
army, and the Great Drungarius High Admiral. Philotheus
distinguishes in the administration between Kritai> judicial
offices, and Sekretikoi, chiefly financial offices. This separa-
tion never became complete, especially as the tendency to
widen the sphere of the activities of some departments
became in the course of time more and more apparent. The
highest official of the Kritaivns the City Prefect, theEparckos y

who retained the old title and in the main still continued to
discharge his former duties. He was the highest in rank
among the civil officials. No eunuch was allowed to hold this
office. He was the head of the city after the Emperor, and
was addressed as 'father of the city*. He was assisted in his
judicial activities by the Logothete of the Praetorium> and in
the administration of the city by the Symponos, and also by a
numerous staff, as was always the case with the chief offices.
The Eparchikon Biblion, which deals with the activities of the
Prefect in the tenth century, gives detailed information
regarding his sphere of duty. He was the chief officer in
charge of the guilds, consequently he supervised trade and
commerce, controlled the police who guarded roads and
buildings, and formed a fire-brigade; he watched over the
Sunday rest, and inspected foreigners engaged in trade. The
supervision of aliens in the wider sense was under the control
of the Quaestor, who also kept his former title. But his
province was combined with that of an office created by
Justinian, the Quaesitor. Some of the former imperial
secretaries were now transferred to his department and
acted as his subordinates. He was the head of a court of
appeal, and was a court of first instance for questions of wills
and guardianship. The department for petitions was the
only one which continued independently in the office called
epi ton deeseon.
The Sekretikoi, named after their offices which were called
Sekreta> were mostly financial officials; their superiors in
rank were usually called Logothetes (literally accountants);
the others were named Chartularii (actuaries), and the names
of their departments were always specially added. Here the
separate offices appear which had developed out of the
finance department of the Praetorian Prefecture, though
their field of activity could often be widened at the expense of
other former offices : thus the Logothetes tou gentkou who was
responsible for the administration of the land tax, and was
therefore a particularly important official, also supervised the
contributions for the upkeep of aqueducts and tie revenues
from mines. There were separate departments in his office
for the assessment and for the collection of taxes. The
Logothetes tou Stratiotikou controlled the pay and the commis-

sariat of the army; he was thus a kind of Quartermaster-
General and chief paymaster. The official named epi ton
eidtkou controlled a special branch charged with the supply
of equipment for the troops, for which purpose the State
factories were under his control. The Chartularius tou
Vestiariou may be mentioned next, as he had similar duties,
some of which he inherited from the Comes Largitionum. He
supervised the vestiarium, that is, the State wardrobe, from
which other kinds of materials for purposes of peace or war
were also supplied, and further controlled the imperial mint,
A special branch of the office of the Comes rerum privatarum
was now represented by the Logothetes ton agelon^ who super-
vised the domains in which stud horses were bred for the
needs of the army, and he is accordingly classed by Philo-
theus as an army official. The Sacellion> the origin of which
we mentioned above, had gained in importance in that it
had also attracted other business besides that of the Comes
sacrarum largttionum. The independent chief of this State
Treasury was the Chartularius of the Sacellion^ originally a
subordinate of the Sacellarius, who had in the meantime risen
to the office of general controller of all Sekreta, that is, all
offices of finance.
Of those administering the domains we need mention only
the Orphanotrophos, the director of the large orphanage in
Constantinople, who was usually a priest. In general the
institutions of social welfare such as hostels, poor-houses,
and hospitals were left to the care of the Church; but the
Emperors frequently provided property from the domain-
lands for their establishment; in spite of the fact that these
institutions were run by priests, they remained under the
State's financial control and were placed under the administra-
tion of an office of the State domains.
The postmaster-general also took the title of Logothete,
Logothetes tou dromou\ without properly belonging to the
financial administration, he was counted among the Sekretikoi.
This official contrived to extend his sphere of activity in the
same way as had his predecessor, the Magister Officiorum.
Like the Magister Officiorum, he, too, became the Minister
for Foreign Affairs, and amongst other privileges had a staff
of interpreters at his disposal. He was received in audience
3982 u

every day by the Emperor, and finally became a kind of
Chancellor, assuming later the title of Great Logothete. Some
offices were called 'special offices', but they were not of any
recognizable significance for the general administration; of
these only that of the Syncellus need be mentioned. He was
a high cleric, frequently succeeding to the Patriarchate, and
was appointed by the Emperor in agreement with the
Patriarch. He took precedence over all ordinary officials
in the hierarchy, and might be regarded as a liaison officer
between the Emperor and the Patriarch.
In the administration of the provinces Philotheus knows
of twenty-five themes, but at the beginning of the ninth
century there were only ten. The number of the themes
continued to increase, until in the eleventh century we know
of thirty-eight. The extension of frontiers, and even more
the desire to check the expansion of these independent
districts, had contributed to this development; in troubled
times many a military governor had succumbed to the
temptation to make use of his power against the Emperor,
while the formation of a land-owning military nobility also
gave good reason for anxiety. The governors of the themes
were mostly called Strategoi (generals); thus their purely
military origin was indicated in their official title. They
were directly subordinate to the Emperor. The themes
appear to have been divided into two groups: an Eastern
group consisting of those of Asia Minor, with the addition of
Thrace and Macedonia, but excluding the maritime themes
(see III) which with the rest of the Balkan themes and those
of southern Italy, together with Cherson in the Crimea,
formed the Western group. The Eastern Strategoi always
occupied a superior position. According to Philotheus, they
ranked after the Syncellus and before the Prefect of the City,
who was followed by the Western Strategoi. This privileged
position accorded to the military officials gave the Byzantine
Empire of the middle and late period its special character.
The Eastern Strategoi^ including the maritime ones, received
their salaries from the central treasury, whereas those of the
West were dependent on the revenues of their provinces. As
already explained, the civil administration with its financial
and judicial duties was also in the hands of these military

governors. The military governor was assisted by a large
body of civilian officials in addition to his military staff. But
the Chartularius of the theme, who supervised the outgoings
for the pay of the soldiers, was, while subordinated to him,
at the same time responsible to the Logothetes tou Stratidtikou.
Moreover, the judge of the theme and the Protonotary (who
was also counted as an official of the Chartularius of the
Sacettion] were, at least from the beginning of the tenth
century, subordinate to the Strategos\ but this arrangement
was subject to a certain reservation, which was expressed in
the so-called 'Taktikon of Leo* in the following manner:
'They have to be under the orders of the Strategos in some
matters, but we consider it safer that they should submit their
statements of accounts to our imperial central administration,
so as to enable us to know the state of the administration.'
It is not known how the duties were divided in detail, but in
any case the central office reserved a certain right of super-
vision, in order to control and restrain the Strategoi* The
same purpose was served by officials sent out from the central
office as overseers and inspectors. In addition to that, the
bishops were exhorted to supervise the administrative pro-
cedure in their dioceses, and the subjects were encouraged to
seek legal redress against oppression.
An appeal lay from the provincial courts. The Emperor
remained the supreme court of appeal, and jurisdiction over
the highest officials was reserved for him. It is known that
some Emperors liked to receive complaints personally. By
the side of the Emperor as high judicial authorities stood the
Prefect of the City and the Quaestor. In the course of the
eleventh century the place of the City Prefect was taken by
the Great Drungarius. In addition Constantinople had a
High Court with twelve judges for important cases. There
is, however, plenty of scope for further research in this field.
One feature characteristic of the whole period of the Byzan-
tine Empire is the ecclesiastical jurisdiction in civil matters.
Since Constantine the Great the bishops had rights of
jurisdiction of varying extent. When an ecclesiastic was the
accused, the ecclesiastical courts of justice were competent,
and this was the case in all civil proceedings, given the
consent of both parties. By the end of the eleventh century
the competence of these courts had been extended to all
matrimonial cases and charitable bequests. After the inter-
lude of the Latin Empire the distinction between lay and
ecclesiastical jurisdiction was more and more obscured; and
this confusion was the easier since during the last period the
Church and the Patriarch played an increasingly important
part in the administration. However, administration of
justice and legal procedure continued to the end to follow
faithfully the ways of juristic thought, although Roman law
changed considerably through the penetration of Christian
ideas.
The fact that the cruel punishment of mutilation is so
frequent in the Byzantine criminal law may at first sight
appear inconsistent with such a statement. But mutilation
often replaced capital punishment, and may to a sterner age
than ours have seemed a mitigation of the former severity;
it might be justified by a reference to the words of the Gospel
about 'plucking out the eye which offends 7 , or on the ground
that it provided the offender with an opportunity for
repentance. It must be admitted that, once they had been
introduced, punishments such as blinding, cutting out the
tongue, and cutting off of hands were also inflicted for
offences which had not been previously punishable with
death. Other punishments were the confiscation of property
and fines. Imprisonment as a punishment was unknown in
the old Byzantine law. 1 Only from the twelfth century
onwards were many political offenders imprisoned, until a
tragic death put an end to their troubles, in the Anemas
tower in Blachernae, which was named after the rebel held
prisoner there by Alexius I. Banishment to a monastery, a
punishment which seems to show more clearly the influence
of the penitential system of the Church, had been introduced
earlier. The right of granting asylum, which had always
been maintained by the Church, implied a certain mitigation
of these punishments; when such a right was exercised,
ecclesiastical punishment, even though hampered by a
number of restrictions, replaced the civil penalty which had
been incurred. This right of asylum, however, was denied
1 [On imprisonment as a punishment cf. G. Buckler, Anna Comnena (Oxford
University Press, London, 1929), pp. 95-6.]

to those charged with high treason and to heretics, who were
put on the same level with them; and it was characteristic of
the system that defaulting taxpayers and fraudulent tax-
collectors were also deprived of it.
The complicated and extensive apparatus of administra-
tion continued to function even when repeated disasters
abroad fell upon the Empire. The Seljuk invasion of Asia
Minor made a reorganization of the themes necessary. The
governors now received the official title Dux, and their
sphere of activity was probably limited. The real position of
the administration in the period of the Palaeologi has as yet
been inadequately studied. Yet one is inclined to believe
that the 'Book of Offices' of the fourteenth century, wrongly
attributed to Georgius Codinus, is a picture rather of the
outward appearance of the Empire than of the melancholy
reality. It seems certain that many of the former offices had
only a titular existence. In addition to the Patriarch who
exercised wide influence in the civil administration of this
period, the Great Logo thete^ together with those occupying the
highest military positions, controlled the business of State
which had now shrunk to very small proportions.
A particular merit of the Byzantine bureaucracy was the
excellent training of its members. The officials benefited by
the high standard of general education which their class of
society enjoyed at that time. The fact that Constantine
Porphyrogenitus granted a salary to the students of his
university showed that the State took a great interest in
obtaining a well-trained bureaucracy. Legal education as it
had been formulated by Justinian had declined in course of
time and had been replaced by a narrowly professional
instruction, until Constantine IX Monomachus reopened
the old school of law in Constantinople. Admission to the
influential and lucrative offices was in theory open to every-
body; but in actual fact in course of time an aristocracy of
office had been formed, which did not make promotion easy
for a new-comer. At the same time in Asia Minor there
developed another provincial aristocracy of large landowners,
and against the growing influence of this landed nobility both
Emperors and the highly trained civil service united. This
provincial nobility frequently held high military command.

and its popularity with the army only increased the jealousy
of the bureaucrats of the capital. It must be admitted that
this dislike of the bureaucracy for a military nobility which
was always striving for power led finally to a neglect of the
army and contributed to the collapse of the Empire's
defensive system. Thus the revival under the Comneni
resulted in a reaction against the supremacy of the civilians
and in consequence the Latin Empire found in the East
conditions which were not unlike its own feudal organiza-
tion. But under the Palaeologi the bureaucracy was still a
support to the State which was fighting for its existence.
There is no doubt that this bureaucracy was true to type,
and showed a great capacity for resistance; it was partly
responsible for the conservative appearance of the Byzantine
Empire; but it was flexible enough at all times to perform its
allotted task. It provided the means by which the Emperor
could realize his policy and it was not its own mistakes that
caused the constant complaints of the intolerable burden of
taxation, even though in many cases we can trace bribery
and selfish exploitation of the subject. For, often enough,
these officials were regarded as the link between subjects and
Emperor, and as upholders of law and justice. In concert
with the Church and perhaps with greater success than the
Church, the members of this bureaucracy, whose activities
extended over the whole Empire and whose official language
was Greek, contributed towards the Hellenization, or, as they
themselves would have said, to the Romanization of foreign
elements, and in this way helped to promote the unity of the
Empire. To sum up: this was a bureaucracy which was
costly and not always easy to manage, but it was one that
with its inborn capacity for resistance not only gave the
Byzantine State through the centuries its special character,
but also provided it even in times of crisis with an invaluable
support.
III. THE ARMY AND THE FLEET. DIPLOMACY
It is obvious that the army must have been of 'great
importance in an Empire the history of which was for long
periods a history of wars, and the organization of which was
in large measure designed to meet military requirements.

The army proudly called itself Roman, and this tradition
was tenaciously preserved. The link with the military
system of the early Empire has once more to be sought in
the late period of imperial Rome, and the organization of
the army at that time must be shortly outlined. We must
return to Diocletian and to Constantine, the latter being this
time the chief organizer. Apart from the garrisons stationed
on the frontiers, the limitanei, which may be compared to a
kind of militia of settled peasants in occupation of land which
was burdened with the hereditary obligation of military
service, there was a mobile field army which accompanied
the Emperor and commander-in-chief on campaigns and
these troops were therefore called comitatense$\ while certain
'crack' regiments among them occupied a prominent posi-
tion as guard regiments, falatini. But since Constantine had
dissolved the old Praetorian Guard the real bodyguards were
the scholae palatinae. The officers of highest rank were the
commanders-in-chief (magistri militum)\ they came after the
prefects, but had the same titles of rank. Originally there
had been two: one for the cavalry, who took precedence over
the second owing to the superior position of the mounted
troops, and one for the infantry. Each was Inspector
General for his particular branch of the service, which he
commanded under the Emperor when the latter took the
field in person ; but when holding independent commands
each could lead mixed divisions of both cavalry and infantry.
From the first this was always the case with the magistri
equitum et peditum who were appointed for frontier districts
of special military importance. Finally, in the Eastern half
of the Empire from the time of Theodosius I there were
five commanders-in-chief with separate districts under their
command; each one was independent of the others and
subordinate only to the Emperor; two were in praesenti at
the Court, and there was one each for the armies of the
Orient, Thrace, and Illyricum; to these Justinian added yet
another for Armenia. The dux held the military command
in the provinces. The generals also had an office for the
administration of military affairs and for matters of jurisdic-
tion relating to their soldiers. The chief (princeps) of their
bureaux came from the agentes in rebus of the central office.

In spite of the general obligation of military service which
still remained in force, conscription was by no means the
rule. The sons of soldiers and the rural population were
particularly liable to conscription; but the landowners could
pay a contribution in money instead of the recruits which
they were bound to send from the coloni on their domains.
Thus recruits were enrolled mainly by voluntary enlistment;
in that way many foreigners (barbarfy especially Germans,
were procured for the army, so that the word barbari could
actually be used for soldiers in the language of the people.
Foederati were compact divisions under their own leaders
raised from tribes which were bound by treaty to supply
soldiers. It was only the closing of the frontiers by Attila
which compelled the Eastern Government to mobilize once
again its own forces. When there was a fresh influx of
Germans, Leo I tried to provide a counterbalancing force by
using the Isaurians from Asia Minor, who formed later one
of the picked regiments of the Empire. But as long as
mercenaries were available they were always the main sup-
port of the army. The buccellarii, named after a kind of
baked food, perhaps the soldiers' biscuit, played a special
part, which was often not without danger for the State; as
household troops of the general they formed the latter's
personal following, and were bound by an oath to serve their
master as well as the Emperor. On account of their large
numbers they formed a prominent corps d* elite in Justinian's
expeditionary force. But they were a sign of the decline of
the Empire, inasmuch as their pay and equipment were left
to their master. The distribution of the army still remained
the same, except that the divisions of the comitatenses (arith-
moi or katalogoi) were called 'Roman soldiers' in the Greek
language of the day, in so far as they consisted of subjects of
the Empire. The troops which were named after their place
of origin, for instance the Isaurians or the Thracians, also
belonged to these divisions; and they were held in higher
esteem than the other 'Roman' troops because of their
magnificent fighting powers. Though they were not
excluded from the ranks of the katalogoi, yet, owing to their
method of recruitment, they had much in common with the
foederatiy whose regiments consisted chiefly of foreign

mercenaries. Compact divisions of foreign troops under
native leaders were at this time called symmachot^ allies. In
Justinian's time, however, they were pushed somewhat into
the background by the buccellani and the foederati. In the
meantime the cavalry had become more and more the chief
fighting force; it included the mail-clad cavalry regiments
formed on the Persian model which were first introduced in
the third century. The bow had also been adopted from the
Persians as an efficient long-distance weapon for preparing
the actual attack.
The weak state of the finances and the appearance of the
Avars on the Danube frontier made it increasingly difficult
for Justinian's successors to procure mercenaries. The
armies of the Emperor Maurice consisted chiefly of subjects
of the Empire. Conscription became more and more fre-
quent, especially among the inhabitants of the newly con-
quered Armenian districts who came of good fighting stock.
The Strategikon^ a military manual ascribed to Maurice,
speaks of military service for all subjects until their fortieth
year. This book distinguishes between elite troups (epilekta)
and 'weaker* troups (hypodeestera}. The buccellarh, thefoede-
rati) and the optimates belonged to the elite. The foederati
now included also the most warlike contingents raised from
within the Empire, such as the Isaurians. The optimates were
a selection of the best of the other troops. Orders were at
this time still given in Latin.
With this army Heraclius fought against the Persians. It
provided him with the foundation of the new military
organization, which was later to lead to a change in the
system of government of the provinces. Being unable to
obtain foreign mercenaries, Heraclius decided to settle his
troops in the provinces which were most threatened by the
Persians, in the hope that their strength would be reproduced
in their descendants. He seems to have promised to his
soldiers this opportunity of settling on the land before the
decisive campaign, so that their desire for victory was
considerably increased. We cannot determine the original
scope of the Emperor's plans. Their application was
restricted to Asia Minor owing to the victorious invasion of
the Arabs whose efficient military training was in part due to

their former alliance with the Romans and the Persians.
In Asia Minor there appear at first three large military
districts which were called after the Themata (Themes), i.e.
the army corps settled there: the Anatolikon^ the army of the
Orient, the Opstkion (Obsequium, the troops of the former
Magistri militum praesentales\ and the Armeniakon, the
Armenian army. Their governors, the Strategoi^ or, in the
case of the Opsikion division, the Comes, may therefore be
regarded as the successors of the former Magistri^ masters of
foot and horse. The picked troops from all divisions of the
army, however, were established in separate districts which
appear later (when the themes were split up) as independent
themes ; thus the buccellarii and the optimates were separated
from the Opsikion, the Thrakestoi (Thracians) from the
Anatolikon^ while the foederati, who were also grouped
together in one district, always remained with the Anatolikon.
It is not certain when this organization spread to Europe,
but, since the themes of Thrace and Macedonia were
assigned to the Eastern group, we may conclude that these
two themes were created at an earlier date than that of the
other Western themes. For in the final arrangement of the
system of themes the Eastern themes always had precedence,
originally doubtless owing to their earlier formation, and
later on owing to their brilliant defence of Asia Minor
against the Arabs. Themes which were established later
were given geographical names.
The distribution of the military forces of the Empire was
based on this organization into themes and these later
developed into military and administrative provinces. Each
province supplied one Thema (army corps, if we wish to
introduce modern terms). The Thema was divided accord-
ing to its size into two or three turmai> each under a turmarch>
who was divisional commander as well as being administrator
of one section of the province. The rest of the military
scheme is not quite clear and was constantly changing, owing
to the different sizes of the themes. The sixth-century
division of army corps into turmai (divisions), moirai
(brigades), and tagmata (regiments) continued, as is proved
by the names turmai^ moirai^ and banda. The bandon was so
called after the Germanic word for a banner. In Philotheus's

Kletorologion the turmarchs^ the drungarii, and the kometes
(comites) of the banda are under the authority of the strategoi.
According to a list given by an Arabian source the strategos
controlled 10,000 men divided into two turmai^ each of which
was composed of five banda under a drungarius^ the bandon
being divided into five pentarchies under a homes. Each
homes had under him five pentekontarchies (companies) each
consisting of forty men under a pentekontarchos, who, as the
name indicates, must at times have commanded fifty men;
finally, there came the four dekarchies, each with ten men.
Further, there were kleisurai (commanded by hleisuriarchs\
which were not included in the theme-system. Literally the
word means mountain passes, and therefore refers to
particular frontier districts where roads by which invaders
might advance had to be protected and barred. As these
districts grew in importance they were raised to the rank of
themes. The akritai, whose name can best be translated by
'frontier defenders' or margraves, were subordinated to
them, at any rate from time to time. They carried on
perpetual petty warfare on the frontiers. Digenes, the hero
of the Byzantine national epic, in which are mirrored the
conditions of the tenth century, is such an akritas. The
continual fighting with the infidel and with robber bands,
o o *
the apelatai (cattle thieves), is the foundation of the Akritas
sagas.
Besides the army in the provinces, troops were also sta-
tioned in Constantinople and in its neighbourhood; these
included the four mounted tagmata the scholarii, the
excubitores, the hikanatai (each under the command of a
domesticus)) and the arithmos or vig/a, which was the guard of
the imperial headquarters, under a drunganus. In addition
there was an infantry regiment, the numeri, under a domesticus^
and furthermore the troop under the comes or domesticus of
the Walls^ a title which probably referred to the Long Walls
built by Anastasius I, about forty miles to the west of the
capital. With the exception of the Guards of the Walls,
these troops went into battle with the Emperor. But his
real bodyguard was the hetairia, literally the retinue, under
the hetairiarchos. The domesticus of the scholarii was the
officer of the highest rank after the strategos of the Anatolikon,

and he became the commander-in-chief of the whole army in
the tenth century, when the Emperors no longer took the
field in person. The estimates of the number of troops in the
tagmata vary greatly: they range from 4,000 and more down
to i ,500. In the ninth century the total number of the
troops has been calculated at 1 20,000, as against 1 50,000 in
Justinian's time; but considering the greatly lessened extent
of imperial territory in the ninth century the former figure
is a proof of the increased military needs of the Empire.
The pay of the soldiers was relatively small. But it must
be remembered that the military landholdings established by
the theme system were in themselves a considerable com-
pensation for the owners. In his first year of service the
soldier of the themes received one solidus in cash ; in later
years the amount increased until in the twelfth year he
received the maximum pay of twelve sohdi. The soldiers of
the tagmata and the subordinate officers of the themes
probably reached a maximum allowance of eighteen solidi.
The soldiers' holdings were middle-sized peasant estates and
formed the backbone of the whole military system. And for
this reason the Emperors did their utmost to protect them
from the pressure of the great landowners. It is true that in
the end this protection failed, since the aristocracy of Con-
stantinople always sought and found land in which to invest
the capital accumulated in their hands. For this reason, and
as a result of a certain neglect of the army by the central
administration, during the eleventh century the defences of
the Empire were weakened; the consequences of the defeat
at Manzikert (107 1) and the permanent establishment of the
Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor led directly to the collapse of the
system which had existed up to that time. Therefore when
we find 'soldiers' estates' in later years, the words can hardly
be used in the original sense, for the owners were, it would
seem, the so-called Pronoiarii. By the pronoia (provision)
landed property, to which was attached the obligation of
supplying soldiers, was granted to superior officers, and the
income from these estates belonged to them during their
lifetime, but could not be inherited; this arrangement bears
a certain resemblance to the Western feudal system. More-
over, attempts were made to check the depopulation caused

in certain parts of the Empire by the raids of the Seljuks,
the Serbs, and the Hungarians : to secure this end foreigners
were settled in the depopulated districts. The way had been
paved for the decline of the old order by the practice, which
had already begun to reappear in the tenth century, of
purchasing exemption from compulsory military service by
money payment (adaeratid). Foreign mercenaries, who had
always played a prominent part in the hetaina (the body-
guard), were again engaged in increasingly large numbers.
In the course of the centuries Chazars and Patzinaks,
Russians and Scandinavians, Georgians and Slavs, Arabs and
Turks, and later on 'Latins' of every kind all served together
in the imperial army. A crack regiment of the bodyguard
was that of the Varangians which, under the Comneni, was
for the most part composed of Anglo-Saxons. There was
at times a hope of strengthening the defence of the Empire
by using these mercenary troops under Byzantine leader-
ship, thus counterbalancing the influence of the East Roman
military nobles and of the troops of the themes which were
dependent upon them; but this hope vanished when the
leaders of the mercenaries were admitted to important
commands, and, in the manner of cdndottieri, often enough
put their own interests before those of the State. The loyalty
of the mercenaries was ultimately a matter of money. One of
the principal reasons for the rapid collapse of the Empire in
face of the Latin attack in 1204 was the refusal of the
foreigners to fight because they had not been paid. In the
time of the Palaeologi there was no longer any question of a
unified military organization. There was a system of make-
shifts, and the army was for the most part a mercenary force.
To return to the Byzantine army proper. The most
important weapon remained the cavalry, the caballaria
themata. The heavy cavalry, the cataphracts, with steel
helmet and scale armour or coat of mail over the whole body,
carried sword, dagger, lance, and bow. The war-horses were
protected by breastplates and frontal plates. These were the
squadrons used for attacks in massed formation. The light
horse, the trapezitae, were used for rapid assault, for recon-
naissance, and for harassing the enemy. Their chief weapon
was the bow. The light infantry also used the bow, though

there were detachments armed with javelins. The mail-clad
heavy infantry carried spear, sword, and shield, and often
the heavy battle-axe. Each bandon had its baggage-train,
which frequently included a great number of non-comba-
tants, servants, and slaves. Material for bridging rivers was
also brought with the heavy baggage ; and military engineer-
ing was well developed. The Byzantine army had also its
medical service with doctors and ambulance wagons.
A number of military manuals from the fifth century
down to the strategikon of Cecaumenus in the eleventh cen-
tury show that the Byzantines regarded the art of war as a
practical science; they took into account the particular
character of the enemy of the moment when considering the
training of the troops, the execution of a campaign, or
measures for defence. Stress was laid upon the defensive
duty of the army. The conception of attack found full
expression only in the orders regulating a siege. The
defensive system was still modelled on the late Roman
frontier (limes] plan, with fortified posts, small forts, and the
safeguarding of passes and of roads by which invaders might
advance. Towns in the interior were surrounded by ram-
parts. A system of signals announced the approach of an
enemy. If the frontier troops were not successful in warding
off the invader, the infantry occupied the roads by which he
might retreat, and the light cavalry stuck close to his heels
until the strategos^ who also informed the neighbouring
themes, had collected the main troops to repel the attack.
Regulations for conduct on the battlefield are given in full
detail, but independence and new ideas were expected of the
general. The ruling principle was to keep down the number
of casualties if any opportunity of success offered itself
without the risk of an engagement. The moving of troops
and their protection, observation of the enemy, intelligence
service and spying, negotiation as a pretext for gaining time,
every kind of stratagem, feigned flight, ambuscades: all was
considered. Efficient training, strict discipline, and ex-
perience in battle made this army an effective weapon in the
hands of the Emperors and their generals. The fighting
spirit of the troops was sustained by the recognition and the
rewarding of special services as well as by drawing attention

to the high significance of their task. The 'orators', secular
field-preachers, knew how to rouse the enthusiasm of the
troops by speaking of the soldiers' duties towards Emperor
and Empire, towards God and the Christian religion, and by
emphasizing the rewards of valour. The day was begun and
finished with prayer; solemn services were held during the
campaigns. The Greek war cry 'the Cross has conquered*
and the earlier Latin one 'the Lord is with us' show that the
ecclesiastical spirit had also penetrated into the camps. At
times death on the battlefield was regarded as martyrdom,
But Byzantine war songs in the forms of hymns show that in
this army's best days the fighting spirit combined trust in
God with great self-confidence. In the Epic of Digenes
Akritas, where in later times these ideals are wistfully
recalled, this spirit of the Byzantine army lives on. Yet here,
too, there are still echoes of the indomitable self-assurance of
the military nobility which helped to discredit the organiza-
tion of the army in the eyes of the Government and the
bureaucracy. And yet, despite fluctuations of strength and
weakness, to the Byzantine army must be ascribed the honour
of having been Europe's chief bulwark against the Arabs.
Even when decay had set in, when, too, the Western powers
fell upon it from the rear, it could still cripple the onset of
the Turks, though it could not any longer stay their advance.
The fleet shares with the army the credit of banishing the
danger of the Arab attack. The organization of the fleet was
an original creation of the Byzantines. For the Roman
Empire the Mediterranean was in actual fact Mare Nostrum^
and its fleet served more as a police force than as an instru-
ment of war. Only when the Vandals took possession of
Carthage and became masters of the western waters was the
Empire forced for a time to take counter-measures. Yet the
fleet played but a subordinate part in Justinian's wars of
aggression. When sea battles occurred, as for instance in the
Gothic wars, the seamen of the coasts of the eastern Mediter-
ranean showed themselves still to be superior in the art of
manoeuvring. Under Heraclius a small fleet was able to
prevent the Persians from crossing the Bosphorus when they
planned to attack Constantinople in alliance with the Avars.
A little later, when the Arabs threatened the existence of the

Empire, the importance of a fleet first received full recogni-
tion, particularly when Muaviah, already in possession of the
Syrian coastline, followed the forces of the Empire on the
sea, and appeared with his ships before Constantinople. It
was not only the Greek Fire which checked the powerful and
eager assault of the Arab seamen, but also the fleet, which
had been organized as part of the system of the themes in the
seventh century, when the militarization of the Empire was
carried out.
The commander-in-chief of the fleet was the Strategos of
the Carabisiani) whose name was derived from the carabos, a
class of ship. Under him were one or two admirals (Drun-
garii). The coast districts of Asia Minor and the Aegean Isles
supplied the fleet and the men. Right from the beginning
the Cibyrrhaeots, named after the town of Cibyra in
Pamphylia, were to the fore. The share taken by the fleet in
insurrections as late as the seventh and the beginning of the
eighth centuries caused a division of the forces. Alongside of
the now independent theme of the Cibyrrhaeots (south and
south-west Asia Minor) there was constituted the theme of
the Dodecanese or Aegean Sea; each was under a Drungarius\
the lower rank of the commander is a proof of the inferiority
of the naval themes to those of the land army. Under the
Isaurian Emperors of the eighth century the importance of
the fleet diminished considerably, because pressure from
external forces had slackened. The Abbasid caliphs likewise
allowed their fleet to deteriorate. Only in the ninth century,
when Andalusian Arabs raided the coast as pirates and settled
in Crete, and the Aghlabids from Tunis took possession of
Sicily, were efforts made to atone for past negligence. The
perfected theme system recognized Samos (west Asia Minor)
as a third maritime theme; all three themes were now under
Strategoi. There were also bases for the fleet in the European
themes, especially in Cephalonia. In addition there was a
fleet under the Drungarius tou Ploimou, who obtained an
increasingly influential position under Basil I, and who
finally became commander-in-chief of the navy.
Foes of the Empire were once again forced to reckon with
the activities of the imperial fleet. When Constantine
Porphyrogenitus made a claim to maritime predominance

from the Dardanelles to Gibraltar, that may indeed have
been on his part but a historical reminiscence, but Nice-
phorus Phocas, the conqueror of Crete, could tell the
ambassador of Otto I with more justification that he alone
possessed strong naval forces. The elasticity of the fleet,
however, was lost again when demands on it diminished. If
the navy had remained even in the days of its glory in the
second rank, it now suffered a further setback. The organi-
zation of the Asiatic provincial fleet was naturally affected by
the invasion of the Seljuks. Later Alexius Comnenus tried
once more to restore the navy. The increasing weakness of
the fleet is shown by the engagement of mercenaries, and
above all by the fact that, whereas the Empire had formerly
been able to issue its orders to the Venetians, it now sought
their help by granting trade concessions. The consequences
of the complete decay of the fleet were quickly apparent.
The Doge Dandolo knew only too well that the former master
of Venice could not offer resistance to him on the sea. The
fleet of the Palaeologi was always too weak to play a decisive
part in the fight for predominance in the Mediterranean.
Warships in general were called dromonds. Yet specifi-
cally the dromonds were the actual battleships, i.e. boats of
different sizes with sails and having two banks of oars,
manned by a crew numbering up to 300, of whom 70 were
marines, the others rowers and seamen. The average crew
may be reckoned as 200 men. Ships of a special construction
with two banks of oars were called pamphyli\ they were of
greater speed and could turn more easily; but, in spite of
being a type of cruiser, they were also used in set battles.
The flagship of the admiral was always a pamphylus of a
special size and speed. In addition there were lighter ships
with only one bank of oars for observation and for carrying
dispatches. During the tenth century the fleet at Con-
stantinople was stronger than that of the maritime themes.
Yet the figures mentioned in the sources do not give a basis
on which to work out a reliable average strength, particu-
larly as trading vessels were also sometimes manned for war,
while old ships were brought back into service. The ram-
ming spur of the ships was an excellent weapon, owing to the
ease with which the Byzantines manoeuvred their vessels.
3982 X
3 o6 THE EMPEROR AND IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATION

But the superiority of the East Roman navy rested princi-
pally upon the fact that it was armed with the Greek Fire,
an invention of the Syrian Greek Callinicus, which was
perhaps only a rediscovery, for the employment of a burning
material which was inextinguishable was already reported
under Anastasius L The manufacture of this Greek Fire,
which had been improved in the course of time, was a
strictly guarded State secret. Catapults hurled the fire from
the ship's bows; in the end it even seems that a kind of gun-
powder in tubes was used for projecting it. The crew carried
hand grenades loaded with the fire, which exploded when
they hit anything. Yet even so the fleet was used with the
same caution as were the land forces, while despite not a few
brilliant technical achievements Byzantine naval science
never attained to the development which might have been
expected when one considers the importance of the fleet for
the defence of the Empire.
It remains to say a word on the diplomacy of Byzantium.
For East Rome, as for any other State, war was only the
continuation of the State's policy with other means. Even
to bellicose Emperors it seemed more advantageous to reach
their political goal through the art of diplomacy than by the
use of the sword. There were as yet no permanent repre-
sentatives stationed in other countries, and although we have
called the Great Logothete a kind of Foreign Minister, yet we
must not entertain too modern an idea of his position. We
can see the machine in action, but we know little of its con-
struction or its working. Ambassadors went to and fro. It
was the practice to try to impress foreign envoys or visitors
by the splendour of the capital and by the pomp of Court
ceremonial; usually these efforts succeeded. The foreigner
was led into a magnificent hall in the palace through a crowd
of richly clothed dignitaries and through rows of bodyguards
with glittering arms. Finally a curtain was drawn back and
he gazed on the Emperor clad in his robes of State and
seated on his throne. On each side of the throne roared
golden lions, mechanical birds sang on a gilded pomegranate
tree, and while the visitor prostrated himself, the throne was
raised aloft so as to make it unapproachable. Like the image
of a saint, the Emperor, motionless, did not himself speak to

the astonished stranger; the Logothete spoke in his name.
Only a few managed to avoid being impressed; Liutprand
of Cremona boasted that he was able to do so, but he had
to admit that it was only because he had previously made
detailed inquiries from those who had seen the spectacle.
How much information a Byzantine ambassador was ex-
pected to bring back to his sovereign can be deduced from
the careful supervision of foreign envoys in order to prevent
them from seeing anything that they were not meant to
see. Every missionary, every merchant proceeding abroad
obtained information which could be of great value in dealing
with the rulers of the countries visited, as, for instance,
advice concerning the person who should receive presents
and the kind of presents which should be chosen. The
Byzantines did not necessarily regard it as a humiliation to
make regular payments, which were often called tribute by
the recipients, to countries with which they wished to live on
terms of peace. They tried by subsidies to secure help in
times of war. But they also did not hesitate to incite enemies
against a peaceful neighbour, though at the same time
observing the treaties which they themselves had concluded.
They regarded it as a principle of good statesmanship to
handicap a real or a potential opponent by placing difficulties
in his way. Political marriages also played a part in diplo-
macy, as indeed did the reception of people whose mere
presence at the Byzantine Court could exercise a certain
pressure on foreign powers. Christian missions were an
effective means of imperial policy, although the neighbour-
ing States which had been converted to Christianity could
not always be restrained from their cupidity. On the other
hand attempts to achieve a union with the West by means of
concessions in dogma were fruitless owing to the resistance
of the Emperor's own subjects. One thing is certain:
diplomacy called for heavy expenditure in money. But it is
precisely in this field that the Byzantines, who have been
wrongly accused of clumsiness, showed a capacity for
flexibility and for adaptability; although occasionally they
did not shrink from objectionable methods, yet this capacity
gave the Government a superiority of which full use was
often made. WILHELM ENSSLIN
XI
BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM
BYZANTIUM and Islam have been for many centuries indis-
solubly connected in both external and internal history. From
the seventh century to the middle of the eleventh Islam was
represented by the Arabs, from the middle of the eleventh
century to the fall of Byzantium in 1453 by the Turks, first
the Seljuks and later the Osmanli.
A few years after the formation of Islam in the depths of
Arabia about 622 and the death of Muhammad in 632 the
Arabs took possession of the Byzantine fortress Bothra
(Bosra) beyond the Jordan, a 'trifling occurrence, had it not
been the prelude of a mighty revolution'. 1 The Arabian
military successes were astounding: in 635 the Syrian city of
Damascus fell; in 636 the entire province of Syria was in the
hands of the Arabs; in 637 or 638 Jerusalem surrendered
and Palestine became an Arab province; at the same time
the Persian Empire was conquered; in 641 or 642 the Arabs
occupied Alexandria, and a few years later the Byzantine
Empire was forced to abandon Egypt for ever. The con-
quest of Egypt was followed by the further advance of the
Arabs along the shores of North Africa, To sum up, by the
year 650 Syria with the eastern part of Asia Minor and
Upper Mesopotamia, Palestine, Egypt, and part of the
Byzantine provinces in North Africa had already come under
the Arabian sway. Towards the close of the seventh century
the whole of North Africa was conquered, and at the outset
of the eighth the Arabs began their victorious penetration
into the Pyrenean Peninsula.
The Arabs thus became the masters of a long coastline
which had to be protected against Byzantine vessels. The
Arabs had no fleet and no experience whatever in maritime
affairs. But the Greco-Syrian population of Syria whom they
had just conquered was well accustomed to seafaring and
1 Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap, xlv
near the end, ed J. B. Bury, vol. V (London, 1898), p. 95.
BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM 309

had played an extremely important role in Byzantine trade.
The first crews of the Arabian vessels, accordingly, were
enlisted from the population of the newly won Byzantine
provinces. As early as the middle of the seventh century
Arabian vessels occupied the island of Cyprus, an important
maritime station; then they defeated the Byzantine fleet,
reached Crete and Sicily, crossed the Aegean Sea and the
Hellespont, and shortly after 670 appeared before Constan-
tinople. All attempts of the Arabian fleet to take the capital
failed, however, and in 677 the Arabs departed.
There is no doubt that one of the essential causes of the
amazing military success of the Arabs was the discontent of
the population of Syria and Egypt. This discontent was
religious in character, for the Monophysite doctrine adopted
by the great majority of the population of these provinces
had been outlawed by the Byzantine Government. Perhaps
Nestorianism or Monophysitism affected primitive Islam
much more strongly than is usually believed. At first
Byzantine theologians viewed Islam as a ramification of
Arianism and placed it on a level with other Christian sects.
In the eighth century John of Damascus, who lived at the
Muhammadan Court, also regarded Islam as but another
example of secession from the true Christian faith, similar to
other earlier heresies. Recently F. W. Buckler has pointed
out that the range of the authority of the Nestorian Patriar-
chate, which had been established in Babylon (the future
Bagdad) in A.D. 499, included the Sassanid Empire, India,
China, Arabia, and, from time to time, Egypt. 'After the
failure of Nestorius to restore his doctrine within the
Christian Church its restoration outside the Church, in
Islam, became inevitable.' 'It was by the genius of Muham-
mad that Nestorius' doctrine was to be restored to the realm
of religion.' 1 On the other hand, Professor Gr^goire has laid
particular stress on the closeness of Islam to Monophysitism;
paraphrasing Pirenne's striking but debatable statement
that 'Muhammad made Charles the Great', Gregoire
declares that Eutyches, one of the founders of the Mono-
physite doctrine, made Muhammad. Byzantine Christianity,
1 F. W. Buckler, 'Barbarian and Greek and Church History*, Church History,
vol xi (1942), p. 175 'Regnum et Ecclesia*, ibid., vol. in (1934), p. 38.
3 io BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM

in all likelihood, in the form of Monophysitism became one
of the main foundations of Islam. 1
In their newly conquered provinces the Arabs found to
their hand a well-organized administrative machinery. As
of course they had brought nothing of the sort from the
desert whence they came, they adopted it, so that the
administration of the early Caliphate followed the methods
and system inherited from Byzantium and in part from
Sassanid Persia.
The Byzantine and Persian provinces which passed into
the power of the Arabs were acquainted with Hellenistic
culture. Such flourishing cultural centres as Antioch in
Syria, Caesarea and Gaza in Palestine, and particularly
Alexandria in Egypt with their writers, schools, museums,
and general atmosphere of intense intellectual life and old
Hellenistic traditions now belonged to the Arabs. Coming
into contact with a well-established culture and without
possessing a culture of their own, the Arabs naturally fell
under the influence of these ancient civilizations. This
influence was a powerful stimulus to their own cultural
development. Through Hellenism the Byzantine provinces
made the Arabs acquainted with the works of ancient learn-
ing and art, and introduced them into the circle of nations
with an inherited culture.
The final goal of Arab policy in the second half of the
seventh century and even more in the first half of the eighth
was to gain possession of Constantinople. In 7 1 7 the new
Isaurian dynasty ascended the throne in Byzantium, and its
first representative, the Emperor Leo III, faced one of the
most critical moments in the history of his Empire. The
Arab land forces marched right through Asia Minor and
appeared under the walls of the capital, while a strong Arab
fleet surrounded it by sea. In 718 this daring undertaking
ended in complete failure for the Arabs. After that defeat the
Arabs never attacked the 'God-guarded* city. But the idea of
taking ^ Constantinople still persisted. In 838 the Caliph
Mutasim, after his military successes in Asia Minor,
dreamed of marching on Constantinople.
1 H. Gregoire, 'Mahomet et le Monophysisme', Melanges Charles Diekl, vol. i
(Pans, 1930), pp. 107-19.

Before the Seljuk Turks appeared and established them-
selves in Asia Minor in the eleventh century, almost con-
tinuous fighting took place there between Byzantines and
Arabs; Arabic sources mention in almost every year military
campaigns, often mere predatory razzias, accompanied by
frequent exchanges of captives. Sometimes Byzantium was
unsuccessful; e.g. at the close of the eighth century ac-
cording to the terms of peace the Empire was obliged to
pay to the Arabs a considerable amount of money 'which
(the Empress Irene) was to pay every year in April and in
June*. This agreement gave rise to the erroneous idea that
in the year 80 1 the famous Caliph Harun-al-Rashid was lord
of the Roman Empire. 1 The Caliph might call this money
tribute, but 'to the Emperor it was merely a wise investment;
when he was ready to fight, the payment would cease*. 2 In
the Mediterranean, Cyprus (seventh century), Crete, and
Sicily (ninth century) passed into the power of the Arabs;
some cities were taken in south Italy. Under the pressure of
the Arab invasion in North Africa many Greeks fled thence
to Sicily, and later, when Sicily was gradually being con-
quered by the Arabs, many Greeks left Sicily for south Italy
and increased the Hellenic element there among the native
south Italian population. The Mediterranean Sea, some
scholars assert, though not without exaggeration, became the
Muslim Lake.
At first sight the interests of these two political and reli-
gious enemies seem irreconcilable. But this was not the
case. Warlike expeditions put no impenetrable barrier to
cultural relations. This period was a long succession of war
and peace, ruin and creation, enmity and friendship. There
was no race hatred. According to Oriental sources, the
Emperor Nicephorus I (80211) was of Arabian, prob-
ably Mesopotamian, origin. Under Leo III (717-41) a
mosque was constructed in Constantinople, so that one
Greek chronicler refers to this Emperor as the 'Saracen-
minded'. In the first half of the tenth century the Patriarch
of Constantinople, Nicholas Mysticus, writing to the Emir
1 The agreement was so interpreted by F. W. Buckler, Harunu'l-Rashid and
Charles the Great (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1931), p. 36.
2 S. Runciman, Byzantine Civilization (London, 1933), p. 162.
3 i2 BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM

of Crete, addressed him as 'most illustrious and most
honorable and beloved' and said that 'the two powers of the
whole universe, the power of the Saracens (Arabs) and that
of the Romans, are excelling and shining like the two great
luminaries in the firmament. For this reason alone we must
live in common as brothers although we differ in customs,
manners, and religion.'
As political intercourse with the Arabs, both in the East
and in the West, was essential to Byzantium, the ritual of the
reception of Arab embassies which were sent to Constanti-
nople during the periods of peace was minutely elaborated,
and the ambassadors were welcomed with all sorts of brilliant
Court ceremonies, diplomatic courtesies, and the astute
display of military strength. In the work on the Ceremonies
of the Byzantine Court compiled under Constantine Porphyro-
genitus in the tenth century are preserved formulas of very
cordial welcome to the ambassadors from Bagdad and Cairo.
At the imperial table the Agaren 'friends' (Arabs) occupied
higher places than the Frank 'friends', and the Eastern
Arabs were placed higher than the Western. Moreover,
when Byzantine ambassadors made their appearance in
Bagdad, e.g. in 917, they were solemnly received by the
Caliph with full pomp of Oriental magnificence and mili-
tary parade. In 947-8 the ambassadors of the Emperor
Constantine Porphyrogenitus appeared at the Court of the
famous Spanish Caliph Abdar-Rahman III and received a
brilliant welcome. Among the gifts presented by the
Byzantine ambassadors to the Caliph in the name of their
Emperor was a beautiful Greek manuscript containing a
medical work, and a Latin manuscript of the History of
Orosius. Since the Caliph failed to find any Christian in
Spain who knew Greek, the medical manuscript remained in
his library untranslated.
Treaties of peace between Byzantium and its neighbours,
of course including the Arabs, were made for ever, 'as long
as the sun shines and the world stands fixed* or 'as long as the
sun shines and the world endures henceforth and for ever-
more*. These flowers of Oriental style have survived up to
the nineteenth century. In the agreement between Maskat
(Muscat in Arabia) and Great Britain concluded in 1 800 we

read that 'the friendship of the two States shall remain
unshaken until the end of time, till the sun and moon have
finished their revolving career'; and in the convention of
amity and commerce concluded in 1833 between the United
States of America and Siam we find the following clause:
'The Siamese and the citizens of the United States of
America shall with sincerity hold commercial intercourse
in the ports of their respective nations as long as heaven and
earth shall endure/
The Arab conquests of the seventh, eighth, and ninth
centuries resulted in a considerable change in Byzantine
trade and commerce. The economic prosperity of the early
Roman Empire had been undermined by the internal
anarchy of the third century as well as by the barbarian
migrations into the Western provinces of the fourth and
fifth centuries. In the sixth century the Emperor Justinian
gave new life to the foreign trade of his Empire, especially
in the East. But a fatal blow to the economic power of
Byzantium in the East and South was inflicted by the Arabs,
who wrested from the Empire the richest and most vital
provinces whose economic life was most highly developed.
Arab pirates with headquarters in Crete made the Medi-
terranean so insecure for sailing that traders were forced to
give up their ships and run the risk of long land journeys,
which themselves were not always safe or comfortable, in
order to escape 'the Mavrousian barbarians', as the Life of
<?/. Gregory the Decapolite puts it. 1
At first sight it might be thought that the whole economic
structure of the Near East collapsed, and that trade relations
with the East came to a close. But this was not so. In
Arabia before the time of Muhammad besides the nomadic
Bedouins there had been settled inhabitants of cities and
hamlets which had developed along the trade routes, mainly
on the caravan road from the south to the north, from Yemen
to Palestine, Syria, and the Sinaitic peninsula. The richest
among the cities along the route was Mecca (Macoraba in
ancient writings), famous long before the time of Muham-
mad. There were many Jews and Christians among the
1 La Vie de Saint Gregoire le Dfrapohtt et let Slaves Mactdoniens au IX* stick,
ed. F. Dvornik (Paris, 1926), p. 53 (par. 9).
3H BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM

merchants in Arabia, and the Meccans were to such an
extent absorbed in their commercial affairs that according to
one scholar Mecca 'assumed a materialistic, arrogantly
plutocratic character'. 1 In other words, before Muhammad
Syria and Palestine were economically connected with
Arabia. Even in the Koran, if the passage is correctly inter-
preted, we read that the Quraysh, the tribe to which Muham-
mad belonged, were busy in sending forth caravans both in
winter and in summer. 2 Adequate protection was of special
value to the Quraysh in their trading journeys, in summer
northward to Syria and in winter southward to Yemen.
Moreover, local economic life in the Eastern Byzantine
provinces before they were occupied by the Arabs was still
well established, which is proved by the fact that under the
Arab regime the Byzantine artisans in Syria continued to
carry on their business.
Of course Byzantium after losing the Eastern provinces
derived no direct advantage from the economic order
established there upon the termination of hostilities. But
indirectly the advantage was great, for the well-established
economic life in Syria and Palestine considerably helped the
Empire, as long as it was possible to re-establish commercial
relations with the East. In spite of their frequency and
intensity the wars in Asia Minor were not continuous, and in
the intervals of peace both the Empire and the Caliphate had
time enough to realize the importance of establishing trade
relations. Byzantine merchants appeared in many Arab
cities, and Muslim traders came to Byzantium to transact
their business. In the tenth century Trebizond became the
most important centre of commercial relations between
Byzantine and Muslim merchants; according to an Arab
writer of the tenth century Trebizond during its annual
fairs was crammed full of Muslim, Greek, Armenian, and
other merchants. 3 In 961 after two unsuccessful attempts
Crete, the base of the pirate Arabs, was at last restored to the
Empire, so that the Emperor Nicephorus Phocas could say
1 Goldziher, Die Religion des Islams, p. 103, in Die Kultur der Gegewuoarty ed.
by P. Hmneberg, Teil J, Abt. 3, Dte Re&gionen des Orients (1913), part i, ed
. 2.
2 Koran, surah 106, 2. See H. Lammens, 'Mekka', in the Encycloptdie de I* Islam,
livraison 44 (1931), p 507.

3 Mafoudi, Les Prairies d'or, ed. Barbier de Meynard, vol. ii (Paris, 1861), p.
3.

to the Italian ambassador Liutprand: 'Nor has your master
any force of ships on the sea. I alone have really stout sailors. ' l
Economic relations with the Arabs were extremely
important to Byzantium not only for their own sake but also
for the international position of the Empire in relation to
western Europe. Before the epoch of the Crusades the
commerce of the Muslim East with Europe was carried on
mostly through Byzantium, which derived large revenues
from her position as intermediary between East and West.
But the Crusades established direct commercial relations
between Europe and the East, so that soon afterwards the
economic prosperity of Byzantium came to a close, and the
leading economic role passed to the Italian cities, with
Venice and Genoa at their head.
When we approach the problem of the mutual cultural
relations between Byzantium and Islam, we must take into
account the contribution made by other peoples to the
intellectual life of the Arab State. From the middle of the
eighth century, when the Abbasids overthrew the Ummayads
(Ommiads) and transferred their capital from Damascus to
Bagdad, the Persians began to play a preponderant role in
the cultural progress of the Caliphate. Then the Arameans
acquainted the Arabs with the treasures of Hellenistic
culture. In a word the cultural development of the Arabs
was mostly due to foreign activities and foreign materials.
An eminent German Orientalist remarks: 'Greece, Persia,
and India were taxed to help the sterility of the Arab mind.' 2
During the Middle Ages before the Crusades there were
three world cultural centres, one belonging to Christianity,
two to Islam : Constantinople on the Bosphorus, and Bagdad
and Cordoba on the two opposite borders of the Muhamma-
dan world. Constantinople, 'the city guarded by God', 'the
glory of Greece', was the richest and most brilliant city in
the medieval world. Bagdad, the city called into existence in
the middle of the eighth century 'as by an enchanter's wand',
was second only to Constantinople, and the Court of the
Abbasids was a real garden of learning, science, and the arts.
Cordoba in Spain in the tenth century was the most civilized
1 Liutprand, Legatio, ch. xi.
2 Ed. Sachau, Alberuni's India, vol. i CLondon, 1888), p. xxvui.
3i6 BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM

city in western Europe, 'the wonder and admiration of the
world' ; it contained 70 libraries and 900 public baths.
Hellenistic culture was the common possession which
after the conquest by the Arabs of Syria and Egypt could
draw together Byzantium and the Caliphate. In the monas-
teries of Syria humble monks were assiduously translating
the works not only of religious but also of secular literature.
Among philosophers Aristotle held pride of place; among
medical writers Hippocrates and Galen. The Nestorians,
persecuted by the Byzantine Government and condemned at
the Third Oecumenical Council in 431, found shelter in
Sassanid Persia and brought with them the learning of the
Greeks. Under the Abbasids many scholars set to work on
translations from the Greek and on the search for new
manuscripts. Particular attention was devoted to the transla-
tion of philosophical, mathematical, and medical works.
When in the eighth century the Iconoclast movement
triumphed in Byzantium, one of the most ardent defenders of
the icons, John of Damascus, was living under the Caliphate.
Although, as good authorities assert, the Ummayad Caliph
Yazid II (720-4), the contemporary of the Emperor Leo III
(717-41), three years before the date of Leo's edict had
issued a decree by which he ordered the destruction of all
images in the churches of his Christian subjects, yet John of
Damascus was not hampered in his literary work. Among
his numerous writings in the fields of dogma, polemics,
history, philosophy, oratory, and poetry, his three famous
treatises Against Those Who De-predate Holy Images were
written under the Caliphate, and became the best weapon of
Byzantine defenders of the icons.
Religious tolerance was not a particular trait of the
Byzantine system. From the period of Constantine the
Great when for the first time Christianity was proclaimed
legal, the history of Byzantium affords many striking examples
of religious intolerance. Any deviations from the religious
credo of the ruling Emperors were outlawed by the Emperors
or condemned by the Councils, so that many sects and
doctrines which appeared during the Middle Ages within
the Christian Church and were important not only reli-
giously but also politically were persecuted and forbidden;

this policy of intolerance sometimes led to serious political
complications and important territorial losses. But the
attitude of the Byzantine Government towards Islam was
different. It is true Byzantine sources sometimes attacked
Islam; to brand the Emperor Leo III for his Iconoclast
tendencies a Byzantine chronicler, as we have noted above,
calls him 'Saracen-minded'; one of the accusations against
John of Damascus which was set forth at the Iconoclast
council in 754 was that he was 'inclined to Muhammadan-
ism'. But on the other hand, as we have seen, a mosque was
built in Constantinople under Leo III (717-41).
In 1009 the insane Fatimid Caliph of Egypt, al-Hakim,
to whom Palestine belonged, ordered the destruction of the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. After his death
(1020) a period of tolerance towards Christianity set in again.
His successor, al-Zahir, in 1027 made an agreement with
the Emperor Constantine VIII which is an interesting
illustration of the religious relations between Islam and the
Empire. It was agreed that the Fatimid Caliph should be
prayed for in every mosque in the Byzantine dominions, and
permission was granted for the restoration of the mosque in
Constantinople which had been destroyed in retaliation for
the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in
Jerusalem, as well as for the institution of a muezzin, a
Muhammadan priest to call the faithful to prayer. In his
turn, al-Zahir agreed to permit the rebuilding of the church
in Jerusalem.
The Byzantines were not "much addicted to travelling;
there are no descriptions of Bagdad, Antioch, Jerusalem,
Cordoba, or a number of other places under the Arab sway
written by Byzantine visitors. There were few Muhamma-
dan travellers either who before the Crusades visited Con-
stantinople or other places within the Empire. As far as we
know at present, the earliest Muhammadan traveller who
described the capital was an Arab, Harun-ibn-Yahya, He
visited Constantinople either under the Emperor Basil I
(867-86) or under Alexander (9I2-I3); 1 he was neither
1 A. Vasiliev, *Harun-ibn-Yahya and his Description of Constantinople*.
G. Ostrogorsky, 'Zum Reisebericht des Hamn-Ibn-Jahja*. Both studies in
Semmarium Kvndakwianwn, vol. v (193*)* pp. 149-63* 251-7.
3i8 BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM

trader nor tourist, but was captured somewhere in Asia Minor
and brought by sea to the capital as a prisoner. As an eye-
witness he described the gates of the city, the Hippodrome,
the imperial palace where he was particularly impressed by
an organ the solemn procession of the Emperor to the Great
Church (St. Sophia), the statue of Justinian, an aqueduct,
some monasteries around Constantinople, and some other
things. On his way from Constantinople to Rome he visited
another important city of the Empire, Salonica (Thessa-
lonica). Harun-ibn-Yahya's description gives us very
interesting material for the topography of Constantinople
and for some Court and ecclesiastical ceremonies; it would
repay further detailed study. In the tenth century another
Muhammadan visited Constantinople; this was Masudi, the
famous geographer and historian, who spent most of his
life in travelling. Anxious to see the capital of 'the Christian
kings- of Rum', 1 he visited the city during the brilliant period
of the Macedonian dynasty and left a succinct description of
it. He remarks : 'During the period of the Ancient Greeks
and the early period of the Byzantine Empire learning did
not cease to develop and increase/
In spite of the almost continuous warfare in the East
between Byzantium and the Arabs, the cultural intercourse
between these at first sight irreconcilable enemies always
continued, and the Caliphs, recognizing the superiority of
Byzantine culture in many respects, as occasion arose,
appealed to the Emperors for help in cultural enterprises.
The Caliph Walid I (705-15) asked the Emperor to send
him some Greek artisans to adorn with mosaics the mosques
of Damascus, Medina, and Jerusalem. In the tenth century
on the opposite border of the Muhammadan world in Spain,
the Ummayad Caliph of Cordoba, al-Hakim II (961-76),
wrote to the Emperor of Byzantium begging him to send a
mosaicist to adorn the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Accord-
ing to an Arab historian, al-Hakim 'ordered' the Emperor to
send him a capable artisan to imitate what al- Walid had
done for the completion of the mosque of Damascus. The
Caliph's envoys brought back a mosaicist from Constanti-
1 The word 'Rum* is merely 'Roman'; it was applied by Muhammadan writers
to the medieval Byzantine Greeks. *Rum' was also used as a name for Asia Minor.

nople, as well as a considerable number of cubes of mosaics
which the Emperor sent as a present. The Caliph placed
many slaves as pupils at the disposal of the mosaicist, so that
after his departure al-Hakim had his own group of skilful
workers in mosaic. In the tenth century also the Emperor
Constantine Porphyrogenitus sent 140 columns to the
Spanish Caliph Abd er-Rahman III who at that time was
building Medinat ez-Zahra, his favourite residence, in Cor-
doba. In the ninth century under the Emperor Theophilus,
there lived in Constantinople a distinguished mathematician
named Leo. Through his pupils he became so famous
abroad that the Caliph Mamun, an active promoter of
education in his country, asked him to come to his Court.
When Theophilus heard of this invitation, he gave Leo a
salary and appointed him as public teacher in one of the
Constantinopolitan churches. Although Mamun sent a per-
sonal letter to Theophilus begging him to let Leo come to
Bagdad for a short stay, saying that he would consider this
an act of friendship and offering for this favour, as tradition
asserts, eternal peace and 2,000 pounds of gold, the Emperor
refused to satisfy his request. In the ninth century also the
Caliph al-Wathiq (842-7) 'with a special authorization from
the Emperor Michael III' sent to Ephesus an Arab scholar
to visit the caves in which were preserved the bodies of the
seven youths who, according to tradition, had suffered
martyrdom under Diocletian. For this occasion the Byzan-
tine Emperor sent a man to serve as guide to the learned
Arab. The story of this expedition, told by an Arab writer
of the ninth century, that is, by a contemporary, is not to be
rejected. It indicates that even at a time when hostilities
between Byzantium and the Arabs were very keen and
frequent, a sort of joint 'scientific' expedition was possible.
The goal of the expedition was in absolute harmony with
the medieval mind.
Arabo-Byzantine wars affected the literature of both
countries. The military conflicts created a type of national
hero, intrepid, valiant, magnanimous; some of these heroes
became legendary figures endowed with superhuman vigour
and carrying out stupendous deeds. An Arab warrior,
Abdallah al-Battal, probably fell in the battle of Acroinon
320 BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM

in Asia Minor in 740 ; later this champion of Islam became
the historical prototype of the legendary Turkish national
hero Saiyid Battal Ghazi, whose grave is still shown in one
of the villages south of Eskishehr (medieval Dorylaeum) in
Asia Minor. In the tenth century the Hamdanids at Aleppo
in Syria created at their Court a centre of flourishing literary
activity; contemporaries called this period of the Hamdanids
the 'Golden Age'. The poets of their epoch treated not only
the usual themes of Arabian poetry, but also praised the
deeds of the Muhammadans in the wars with Byzantium.
The famous Byzantine epic on Digenes Akritas, a Byzantine
chanson de geste> depicting the wonderful exploits of this
Greek national hero, goes back to an actual person who
apparently was killed fighting against the Arabs in Asia
Minor in 788. The tomb of the hero himself is found not
far from Samosata. The epic of Digenes Akritas and the so-
called Akritic popular songs beautifully and in many cases
accurately describe the warfare between the Arabs and
Byzantium, especially in the ninth century, when in 838
took place the great military success of the Arab armies over
the Byzantine troops at Amorium in Phrygia. Now owing
to some recent brilliant studies on Byzantine and Arabo-
Turkish epics another extremely interesting problem arises,
that of the close connexion between the Greek epic of
Digenes Akritas, the Turkish epic of Saiyid Battal which is
Turkish only in the language of its last version but is
originally Arab, and the Thousand and One Nights. The
Greek epic Bigenes Akritas is a priceless mine of information
for cultural relations between Byzantium and the Arabs.
On account of the continued intercourse between Byzan-
tium and the Arabs, many Arabic words passed into Greek,
and many Greek words into Arabic. These borrowed words,
whether Arabic or Greek, have very often taken distorted
forms in which it is sometimes not easy to discover the
hidden original. Similar borrowings may be observed in the
West in Spain, where many Arabic words made their way
into Spanish and Portuguese.
The period from the beginning of the Crusades to the fall
of Constantinople in 1453 differed considerably from the
preceding period so far as mutual relations between Byzan-

tium and Islam are concerned. Three ethnic elements one
after another became important in the Near East. In the
course of the eleventh century the Seljuk Turks founded in
Asia Minor the Sultanate of Iconium (Konia); in the
thirteenth century the Mongols defeated the Seljuks; and
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Ottoman Turks
established their supremacy, conquering Asia Minor and
most of the Balkan peninsula and taking possession of
Constantinople in 1453, thus putting an end to the political
existence of the pitiful remnants of the Byzantine Empire.
During this period political interests were predominant over
economic and cultural interests in the relations between
Byzantium and Islam.
Before the Seljuks in the eleventh century began their
advance through Asia Minor, this country, though it was
for long a theatre of stubborn hostilities with Islam, had
remained Christian. Only in the eleventh century did the
Seljuks bring Islam into this newly conquered country which
afterwards became mainly Muhammadan. The political
situation in Asia Minor was essentially changed. In 107 1 at
the battle of Manzikert in Armenia the Seljuks crushed the
Byzantine army and captured the Emperor Romanus
Diogenes. About the same year the Seljuks took possession
of Jerusalem and sacked it. Islam, represented now not by
the Arabs but by the Seljuk Turks, became a real danger to
Byzantium. It is of course useless to conjecture what would
have happened in the Near East towards the end of the
eleventh century had the Western Crusaders not made their
appearance in Constantinople and thereby turned a new
page in the history of the world.
In the eighth century the question arose of the universal
conflict of the whole European Christian world with the
powerful Muslim State. The latter was the aggressor; the
East threatened the West. At the end of the eleventh
century a universal conflict of the whole European Christian
world with the Islamic world again manifested itself; but in
this case the Christian world was the aggressor; the West
threatened the East. The epoch of the Crusades began, that
epoch so manifold in its political, economic, and cultural
consequences, so fatal to the Byzantine Empire, and so
3982 Y

fruitful to western Europe. The Muhammadans were
perplexed and troubled. According to a contemporary Arab
historian, in 1097 'there began to arrive a succession of
reports that the armies of the Franks had appeared from the
direction of the sea of Constantinople with forces not to be
reckoned for multitude. As these reports followed one upon
the other, and spread from mouth to mouth far and wide, the
people grew anxious and disturbed in mind/ 1
The position of the Byzantine Empire in the Crusading
movement, which was a purely west European enterprise,
was very complicated. In the eleventh century no idea of a
crusade existed in Byzantium. The problem of recovering
Palestine was too abstract and was not vital to the Empire.
There was no religious antagonism to Islam ; there were no
preachers of a crusade in Byzantium. The Eastern Empire
was reluctantly involved in the turmoil of the First Crusade.
The sole desire of the Empire was to have some aid against
the political menace from the Turks, and this had no con-
nexion with the expedition to Palestine.
Extremely interesting from the point of view of the
attitude of Byzantium towards the Crusading movement
were the years immediately preceding the Third Crusade.
In 1 1 87 the Kurd Saladin, ruler of Egypt, a talented leader
and clever politician, captured Jerusalem from the Crusaders
and succeeded in organizing a sort of counter-crusade
against the Christians. This was the turning-point in the
history of the Crusades. And at the moment when the Third
Crusade started, the Byzantine Emperor Isaac Angelus
opened negotiations with Saladin, against whom the crusade
was being directed, and formed an alliance with Saladin
against the Sultan of Iconium.
Byzantium paid dearly for her forced participation in the
west European expeditions against Islam. In 1204 the
Crusaders took and sacked Constantinople, and established
the Latin Empire. When in 1261 the Palaeologi retook
Constantinople, they were too weak to make any serious
attempt to recover what they had lost to the Seljuk Turks.
'Had there been in Asia Minor in the latter half of the thirteenth
1 The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, extracted and translated from the
Chronicle oflbn al-Qalanisi, by H. A. R. Gibb (London, 1932), p. 41.

century a predominant element, with an historical past and with a
strong leader, we might have seen a revival of the Sultanate of Konia.
Or we might have seen a revival of Hellenism, a grafting, perhaps, on
fresh stock, which would have put new foundations under the Byzan-
tine Empire by a reconquest of the Asiatic themes. But the Mongols
and the Crusaders had done their work too well. The Latins at
Constantinople, and the Mongols in Persia and Mesopotamia, had
removed any possibility of a revival of either Arab Moslem or Greek
Christian traditions.' 1
The last period, from 1261 to 1453, was, as we have noted
above, a time of desperate political struggle a protracted
death agony of the remnants of the Empire in its unequal fight
against Islam represented this time by the Ottoman Turks.
Accordingly there was almost no cultural intercourse
between Byzantium and Islam in the period from the
Crusades to the fall of the Empire. Trade was interrupted
and ceased to be well organized and regular. Many treasures
of Islamic culture perished. Neither the Seljuks nor the
Ottomans were at that time ready to carry on or stimulate
real cultural work; in particular any co-operation with the
Eastern Empire became impossible.
During this period four Arab travellers visited Constanti-
nople and left descriptions of the city. Two of them came to
Constantinople during the brilliant rule of the Comnenian
dynasty in the twelfth century. In his Guide to Pilgrimages
Hassan AH al-Harawy gives a brief account of the most
important monuments of the capital and specifies some
monuments connected with Islam. He stresses once more
the religious tolerance of Byzantium towards Islam. 'Out-
side of the city there is the tomb of one of the companions of
the Prophet (= Muhammad). The big mosque erected by
Maslamah, son of Abdel-Melik, is within the city. One can
see the tomb of a descendant of Hussein, son of Ali, son of
Abu-Thalib.' At the end of his description he says, 'Con-
stantinople is a city larger than its renown proclaims', and
then exclaims, 'May God, in His grace and generosity, deign
to make of it the capital of Islam !' His wish was fulfilled in
1453. Another Arabian traveller of the twelfth century who
1 H. A. Gibbons, The Foundation of the Ottoman Empire (New York, 1916),
pp. 13-14.

visited Constantinople was the famous geographer Edrisi,
born in Ceuta, in the west of North Africa. Under the
Palaeologi two Arab travellers visited and described Con-
stantinople. At the beginning of the fourteenth century an
Arab geographer, Abulfeda, observes some traces of the
decline of the capital. He remarks, 'Within the city there are
sown fields and gardens, and many ruined houses'.
In the first half of the fourteenth century another famous
Arab traveller, Ibn-Batutah (Battuta), who like Edrisi was
born in the west of North Africa, at Tangier, visited Con-
stantinople and gave a very interesting and vivid description
of it. When his party reached the first gate of the imperial
palace they found there about a hundred men, and Ibn-
Batutah remarks, *I heard them saying Sarakinu> Sarakinu,
which means Muslims', He was the Emperor's guest, and
the people of Constantinople were very friendly to him. One
day a great crowd gathered round him, and an old man said,
*You must come to my house that I may entertain you*. But
Ibn-Batutah adds, 'After that I went away, and I did not see
him again*.
In connexion with the ever-growing danger from the
Ottoman Turks we may note some antagonism to Islam in
the capital. A Byzantine historian of the fourteenth century
says that while a Christian service was being celebrated in
the imperial church, the people were angry to see Ottomans
who had been admitted into the capital dancing and singing
near the palace, 'crying out in incomprehensible sounds the
songs and hymns of Muhammad, and thereby attracting the
crowd to listen to them rather than to the divine gospels'.
The Emperor Manuel II (1391-1425) himself compiled the
most thorough refutation of the doctrine of Islam which was
written in Byzantine times. He defines Islam as 'a falsely
called faith 1 and 'the frenzy of the mad Muhammad'. In
spite of this, on the eve of die final catastrophe the majority
of the population was more antagonistic to the Union with
the Roman Catholic Church than to the contamination of
Islam. The famous words uttered at that time by one of the
Byzantine dignitaries, Lucas Notaras, are well known: 'It is
better to see in the city the power of the Turkish turban than
that of the Latin tiara/

In 1453 Constantinople, the 'second Rome' 3 fell. Sultan
Muhammad II, the 'precursor of Antichrist and second
Sennacherib', entered the city. On the site of the Christian
Eastern Empire was established the military Empire of the
Ottoman Turks. This victory of Islam over Christianity had
unexpected repercussions in far-off Russia, where Moscow
and the Russian Grand Prince inherited in the imagination
of many Russians the cultural legacy of Byzantium and
the right and duty of defending the Greek Orthodox faith
against Islam. 1
Finally, perhaps, the cultural influence of both the Byzan-
tine Empire and Islam may be noted in the origin and
progress of the so-called Italian Renaissance. Classical
knowledge, which was carefully preserved by Byzantium,
and various branches of knowledge which were not only pre-
served but also perfected by the Arabs played an essential
role in the creation of the new cultural atmosphere in Italy
and became a connecting link between ancient culture and
our modern civilization. Here we have an example of the
cultural co-operation of the two most powerful and fruitful
forces of the Middle Ages Byzantium and Islam.
A. A. VASILIEV
1 See Chapter 14 infra.
XII
THE BYZANTINE INHERITANCE IN
SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE 1
IT is too much the fashion in western Europe to under-
estimate the influence of Byzantium upon the States of
south-eastern Europe. In the case of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria,
and Albania their Turkish past is emphasized; in that of
Roumania Trajan and his 'Roman* legionaries are apt to over-
shadow the Byzantine Empire and the Phanariote Princes ;
in that of Greece the classical past usurps the place of
Romans, Byzantines, Franks, and Turks alike. But a survey
of the Balkan peninsula from the standpoint of eastern-
Europe puts Byzantium in a very different perspective. In
Athens, for example, the home of lectures, no lecturer will
attract such a large audience as a scholar who has chosen
Byzantine history, literature, social life, music, or art for his
subject. For the modern Greeks feel with reason that, if they
are the grandchildren of ancient Hellas, they are the children
and heirs of Byzantium.
To begin, then, with Greece, where the Byzantine tradi-
tion is naturally strongest, we find that from the foundation
of the Greek kingdom down to the disaster in Asia Minor
(1922) of which the Treaty of Lausanne of 1923 was the
formal acknowledgement the Greeks were haunted by the
spectre of Constantine Palaeologus. Otho and his spirited
consort were enthusiastic adherents of 'the great idea', and
Athens was long considered as merely the temporary capital
of Greece, until such time as Constantinople should be
regained. Religion being, as usual in the Near East, identi-
fied with national and political interests, Greek participation
in the^Crimean War on the side of Orthodox Russia, despite
the rival Russian candidature for Constantinople, was
prevented only by the Anglo-French occupation. The more
prosaic George I was compelled by public opinion to follow
the same policy in 1866 and 1897, and it was no mere
1 This chapter was written in 1933, and since Mr Miller has died I have not
attempted to adapt the text of his chapter. N.H.B.
THE BYZANTINE INHERITANCE 327

accident that his successor was christened Constantine, who,
after his marriage with Sophia, was hailed as the future
conqueror of the city which was called after the first, and
defended by the last. Emperor of that name, Greece would
be more prosperous and better organized to-day had not the
lure of the Byzantine heritage monopolized her efforts and
strained her resources during all the first and most of the
second dynasty. The present friendship with Turkey, which
is now the keystone of Greek foreign policy, has apparently
ended Byzantine influence upon Greek politics, for the
exchange of populations, while it has intensified the internal
Hellenism of Macedonia, has ended that 'outside Hellenism',
of which the University of Athens and the Greek Church in
Turkey were the apostles.
During the Turkish domination over Greece the Orthodox
Church of that country depended directly upon the Oecu-
menical Patriarch at Constantinople. Thus a Byzantine
prelate, whose functions Muhammad II had preserved, was
the ethnarches, or 'National Chief of the Hellenes, and not
only of the Hellenes but of the Orthodox Slavs and Rouma-
nians, for the Turks made religion, not nationality, the dis-
tinctive mark of their subjects, so that a 'Greek* meant
any member of the Greek Orthodox Church of what-
ever nationality, just as the writer was once described at a
Greek monastery as not a 'Christian* (Greek), but a 'lord*
(Englishman). When the Church of the Greek kingdom
became autocephalous in 1833, Byzantine influences over it
diminished, and the recent inclusion of the Metropolitans of
*New' Greece in the Holy Synod of Athens has further
weakened the Byzantine connexion. The Archbishop of
Athens and All Greece has now a larger diocese than the
Patriarch. Before the expansion of the Greek State in 1 9 1 2
13 those ecclesiastical dignitaries had been political mission-
aries, as the history of the Macedonian question showed.
The same Byzantine spirit, which has divided the masses on
nice questions of dogma and ritual, caused Greek 'Patriar-
chists' and Bulgarian 'Exarchists' to kill each other in Mace-
donia in the interests of their rival nationalities, but in the
names of their respective ecclesiastical chiefs.
Three societies with three periodicals have diffused
328 THE BYZANTINE INHERITANCE

Byzantine learning in Greece, and their members make
pilgrimages to the Byzantine sites, which that country
possesses in such abundance. Such are the Byzantine
Churches of Athens, the adjacent monastery of Daphni,
Hosios Loukas, the aerial monasteries of Meteora, the
churches of Arta, Salonica, Hagia Mone in Chios, and, above
all, the Greek Ravenna, Mistra, the Medieval Sparta, once
the capital of a Byzantine despotat, which was no incon-
siderable portion of the waning Byzantine Empire, and like
that of Trebizond, its survivor by a few years. The Byzan-
tine castle and city of Mouchli between Argos and Tripolis
(explored by Professor Darko) bears the very name of a
monastery at Constantinople, Even in Cyprus, so long under
the domination of the Lusignans, and in Crete, still longer
under that of Venice, where even then inscriptions were dated
by the regnal years of the Byzantine Emperors, Byzantine
traditions have been preserved, while the 'Holy Mount' of
Athos, a theocratic republic under Greek sovereignty, is the
most perfect existing example of Byzantine monasticism, now
declining in other parts of Greece. When the monks in 1931
solemnly asked the Greek Foreign Office whether they might
be allowed to keep hens, despite the exclusion of the female
sex from their sacred peninsula, we were, indeed, transported
back to the atmosphere of Byzantine dialectics on dogma.
The practice of the Knights of Rhodes of training children
to enter the Order was Byzantine, as was originally their
hospital in Jerusalem. Byzantine music is still used in the
services of the Greek Church, and Byzantine art exercised an
influence upon the later Greek painters of the Turkish period,
whose works may be seen in the Churches of Kaisariand at
the foot of Hymettus and Phanerom^ne in Salamis. Byzan-
tine literature served as a stepping-stone between ancient
Greek and the 'pure language* of to-day, although the
modern school of Greek novelists and poets is far removed
from the stilted style and archaisms of some Byzantine
historians and theologians, while the contemporary novel
can find no models in that the least successful form of
medieval Greek composition. That the 'language question',
now happily less acute than thirty years ago, should have
caused two riots and the downfall of the Ministries in
IN SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE 329

1901-3, is in itself a proof that the Byzantine spirit long
survived the establishment of modern Greece. Even in
democratic Hellas, where titles are forbidden, and the only
titular distinction is to have been 'president' of some council
or society, the descendants of Phanariote families still enjoy
a certain social prestige, and one Athenian family, that of
Ranghabes, traces its descent from a Byzantine Emperor.
When, in 1933, a Monarchist organization was founded, it
connected its propaganda with the name of the last Emperor
of Constantinople, adopted the Byzantine double-eagle as its
badge, and sought to justify the return of the Danish
Gliicksburgs by recalling the achievements of the Palaeologi.
But Byzantium has left traces not only on the Greek State,
with which it is linguistically and racially more closely con-
nected, but on the Slav nationalities -of the Balkans. There
two organizations, the imperial Government and the Ortho-
dox Greek Church, collaborated in their efforts to convert
the Slavs into good Byzantine citizens and Orthodox Greek
parishioners. Bulgaria, the nearest Slav Balkan State to
Byzantium, twice rebelled against this government by aliens,
and the first and second Bulgarian Empires were the result,
until the all-conquering Turks, availing themselves of the
rivalries between these two Christian nationalities, ground
the Empire of Trnovo to powder. A recent writer 1 has shown
that the 'Byzantinisation and Christianisation of the Balkan
Slavs were two aspects of the same process'; Christianity
brought Byzantine culture and customs with it, and the
language of the primitive Bulgarian Chancery was Greek.
For, when Boris was wavering between the Western and the
Eastern Churches, the unyielding attitude of the Popes
threw him into the arms of the Patriarch, so that the first
Bulgarian Empire, and, as a natural consequence, the
second, were orientated away from the old towards the new
Rome, whence the modern Greeks, even to-day, style them-
selves in the vernacular, RomatoL When, largely owing to
the educational activities of Clement and Nahum at their
Macedonian seminary, Slav priests took the place of Greek,
and Slavonic became, instead of Greek, the official language
of the Bulgarian State and Church, the traces of Byzantium
1 Spinka, A History of Christianity in the Balkans^ p. 185.

in the religious life of Bulgaria became indirect. But Boris's
learned son and ultimate successor, Simeon, trained in Greek
literature at the palace school of Constantinople, incor-
porated the Byzantine ideas and literary forms into the
language of his own country. The books which he ordered
to be translated or adopted were Greek; his Court was copied
from Constantinople. Greeks called him 'half a Greek', but,
if he was so by culture, he was a Nationalist by policy, in
whose reign and at whose instigation Bulgaria for the first
time had a Patriarch of her own an epoch-making event,
which centuries later affected her relations with Greece and
was one of the causes of the Macedonian question.
Simeon's son and successor, Peter, by his marriage with
the masterful Byzantine Princess, Maria, introduced into
Bulgaria a new and powerful agent of Byzantine culture; his
Court was filled with Greeks and its etiquette modelled on
that of the Empress's birthplace. With the fall of the first
Bulgarian Empire in 1018 under the blows dealt by Basil
'the Bulgar-slayer', who characteristically celebrated the
victory of Byzantium by a service in the christianized
Parthenon, the Church of Our Lady of Athens, Byzantine
influence, temporal and ecclesiastical, again predominated;
the Bulgarian Patriarchate was abolished, and Ochrida, the
place to which it had been transferred from Silistria, Great
Preslav, and Sofia, became the see of a Greek Archbishop,
chosen at Constantinople from the clergy of the capital.
Byzantium, however, found a powerful opposition in the
adherents of the Bogomil heresy : a thorn in the side of both
the Western and Eastern Churches which, like Welsh
Nonconformity and Irish or Polish Catholicism, identified
itself with the Nationalist Movement, so that a good
Bogomil was also a good Bulgarian. Byzantine persecution,
as usual, furthered the cause of the persecuted, and public
opinion was ripe for rebellion when, in 1186, the Second
Bulgarian Empire arose out of the confusion of the Byzantine
State. Even then the peasants were taught to believe that the
patron saint of Byzantine Salonica, St. Demetrius, had
emigrated from the great Macedonian city to Trnovo, the
Bulgarian capital, to protect the brothers Asen. But even
under this second Empire with its national rulers the

Byzantine spirit continued to dominate the Court, the army,
the administration, and the legal procedure. Although the
Bulgarian Patriarchate was restored to Trnovo in 1235, the
National Church ceased to lead the nation; in the next
century it was, like the Byzantine Church, afflicted with the
mystic doctrine of Hesychasm^ whose founder, Gregory the
Sinaite, won many Bulgarian and Serbian followers, chief
among them Theodosius of Trnovo. At Trnovo there was
established a settlement of Hesychasts, modelled on the
monastic life of Mt. Athos. This foreign importation led its
Bulgarian promoter to take the side of the Oecumenical
Patriarch, Callistus I, against his own Patriarch, who had
sought to obtain formal, as well as practical, independence
by omitting Calltstus's name from the prayers and ceasing to
obtain the holy oil from him. Thus, theological affinity was
a more powerftil motive than patriotism. Another important
product of Hesychasm was the Bulgarian Patriarch Euthy-
mius, an opponent of the Bogomils and a compiler of
theological and biographical works, for which Byzantine
books were models. Thus, alike in dogma and literature,
Bulgaria went back to Byzantium, and originality and
nationalism were eclipsed at a time when the Turks were
approaching the Balkans. In 1393 Trnovo fell; Bulgaria
remained a Turkish province till 1878; the Bulgarian Church
was under the Oecumenical Patriarch from 1394 till 1870.
The Bulgars were subject to the temporal power of the
Turkish Sultan and to the spiritual authority of the Greek
Patriarch, who, living at Constantinople, could, as Muham-
mad II had shrewdly foreseen, be used as an instrument of
Ottoman policy in the Balkans. Hence, one of the first acts
of the Modern Greek kingdom was to throw off his authority
an act imitated by Bulgaria in 1870, but as the prelude,
not as the result, of her liberation.
The history of the southern Slavs has been profoundly
marked by the division between the Eastern and the Western
Churches, which made the Croats and Slovenes face west-
ward and the Serbs eastward. The Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy, which embraced the two first branches of the
Yugoslav stock, completed what Virgilius of Salzburg had
begun in the case of the Slovenes and Charlemagne in that

of the Croats, and the difficulties besetting the later
Triune Monarchy of Yugoslavia may be traced in great
measure to the struggle between the 'Papacy and the
Oecumenical Patriarchate in the ninth century. Such
historical causes have more practical results in the Balkans
than with us, for Serbian politicians are apt to speak of
Stephen Dushan as if he had lived yesterday, whereas no
British statesman would cite Dushan's contemporary,
Edward III, as a precedent for the reacquisition of large
parts of France. But, when the Balkan States were reborn
in the nineteenth century, they naturally and nationalistically
looked back to the medieval Serbian and Bulgarian Empires
as to their progenitors, and inevitably inherited Byzantine
traditions which had been preserved through the dull
centuries of Turkish domination. Hence to understand the
Balkan questions of to-day it is often necessary to know
something of their medieval struggles, whereas to the British
politician the reign of Victoria is already 'ancient history'.
Stephen Nemanja, by adopting the Eastern creed, instead
of the Latin Church, permanently decided the aspect of
Serbian culture; his son, Sava, and he himself in his later
years, sought inspiration among the Byzantine monks of
Mount Athos, and the still-existing Serbian monastery of
Khilandar testifies to the connexion between the 'Holy
Mountain' and the modern Yugoslav monarchy. Both
Alexander of Serbia and Alexander of Yugoslavia visited
this foundation, and a recent question, arising between
Greece and Yugoslavia out of the expropriation of the lands
belonging to Khilandar outside the peninsula of Athos,
served as a reminder that the germs of modern Balkan
politics are sometimes found in the Middle Ages. The Latin
conquest of Mount Athos indirectly assisted the diffusion of
Orthodox and Byzantine ideas in Serbia, for Sava, emigrat-
ing thence to Studenitza, spread the Eastern ritual among
the Serbs, and in 1219 obtained from the Oecumenical
Patriarch (then resident at Nicaea) his consecration as
'Archbishop of all the Serbian knds' together with the
creation of an autocephalous Serbian Church.
Byzantium's weakness was Serbia's opportunity; as usual
in the Balkans politics and religion were yoke-fellows. Sava

identified the dynasty with the national religion ; Khilandar
was the nursery of the Serbian Church, whence came its
earliest prelates and priests. Dushan completed the double
work of Nemanja and Sava; when he became 'Emperor of
the Serbs and Greeks', the imperial crown was placed upon
his head at Skoplie by the newly appointed Serbian Patriarch
of Petch. The brand-new Serbian Empire, after the fashion
of parvenus, slavishly copied the ceremonial of the ancient
Empire of Constantinople. The Serbian Tsar sought to
connect himself with the historical figures of the rulers of
Byzantium by assuming the tiara and the double eagle.
The officials of the Serbian Court were decorated with
grandiloquent Byzantine titles, and contemporary docu-
ments reveal to us the existence of a Serbian 'Sebastocrator',
'Great Logothete', 'Caesar', and 'Despot', while Cattaro and
Scutari were governed by Serbian 'Counts', and smaller
places like Antivari, the seat of the 'Primate of Serbia' in the
Catholic hierarchy, by 'Captains'. Thus, as of old, Graecia
capta ferum victorem cepit. The way had already been pre-
pared by the six marriages of Serbian kings with Greek
princesses. Thus, when Stephen Urosh II, 'the Henry
VIII of the Balkans', took, through Byzantine theological
sophistry, as his fourth wife, Simonis, the only daughter of
Andronicus II, his marriage with this Byzantine child was
prompted alike by snobbishness and ambition. But the
Court of the third Stephen Urosh, also the husband of a
noble Byzantine, was ridiculed by the historian Nicephorus
Gregoras, who came thither on a diplomatic mission from
the Byzantine Empire. 'One cannot expect apes and ants to
act like eagles and lions' was his complacent remark when he
recrossed the Serbian frontier. But he failed to recognize
the sterling natural qualities of the Serbian race which
underlay this thin veneer of alien culture. If rough Serbia
gained prestige, decadent Byzantium acquired strength from
these intermarriages; the only loser was the unfortunate
princess, sacrificed to make a diplomatic triumph. In
Serbia, as in Greece, the Church became the centre of
Nationalism under the Turkish domination; but in 1690 its
centre of gravity was transferred from Petch to the more
congenial atmosphere of Karlovits in Austrian territory.

Bosnia and the Herzegovina, now integral parts of Yugo-
slavia, had a separate medieval history, in which the Bogo-
mils were important figures. Alternately under Byzantine
and Hungarian rule in the twelfth century Bosnia found in
its concluding decade a strong native ruler in the Ban Kulin,
who patronized the Bogomils. For a time both his family and
over 10,000 of his subjects actually adopted their creed
because the sect was opposed alike to Orthodox Byzantium
and to Catholic Hungary. Thus the Bogomil heresy became
the Bosnian 'national faith', and in the fourteenth century
received the official title of 'the Bosnian Church'. Orthodox
Byzantium, by provoking opposition, and arousing alarm,
combined with its rival, Catholicism, to strengthen Bosnian
Nationalism. But the great Bosnian King Tortko I, like
Dushan, paid Byzantium the compliment of copying the
Court of Constantinople at his rustic residences of Sutjeska
and Bobovac, where Bosnian barons held offices with high-
sounding Greek names. Thus, in his reign, the Byzantine
tradition had spread to the Eastern shores of the Adriatic,
from Constantinople to Castelnuovo, his outlet on the sea.
But the adoption of Catholicism by King Stephen Thomas
Ostojid and the decision to proceed against the Bogomils
(1446) caused the wholesale emigration of the persecuted
sect to the Duchy of the Herzegovina, and led to the ulti-
mate ruin of the Bosnian kingdom. The traitor of Bobovac,
who opened its gates to the Turks, was a Bogomil, forcibly
converted to Catholicism. Most of the Bogomils preferred
Islam to Rome, the Turkish master of Byzantium to the
Papacy; many became fanatical converts of Muhamma-
danism, preserving thereby their feudal privileges and their
lands. Bosnia was for four centuries 'the lion that guards the
gates of Stamboul*; even to-day the Bosnian Muslim is a
powerful factor among his fellow Yugoslavs of the Christian
faith.
The Republic of Ragusa, long under Byzantium, showed
fidelity to Byzantine traditions in her coinage and language.
It was natural that a trading community like Ragusa, whose
'argosies' were frequent visitors to the Levant, should have
been closely affected by tne culture and the luxury, the
customs and the laws of so wealthy a capital as Constanti-

nople. Yet 'the South Slavonic Athens', as Dubrovnik has
been called, has remained Slav rather than Greek or Italian.
Albania, with its autochthonous inhabitants and mountainous
fastnesses, was too savage a country to be attracted by the
civilization of the distant city on the Bosporus. Still Durazzo,
the ancient Dyrrhachium, was the capital of a Byzantine
theme, and, therefore, governed by officials sent from the
new Rome; its wide Byzantine walls were the outward sign
of its importance as a bulwark of the East against western
invaders; and, even after the break-up of the Byzantine
Empire in 1204, a Greek prince, Michael Angelus, included
it in the despotat of Epirus which he founded to keep the
spirit of Byzantium alive amid the Prankish States of Greece.
But the many vicissitudes of Durazzo after his time cut that
link with Byzantium, which for centuries had been symbo-
lized by the Via Egnatia. The Albanians, however, after the
Turkish conquest, became more closely connected with and
more attached to the Sultan than were the other Balkan races.
They furnished his best soldiers and were specially selected
to form his bodyguard. Ecclesiastically the Orthodox
Albanians have only recently freed themselves from the
jurisdiction of the Oecumenical Patriarchate at Constanti-
nople, thus cutting their last tie with Byzantium ; they now
have an Albanian Patriarch.
Roumania was so long connected with Greeks that Byzan-
tine influences were inevitably engrafted upon the native
stock in both the Danubian principalities. Their princes
dated their official documents by the Byzantine calendar,
according to which the year began on i September, and
those of Wallachia signed, like the Byzantine Emperors, in
purple ink, as does the present autocephalous Archbishop of
Cyprus and as did one of its recent governors. In Roumania,
as in Bulgaria and Bosnia, Bogomilism played a part and was
the national religion till 1350.
Byzantine art, as Professor lorga has shown, was adapted
to Wallachian and Moldavian surroundings, but he con-
siders that 'all art produced within the theoretical boundaries
of the Empire, as far west as the Adriatic and east to the
Danube is Byzantine". Long after the fall of Constantinople,
the Greek families of the Phanar, Byzantine in ideas and in
some cases by descent, furnished the Hospodars who ruled
over the two principalities during a large part of the eigh-
teenth and nineteenth centuries, and who were regarded as
'the eyes of the Ottoman Empire, turned towards Europe'.
Historians have often stigmatized the Phanariote period of
Roumanian history, its corruption and its luxury. But these
defects must not blind us to the services rendered by the
more cultured Phanariote Greeks to the less advanced
Roumanian population. The Greek Princes and the Greek
priests alike represented this foreign rule, and the Greek
Church until the drastic reforms of Cuza in the second half
of the nineteenth century held vast properties in Roumania.
But even to-day closer ties unite the Greeks to the Roumanians
than to any other race of south-eastern Europe, and,
although with the spread of modern agricultural methods
there are fewer nomadic Koutzo-Wallachs in Greece, there
are larger Greek colonies in the Roumanian cities a relic of
the Phanariote days. It was not a mere coincidence that the
War of Greek Independence began on the Pruth ; to historical
and racial causes are due the large donations made to modern
Athens by rich Greeks of Roumania.
In Asia Minor Byzantine civilization was continued for a
few years after the Turkish capture of Constantinople by the
Empire of Trebizond, founded at the time of the Latin con-
quest of Byzantium. The historian Chalcocondylas empha-
sizes the fact that the orientation of Trebizond was 'towards
the Greek character and mode of life' ; it was a Byzantine
Government; and, if the popular speech was known as
'Greek of Trebizond', the local scholars wrote in the literary
Greek of Byzantium, although the Chronicle of Panaretus
contains an admixture of foreign expressions. The historical
mission of the Trapezuntine Empire was to save the
Hellenism of Pontus for over two and a half centuries.
Thus not only in Greece, but in the Slav and Latin States
of south-eastern Europe Byzantine forms and traditions have
had their share in shaping the national life. The chief
instrument in this work was the Church, closely interwoven
as it was with the Court and politics of Constantinople.
Byzantine art was largely connected with the Church, and
worked as one of its handmaidens; Byzantine music was

another, while much of Byzantine literature was theological.
Even after the Turkish Conquest the Church remained as
the heir of the Byzantine tradition in the Near East, as it is on
Mount Athos to-day. In little Montenegro till the middle of
the last century such was the influence of the ecclesiastical
tradition that the Bishop, or Vladika^ was also the secular
ruler. Even now wherever in the Christian East political life
is rendered impossible by the form of the Government, the
public finds a substitute in ecclesiastical discussion: shall,
for instance, the Metropolitan of Rhodes be head of an auto-
cephalous Church or dependent upon the Oecumenical
Patriarch? The form of Balkan and Aegean Christianity
came from Palestine by way of Byzantium ; the Oecumenical
Patriarch was the propagandist of the Byzantine Empire.
WILLIAM MILLER
3982
XIII
BYZANTIUM AND THE SLAVS
THE great work of the Byzantines in conserving the culture
of the ancients is well known and often emphasized. Their
achievement, of almost equal importance, in disseminating
their own civilization to barbarian nations is less fully
recognized, chiefly because the nations which benefited most
stand somewhat apart from the main course of European
history. These are the nations of the Slavs, in particular the
Slavs of the south and the east.
The early history of the Slav peoples is obscure. Their
migrations followed in the aftermath of the better-known
movements of the Germans, at a time when the Greco-
Roman world was distracted by troubles nearer home.
Consequently we know little of the process by which they
spread from the forests of western Russia that were their
original home, till by the close of the sixth century they
occupied all the territory eastward from the Elbe, the
Bohemian Forest and the Julian Alps into the heart of
Muscovy and into the Balkan peninsula. Indeed it is only
about their Balkan invasions, which brought them into
contact with the authorities of the Empire, that our informa-
tion is at all precise.
The Slav tribe that first appeared in imperial history was
that known by the Romans as the Sclavenes, who gave their
name as the generic term for the whole family of tribes.
They and a kindred tribe called the Antae were wandering
as pastoral nomads north of the Danube in the middle of the
sixth century, and more than once during the reign of
Justinian I raided the Balkan provinces in the train of other
tribes such as the Bulgars. The Antae seem to have become
foederati of the Empire before Justinian's death; but under
Justin II the situation on the Danube frontier was altered by
the aggression of the Avars, a Turkish tribe moving up from
the east. The Avars conquered the Antae and by 566 were
crossing the Danube to attack the Empire.
It was during the Avar wars that the Slavs found the
BYZANTIUM AND THE SLAVS 339

opportunity of settling south of the Danube. In 558
Justinian came to terms with the Avars and agreed to pay
them a yearly subsidy. In 582, after a long siege, the Avars
captured the great frontier fortress of Sirmium; and the
siege and fall of Sirmium were the signal for a Slav invasion
of the peninsula that penetrated as far as the Long Walls
outside Constantinople. It is probable that many of these
invaders remained permanently within imperial territory.
During the next decade the imperial authorities were
engrossed with the Persian War; and by the close of the
century, when next they could turn their attention to the
Danube frontier, they found the Slavs too firmly entrenched
in the north-west corner of the peninsula to be dislodged.
In 597 a new wave of Slav invasion swamped the penin-
sula. On this occasion the invaders' goal was less ambitious
than in 582, but more valuable for them. The easiest road
from the middle Danube to the sea runs not across the rough
mountains that border the Adriatic but from Belgrade or
Sirmium up the Morava and down the Vardar to Salonica.
To possess Salonica has always been, therefore, the aim of
every power on the middle and lower Danube. The invaders
of 597 were a motley collection of Slav tribes with a few
Avars and Bulgars amongst them. Their ambition was
probably only to sack Salonica, but their onslaught was none
the less very vehement; and the pious Thessalonians con-
sidered that only the personal intervention of their patron
saint, St. Demetrius, preserved the city.
Though they failed to take Salonica, it is probably from
this campaign that the Slav settlements in the city's hinter-
land, in Macedonia, begin. The account of the Miracles of
St. Demetrius gives a picture of life in Salonica at the time.
The Empire was distracted by the anarchy of Phocas's reign
and its energies were later fully employed in the wars of
Heraclius against the Persians. There was no opportunity
for punitive action in the Balkans. So the Slavs poured in
across the Danube and the Save, gravitating mainly towards
Macedonia, while the Avars protected their flanks by attack-
ing Constantinople. It was seldom safe to wander far from
the gates of Salonica. Twice again Slav armies appeared
before the walls, though in neither case was a definite siege
340 BYZANTIUM AND THE SLAVS

attempted. Meanwhile the Slavs pressed southward into the
Greek peninsula, penetrating even: to the Peloponnese and
extinguishing the old country life of Greece, while they
advanced eastward through Moesia towards the Black Sea.
New waves of invaders overran Dalmatia and destroyed its
former metropolis Salona. By the fourth decade of the
seventh century the whole peninsula, except only the sea
coasts, the Albanian mountains, and Thrace, was occupied
more or less thickly by Slavs.
The Slav is naturally a democrat, who when he settled
down chose to live in small isolated villages where all men
were equal save the elected head-man, the Zupan ; and this
tendency was enhanced by the fact that during their earlier
movements the Slavs were vassals to stronger nations like
the Avars who kept them in a state of brute subjection. It
was difficult therefore for them to co-operate and set up a
central organization, to turn themselves, in fact, from groups
of petty tribes into nations. Only the Antae had achieved it,
in the sixth century; and they now were gone. The other
Slavs waited for an outside stimulus. In the seventh century
the Slavs on the German frontiers were moulded together
into a kingdom by a renegade Frank called Samo. But
Samo's kingdom did not survive his death, and two centuries
were to pass before the Slavs of the north-west evolved
more stable States of their own, such as the great but short-
lived kingdom of Moravia, and the duchies of Bohemia and
Poland. Even so the stimulus was the proximity and the
influence of the Germans.
The Balkan Slavs were similarly chaotic, and thus pro-
vided a unique opportunity for the Empire, Could they
be given the blessings of imperial civilization quickly, they
might be absorbed into the Empire before they acquired
racial and national consciousness. The Emperor Heraclius
was aware of the situation. As soon as he was free of the
Persian War, he tunned his attention to the Balkans. First,
probably by some show of force, he induced the Slavs south
of the Danube to acknowledge his suzerainty; he then
sought to seal their su&mission by securing their conversion
to Christianity.
The invaders had extinguished Christianity as they came.

The lists of Bishops from the Balkans attending the great
Councils grow steadily smaller from the middle of the sixth
century till by Heraclius's later days scarcely any inland city
except Adrianople and Philippopolis seems to have main-
tained its church. The bulk of the peninsula belonged to
the ecclesiastical province of Illyricum, a province as yet
under the bishopric of Rome. Heraclius therefore sent to
Rome for missionaries to re-establish Balkan Christianity.
This was probably a mistake. To the barbarian in the Balkans
Constantinople represented the glamour and majesty of
imperial civilization. Rome to them was not a reverend city
in Italy but an idea personified by Constantinople. Priests
from Rome lacked the prestige that priests would have who
came from the eastern capital. Moreover the Popes of the
seventh century were no great missionaries and had anxieties
nearer home to distract them, while the imperial Government,
face to face now with the terrible menace of the Saracens,
troubled itself no more about its Balkan vassals. The
missions faded away; and the only Slavs to become Christian
were those whose lives brought them into contact with the
Christian cities of the coast. Amongst the Slavs round
Salonica St. Demetrius began to be paid a proper reverence;
but that was almost all.
The opportunity was missed. It was left to another race
to organize the Balkan Slavs, and to lead them against the
Empire. The Bulgars were a nation of Hunnic origin who
on the decline of the Empire of the Avars established them-
selves on the northern shores of the Black Sea. After
Heraclius's intervention the peninsula seems to have enjoyed
a rare interval of tranquillity; but in 679, when attacks from
the Chazars had broken up the short-lived kingdom known
later as Old Great Bulgaria, a large section of the Bulgars
crossed the Danube under their Khan Asperuch and settled
in the Delta and the Dobrudja. The Emperor Constantine
IV set out to defend the frontier, but an attack of gout
brought him home from the war. His leaderless army was
forced to retire; the Bulgars followed, and in the course of
the year 680 established themselves between the river, the
Black Sea, and the Balkan range, roughly from Varna for a
hundred miles to the west. The Emperor Constantine made

peace granting them this territory; but nine years later his
son Justinian II broke the peace and invaded the land that the
Greeks were beginning to call Bulgaria, only to be heavily
defeated on his return from a successful campaign. As a
result Khan Asperuch spread his realm farther to the west,
to the river Isker, which flows into the Danube above
Nicopolis.
During the next decades the Bulgars steadily increased
their power, helped largely by the civil wars of Justinian II.
In 716, with the Saracen siege of Constantinople in sight,
the Emperor Theodosius III made a peace with them that
allowed their frontier to extend south of the Balkan range,
from the Gulf of Burgas to the upper waters of the Maritza,
gave them a yearly payment of silks and gold, provided for
the exchange of prisoners and refugees, and set up free trade
between the two countries for all merchants armed with a
passport. This peace lasted for nearly forty years. We know
little of Bulgarian history during this period. Probably it
was spent partly in internal struggles amongst the Bulgars,
partly in organizing the Bulgar control of the Slavs.
The Bulgar invasion had been the signal for the Slavs to
forget their allegiance to the Empire. From 675 to 677 the
Slavs of Macedonia, led by a band of Bulgars coming
probably from the middle Danube, besieged Salonica, and,
as usual, it needed St. Demetrius himself to save the city.
The Serbs and behind them the Croats (who had both
reached their present homes in the days of Heraclius)
established their independence. But the Slavs of the eastern
half of the peninsula found the change of masters a change
for the worse. We do not know the numbers of the invading
Bulgars but they must have been considerable. They made
their headquarters in the rolling plain and among the foot-
hills at the north-east end of the Balkan range, between
Varna and the Danube. From here round their capital of
Pliska the Slavs were entirely driven out, and the population
was purely Bulgar; farther afield the Slavs were kept as a
broad fence round the Bulgar centre. These Slavs either
maintained their old chieftains or soon evolved a native
aristocracy encouraged by the Bulgars ; but the administra-
tion would seem to have been conducted by Bulgar officials.

The Bulgars themselves, like all Finno-Ugrian tribes, were
composed of clans, and the Khan was little more than the
leader of the most powerful clan, though Asperuch's
dynasty, the House of Dulo, enjoyed a special prestige,
owing, no doubt, to its probable descent from Attila himself.
How much culture the Bulgars brought with them is
uncertain. The buildings erected by the Bulgar Khans in the
ninth century are reminiscent of Sassanid architecture and
it has been suggested that the Bulgars derived their art
from the lands north of the Caucasus where they were settled
in the sixth century. But we know that in the ninth century,
the date of the earliest Danubian Bulgar buildings, there were
many Armenians in the employ of the Bulgar Khan : the
Armenians were great builders, and their art long preserved
Sassanid features. It is thus probably simplest to explain
early Bulgarian architecture as the work of Armenian
employees of the Khan, In the other arts nothing has been
preserved which might elucidate the problem of the charac-
ter and sources of early Bulgarian civilization. 1
The slow encroachment of the Bulgars continued through-
out the early years of the eighth century. But in 739 the old
royal dynasty, the House of Dulo, died out. Its first succes-
sor, a boyar called Kormisosh, managed to maintain himself
till his death in 756, but henceforward disputed successions
and civil wars became frequent. Moreover the Empire was
being reorganized under the great Isaurian sovereigns, and
the Saracens had for the moment been checked. In 755 the
Emperor Constantine V was ready to turn his attention to
Bulgaria. At the time of his death twenty years later after a
series of glorious campaigns he had confined the Bulgars to
the northern slopes of the Balkan mountains and had reforti-
fied a long line of fortresses to hem them in, Mesembria,
Develtus, Berrhoea, Philippopolis, and Sardica. Only the
coup de grace remained to be given. In 777 the Bulgar Khan
himself fled to the imperial Court, and accepted baptism and
a Greek bride. Now was the Empire's opportunity. A
vigorous missionary policy backed by the imperial army
would probably have brought all Bulgaria into a state of
political and cultural vassaldom and then absorption could
1 Except possibly the bas-relief horseman on the cliff side at Madara.

easily have followed. But, as in Heraclius's day, Byzantium
missed its opportunity. The Iconoclast controversy was
dragging on. The Iconoclasts lacked the spirit and the
Iconodules the power to be missionaries. And Bulgaria
seemed no longer a menace of any importance. The matter
could wait,
In the meantime, free from the Bulgar danger, the imperial
Government occupied itself usefully in taming the Slavs.
At the close of the century the Empress Irene, herself an
Athenian by birth, saw to the pacification of the Slavs of the
Greek peninsula. And though a century later there were still
distinctive Slav tribes in the Peloponnese, such as the
Milengi, who might be restive, especially if the Bulgars
approached from the north, henceforward the history of
Greece is mainly one of steady and orderly amalgamation.
But Byzantium was to pay dearly for her inaction towards
Bulgaria. At the turn of the century the Avar kingdom on
the middle Danube was destroyed by Charlemagne. The
Avars had long been declining, but they had served to keep
in check the Slavs and Bulgars of central Europe. Numbers
of Bulgars had been settled in Transylvania for some
centuries under Avar domination. Now they were emanci-
pated, and they found a leader in a certain Krum, probably a
scion of their old ruling house. Krum was ambitious ; having
freed his people he succeeded, we do not know how, in
uniting them with the Bulgars of the Balkans in one great
realm under his rule. Nor did his ambitions stop there. He
aimed at further expansion, at breaking through the line of
imperial fortresses that isolated Bulgaria, and he dreamed of
taking Constantinople. In 807 war broke out. In 809 Krum
captured and dismantled the fortress of Sardica; and Bulgars
poured across the frontier to settle amongst the Slavs of
Macedonia. In 811 the Emperor Nicephorus I marched
northward in force and sacked Krum's capital of Pliska, only
to perish with all his men, caught in a narrow defile by the
hordes of Krum.
This battle, which took place on 26 July 81 1, was com-
parable in Byzantine eyes only to the rout at Adrianople,
where Valens had fallen, four centuries back. It meant that
Bulgaria was come to the Balkans to stay; and it meant

that the prestige of the Empire was for ever lowered in the eyes
of the Balkan nations. Constantinople became an attainable
goal. Yet Krum was not to achieve it, nor were any of his
successors. The Empire was saved by its admirable organiza-
' tion and by the walls of its city.
War lasted till Krum's death in 814, on the eve of his
second expedition against Constantinople. The capital
remained unconquered; but he had achieved enough. In the
course of the war he had destroyed one by one the great
imperial fortresses that hemmed him in, and thus made for
Bulgaria an untrammelled passage into Macedonia. Only
Adrianople and Mesembria, the guardians of Thrace, were
rebuilt by the Emperor. Krum had united Pannonian with
Balkan Bulgaria. He apparently performed considerable
works of internal reorganization and made a simple codifica-
tion of the laws. With material stolen from the churches and
villas of the Bosphorus and with captive architects he made
himself palaces worthy of a great king. When he died
Bulgaria was one of the great powers of Europe.
Krum's son Omortag (815-31) made a Thirty Years
Peace with the Empire. He wished to consolidate his father's
conquests; he feared for his eastern frontier on the Dniester,
where the Magyars were pressing; and his territorial
ambitions lay in the north-west, in Croatia, where he opposed
successfully the Carolingian Franks. His internal policy was,
it seems, to enhance his own glory as ruler and to encourage
his Slav subjects, playing them off against the aristocratic
Bulgars in the interest of his autocracy, a policy probably
initiated by Krum. Meantime the peace and the size of his
realm gave wonderful opportunities for trade; merchants
from the Empire passed to and fro through his dominions
as far as Moravia on the north-west frontier, while Bulgarian
and Slav merchants paid visits to Constantinople. Byzantine
civilization began to spread through Bulgaria, at first in the
form of luxuries for the richer classes. But with the mer-
chants came missionaries; and Christianity began to be
known in Bulgaria particularly amongst the Slavs. The
Bulgar authorities disapproved. To them Christianity seemed
merely an insidious branch of imperial propaganda. Omortag
indulged freely in persecution ; but the virus slowly spread.

It continued spreading under his son Malamir, 1 but as yet
to no great extent. Malamir's reign was, rather, remarkable
for the development of Bulgaria as a Slav power. It is
probably about this time that the Bulgars adopted the
Slavonic language; Bulgar names henceforward have a
Slavonic form. This slavization was undoubtedly helped by
the Bulgarian expansion into Macedonia. Soon after the
year 846 (when Omortag's Thirty Years Peace ended) the
Bulgarians annexed Philippopolis and steadily moved south-
westward till by the end of Malamir's reign the hinterland of
Macedonia, hitherto occupied by unruly Slavs, had been
given order under the Bulgarian Government. But the
Bulgarians could not prevent a small Serbian State from
being founded in the Bosnian hills.
The accession of many more Slavs gave the Bulgar Khan
fresh support against the Bulgar aristocracy. But the coping-
stone was needed to complete the building of autocracy.
Christianity in the early Middle Ages was the great ally of
monarchy. The monarch was the Lord's Anointed, his
authority sanctified by Heaven. Malamir 's successor Boris
saw its value, and he saw that Christianity need not neces-
sarily mean Byzantine influence. But before he could decide
on his plans his hand and the hand of the Emperor at
Constantinople were forced by a new situation in European
politics.
Charlemagne's destruction of the Avars, that movement
which had resulted in the growth of a Greater Bulgaria, had
also let loose the Slavs of the Middle Danube. A few decades
later the Carolingian conquerors themselves were defeated
by the nation of the Moravians, whose King Rostislav,
originally a client of the Germans, had by 850 established
himself as overlord over roughly the districts that now
comprise Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. Thus the
central European situation was very simple. Between the
Western Empire of the Carolingians and the Byzantine
there were two strong powers, Moravia and Bulgaria.
1 Professor Zlatarski believes that Malamir reigned from 831 to 836 and was
succeeded by Presiam who reigned from 836 to 852. Bury maintained that Presiam
was Omortag's successor and took the name of Malamir during the slavization of
the country There are disadvantages in both views, particularly the former; and
I am inclined to doubt the existence of any Khan called Presiam.

Rostislav, like Boris of Bulgaria, saw the advantage of
Christianity for an autocrat German missionaries had
worked in Moravia, but, like the Byzantines in Bulgaria, they
were suspected of nationalist propaganda. Rostislav decided
to import Christianity from elsewhere. Constantinople had
already considerable trade relations with Moravia, 1 and the
Moravians probably realized that Byzantine culture was
something higher and more splendid than the culture of
Carolingian Germany. Moreover Rostislav feared the
danger of a Bulgar-Frankish alliance and sought for the help
of Bulgaria's natural enemy. Byzantium was not a far-off
legendary power in the eyes of the Moravians, as sometimes
has been made out, nor was Rostislav's scheme for introduc-
ing Christianity from the Byzantine Empire a wildly imagina-
tive experiment. It was merely a natural outcome of the
international situation. But it was nevertheless one of the
greatest turning-points in the history of the Slavs.
In 863 the embassy reached Constantinople and asked the
Emperor Michael III for a teacher who could preach
Christianity to the Moravians in their own tongue. The
Emperor was fortunate in having such a teacher. There was
a Thessalonian called Constantine, better known by his later
religious name of Cyril, who had in his varied career been a
University professor, a diplomatic agent, and a monk; but
his main interests were philology and religion. He had
already dabbled in Slavonic studies and had probably
evolved an alphabet for the Slavs of the neighbourhood of
Salonica. Certainly in a very short time he was ready to set
out for Moravia with his brother Methodius bearing a Bible
and other liturgical books translated into the language of
the Macedonian Slavs, a language that was intelligible to the
Moravians and has remained the liturgical language of the
Slavonic Churches to this day.
The Moravian alliance forced the Emperor's hand else-
where. Boris of Bulgaria would be tempted to play a game
analogous to Rostislav's and secure his Christianity from the
Latin West, The imperial Government acted quickly. The
threat of a sharp campaign induced Boris, already aware of
1 This is borne out emphatically by the excavations at Stare* Mesto under-
taken in 1927.

the merits of Christianity, to accept Christianity from Con-
stantinople. There was a wholesale baptism of Bulgars, and
Greek priests flocked into the country. A short heathen
rebellion was firmly suppressed,
By the year 865 Constantinople had established daughter
churches to spread Byzantine influence as far as the frontiers
of Germany, a triumph of ecclesiastical diplomacy all the
more gratifying in that the Patriarch Photius was now in full
schism with Pope Nicholas I. But in the second round Rome
was to win. The Moravian Mission began well. Rostislav
welcomed Cyril and Methodius gladly. But the Moravian
Court was largely Germanophil; German bishops made
trouble from over the frontier. The young Moravian
Church could not stand alone; Cyril decided to counter the
Germans by placing it directly under the supreme bishop of
the West, the Pope of Rome. It was an embarrassing gift
for Rome, for Cyril had taught his converts the usages of the
Church of Constantinople and had introduced its liturgy
translated into Slavonic. Rome desired uniformity and
disliked the use of the vernacular. But the prize was too
valuable to miss. Cyril and Methodius were summoned to
Rome to discuss the organization of the new church; and
there Cyril died.
Meanwhile things went less well in Bulgaria also. Boris,
once the military pressure from the Empire was removed,
began to resent the religious dictation of the Patriarchal
Court. He had meant Christianity to enhance his autocracy;
he had thought that he himself would control the Bulgarian
Church. In 866, in the hope of securing a better bargain, he
sent to ask for priests and a Patriarch from Rome.
The struggle over the Bulgarian Church and the fate of
the Moravian Church belong to the story of the Photian
schism with Rome. In Bulgaria Boris found Rome a stricter
master than Constantinople. Even an Archbishop was
denied him, though twice he found Latin priests to whom, he
pleaded, the post should be given, Formosus and Marinus,
both actually to become Popes themselves. At last, tempted
by the subtle diplomacy of Constantinople, in 869 he cleared
the country of Latin priests and welcomed back the Greeks;
and not all the wiles nor the thunder of Rome would make

him reverse his decision. The Greeks gave him an Arch-
bishop of his choice, and soon would give him greater
benefits still.
In Moravia Methodius on his return met with lessening
success. In 869 Pope Adrian II consecrated him Bishop of
Sirmium, the frontier city of Moravia, intending that he
should tempt the Bulgars back to Rome by his Slavonic
liturgy. But it was in vain. In 870 Rostislav was deposed by
his Germanophil nephew Svatopulk, who disliked Methodius
and his ways. Methodius could win no support from Rome,
where Adrian's successors were turning against the methods
of Cyril, and resented Methodius's firm refusal to add the
Filioque to the creed; he believed with Photius that it was
heresy. Till his death in 885 Methodius struggled on to
maintain the Cyrillic Church in Moravia, persecuted by the
Court and half-disowned by Rome, but too venerable a figure
to be touched himself. After his death the edifice collapsed.
German influence won. His more prominent disciples were
driven into exile down the Danube to Bulgaria; his humbler
followers were sold by the Moravian Government to the
slave-dealers of Venice.
Bulgaria accepted what Moravia rejected, and Con-
stantinople gave assistance. The Moravian exiles were
received into Bulgaria gladly by Boris; and the imperial
Ambassador at Venice bought up their disciples and sent
them to Constantinople, where it seems that Photius estab-
lished them in a School of Slavonic Studies, to be a seminary
for providing priests for the Slavs. In the course of the next
few years the Bulgarian Church found its solution in becom-
ing a Slavonic Church enjoying autonomy under the suze-
rainty of the Byzantine Patriarch. Cyril had worked in
Moravia, but Bulgaria reaped the benefits, and in so doing
Bulgaria bound herself to the Balkans and the civilization of
Byzantium.
In particular Macedonia benefited. Boris sent Cyril's
disciple Clement to spread Slavonic Christianity there; and
Clement organized the Macedonian Church, founding the
bishopric of Ochrida. This missionary-work bound Mace-
donia to Bulgaria with a tie that was to show its strength a
century later.
3JO BYZANTIUM AND THE SLAVS

About the same time the conversion of the Serbian tribes
was effected. How much it was due to pressure from Con-
stantinople and how much to the enterprise of the Serbian
princes we cannot tell. By the early years of the tenth
century the various Serbian tribes had their own Cyrillic
churches, with the exception of the Narentans, heathen
pirates on the shores of the Adriatic, who were only properly
subdued and civilized by Venice a century later. To the
north and west in Croatia and Dalmatia, Christianity took a
different form. There contact with the Franks and with the
old Roman cities of Dalmatia had introduced Latin rites.
The Slavonic Church spread there, and under the Bishops
of Nin (Nona) put up a strong fight for its existence. But
after the turn of the century Byzantine influence, the main
prop of the Slavonic Church, was barely extant in Croatia,
and King Tomislav of Croatia decided at the synods of
Spalato (924 and 927) to bring his people unitedly into the
Latin fold. And so Byzantium was to play no direct part
in building up the civilization of Croatia, which followed
rather in the wake of its Catholic neighbours, Italy and
Hungary.
Meanwhile Moravia suffered for its desertion of Cyrillism,
At the close of the ninth century there was a war between
Bulgaria and Byzantium. The Magyars were now living
beyond the Bulgarian frontier on the Pruth, and beyond
them was another Turco-Ugrian people, the Petchenegs.
During the war the Byzantines called in the Magyars against
Bulgaria; but during their invasion the Petchenegs were
induced by the Bulgars to occupy their vacant home. The
Magyars, terrified of the Petchenegs, decided to move else-
where, and in about the year 900 they crossed the Carpa-
thians. In a very short time not only had they occupied the
Bulgarian province of Transylvania, but the whole Moravian
kingdom had crumbled away and its surviving inhabitants
were restricted to the small district to the north known in
later years as Moravia. In its place was the heathen militarist
State of the Magyars, Hungary. Constantinople was not
displeased. Moravia was punished ; the Magyars now would
raid western rather than eastern Europe; and, to the relief of
the Germans no less than the Byzantines, the great Slav bloc

stretching from the Baltic to the Adriatic, the Aegean, and
the Black Sea was broken in its centre by the Magyars. The
Magyars were later to receive their Church and most of
their civilization from Germany*
In Bulgaria Byzantine influence, half-disguised as Cyril-
lism, was now all-triumphant. Under Boris's son Symeon
(892-927) Bulgaria reached its zenith. Symeon had been
educated at Constantinople and was eager to adapt its
culture for his subjects. The arts were patronized. In his
capital of Preslav his architects, probably Bulgarians trained
in Armeno-Byzantine methods, built him churches and
palaces. Books were eagerly translated from Greek into the
Slavonic dialect that Cyril had made a literary language; and,
in the works of John the Exarch and the Monk Chrabr,
signs of native talent were revealed. Commerce was fostered ;
indeed the war with Byzantium at the close of the ninth
century had arisen out of a trade dispute. But it seems that
there was never a large commercial middle class in Bulgaria;
the traders remained mostly Greek and Armenian. Super-
ficially the administration took on a Byzantine complexion.
Government was in the hands of a centralized bureaucracy
controlled from the pompous Court of Symeon. But,
beneath, the old life endured. In the provinces Bulgar and
Slav nobles ruled, in a fashion more resembling the Feudal
West, over a primitive peasantry. Even when a centralized
system of taxation was introduced, the taxes were paid in
kind. There was no money economy in the Bulgarian pro-
vinces.
The civilization of Symeon's Bulgaria was thus, like its
literature, an attempt to translate Byzantium into Slavonic
terms. To what extent the old Bulgar element lingered on
we cannot tell. As yet the civilization did not penetrate far
below the surface; but the Church was slowly spreading it
amongst the people.
Bulgaria was, however, to decline before the penetration
was completed. Symeon's ambition rose too high; he was
the first great Balkan monarch to fall victim to the dream of
Constantinople. He thought to unite in his person the
majesty and traditions of Rome with the fresh vigour of the
Bulgars and Slavs. The troubled minority of the Emperor
3J2 BYZANTIUM AND THE SLAVS

Constantine VII gave him his opportunity. War broke out
in 913. In 914 Symeon was before the walls of Constanti-
nople. The attempt of the Empress-Regent Zoe to crush
him once and for all failed in the slaughter of her troops at
Anchialus. By the end of 919, when Romanus Lecapenus
won the imperial throne through marrying his daughter to
the young Emperor (thus blocking Symeon's chance of
using the same method), Symeon had all the European
provinces of the Empire at his mercy. But the walls of
Constantinople and Byzantine diplomacy defeated him.
Fruitless attempts against the city and continual irritation
from Serbs and Petchenegs in his rear wore him out. In
924, after a personal interview with Romanus, he abandoned
his ambitious aim. He was still haughty; he assumed an
imperial title, Basil eus or Tsar; he declared his Church
independent, and raised his Archbishop to be Patriarch; but
he now turned his attention elsewhere. In 925 he annexed
Serbia. In 927 his troops invaded Croatia. But there they
met their match. The news of their annihilation brought
Symeon to the grave.
Symeon's son and successor, Peter, hastened to make
peace with the Empire. The peace was not inglorious. The
Tsar and his Patriarch kept their titles ; Peter was even given
the rare honour of a bride of imperial blood dowered with an
annual subsidy from Constantinople. But these terms were
given the more willingly since Bulgaria was clearly exhausted ;
they were only empty honours, and honours tending to
increase Byzantine influence at the Bulgarian Court. The
Empire of Bulgaria was now an inert mass, worn out before
it was adult, a playground for any foreign invader that chose
to cross its borders; and many so chose.
The work of civilization continued but at a reduced
pressure. The priest Kosma who wrote at the close of the
tenth century was more sophisticated than the writers of
Symeon's day, but he was an almost isolated phenomenon.
Saints, like John of Rila, the patron of Bulgaria, rather than
men of letters were the product of the time. Meanwhile the
peasantry underwent a reaction against the graecizfcd Court,
a reaction that was expressed in Bulgaria's most curious
contribution to the religious thought of Europe. In the
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 417
WILLIAM MILLER, 'The Mediaeval Serbian Empire' in Essays on the Latin
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MILOCHE MLADENOVITCH, L'JStat serbc ait Moyen Age\ son caractere. Paris,
Bossuet, 1931.
C. JIRECEK, La Civilisation serbe an Moyen Age. Paris, Bossard, 1920.
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Gotha, Perthes.
Id., Staat und Gesellschaft im mittelalterlichen Serbien. Studien zur Kultur-
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Abh. 2, 1914; vol. Ixiv, Abh. 2, 1919).
JOSEF MATL, 'Der heilige Sava als Begninder der serbischen Nationalkirche.
Seine Leistung und Bedeutung fiir den Kulturaufbau Europas', Kyrios,
ii (1937), PP- 23-37-
Reference may be made to the Kossovo popular ballad: translation in D.
SUBOTIC, Jugoslav Popular Ballads: their Origin and Development.
Cambridge University Press, 1932; OWEN MEREDITH, Serbski Pesme.
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STEVEN RUNCIMAN, A History of the First Bulgarian Empire. London, Bdl,
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G. SONGEON, Histoire de la Bulgarie. Paris, Nouvelle Librairie Nationale,
W. N. SLATARSKI, Geschichte der Bulgaren, Teil I (679-1396). Leipzig,

Parlapanoff, 1918.
C. J. JIRECEK, Geschichte der Bulgaren. Prag, Tempsky, 1 876.
XIV
THE BYZANTINE INHERITANCE IN RUSSIA
For the historical background of Kievan Russia: M. ROSTOVTZEFF, Iranians
and Greeks in South Russia. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1922, and see in
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S. R. TOMPKINS, Russia through the Ages. From the Scythians to the Soviets.
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V. O. KLUCHEVSKY, A History of Russia, translated by C. J. Hogarth. London,
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B. H. SUMNER, Survey of Russian History. London, Duckworth, 1944.
LEOPOLD KARL GOETZ, Staat und Kirche in Altrussland. Kiever Period* g88-
1240. Berlin, Duncker, 1908.
HILDEGARD ScHAEDER, Moskau das Dritte Rom (= Osteuropa'ische Studien
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NICOLAS ZERNOV, Moscow The Third Rome. London, Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, 1937.
4 i 8 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX
A. A. VASILIEV, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860. The Mediaeval
Academy of America, 1946.
LUBOR NIEDERLE, Manuel de FAntiqwtt slave, tome ii, La Civilisation.
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KAREL KADLEC, Introduction a I 9 tude comparative de FHistoire du Drott
public des Peuples slaves. Paris, Champion, 1933.
For translated sources and criticism see:
S. H. CROSS, The Russian Primary Chronicle (= Harvard Studies and Notes
in Philology and Literature, vol. xii). Harvard University Press, 1930.
(With an admirable introduction.)
For a translation of the 'Testament of Vladimir Monomach' ( 1 2th century)
see ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, Lectures on the History of the Eastern
Church, 2nd ed., pp. 313-14. London, Murray, 1862.
ROBERT MICHELL and NEVILL FORBES, The Chronicle of Novgorod (= Royal
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NICOLAS ZERNOV and ADELINE DELAFIELD, St. Sergius Builder of Russia.
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JANE HARRISON and HOPE MIRRLEES, The Life of the Archpriest Awakum,
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P. PASCAL, La Vie de rarchipretre Avvakum e'crite par lui-mlme (Trans-
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Id., Avvakum et les De'buts du Raskol. La Crise religieuse au XVII* siicle
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LEOPOLD KARL GOETZ, Kirchenrechtliche und kulturgeschichtliche Denk-
maler Altrusslands nebst Geschichte des russischen KirchenrecAts (=
Kirchenrechtliche Abhandlungen, ed. Ulrich Stutz, Heft 18-19).
Stuttgart, Enke, 1905.
E. DUCHESNE, Le Stoglav ou Les Cent Chapitres. Traduction avec Intro-
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grad, tome v). Paris, Champion, 1920.
Id., Le Domostroi (Me'nagier Russc du XPP siecli). Traduction ct Com-
mentaire. Paris, Picard, 1910.
NEVILL FORBES, "The Composition of the Earlier Russian Chronicles', The
Slavonic Review, i (1922), pp. 73-85.
For the conversion of Vladimir see:
GERHARD LAEHR, Die Anfange des russischen Rtiches. Pohtische Geschichte
im 9. und 10. Jahrhundert (= Historische Studien, ed. E. Ebering,
Heft 189). Berlin, Ebering, 1930.
N. DE BAUMGARTEN, Aux Origines de la Russie (= Orientalia Christiana
Aitalecta, no. 119). Rome, Pont. Institutum Orientalium Studiorum,
1939.

G. FEDOTOV, *Le Bapteme de saint Vkdimir et k Conversion de k Russie*,
Ire'mkon (Prieure d'Amay-sur-Meuse, Belgium), xv (1938), pp. 417-35.
N. DE BAUMGARTEN, Saint Vladimir et la Conversion de la Russie (= Orien-
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V. LAURENT, 'Aux Origines de T^glise Russe. L'e'tablissement de k
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M. JUGIE, *Les Origines romaines de I'^glise russe*, ckos d'Orient, 40
annee (1937)* no. 187, pp. 257-70.
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3982 E e 2
420 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX

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theology must be overcome: there must be a return to the Hellenic
theology of the Fathers of the Church.)
For Asceticism in early Russia see:
LEOPOLD KARL GOETZ, Das Kiever Rbhlenkloster ah Kulturzentrum des
vormongolischen Russlands. Passau, Waldbauer, 1904.
IGOR SMOLITSCH, Das altrussische Monchtum (jj.-J<5. JaArhundert}. Ge-
stalterundGestalten (= Das bstlishe Christentum 9 ed. Georg Wunderle,
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Id., Leben und Lehre der Starzen. Vienna, Hegner, 1936.
N. F. ROBINSON, Monasticism in the Orthodox Churches, being an Introduc-
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For the Church in Russia see:
ARTHUR PENRHTN STANLEY, Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church
(1861). 2nd ed., London, Murray, 1862. Reprinted in Everyman's
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W. H. FRERE, Some Links in the Chain of Russian Church History. London,
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NICOLAS ZERNOV, Tht Church of the Eastern Christians. London, Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1942.
Id., The Russians and their Church. London, Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, 194$.
For Nicon see the account in A. P. STANLEY, op. cit., pp. 345-79.
The immense work compiled by WILLIAM PALMER on Nicon, The Patriarch
and the Tsar. Services of the Patriarch Nicon to the Church and State of
his Country and their Requital (London, Tnibner, 1871-6, 6 vols.), I
have not read. The pages of the copy in the British Museum are still
for the most part uncut.
The Orthodox Liturgy. London, Society for Promoting Christian Know-
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For the psychology and the thought-world of the Russian people see:
KARL HOLL, 'Die religiosen Grundlagen der russischen Kultur' in Russlands
Kultur und Folkswirtschafty ed. Max Sering, pp. 1-20. Berlin & Leip-
zig, Goschen, 1913. Reprinted in his Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Ktrchen-
geschichte, vol. ii (Tubingen, Mohr, 1928), pp. 418-32.
FELIX HAASE, Die religiose Psyche des russischen Folkes (= Osteuropa-
Institut in Breslau: Quellen und Studien, Funfte Abteilung, Religions-
wissenschaft, Heft 2). Leipzig, Teubner, 1921.
Id., Folksglaube und Brauchtum der Ostslaven (= Wort und Brauch, edd.
Theodor Siebs & Max Hippe, Heft 26). Breslau, Martin, 1939.
ROBERT STUPPERICH, 'Zur Geschichte der russischen hagiographischen
Forschung (von Kljucevskij bis Fedotov)', Kyrios (Konigsberg), 1936,
Heft i, pp. 47-56.
P. A. PALMIERI, *La Psicologia dei Santi Russi', Bessarione, ser. 3, vol. ii
(1907), pp. 234-51.

G. P. FEDOTOV, The Russian Religious Mind. Kievan Christianity. Har-
vard University Press, 1946.
P. BRATSIOTIS, 'Die Grundprinzipien und Hauptmerkmale der ortho-
doxen Kirche', Proces-Ferbaux du Premier Congres de Thtologie Ortho-
dox*, ed. H. S. Alivisatoss, Athens, 'Pyrsos', 1939, pp. 115-26 (with a
short bibliography) or printed in Kyrios (Konigsberg), 1936, pp. 331-
42 (for the significance in the Church of tradition, Ocoocris and the
Incarnation, &c.).
For Law see GOETZ and KLUCHEVSKY in books cited supra, pp. 417-18.
For Art see:
Louis REAU, UArt russe des Origines a Piem le Grand (104 plates).
Paris, Laurens, 1921.
N. P. KONDAKOV, Die russische Ikone, vol. i (1928) 65 coloured plates,
vol. ii (1929) 136 pktes (not in colour) [vol. 3: Text is in Russian].
Prag, Seminarium Kondakovianum.
Id., The Russian Icon. Transkted by Ellis H. Minns. Oxford, Ckrendon
Press, 1927, and cf. Quarterly Review for July 1928.
OSKAR WULFF and MICHAEL ALPATOFF, Denkmaler der Ikonenmalerei in
kunstgeschichtlicher Folge. Hellerau bei Dresden, Avalun-Verkg, 1925.
(There is a copy of this sumptuous work in the library of the Victoria
and Albert Museum.)
M. ALPATOV and N. BRUNO w, Geschichte der altrussischen Kunst. Text-
band and Tafelband (with 341 reproductions). Augsburg, Filser,
1932. (There is a copy in the Library of the Victoria and Albert
Museum.)
Ed. MICHAEL FARBMAN, Masterpieces of Russian Painting. London,
Europa Publications, no date (? 1930). (20 colour pktes and 43 mono-
chrome reproductions of Russian icons and frescoes from the eleventh to
the eighteenth centuries.)
P. MOURATOW, L'Ancienne Peinture russe (transkted by A. Caffi). Rome,
Stock, 1925.
A. A. HACKEL, Das altrussische Heiligenbild. Die Ikone (= Disquisi-
tiones Carolinae, ed. Th. Baader, tomus x). Noviomagi, 1936.
I. DIRKS, Les Saintes Icones, 2 me ed. Prieur d'Amay-sur-Meuse (Belgium),
1939. (With bibliography and list of icons reproduced by the Priory.)
F. W. HALLE, Alt-russische Kunst (in the series Orbis Pictus). Berlin,
Wasmuth (no date).
Y. A. OLSUFIEV, 'The Development of Russian Icon Painting from the
I2th to the I9th Century', The Art Bulletin, xii (1930), pp. 347-73.
K. J. CONANT, 'Novgorod, Constantinople and Kiev in Old Russian Church
Architecture', Slavonic and East European Review, xxii (1944), issue 2,
pp. 75-92.
A LIST OF EAST ROMAN EMPERORS'
Constantine the Great, dies 337.

Constantius II, 337-61.
Julian the Apostate, 3613.
Jovian, 363-4.
Valens, 364-78.
Theodosian Dynasty
Theodosius the Great, 379-95.
Arcadius, 395-408.
Theodosius II, 408-50.
Marcian, 450-7.
Leonine Dynasty
Leo I, 457-74-
Leo II, 474.
Zeno,474-9i.
Anastasius, 491-518.
Jvstimanean Dynasty
Justin I, 518-27.
Justinian I, 527-65.
Justin II, 565-78.
Tiberius II, 578-82.
Maurice, 582-602.
Phocas, 602-10.
Heradian Dynasty
Heraclius, 610-41.
| Constantine III, 641 (dies).
\ Heracleonas, 641 (overthrown).
Constans II, 641-68.
Constantine IV, 668-85.
Justinian II, 685-95 (is banished).
Leontius, 6958.
Tiberius III, 698-705 ; restoration of.
Justinian II, 705-11.
Decline of Imperial Power
Bardanes, 7 1 i-i 3.
Anastasius II, 713-16.
Theodosius III, 716-17.
Isaurian Dynasty (Iconoclasts)

Leo III, 717-41.
Constantine V, 741-75.
Leo IV, 775-80.
Constantine VI, 780-97 (blinded
and overthrown by his mother).
Irene, 797-802 (end of the Dynasty).
Nicephorus, 802-11.
Stauracius, 8n.
Michael I, 811-13.
Leo V, 813-20.
Phrygian Dynasty
Michael II, 820-9.
Theophilus, 829-42.
Michael III, 842-67.
Macedonian Dynasty
Basil I, 867-86.
Leo VI, 1 886-912.
Alexander,/ 886-913.
Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 912-
59-
Romanus I, 919-44.
Romanus II, 959-63.
Basil II, ^963-1025.
Constantine VIII, > 963-1025 ; sole
j ruler 1025-8.
Nicephorus II, 9639.
John I Tzimisces, 969-76*
Romanus III, 1028-34.
Michael IV, 1034-41.
Michael V, 1041-2.
Zoeand !__.._
Theodora, j 1042 -
Constantine IX Monomachus, 1042-
55-
Theodora, 1055-6.
Michael Stratioticus, 1056-7.
1 See N. H. Baynes, The Byzantine Empire, London, Oxford University Press,

1944, ch. iii.
A LIST OF EAST
End of the Macedonian Dynasty
Isaac I Comnenus, 1057-9 (abdi-
cates).
Constantine X Ducas, 1059-67.
Roinanus IV Diogenes, 1067-71.
Michael VII Ducas, 1071-8.
Nicephorus III Botaniates, 1078-81.
Comnenian Dynasty
Alexius I Comnenus, 1081-1118.
John II, 1118-43.
Manuel, 1143-80.
Alexius II, 1180-3.
Andronicus, 1183-5.
Dynasty of the Angeli
Isaac II, 1185-95 (dethroned).
Alexius III, 1195-1203.
Isaac II, restored with)
Alexius IV, I 120 "-*-
I2O3-4.
Alexius V Ducas Murtzuphius, 1204.
The Fourth Crusade: Capture of
Constantinople.
ROMAN EMPERORS 423

East Roman Emperors in Ntcaea
Theodore I Lascaris, 1204-22.
John III Ducas Vatatzes, 1222-54.
Theodore II Lascaris, 1254-8.
John IV Lascaris, 1258-61.
Michael VIII Palaeologus, 1259-82.
1261. Recapture of Constantinople.
Dynasty of the Palaeo/ogi
Michael VIII, 1261-82.
Andronicus II, 1282-1328.
Michael IX, 1293-1320.
Andronicus III, 1328-41.
John V, 1341-76.
John VI, i34r-54-
Andronicus IV, 1 376-9.
John V (restored), 1379-91.
John VII, 1390.
Manuel II, 1391-1425.
John VIII, 1425-48.
Constantine XI Dragases, 1449-53.
1453. Capture of Constantinople by
the Turks.
INDEX
It is not easy to guess to what heading a reader seeking a reference will
naturally turn, but it is hoped that this index will furnish an adequate
guide to the contents of the book.
Abbasid Empire, xxiv, 15, 20, 27, 304,

3155 finances, 85; translations from
Greek, 316.
Abdar-Rahman III, Spanish Caliph,
3.
Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
schism of, 100, 120,
Acominatus, Michael (Archbishop of
Athens), letters of, 237, 265-6.
Acropolites, George, as lecturer, 218.
Administrative system, 280 sqq., cen-
tralization in, 286; civil officials, 287
sqq.
Adrian II, Pope, and the mission to
Moravia, 349.
Africa, Justinian's reconquest of, 75
HeracUus sails from, 10; Arab con-
quest of, 12.
Agathias, epigrams, 242.
Agriculture, 55 sqq.; condition of, 59-
60.
Akmdynus, 43.
Akoimetoi, the, 144-5.
AJtritca, 299 (and see Digenes Akritas).
Albania, 335.
Aleppo, 22, 24.
Alexandria, 4-5, 10, 12; Patriarchs of,
96 sqq. (and see Art, Byzantine).
Alexandria, University of, 213; school
of medicine, 213, 216.
Alexius I Comnenus, 28 sqq., 207, 208,
219, 229, 249; restores the fleet, 305;
persecutes the Bogomils, 353.
Aliens in Constantinople, 32, 67; Italian
communities as cause of the Empire's
ruin, 67.
Amorian dynasty, 17-18.
Anaplus, Daniel the Stylite at, 145.
Anastasius I, his oath on accession, 277-8 .
Andrew, Bishop of Crete, hymns, 242.
Andrew, St., as first bishop of Byzan-
tium, 128.
Andronicus I Comnenus, 32.
Andronicus Palaeologus, Novel xxviii
of, 83.
Angeh, 32, 33, 358, 3605 decline of the
Empire under the, 70; Isaac Angelus
and title of Basileus, 273.
Anna Comnena, 204, 205, 206-7, 208,

209, 210, 219, 225, 2295 the Alexiadt
232; style of, 256, 257-8.
Antae, 338, 340.
Anthemius, architect of St. Sophia, 166,
174-
Antioch, 10, 22, 24, 29, 30, 204, 209,
211, 213, 222, 223; theology of, 90.
Antony, St., 'the first monk', 136-7,
222-3, 236.
Aphthartodocetism, 101-2.
Apology, the, of Aristeides, 238.
Arabia before Muhammad, 313-14.
Arabs, 308-20 passim (see Islam); inva-
sions of Empire by, xxiv, 308; acquire
a fleet, 309; attacks on Constantinople,
12, 14, 15, 309-10; importance of
Byzantine army and fleet, 303-4; con-
tinuing frontier wars between the
Empire and, 311; settlement of, in
Crete, 304 (see Piracy) and in Cyprus
and Sicily, 311; influence of Hellenis-
tic traditions and imperial administra-
tion, 310, 316; cultural relations be-
tween Empire and, 311-12, 318 sqq.,
32 3-4; treaties, 312-13; trade relations,
313-14 (and see Digenes Akritas).
Arianism, 4, 90 sqq., 226.
Aristotle, 258.
Armenia, partition of, 6; Persia cedes
territory to Maurice, 9; Arab con-
quest of, 12; the Golden Age under
Bagratids, 20; annexation of, 24; con-
quered by Seljuks, 27-8; HeracKuV
and, 102-3; Constantine and, 116;
secular poetry of, 133; monasticism
in, 141 ; magtster mihtum in Armenia,
295; architects in early Bulgaria ( ?),
343- ...
Army,xxiii, 72-3, 294 sqq., 302-3; ex-
penditure on, 73; organization of, by
Diocletian and Constantine, 295; kmi-
tanet, 295; comitatenses, 295; magistri
militum, 6, 295; conscription, 296;
mercenaries, 296, 301; classes of troops
in, 296-7; Heraclius and the Themes,
13, 297 sqq. (and see Themes); troops
defending capital and imperial body-
INDEX
guard, 299; strength of Byzantine
armies, 300; pay of troops, 300; here-
ditary farms of soldiers, 300; the mili-
tary aristocracy and opposition of the
civil party', 27; system of Pronoia,
3005 Michael VIII and the army, 41;
no unified system under the Palaeo-
logi, 301; armour and weapons, 301;
military manuals, 302; finance offi-
cials, 288-9; strategpi of Themes,
290-1; salaries, 290; administration
in Themes, 291 (see also Fleet).
Arsen, Patriarch of Constantinople,
113-14.
Arsenius, St., 200.
Art, Byzantine, xxxi, 21, 165, 166-99,
328.
dual tradition, Hellenistic and
Oriental, 169-70, 176-8, 184, 185-6,
191.
Mesopotamia, the barrel-vaulted
basilica, 170.
Persia, the dome in architecture,
170-1; influence on textiles, 171, 177;
on enamels, 171, 1 88; and the oriental
tradition, 170.
creation of a distinctive Byzantine
art, 173.
characteristics of, 166-8, 180, 187.
radiation of, 188-90; Giotto, 191,
198.
iconography, 182-3.
enamels and metalwork, 169, 171,
177, 188.
frescoes, 184, 185, 189-91, 193-8.
ivories, 177, 187-8.
miniatures, 176, 177, 179, 186,
187, 197.
mosaics, ch. 6 passim.
textiles, 177, 187, 197-8 (see s.v.
Persia, supra).
425
Alexandria, subjects of Hellenistic

art, 171-2, 176-7, 178, 184, 186.
Antioch, 177, 186; dual tradition
in art of, 172.
Armenia, 170, 172, 190.
Asia Minor, 170, 179; Cappa-
docia (rock churches), 185; Cilicia,
172; Ephesus, 173, Nicaea, 184.
Athos, 182, 191, 196.
Bulgaria, 179, 190, 194, 343, 351.
Chios, 184.
Constantinople, 173, 174, 179,
1 8 1-2, 183, 191, 192-3, 195, 198 (and
see St. Sophia).
Art, Byzantine, Cretan school, 195-7.

Egypt, Akhmim and Antinoe,
177-
Georgia, 190.
Greece, 179, 182, 183, 184, 191,
194, 196-7 (and see Athos).
Italy, 184, 189, 191, 198.
Macedonian school, 195 sqq.
Moldavia, 194, 335.
Parenzo, 173, 174.
Ravenna, 172, 173, 175, 177.
Rome, 178, 189.
Roumania, 179, 191, 194, 196.
Russia, 179, 184, 189, 191, 194-5,
196, 198, 357, 373.
Salonica, 172, 174-5* *78 J 79>
184, 192-3, 196.
Serbia, 179, 180, 190, 191, 192,
i94 ?9 8 > 3^5-
Sicily: Cefalu, 189; Monreale,
189; Palermo, 182, 189.
Syria, 172, 190.
Venice, 181, 184, 188, 189, 190-1.
Wallachia, 335.
Asen, John and Peter, 359; Kalojan,
359-60; John Asen II, 360-1; their
successors, 361. (See Bulgaria.)
Asia Minor, as heart of Empire, 13, 88,
89; frontier defence, 9, 15; frontier
line fixed, 17; traditional defences of,
20; military aristocracy of,xxviii, 27;
rebellion of Thomas the Skv, 18;
Seljuk invasion, 27 (see Seljuk Turks);
effect of Seljuk victories, 69 (and see
Themes).
Askold and Deir, capture Kiev, 369;
reach Black Sea, 370; attack on Con-
stantinople (860), 370; Oleg slays,
370.
Asperuch, Bulgar Khan, 341-2; dynasty
of, 343-
Asylum, right of, 292-3.
Athanasius, 222.
Athens, University of, 206, 210, 213;
Parthenon, the church of Our Lady,
330; Latin duchy of, 33.
Athos, 115, 143, 149, 157, 328; Hesy-
chasm on, 158; Russian contact with,
379-
Autocracy, the Byzantine, 268 sqq.;
theoretically unlimited, 273-4 (***
Church and State, and Muscovite
State).
Avars, 9, 10-11, 297, 303, 338-40,
344-
Awakum, 387-9.
426
INDEX
Bagdad, 15, 27, 85, 217, 315.

Baldwin, defeated at Adnanople (1205),
34, 360.
Ballads of the Akritic cycle, 247.
'Barbarism', in language, 259 sqq.
Bardas, reorganizes University of Con-
stantinople, 217.
Bardas Phocas, revolt of, 372.
Barlaam, 43.
Earlaam andloasaph, 238, 260, 261.
Basil I, 20-1, 26, 209, 304; the New
Church built, 1795 treaty of peace
with Russia, 370.
Basil II, 23-4, 217, 330; conquest of
Bulgaria, 355 (and see Bulgaria).
Basil, St., 204, 206, 210, 212, 215, 226;
and monasticisnij 141-3; and pagan
literature, 202.
Basileus, title refused to German Em-
perors, 273.
Basilica, the, see Law.
'Begging* poems, 250.
Bekkos, John, 40, 125.
Belthandrus and Ckrysantea, 245.
Berytus, Law school at, 3, 202, 207, 211,
213, 214.
Bessarion, 219.
Bible, its place in Byzantine life, xxvi.
Bishops, in early Russia, 373-4 (and see
Russia).
Bogomils, in Bulgaria, 3535 and Bulga-
rian Nationalism, 330; m Bosnia, 334,
353, 366; their emigration from Bos-
iz, 3345 spread of, 353-4; in Serbia,
362; in Croatia, 353; in Constanti-
nople, 353.
Bohemond, 30.
Boleslav of Poland, 357.
Boris of Bulgaria and the Orthodox
Church, 329-30 (see Bulgaria).
Bosnia, 334 (see Kulin and Tortko I);
adoption of Catholicism by King
Stephen Thomas Ostojid, 334.
Bothra, Arab capture of, 308.
Bryenmus, Joseph, 209.
Budget, the Byzantine, 77-9.
Bulgaria (see oho Art, Byzantine), Bui-
gars established south of Danube
(seventh century),i3-i4,i5, 341; Con-
stantine IV concludes treaty with,
341-25 defeat of Justinian II by, 342;
Khan Asperuch, 342, 343; treaty of
Theodosius III with (716), 342;
Phska, capital of Bulgar kingdom,
342; campaigns of Constantino V
against, 3435 Krum, his victory over
Nicephorus I, 18, 107, 344-5; Omor-

tag, his policy, 345~6; Boris, his
reign and conversion (864), 18, 329-
30, 346-9; Simeon, 21, 22, 351-2;
Peter and peace with Empire, 22, 23,
352 (see Peter); E. Bulgaria annexed
by Tzimisces, 354; reconquest by Tsar
Samuel, 24, 354-55 conquest of, by
Basil II (1018), 24, 330, 355; Second
Bulgarian Empire under Asen dyn-
asty, 34, 35 36, 37> 38> 330-1, 359
sqq ; later dynasties, 361-2; Serbian
victory at battle of Velboudj, 45;
Turkish victory in battle of the
Maritza (1371), 366; fall of Trnovo
(1393), 331, 384; Byzantine influence
on, 329 sqq , under Second Empire,
330-1; use of Greek language, 329;
Slavization of, 346; Christianity in,
329-31* 345-6; Bogomils in, 330; and
the Papacy, no-i i, 122; as a Turkish
province (1394-1870), 331; Bulgarian
influence on Russia, 383-4.
Bureaucracy, and fiscal strain, 280-1;
characteristics of, 294.
Bury, J. B., xv-xvi
Byzantine civilization, influence on
eastern Europe, 326, 336-7; on
Greece, 326-9; on the Slavs, 329 sqq.;
on Roumania, 335-6; on Russia,
chapter xiv.
Byzantine Empire, when did it begin ?,
xv-xx; an oriental Empire ?, xx; ele-
ments of strength, xxi-xxviii; the
single State and single law, xxi; heir
to Hellenistic civilization, xix-xx;
'custodian trustee*, xxx; as sole mis-
tress of the orbfs terrarum, i; its main
principles, 35 periods of its history,
3-45 causes of the prosperity of the
Empire, 68; causes of decline in pros-
perity, 69-70; as constant object of
attack, 72, and passim; the seventh
century reorganization, 12.
Cabasilas, 214.
'Caesaropapism', see Church and State.
Caliphs, cultural relations with Byzan-
tium, 318-19; of Bagdad, finances of,
85.
CaJhmachus and Chrysorrhoe, 245.
Callimcus, inventor of 'Greek fire",
306.
Callistus I, Patriarch of Constantinople,
33 1 -
Camaterus, John, Patriarch, 219.
INDEX
427
Cameniates, John (account of sack of

Salonica), 237.
Cappadocia, 206; modern language in,
257 (and see Art, Byzantine).
Cappadocian Fathers, 93, 141, 206, 223,
226.
Carthage, Arabs take, 14.
Cassian, 137.
Catapan, 24.
Cecaumenus, Strategicon, 212, 238, 302.
Celibacy of clergy, 129.
Centralization of Empire in Constanti-
nople, 8.
Cephalas, his collection of epigrams,
243-
Cerularius, Michael, 26, 124, 237, 386.
Chalcedon, Council of, 5, 99 sqq.; canon
of, 215.
Chalcocondyles, Laonicus (historian),
*33> 33 6 -
Charities, xxix-xxx, 76-7, 102, 153-4,
289.
Chariton, St., monk, 139.
Charlemagne, i; coronation, 17; and
Croats, 331-2; destroys Avar king-
dom, 344, 346.
Cherson, 25, 64, 65, 371, 372.
Chrabr, Bulgarian monk, 351.
C&nsttan Topography, the, 239-40.
Chnstodulus, St., 203.
Christophorus of Mitylene, epigrams,
243.
Chnstus Pattens, the, 243-4.
Chrysostom, John, St., 208-9, 211, 213,
223, 226.
Church, the Orthodox, xxiv-xxvii, 86-
1355 essential characteristics of, 127
sqq.; Byzantines profoundly reli-
gious, 132; mysticism in, 87, 114-16;
missions, xxxi, 116 (see Constantine
and Methodius; chapter 14 for Rus-
sia); the Councils and hegemony of
Constantinople in, 127-8; organiza-
tion of, 128-9; election of bishops,
129; State expenditure on, 76; the
role of the Church under the Turks,
219-20, 327. (See Church and State,
Councils, Russia, Schism, &c.)
Church and State, 'Caesaropapism',
xxviii-xxix, 3, 4, 5, 7, 21, 76, 86, 106,
112-3, 129-32, 162, 274sqq, 277-8.
CiLcia, capture of Tarsus from Arabs,
22.
Circus parties, 2, 100, 277.
Civil Administration, cost of, 74-5.
Civil service, xxiv, 27, 287 sqq.
Clement founds bishopric of Ochrida,

349-
Codinus, Book of Offices, 293.
Coenobitism, 137-8, 141-3.
Colonization within the Empire, repopu-
lation of deserted areas, 54.
Conscription for army, 296.
Conservatism, innovations and, 276-7;
in Court ceremonial, 278-80; of the
bureaucracy, 294.
Constantine the Great, xvii-xvm, xxi;
his conception of the future Christian
Empire, xviii, 2-3, 274; and the ad-
ministrative system, 280; Christianity
made a State religion, 169.
Constantine IV, 13, 341.
Constantine V, 15-16, 106, 120 sqq.;
campaigns against Bulgaria, 343.
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, 22,
208, 212, 217, 219, 224, 304-55 his
literary work, 230-1; style of, 256;
on the imperial power, 272; De Cere-
montis, 279, 312.
Constantine VIII, agreement with
Caliph al-Zahir, 317.
Constantine IX Monomachus, 26, 201,
207, 217, 271, 293.
Constantine XI dies in defence of Con-
stantinople against the Turks (1453),
42-
Constantine Ducas, and Theophylact's
Princely Education, 210.
Constantine and Methodius, mission
to Slavs, 1 8, 1 1 8, 217, 347-9, 368.
Constantinople (see Art, Byzantine), xvi,
xix, xxvii-xxviii, xxxi; foundation of,
87-8; a second Rome, 2; its strategic
position, 5; 'the glory of Greece', 315;
centralization in, 8; Arab attacks on,
12, 14-15; capture by the Fourth
Crusade (1204), 32-3; retaken by
Michael Palaeologus (1261), 36; cap-
ture by the Ottoman Turks (1453),
42; as centre of international trade,
63 sqq.; the heart of the economic life
of the Empire, 70; its circus and 'civic
loaves', 77; circus parties, 2, 100, 277.
Constantinople, University of, 201, 207,
210, 216-18.
Constantius II, and theology, 4, 92-3.
Continuity in the history of the Em-
pire, xv-xx; of Byzantine culture,
xix-xx; of the claim to Empire, 1-2,
268-9.
Cordoba, 315-16 (*the wonder of the
world').
INDEX
Coronation of Emperor, 270; of Rus-

sian Tsar, 385-6.
Cosmas, 216.
Cosmas Indicopleustes, xxvi, 239-40.
Councils, Church, 94, 207, 274.
Court officials, 75, 283.
Crete, Muslim capture of, 18, 21, 22,
304, 313; recapture from Arab pirates
(961), 314; Byzantine influence on,
328 (see Piracy).
Crimea, and Russians, 357.
Critobulus of Imbros, panegyrist of
Muhammad II, 233-4; style of, 256,
258.
Croatia, the struggle between the Ortho-
dox and the Catholic Churches, 3505
Tomislav decides for the latin
Church, 350; defeat of Simeon, Tsar
of Bulgaria, 352; Bogomils in, 353.
Crusades, 29 sqq., 321-2; the Crusader
States in the East, 30; the wars of the
Empire as Crusades, xxi, 29, 102
(see Fourth Crusade).
Currency, 29, 71-2; Byzantine gold
nomisma an international coin, 71;
later debasement of coinage, 71.
Customs duties, 65, 83.
Cyprus, 12, 15, 22; mystery play, 244;
Byzantine influence on, 328.
Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, 97.
Cyiil, missionary to Slavs (= Constan-
tine), 217 (see Constantino and Metho-
dius).
Cyril of Scythopolis, 139, 236.
Daniel the Stylite, 159, 161.
Danube frontier, defence of, 9.
Defence, national, of Empire, its cost,
72-4.
Demes in Constantinople, see Circus
parties.
Demetrius, St., 330, see Salonica.
Dialects, Greek, 253, 262 sqq.
Digenes Akntas, the epic of, 245-9; 18,
224, 299,' 303, 320 (see Ballads);
sources of the poem, 2478; relation
with Arab literature, 320; the pur-
pose of the epic, 248-9.
Diocletian, 280.
Dionysius the Areopagite, 223, 224,
227-8.
Diplomacy, Byzantine, 306-7; the
pomp of Court ceremonial, 306-7;
aims and methods of, 307; Arab em-
bassies: ritual of receptions, 312.
Dnieper, Russians on, 369-70.
Domostroi, the, 387.

Donatism, 90.
Dorotheus, St., the Younger, 200.
Drama, 243-4.
Drosilla and Ckarkles, 244.
Ducas (historian), 233.
Dulo, dynasty of, in early Bulgaria, 343.
Durazzo, 25, 28, 30, 33, 39, 335.
Dushan (DuSan), Stephen, 45, 126, 332,
333 ('Emperor of the Serbs and
Greeks'); Serbia under Dushan, 363-
5; his legal code, 364-5.
Dyrrhachium, see Durazzo.
Easter Liturgy, its significance for the
Orthodox Church, 134-5.
Ecloga, see Law.
Economics (see Trade), chapters ii and
lii, 6-7, 8, 25, 26, 27, 28-9, 44; Genoese
in East, 46 (see Venice); relations with
Arabs, 313, 315.
Edessa, school of, 213-14.
Edrisi, geographer, 324.
Education, 3, 21, 200-20; of civil ser-
vants and lawyers, 293.
Emperor, the Byzantine, 268 sqq.
(see Autocracy, Church and State);
rules by God's grace, xxi; his im-
perial duty, xviii-xix, xxii, 8; title of,
269; election of, 269-70, 2725 choice
of successor by reigning emperor,
270; hereditary dynasties, 270; deposi-
tion by revolution, 271-2; anointing
of, 273; overlord of the universe, 273;
extent of his powers, 273 sqq.; oath
on accession, 277-8; and Court cere-
monial, 278-80; and theology, 91
sqq.
Encyctios pcadeia, 205-6.
Ephesus, Council of (449), 98, 160.
Epic, the Christian, 224 (see Digenes
Akritas).
Epigrams, 242-3.
Epirus, 'Despotat* of, 33 sqq., 335.
Eulalius, artist, 174.
Eunapius, 222.
Euphemius, Patriarch of Constanti-
nople, 277.
Europe, eastern, influence of Byzantine
civilization on, 326 (see Byzantine
civilization).
Eusebius of Caesarea, 222, 272, 278.
Eustathius Macrembolites, 244.
Eustathius of Salonica, criticism of
monks, 155, 380-1; commentaries on
Homer, 214; classical style of, 256.
INDEX
429
Euthymius, Bulgarian Patriarch, 331.

Evagrius, source of Maximus Confessor,
227.
Exports, list of forbidden exports, 66.
Fatimids, in Egypt, 23; treaty with
Basil II, 24; policy towards Chris-
tians, 317; agreement with Constan-
tine VIII (1027), 317.
Fttioque, the, 122.
Finance, imperial, xxii-xxiii; public
finances, 71 sqq ; cost of bureaucracy,
280-1, 284-5$ payment of salaries,
287; mm'sters of, 283.
Fleet, Byzantine, xxiii, xxiv, 44, 73, 287;
its achievements, 303-4; the naval
Themes, 304; organization of, 304;
officers of, 304; sketch of history of
the, 304-55 types o*~ warships, 305-6;
caution in use of, 306 (see 'Greek
Fire').
Fleet, mercantile, 64-5.
Florence, Council of (1439), 44? I2 ^
384, 386.
Fourth Crusade, 32, 225; effect of cap-
ture of Constantinople, 359.
Funeral Orations, 237.
Galerius, 88-9.
Gaza, 213.
Gennadius, 219.
Genoa, 37, 38, 40, 44; settlements of
Genoese in the East, 46. (See Aliens.)
George I, King of Greece, 326.
George the Monk, Chronicle of, 234-5;
as source of Russian Primary Chro-
nicle, 376.
George of Pisidia, 223-4.
Georgius Hamartolus, = George the
Monk, q.v.
German invasions, 5.
Germans in army, 296.
Greece, Byzantine tradition in, 326 sqq.;
the dream of recovering Constanti-
nople for Greece, 326-7; Orthodox
Church in, 327.
Greek Fire, 12, 80, 304, 306.
Greek Language in the Byzantine
period, 252-67; use of the, 201-2,
204.
Gregoras, Nicephorus, see Nicephorus.
Gregory Nazianzen, St., 93-4, 200, 206,
210, 212, 213, 223, 226, 227.
Gregory of Nyssa, St., 210, 223, 226-7.
Guilds, Trade, 62-3, 66-7.
Guiscard, Robert, 28.
Hagiography and Biography, 236-8;

in Russia, 376-7, 382.
Harmenopuhis, nomophylax, 217.
Harun-al-Rashid, 79, 85, 117, 311.
Harun-ibn-Yahya, as traveller, 317-18.
Hassan Ali al-Harawy visits Constan-
tinople, 323.
Hellenism, under Palaeologi, 49-50;
Christian Hellenism, 94, 127, 132;
Christians and pagan literature, 202,
206, 221-2, 226-7; HeUenization of
foreign elements, 294; return to, in
fourteenth century, 215 (and see 219-
20).
Hellenistic civilization, xix-xx; the
common possession of Arabs and
Byzantines, 316; Hellenistic con-
ception of ruler, 268, and its Christian
adaptation, 269, 272, 276, 278.
Henoticon of Zeno, 5, 99-100.
Heraclius, 5, 10-12, 102 (his wars the
first Crusades), 117, 216, 224, 285,
297* 33> 34 (dealings with the
Slavs), 341.
Hereditary dynasties, 19, 270-1.
Hesychasm, 43, 114, sqq.; 158; in Bul-
garia, 3315 and Nil Sorski, 379-80.
Hilarion, St., monk, 138-9.
Histories and Chronicles, 229-36.
History, writing of, xxx-xxxi.
Holobolus, Manuel, 'Rhetor of the
Great Church', 218.
'Holy Russia* and Western influence,
386.
Homer, 204.
Homoousion, the, 92-3.
Hundred Chapters, Council of the
(1551), 381, 385, 387, 389.
Hungary, formation of the Magyar
State, 350-1.
Huns, 5-6; Attila, 296.
Hymns, 223, 240-2; hymn-writers, 133.
Hypatia, 213.
Hyrtacenus, Theodore, as State-paid
teacher, 210, 218.
Hysmimas and Hysmine, 244.
Ibn-Batutah (Battuta), 324.
Iconium (Konia), Sultanate of, 321, 323.
Iconoclast Controversy, 105 sqq., 275,
276, 316.
Iconoclasts, 15 sqq., 130; and the
Papacy, 120 sqq.; and monasticism,
161-2; and art, 178; and literature,
228; attacks on, 235; and Bulgaria,
344-
430 INDEX
Idiorrhythmicism, 157.
Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
109 sqq., 113; and Bulgaria, 122.
Igor, son of Rurik, attacks Constanti-
nople (941), 371; treaty with Empire,
371; murdered, 371.
Hlyricum, 109-10.
Imbenus and Margarona, 245.
Immunity from taxation, grant of, 84.
Industry, its character, 61-2; its orga-
nization: trade guilds, 62-3.
Interest, lending at, 57, 65, 66.
International trade, Constantinople as
the centre of, 63 sqq.
Intolerance, Byzantine, 'an affair of the
spirit', 1325 imperial persecutions,
316-17; different attitude towards
Islam, 317, 323-4; some antagonism
in Constantinople, 3245 persecution
of Bogomils, 353.
Irene (Empress), 16-17, 106-7, 271, 344.
Isaac Angelus, alliance with Saladm,
322-
Isaac Comnenus, 27.
'Isaurian' Emperors, 14, 285, 304 (de-
cline of the fleet), 343.
Isidore, architect of St. Sophia, 166.
Islam, Byzantium and, 11-12, 17, 308-
25; relations of, to Nestonanism and
Monophysitism, 309; Muslim travel-
lers, 317-18, 323-4; cultural relations
between the Empire and the Arabs,
310* 315? 31^ sqq.; tolerance towards,
317, 323-4 (see Intolerance); Manuel
II refutes doctrine of, 324.
Italy and the Byzantine Empire, 12, 14,
17, 20, 25, 31, 123-4, 358-
Ivan III marries Sophia Palaeologus
(1472), 383.
Jacobites, 101.
Jerusalem, capture of (614) 105 recovery
by Herachus, n; Arab conquest of,
12; Fatimids secure Palestine, 23;
destruction of the Church of the
Holy Sepulchre, 317; Saladm cap-
tures, 322.
John II Comnenus, 30-1.
John VI Cantacuzenus, 37, 41, 208.
John VIII, 218.
John of Damascus, St., 204-5, 210, 216,
2245 T&e Fountain of Knowledge, 228;
his hymns, 242; writings against
Iconoclasts, 316, 317.
John of Euchaita, 200, 202-3, 2O 9> air >
212, 217.
John the Exarch, 351.
John Geometres, epigrams, 242-3.
John Italus, 218.
John Mauropous, epigrams, 243.
John the Psichaite, St., 216.
Josephites, 380.
Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle of, 213.
Julian the Apostate, 4, 89, 93, 222, 223,
227.
Justice, administration of, 291-2.
Justin I, his oath on accession, 277.
Justin II, 9.
Justinian, 5; 7-8 (a Roman-minded
Emperor); his reign and its legacy,
7-9; loss of his western conquests, 125
ally of Papacy, 100; and mission to
Nubia, 117; legislation on monasti-
cism, 146-7, 164; 201 (Novels pub-
lished in Greek language); Constitu-
tion on school of Law at Berytus,
214; condemnation of Evagrius, 227;
Procopius* history, 230; and the
Church, 274; creation of exarchs,
285; his army, 296, and fleet, 303;
and foreign trade, 313; and the Avars
55$> 339-
Justinian II, defeated by Bulgars, 342.
Kiev, the state of, 356, 370; treaties with

the Empire, 370-1; Vladimir cap-
tures Kiev, 371; the Great Princes of,
373-4; life in, 375; town of, monas-
teries in, 379.
Kiprian, Bulgarian Metropolitan of
Moscow, 384.
Koine*, the, 252, 262-3.
Kormisosh of Bulgaria, 343.
Krum, Bulgar Khan, decisive victory
over Nicephorus I, 18, 344; dies in
814, 345; his achievement, 345.
Kuhn, Ban of Bosnia, adopts the Bogo-
mil creed, 334; establishes indepen-
dence of Bosnia, 359.
Landholding, 55 sqq.
Land-tax, 82.
Language, purism in, 253, 255-6; of
the Church, 253; spoken language
and classical tradition, 254, 262;
views of Hatzidakis and Psychari,
255; popular Greek usage, 259 sqq.;
Greek after the Turkish conquest,
266; loan-words in Greek, 266-7;
relations between Arabic and Greek
languages, 320; the "language ques-
INDEX
tion* in modern Greece,

'Greek of Trebizond', 336.
Large estates, 21, 55 sqq > 155-6, 293-4.
Latin Empire, in Constantinople, 33
sqq.; fall of (1261), 36.
Latin, loan-words in Greek, 267; mili-
tary orders in, 297; use of Latin
language, 201-2, 214, 286.
Latmus, Mount, monks of, 143.
Laura, in monasticism, 1395 St. Sabas,
139, 381.
Law, xxi, xxx, 7; the Ecloga, 15; the
Basilica, 21 (see Punishments, Jus-
tice); and the Emperor, 276; in Rus-
sia, 377-8 (and see s.v. Stoglav).
Law schools, Berytus, 3, 202, 207, 214,
216; Constantinople, 207, 216, 217;
Rome, 216.
Leichudes, Constantine (Patriarch), 2 3 7.
Leo I, coronation of, 270; builds monas-
tery at Anaplus, 145.
Leo III (Emperor), xv, xix, 14 sqq., 216,
310,311, 317-
Leo VI, 21, 112, 208.
Leo, St., Pope, 98-9.
Leo the Deacon, 231-2.
Leo the Mathematician, 212, 217, 319.
Leontius of Neapolis (in Cyprus), 236.
Libamus, 201, 204, 210,211, 212, 213,
216.
Libraries, 213; Catalogues, 212.
Literature, Byzantine, its characteris-
tics, 132-4; 221-51; continuity with
that of the ancient world, 221; periods
of, 221 sqq.; centres of production,
225; relation to modern Greek litera-
ture, 251.
Liturgy, the Slav, and its significance,
390-1; Easter liturgy, 134-5.
Liutprand, i, 75, 79, 243, 307, 314-15.
Login, archpriest, 389.
Lombards invade Italy, 9, 12, 17.
Lybistrus and Rhodamne, 245.
Lydus, On the Magistracies, 284-5.
Lyons, Council of, 39.
Macarius, Russian Metropolitan, and
recognition of Saints, 382; condemna-
tion of, 389-90.
Macedonian dynasty, 19 sqq.
Magister Offictorum, 282-3.
Magistri miktum, 6, 295.
Mahomet, see Muhammad.
Makhairas, Cypriot chronicler, 262, 265.
Malalas, John, Chronicle of, 234, 254.
Malamir, son of Omoztag, 346.
Manasses, Chronicle of, 362, 383.

Mamakes, 27.
Manuel I Comnenus, 31, 218.
Manuel II, 37, 208, appeals to western
Europe, 48; compiles refutation of
doctrine of Islam, 324.
Manuscripts, copying of, 132, 212, 216.
Manzikert, Battle of (1071), 28; effect of
defeat, 300, 321.
Masudi, 318.
Maurice, defence of Danube frontier,
9; satiric verses against, 249; army of,
297- .
Maximin Daia, 89.
Maximus the Confessor, 224.
Maszarts, the, 239, 265.
Menas, Patriarch of Constantinople,
275.
Mesarites, Nicholas, 219.
Mesopotamia, campaign of Tzimisces
in, 23.
Methodius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
109.
Methodius, missionary to the Slavs, see
Constantine and Methodius.
Metochites, Theodore, decorates the
church of the Chora monastery, 193;
education of, 218.
Metropolitan, the, m early Russia, 374-
55 Isidor, 384.
Michael III, and mission to Moravia,
347 (see Constantine and Methodius);
and the Caliph al-Wathiq, 319.
Michael VII, 200, 208.
Michael VIII Palaeologus, 36, 37, 38,
113, 208; relations with the Papacy,
38-9; diplomacy of, 38 sqq., 124-5;
restores the School of Philosophy,
218 and school for orphans, 219.
Michael Italicus, 209, 211, 212.
Military science, Byzantine, 302.
Milutin, Stephen, 45.
Miroslav, ruler in Herzegovina, 359.
Missions of the Church, xxxi, 117 (see
Constantine and Methodius; Russia).
Monasticism, xxxi, 136-65, 216, 229;
St. Antony, 136-7; St. Pachomius,
137-8; in Egypt, 138, 140; in Pales-
tine, 138-9, 381; in Syria, 139-40; in
Armenia and Pontus, 141; St. Basil,
141-3; no order of Basdian monks,
142; mountain settlements of monks,
143-4; in Constantinople, 144-5; tne
AJcoimetoi, 144-5; c^ 0118 of Coun-
cils on, 145-6, 147-8; Justinian's
legislation, 146-7; double monasteries
432
INDEX
suppressed, 147-8; legislation of Nice-

phorus Phocas (repealed by Basil II),
148, 1555 St. Theodore the Studite,
148-50; monastic typtca, 150 sqq.;
convents, 152-35 criticism of monas-
teries, 155 sqq., grants of monasteries
to laymen, 156; and landholding, 59;
idiorrhythmicism, 157; the influence
of monks, 159 sqq ; and Iconoclasts,
161-2; monastic schools, 215; monas-
tic pioneers in Russia, 381-2; Greek
monasticism arrested in its develop-
ment, 164 (see Hesychasm).
Money economy preserved, xxn-xxm;
6-7.
Mongols, 321, 323, 358.
Monophysitism, 5, 8, 94 sqq.
Monothelitism, 103, 120.
Montenegro, 337.
Moravia, kingdom of, 346; the mission
to, 347 (see Constantino and Metho-
dius); fall of Moravian kingdom, 350.
Morea, Latin principality of, 33, 38;
Chronicle of the Morea, 259.
Moscow, 357, 358 (see Third Rome);
Metropolitan of, recognized as Patri-
arch, 385 (and see Muscovite State).
Mosellus (Mosele), 'Museum* of, 204,
210, 2x5.
Mountains chosen for settlements of
monks, 143-4.
Muaviah, attack on Constantinople
repulsed, 304.
Muhammad and Charlemagne, 309.
Muhammad II captures Constantinople
(1453), 48-9; enters Constantinople
(1453), 325; and the Patriarch of
Constantinople, 327, 331.
Muscovite State, and theory of auto-
cracy, 357, 383; and monasticism, 381;
the Third Rome, 383-5; the duty of
theautocrat, 384; his coronation, 385-
6, his powers, 386 (and see Moscow).
Muslims, and Iconoclasm, 16 (see Is-
lam).
Myriokephalon, Battle of, 31.
Mystery Plays, 243-4.
Mysticism, Byzantine, 226, 227, 229; in
Russia, 380 (see Hesychasm, Pala-
mism).
Nemanja, Stephen, and the Orthodox
Church in Serbia, 332; establishes
independence of Serbia, 358-9.
Neophytus, St., 211.
Nestonans, in Sassanid Persia, 316.
Nestorius, 95-6; missions, 117.

Nicaea, Council of (325), 2, 4, 91;
second Council of (787), 16-17, and
art, 187; capital of Seljuk sultanate,
28; Crusaders capture, 30; Empire of
Nicaea, 33 sqq., 361; culture under,
209, 213, 218, capture by Ottoman
Turks (1329), 47-
Nicephorus I (Emperor), 18, 311, 344.
Nicephorus Phocas, 19, 23, 148, 155,
217? 3575 Leo the Deacon as source
of history of the reign, 231-25 on
Byzantine fleet, 305, 314-15.
Nicephorus, St., Patriarch of Constanti-
nople, 204, 2 10, 2 1 1 ; Chronography of,
source of Russian Primary Chronicle,
376.
Nicephorus Blemmydes, 212.
Nicephorus Gregoras, 210, 218, 225,
333> 3 6 4-
Nicetas Eugenianus, 244-5.
Nicholas, Patriarch of Constantinople,
112, 311-12.
Nicon Metanoites, Life of, 236.
Nikon, Patriarch of Russia, his reform
of the Russian Church, 386 sqq.; his
condemnation, 389.
Nil Sorski and Athos, 379-80; his con-
flict with St. Joseph of the Voloko-
lamsk monastery, 380; he is defeated,
380-1.
Nilus of Rossano, Life of, 237.
Nomophylax, 217.
Nonnus, 223.
'Non-Possessors', the, 380.
Normans, 28, 30, 31; transfer of silk
industries of Greece to Sicily, 69.
Notaras, Lucas, 324.
Notiha Dtgnttatum, 285.
Novel, the, 238-9.
Novgorod, 369, 371.
Oath, of Emperor, 277-8.
Ochnda, Bishopric founded, 349; Greek
Archbishop of, 330, 362, 367.
'Oecumenical* Patriarch, meaning of
tide, 128.
'Oecumenical Teacher', Rector of the
School of the Patriarch, 218-19.
Offices, payment for appointment to, 75.
Officials, classes of, 284.
'Old Believers', the, in Russia, 387 sqq.
Oleg, occupies Kiev, 356; real founder
of the Russian State, 370.
Olga, widow of Igor, visits Constanti-
nople; is converted, 356, 371.
INDEX
433
Omortag, makes peace with Empire,

3455 his policy, 345-6.
Orientalism of the Byzantine Empire,
xx, 75-
Origen, 222, 227.
Orthodox Church, as bond of unity,
13, and reunion with the Roman
Church, 39-40 (see Church, Schism,
Union).
Orthography, 204, 206.
Ostrogoths, 6, 7.
Otho, King of Greece, 326.
Otto II, 23.
Ottoman Turks, see Turks.
Pachomius, St., 137-8,
Pachymeres, 225.
Painters 3 Manual, the, 196, 199.
Palace, imperial, 75.
Palaeologi, characteristics of the Empire
of the, 42 sqq., 7> "5 & W-> I 3* 3i
(no unified military organization),
322, 324; art under, 197-9.
Pakmas, Gregory, 43, 114 sqq., 158.
Palaxnism, 114 sqq., 158.
Palestine, monasticism in, 138-9, 381.
Palladas, 209, 242.
Panaretus, Chronicle of, 336.
Panselinus, Manuel, of Salonica, 196,
199.
Parties, the strife of religious, 108 sqq.
Patriarch of Constantinople, at corona-
tion of Emperor, 270 (see Church and
State); and the Russian Church, 374,
378; school of the, 218-19.
Paul the Silentiary, epigrams, 242; de-
scription of St. Sophia, 251.
Paulicians, 131, 353.
Pelagonia, battle of (1259), 36.
Persecutions of Christians, 88, 130-1.
Persia, 6, 9, 64; Persian conquests, 10;
campaigns of Heraclius, nj Arab
invasion of, 12; Christian Church in,
116-175 Persians under the Caliphate,
3155 sixth-century war with Persia,
339; Persians and the Byzantine fleet
303; Court ceremonial on Persian
model, 269; mail-clad cavalry adopted
from, 297 (and see Art, Byzantine).
Petchenegs, 350, 352, 371.
Peter, Tsar of Bulgaria, concludes peace
with the Empire, 352; Byzantine in-
fluence under, 330, 352; Bogomils in
Bulgaria, 353.
Philanthropia, 15, 76, 278.
Phihpatru, the 239.
Philosophy, 205-6, 218, 223, 225, 232.

Philotheus, Court Marshal, 279, 285,
298-9.
Philotheus of Pskov and the Third
Rome, 384-5,
Phocas, a reign of terror, 10, 216.
Photius, 21, 26, 109-11 (no 'second
Photian schism'), 122-3, 200, 206,
209, 210, 212, 217, 224, 231, 256
(classicism of P ), 349 (a seminary for
Slav priests); sends missionaries to
Russia, 356, 370, 388.
Phrantzes, George (historian), 233.
Piracy, Arab centres of, 12; capture of
Crete (825), 18, 20, 21, 3135 Crete
recaptured, 22, 314; fleet reorganized
against pirates, 304.
Planudes, Maximus, his collection of
epigrams, 243.
Plato, 205, 232, 258.
Plato, St., monastic reformer, 149.
Plethon, 215.
Pliska, Bulgarian capital, 342.
'Political metre 1 , verses in, 249.
Population, of Byzantine Empire, 51
sqq.; causes reducing population, 51-
35 factors tending to increase popula-
tion, 53-5.
'Possessors', the, 380.
Postmaster-general, 289-90.
Potentes, the, and the defence of the weak
by the State, 21, 56.
Praetorian Prefect, 281-2; John of
Cappadocia, 285; disappearance of,
285, 288.
Prefect, City, 282, 287-8.
Prefect's Book, the, 62-3, 288.
Preslav, Bulgarian capital, 351.
Primary Chronicle 9 the Russian, 369,
370-1, 372, 375-6-
Proclus, Neoplatonist, 223.
Proclus, Quaestor, 277.
Procopius, 222, 230, 231-2, 256 (style
of); quoted, 169.
Prodromus, Theodore, romantic poetry,
2445 satinc poems, 249, 254; 'beg-
ging* poems, 250 (cf. 213).
Pronoia, system of, 300.
Provincial administration, 281-2 (see
also Themes).
Psellus, 19, 200-12 passim, 217, 218, 225,
23*, *37> 250; his use of language,
256-7.
Public buildings, cost of, 75.
Public expenditure, 72-7; the Byzantine
budget, 77-9 {and see Finance).
434
INDEX
Punishments, mutilation, xx, 2925 im-

prisonment, 292.
Purchasing power of precious metals,
71-2.
Ragusa, 334-5, 361, 365.
Ravenna, 12, 17 (and see Art, Byzan-
tine).
Reading of books, 212.
Renaissance, Italian, influence of By-
zantium and Islam, 325.
Revenue of Byzantine State, 77-84.
Rhetoric, 204, 208, 222.
Rhodanthe and ' Doncles, 244.
Rhodes, 12, 328.
Rhodian Law, 65.
Roman Church and Orthodox Church,
1 19 sqq.
Roman tradition in Empire, xx.
Romans*, 'Basileus of the, title, 128.
Romantic poems, 244-5.
Romanus Lecapenus, 22, 352.
Romanus III, and Latin language, 202.
Romanus IV, 28.
Romanus, hymn-writer, 133, 203, 223,
240-1.
Romulus Augustulus, i.
Rostislav of Moravia, 346-9.
Roumania, Byzantine influences in,
335-6, 366-75 services of the Phana-
riot Greeks, 336.
Rural population, taxation of, 82.
Rurik, founds State in Novgorod, 355-
6, 369; descent of dynasty from
brother of Augustus, 386.
Russia, chapter xiv; early history of,
355 so ti-> 369 sqOrj attacks on Con-
stantinople, 356, 369 sq j Russian
attack on Bulgaria, 23, 354; Russians
driven back by Tzimisces, 354; Chris-
tianity in, early spread of, no, 118-
19, 371} conversion of Princess Olga,
3569 37*5 conversion of Vladimir,
357, 371-2; Russian Church follows
Byzantine model, 357-8, 372-3;
Christianity imposed from above on
a pagan people, 373, 378; clergy as
allies of the Princes of Kiev, 373-4;
the role of the Church, 373-4; litera-
ture in early, religious and monastic,
375-7; hagiography, 376-7* 382; law,
377-8; monasticism in, 378-82; the
Metropolitan and the Patriarch of
Constantinople, 3 74; the Great Schism
and the Old Believers, Nikon and
Awakum, 386-90 (and see Scandina-
vians, Rurik, Askold and Deir, Kiev,

Oleg, Moscow, Muscovite State,
Third Rome, Nil Sorski, Art, Byzan-
tine).
Saccoudion, monastery of St. Plato,
149.
St. Sophia in Constantinople, 7-8, 76,
1 66 sqq.
Saints, Russian, 382.
Saiyid Battal Ghazi, 320.
Saladin captures Jerusalem, 322.
Salaries of civil servants and Court offi-
cials, 74-6.
Salonica, as port, 64; its wealth, 70;
attacked by Slavs, 339; conditions in,
pictured in the Miracles of St. Deme-
trtus, 339-40; seventh-century siege
(675-7) by Slavs and Bulgars, 342;
sack of, in 904, 21, 237; sacked by
Normans (1185), 32; Latin kingdom
of, 33; captured by Theodore, despot
of Epirus, 34; social revolution in
(i4th century), 43; culture in (i4th
century), 214-15; attack by John
Asen II, 360; Nicaeans gain (1246),
361; not taken by Dushan, 364;
captured by Ottoman Turks (1430),
48; St. Demetrius and Trnovo, 330.
Samo, kingdom of, 340.
Samuel, Tsar of Bulgaria, his conquests,
354; destruction of his army by Basil
II, 355-
Sassanids, see Persia; Art, Byzantine.
Satire, 239.
Sava, St., leaves Athos for Serbia, 332;
and the creation of an autocephalous
Serbian Church, 332; his work, 362.
Scandinavians in Russia, on the Volga,
369; at Novgorod and Kiev, 369-70;
with Vladimir capture Kiev, 371;
sagas, 375-6.
Schism, between the Eastern and Wes-
tern Churches, 26, 113, 119 sqq., 164;
the Great Schism in Russia, 387 sqq.
Scholia Smaitica, 214.
Schools of learning, 213; school of the
Patriarch in Constantinople, 218-19.
Sclavenes, 338.
Seljuk Turks, 27, 30, 31, 293, 300, 305,
321, 358.
Serbia (see Art, Byzantine), becomes
independent, 342; conversion of Ser-
bian tribes, 350; and the Orthodox
Church, 3325 monastery of Khilan-
dar (Athos) as nursery of the Church
INDEX
435
of, 333; annexed by Bulgaria (925),

352; E. Serbian princes vassals of the
Empire, 355; independence of, under
Stephen Nemanja, 358; Stephen 'the
first crowned 1 , 359, 3625 the Urosh
dynasty, 362-3; the reign of Dushan
(Dusan), 363-6 (see Dushan) 5 the
Court under Dushan, 333; Serbian
kings marry Greek princesses, 333;
decline of, battle of Kossovo (1389),
47, 366 (and see 37, 38, 45); the
Church under Turks as centre of
Nationalism, 333.
Sergius of Radonezh, Life of St., 376;
and the victory over the Tartars, 383.
Severus, at Alexandria, 213.
Sicily, 12, 20 (see Art, Byzantine).
Simeon of Bulgaria, Greek influence
under, 330, 351; the culture of the
reign, 351; his attack on the Empire
and imperial claim, 3525 annexes
Serbia, 352; defeat in Croatia, 352.
Simeon Metaphrastes, 236.
Simeon Stylites, St , 140, 159, 201.
Simeon the Young, 217, 225, 229.
Sirmium, fall of (582), 9, 339.
Slavs, 338-68; early history, 338; inva-
sion of Empire by, 339; attack on
Constantinople (626), n; in Balkan
peninsula, 8, 12-13; settled in Greece,
340; kingdom of Samo, 340; early
social structure of, 340; extinguish
Christianity, 340-1 ; failure of seventh-
century mission to, 341; later mission
to (see Constantine and Methodius),
1185 Byzantine influence on, 329 sqq.,
367-8; division between Eastern and
Western Churches, 331-25 under
Turkish rule, 33*-3> 337-
Solitary, the, m mpnasticism, 138.
Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem,
103.
Sorski, j^Nil Sorski.
Spaneas, the, didactic poem, 250.
Stephen "the first crowned' of Serbia,
359> 362.
Stephen, of Alexandria, 212.
Stoglav; the, 381, 385, 387, 389.
Stratfgikon, attributed to Maurice, 297.
Stylites, 140, 159; St. Lazarus, 203, 212.
Svyatoslav follows pagan tradition, 371;
dies in battle with Petchenegs (972),
371-
Sweden, trade with Arabs, 369.
Symeon of Bulgaria, see Simeon.
Syncellus, 290.
Synesius, 205, 206, 209, 223.

Syria, N., recaptured from Muslims,
22; victories of Tzimisces, 23; Basil II
in, 24.
Syrian hymnody, 133; monasticism,
139-40.
Tartars, 379,383. _
Taxation, xxii-xxiii; money economy
preserved, ibid.; the potenttores and,
56, 58; immunities from, 69, 84; the
kinds of imperial taxes, 81-4; pay-
ments in kind, corvfes, 84; adminis-
trative department of, 282, 288-9;
and right of asylum, 293 (see also
Customs duties).
Themes, 285, 290-1, 297 sqq.; prece-
dence of Eastern Themes, 298; mili-
tary organization of, 298; hereditary
farms granted to soldiers in, 300;
the naval Themes, 304.
Themistius, 201, 216.
Theoctista, mother of Theodore the
Studite, 237.
Theodora, wife of Justinian, and Mono-
physitism, 8, 100-1.
Theodora, and Festival of Orthodoxy
(843), 107.
Theodora (of the Macedonian dynasty),
19, 25-6, 271.
Theodore, St., of Edessa, Life of, 376.
Theodore Lascaris I, 33, 35.
Theodore Lascaris II, 36.
Theodore, Studite monk, 107, 108-9,
148-50, 161-2, 200, 203, 204, zio,
228-9, 37^5 funeral orations, 237;
hymns, 242; epigrams, 242; his rule,
378.
Theodore the Syceote, St., 211.
Theodore of Tarsus, 213.
Theodonc, 7.
Theodosius the Great, 4, 6, 94, 295.
Theodosius II, appointment of teachers,
201; edict of, 207, 216; and the Law,
276.
Theodosius III, treaty with Bulgars,
342.
Theodosius, St., founder of Russian
monasticism, 378.
Theodote, mother of Psellus, 211.
Theological Literature, 226-9.
Theology, in education, 205, 207, 208,
218-19; in fourth century, 222; dog-
matic disputes, 4-5, and their result,
105; Arianism, 90 sqq.; the Cappa-
docian Fathers, 93; Monophysitism,
436
INDEX
94 sqq ; Nestorius, 95-6; dominance

of, in Byzantine literature, 132; By-
zantine theology in Russia, 372.
Theophanes, Chronicle of, 254.
Theophanes of Crete, 196-7, 199.
Theophano, wife of Otto II, 23.
Theophilus (Emperor), 208.
Thessalonica, see Salomca.
Third Rome, Moscow as the, 369,
383-5-
"Three Chapters', the, lor.
Timartoriy the, 239.
Tomislav, King of Croatia, 350.
Tortko I, King of Bosnia, copies Byzan-
tine Court, 334; Byzantine tradition
spreads to the eastern shores of the
Adriatic, 334.
Towns, in the Empire, 53; taxes on
town-dwellers, 82-3.
Toynbee, Arnold, xv-xx.
Trade, Guilds, 62-3; international, 63
sqq.; of the Arabs before Muhammad,
313-14; of Trebizond, 64; of Bulga-
ria under Omortag, 345; of Russian
rulers of Kiev, 356, 370-1.
Travellers, Muslim, 317-18, 323-4.
Treaties, between Russians and the
Empire, 370-1; with Arabs, diplo-
matic forms of, 312-13.
Trebizond, Greek empire of, 33, 37, 336;
as port, 64, 314.
Trnovo, capital of Second Bulgarian
Empire, 359, 360-1; as successor of
Constantinople, 383-4.
Tsakonians, dialect of the, 252, 261.
Turks, Ottoman, 37, 46 sqq., 321, 323
sqq , 389 (and see Seljuk Turks).
Typtca t 150 sqq.
Tzetzes, 212-13.
Tzimisces, John, 19, 23, 113, 217, 231,
354> 357-
Ulpian, pedantry of, 258.
Ummayad Empire, 14, 15, 20, 315.
Umates, and the Council of Florence,
126.
Union of the Orthodox and Roman
Churches, 43-4, 124 sqq.
University of Constantinople (see Theo-

dosius II), 216-18, 224; training of
civil servants, 293.
Urban population, taxation of, 82-3.
Urosh (UroS) I, Stephen king of Serbia,
362-3; Stephen Urosh II, marries
daughter of Andronicus II, 333; his
conquests, 363; Stephen Urosh III,
the battle of Velbuzd, 363; strangled
by his son Dushan, 363.
Vandals, their fleet, 6, 303; Africa re-
covered from, 7.
Varangians, 301, 355.
Varna, battle of, defeat of last attempt
of the West to save the Empire, 48.
Vatatzes, John, of Empire of Nicaea, 35.
Velboudj (Velbuzd), battle of (1330), 45,
361, 363-
Venice, 12, 17, 25, 28, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38,
44, 46, 363; weakness of Byzantine
fleet, 305 (and see Art, Byzantine).
Via Egnatia, 335.
Vigikus, Pope, 10 1.
Visigoths, 5-6,
Vladimir, in Novgorod, 371; flees to
Scandinavia, 371; returns and makes
Kiev his capital, 371; his conversion,
371-2; attack on Cherson, 372; creed
taught to, 376.
Warships, types of, 305.
West and East in dogma, 95 (and see
Schism).
Western Europe and the barbarians, 6.
Xiphilinus, 217, 237.
Yaropolk, 371.
Yaroslav, Church ordinances of, 377.
Yazid II Caliph (720-4), decree against
images in churches, 316.
Zigabenus, Euthymius, the Dogmatic
Panoply, 229.
Zoe, 19, 25-6, 271, 352.
Zonaras, John, Chronicle of, 235.
Zosimus, last pagan historian, 222.

FATHER BASIL (BASIL KRIVOSHEIN), The Ascetic and Theological Teachings
of Gregory Palamas', Eastern Churches Quarterly, iii (1938), pp. 26-33,
71-84, 138-56, 193^-214. Cf. J. Gotulkrd, chos d'Orient, xxxvii
(1938), pp. 424-60.
CLEMENT LIALINE, 'The Theological Teaching of Gregory Palamas on
Divine Simplicity', Eastern Churches Quarterly, vi (1946), pp. 266-87.
A. M. AMMANN, Die Gottesschau im palamitischen Hesychasmus. Ein Handbuch
der spatbyzantimschen Mystik (= Das bstluhe Chrtstentum, ed. Georg
Wunderle, Heft 6-7). Wurzburg, Rita Verkg, 1938.
There is a series of translations of the writings of Byzantine mystics recently
published in Paris (Sources Chrftiennes, Editions du Cerf): the series
includes French versions from the work of Maximus the Confessor,
Nicetas Stethatos, and Nicolas Cabasilas.
The Orthodox Liturgy. London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
1939.
J. M. NEALE, Hymns of the Eastern Church. London, Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, 1918.
E. HERMAN, *Le Profession! vietate al clero bizantino', Orientalia Christiana
Penodica (Rome, Pont. Institutum Orientalium Studiorum), x (1944),
pp. 23-44.
V
KARL HEUSSI, Der Ursprung des Monchtums. Tubingen, Mohr, 1936.
H. LECLERCQ, 'C&iobitisme', in Dictionnaire d* Archtologie et de Liturgie, t
. ii,
cols. 3047-248.
On the part played by monasticism in the life of the Empire cf. KARL ROLL,
Preussische Jahrbucher, xciv (1898), pp. 407-24; J. M. HUSSEY, His-
tory, N.S. xxiv (1939), pp. 5662.
De Monachico Statu iuxta Discipltnam byzantinam, Vatican Press, 1942
(= Sacra Congregazione per la Chiesa Orientale, Fonti, Serie II, Fasc.
10), ed. P. Placidus de Meester. (An encyclopaedic work.)
ATHANASIUS, Life of dntonyi Translated in A Select Library of Nicene and
Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd series, edd. Henry
Wace and P. Schaff, vol. iv, pp. 188-221. Oxford, Parker, 1892.
Pachomius: L. TH. LEFORT, Les Fies coptes de S. Pachfime. Universit^ de
Louvain, Bibliotheque du Mus6on, Louvain, 1943.
J. PARGOIRE, 'Les Debuts du Monachisme a Constantinople', Revue des
Questions historiquls, N.S. xxi (1899), pp. 67-143.
ABB MARIN, Les Moines de Constantinople (330898). Paris, Lecoffre,
1897.
C. BUTLER, The Lausiac History of Pattadius (= Texts & Studies, ed. J-
Armitage Robinson, vol. vi, nos. I and 2), 2 vols. Cambridge University
Press, 1898, 1904.
W. K. L. CLARKE, The Ascetic Works of Saint Basil. London, Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1925. (An English translation of the
works.)
3982 Dd

W. K. L. CLARKE, St. Basil the Great. A Study in Monasticism. Cambridge
University Press, 1913.
E. F. MORISON, St. Basil and his Rule. London, Oxford University Press,
1912.
P. HTJMBERTCLAUDE, La Doctrine ascttique de Saint Basile de C/sarSe. Paris,
Beauchesne, 1932.
W. H. MACKEAN, Christian Monasticism in Egypt to the Close of the Fourth
Century. London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920.
P. VAN CAUWENBURGH, Etude sur les Moines d'Egypte depuis le Concile de
Chalctdoine (45i)jus$u 9 a I' Invasion arabe. Paris, Geuthner, 1914.
DOM J.-M. BESSE, Les Moines d 9 Orient ant&rieurs au Concile de Chalcidoine
(451). Paris, Oudin, 1900.
R. GENIER, Vie de Saint Enthyme le Grand (377-473). Les Moines et Ffiglise
en Palestine au F* siede. Paris, Gabalda, 1909.
H. DELEHAYE, Les Saints styhtes (= Societe des Bollandistes, Subsidia Hagio-
graphica, xiv), Brussels, 1923.
H. S. ALIVISATOS, Die kirchliche Gesetzgebung des Kaisers Justinian I (=:
Neue Studien zur Geschichte der Theologie und der Kirche> edd. N.
Bonwetsch and R. Seeberg, Heft 17), Berlin, Trowitzsch, 1913, pp.
98-1 1 2 ; and for the legislation of Leo the Wise Granid in Byzantinische
Zeitschnft, YYXJ (1931), pp. 61-9.
W. NISSEN, Die Regelung des Klosterwesens im Rhomaerreiche bis zum Ende
des 9. Jahrhunderts. Hamburg, Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums, 1897.
K. HOLL, Entkusiasmus und Eussgewalt beim griechischen Monchtum. Leipzig,
Hinrichs, 1898. (A masterly study.)
J. M. HUSSEY, Church and Learning in the Byzantine Empire 867118$,
chs. ix-xi. London, Oxford University Press, 1937.
L. OECONOMOS, La Fie religieuse dans I'Empire byzantin au Temps des Com-
nenes et des Anges, chs. vii-xi. Paris, Leroux, 1918.
ROBERT CURZON, Visits to Monasteries in the Levant (many editions). London,
Murray. (A classic.)
KIRSOPP LAKE, The Early Days of Monasticism on Mount Athos. Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1909.
There are many recent descriptions of monastic life on Mount Athos as, e.g.,
H. GELZER, Vm heiligen Berge und aus Makedonien. Leipzig, Teubner,
1 904 ; F. W. HASLUCK, Athos and its Monasteries. London, Kegan Paul,
1924; R. BYRON, The Station. Athos: Treasures and Men. London,
Duckworth, 1928; F. SPUNDA, Der heilige Berg Athos, Landschaft und
Legende. Leipzig, Insel-Verlag, 1928 (good photographs); R. M.
DAWKINS, The Monks of Athos. London, Allen & Unwin, 1936; R.
BREWSTER, The 6000 Beards of Athos. London, Duckworth, 1939.
For Greek monasticism in Italy: J. GAY, L'ltalie mtridionale et I'Empire
byzantin (867-1671) (= Bibliotheque des Itcoles franfaises d'Athenes et
de Rome, Fasc. 90). Paris, Fontemoing, 1904; D. L. RASCHELLA, Saggio
storico sul Monachismo italo-greco in Calabria. Messina, 1925.
J. VON ZHJSHMAN, Das Stifterrecht (TO KryropiKw Statov) in der morgcn-
landischcn Kirche. Vienna, Holder, 1888.
F. HERMAN, *Ricerche sulle istituzioni mouastiche bizantine. Typika kteto-

nka, caristicari e monasteri "liberi" \ Orientalia Christiana periodica 9
vi (1940), pp. 293-375.
H. DELEHAYE, Deux Typica byzantins de I'Epoque des Prologues. Brussels,
Hayez, 1921.
W. NISSEN, Die Dtataxis des Michael Attaliates von 1077. I 631 ** x ^94- A
dissertation (philosophische Fakultat) of the University of Jena.
P. S. HILPISCH, Die Doppelkloster. Entstehungund (Organisation (= Beitrage
zur Geschichte des alten Monchtums und des Benediktinerordens, ed. I.
Herwegen, Heft 15). Munster, Aschendorff, 1928.
A. FERRADOU, Les Biens des Monasteres a Byzance. Bordeaux, Cadoret, 1 896.
For original texts on monastic life see Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca>
2nd ed. Brussels, Societe des Bollandistes, 1909.
For Byzantine Mysticism and Hesychasm see the bibliography of Chapter IV.
VI
BYZANTINE ART
In the series Monuments de I 9 Art byzantin, Paris, Leroux, there have been
published:
1. G. MILLET, Le Monastere de Daphni. Histoire, Architecture, Mosaiyues.
1899.
2. G. MILLET and others, Monuments byzantins de Mistra. Mattriaux four
I'tiude de I 9 architecture et de la peinture en Grece aux 14* et if siecles,
1910.
3. J. EBERSOLT and A. THIERS, Les figlises de Constantinople. 1913.
4. CH. DIEHL and others, Les Monuments chrttiens de Salomûe. 1918.
5. G. MILLET, Monuments de FAthos* I. Les Peintures. 1927.
(These magnificent publications can be seen in the Library of the British
Museum.)
General works
For the background:
O. Beyer, Die Katakombenwelt. Tubingen, Mohr, 1927,
M. ROSTOVTZEFF, Dura-Europos and its Art. Oxford, Clarendon Press,
I938-
J. H. BREASTED, Oriental Forerunners of Byzantine Painting. University of
Chicago Press, 1924. (On Dura.)
CH. DIEHL, Manuel d 9 Art &yzantin> ^ vols., 2nd ed. Paris, Picard, 1925,
1926. (The best general treatment of the subject.)
C. R. MOREY, Early Christian Art. An outline of the evolution of style and
iconography in sculpture and painting from antiquity to the eighth century.
Princeton University Press, 1942.
M. LAURENT, L'Art chrttien primitif, vol. ii, chaps, xii-xvi. Paris, Vromant,
1911.
CH. DIEHL, JJArt chrltien primitif et I 9 Art byzantin. Paris and Brussels,
Van Oest, 1928.

O. M. DALTON, Byzantine Art and Archaeology. Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1911.
Id., East Christian Art. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1925.
Id., Catalogue of Early Christian Antiquities and Objects from the Christian
East. British Museum, 1901.
A Guide to the Early Christian and Byzantine Antiquities in the Department of
British and Mediaeval Antiquities, 2nd ed. British Museum, 1921 (i 5
pktes, 105 illustrations).
ERNST KITZINGER, Early Medieval Art in the British Museum. British
Museum, 1940.
100 Masterpieces. Early Christian and Mediaeval. Victoria and Albert
Museum, 1930.
The Victoria and Albert Museum has published A Picture Book of Byzantine
Art. (6d.)
D. TALBOT RICE, Byzantine Art. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1935.
H. PEIRCE and R. TYLER, Byzantine Art. London, Benn, 1926. The French
edition is fully illustrated: UArt byzantin. Paris, Librairie de France,
1934 (2 vols., 208 pis.).
L. BRHIER, UArt chrttien: son developpement iconographique. Paris, Laurens,
1918, chaps, iii-vi.
Id., UArt byzantin. Paris, Laurens, 1924.
UArt byzantin (in the series La Grammaire des Styles). Paris, Ducher, 1930.
A. GRABAR, UArt byzantin. Paris, Les Editions d'Art et d'Histoire, 1938.
P. VOLBACH, GEORGES SALLES, and GEORGES DUTHUIT, Art Byzantin, Cent
planches. Paris, Editions Albert L6vy, no date. (Exposes techniques
by G. Duthuit, pp. 9-29.)
GEORGES DUTHUIT, Byzance et I' Art du XIP siecle. Paris, Librairie Stock,
1926.
O. WULFF, Die altchristliche Kunst (to the middle of the first millennium).
Berlin-Neubabelsberg, Athenaion, 1913. (A bibliographisch-kritischer
Nachtrag was published in 1939.)
O. WULFF and W. F. VOLBACH, Die altchristlichen und mittelalterlichen
byzantinischen und italienischen BUdwerke. 3rd vol., Erganzungsband
of Staatliche Museen: Beschreibung der Bildwerke der christlichen
Epochen, 3rd ed. Berlin, De Gruyter, 1923.
H. GLUCK, Die christliche Kunst des Ostens. Berlin, Bruno Cassirer, 1923.
M. HAUTTMANN, Die Kunst des fruhen Mittelalters. Berlin, Propylken-
Verlag, 1929.
CH. BAYET, Recherches pour servir a I'histoire de la Peinture et de la Sculpture
chr/tiennes en Orient avant la Querelle des Iconoclastes (= Bibliotheque

des ficoles franfaises a" Athene* et de Rome, Fasc. 10). Paris, Thorin.
1879.
Constantinople
A. VAN MILLINGEN, Byzantine Constantinople. The Walls of the City and
adjoining Historical Sites. London, Murray, 1899.
A. VAN MILLINGEN and others, Byzantine Churches in Constantinople 9 their
History and Architecture. London, Macmillan, 1912.

W. GOBLE and A. VAN MILLINGEN, Constantinople. London, Bkck, 1906.
E. DIEZ and H. GLUCK, Alt-Konstantinopel. Munich, Roland- Verkg, 1920.
W. R. LETHABY and H. SWAINSON, The Church of Sancta Sophia. A Study of
Byzantine Building. London, Macmillan, 1894.
E. H. SWIFT, Hagia Sophia. New York, Columbia University Press, 1940.
M. C. CHARLES, *Hagia Sophia and the Great Imperial Mosques', The Art
Bulletin, xii (1930), pp. 321-46.
THOMAS WHITTEMORE, The Mosaics of St. Sophia at Istanbul. Three Pre-
liminary Reports on (i) the Mosaics of the Narthex, (11) the Mosaics of
the Southern Vestibule, (iii) the Imperial Portraits of the South Gallery.
Oxford University Press for the Byzantine Institute, 1933, 1936, 1942
(Supplementary sheet of corrections to iii) ; and id., 'On the Dating of
some Mosaics in Hagia Sophia', Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York, N.S., v (1946), pp. 34-45 (illustrated).
G. BRETT, 'The Mosaic of the Great Palace in Constantinople', Journal of
the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, v (1942), pp. 3443.
W. S. GEORGE and others, The Church of Saint Eirene at Constantinople.
London, Oxford University Press (for The Byzantine Research and
Publication Fund), no date (preface dated Nov. 1912).
M. AGA-OGLU, 'The Fatih Mosque at Constantinople', The Art Bulletin, xii
(I93)> PP- 179-95-
ALEXANDER RUDELL, Die Kahrie-Dschamisi in Konstantinopel. Ein Kleinod
byzantinischer Kunst, mit 10 Farben- und 21 Lichtdruck-Tafeln.
Konigliche Technische Hochschule zu Berlin. Berlin, Wasmuth, 1908.
(The reproductions are specially of value for Byzantine ornament. There
is a copy in the Victoria and Albert Museum Library.) And see TH.
SCHMIT (Russian form), SCHMITT (French form): the album published
at Munich in 1906, a magnificent series of pktes: copy in the Victoria
and Albert Museum Library.
MICHAEL ALPATOV, 'Die Fresken der Kachrije Djami in Konstantinopel',
Munchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst, N.F. vi (1929), pp. 345-64.
(With photographs.)
For photographs and reconstructions of the Land Walls of Constantinople:
FRITZ KRISCHEN, Die Landmauer von Konstantinopel. Berlin, De
Gruyter, 1938 (45 pktes, 5 figures).
Mosaics (see under Constantinople)
A.BiANCHET,Z*Mw*fftf*. Paris, Payot, 1928.
M. VAN BERCHEM and E. CLOUZOT, Mosaiques chrltiennes du IV** au X***
sticle. Geneva, 1924.
OTTO DEMUS, Die Mosaiken von San Marco in Fenedig 1100-1300. Baden
bei Wien, Rohrer, 1935 (50 reproductions).
E. DIEZ and O. DEMUS, Byzantine Mosaics in Greece. Hosios Lucas & Daphni.
Harvard University Press, 1931 (reproductions in colour).
Reale Istituto di Archeologia e Storia delV Arte: Monumenti: Tavolt storiche
dei Mosaici di Ravenna. Testo di C. Ricci. Atlas of pktes. 1930-7 (in
Victoria and Albert Museum Library). Plates I-LXXV.
C. R. MOREY, The Mosaics of Antioch, New York, Longmans, 1938.
Architecture
J. A. HAMILTON, Byzantine Architecture and Decoration. London, Batsford,
J. W. CROWFOOT, Early Churches in Palestine (= Schweich Lectures,

1937). London, Oxford University Press, 1941 (fourth to seventh
centuries).
H. W. BEYER, Der syriscke Kirchenbau (= Btudien zur spa'tantiken Kunst-
geschichte, no. i, edd. R. Delbruck and H. Lietzmann). Berlin, De
Gruyter, 1925.
SIR W. M. RAMSAY and GERTRUDE L. BELL, The Thousand and One Churches.
London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1909.
E. HiBRARD and J. ZEILLER, Sfalato. Le Palais de Dioctttien. Paris, Massin,
1912. (A fine album of restorations of the palace.)
F. BULIC, Kaiser Diokletians Palast in Split. Zagreb, 1929.
ADOLF STRUCK, Mistra. Eine mittelalterliche Ruinenstadt. Vienna and Leip-
zig, Hartieben, 1910 (with reproductions of photographs).
R. WEIR SCHULTZ and S. H. BARNSLEY, The Monastery of Saint Luke ofStiris,
in Phocis. London, Macmilkn, 1901. (Cf. Ch. Diehl, Etudes byzan-
tines, Paris, Picard, 1905, pp. 370-91 on the mosaics.)
OSKAR WULFF, Die Koitnesiskirche in Nicaa und ihre Mosaiken nebst den ver-
wandten kirchhchen Baudenkmalern. Eine Untersuchung zur Geschichte
der byzantinischen Kunst im i. Jahrtausend. Strassburg, Heitz,
1903.
THEODOR SCHMIT, Die Koimests-Ktrche von Nikata. Das Bautoerk und die
Mosaiken. Berlin, De Gruyter, 1927 (35 pis.).
Ed. R. WEIR SCHULTZ, The Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. London,
Batsford (for the Byzantine Research Fund), 1910.
H. T. F. DUCKWORTH, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre. London, Hodder
& Stoughton, [1922]. (The history of the church.)
BRUNO MOLAJOLI, La Basilica Eufrasiana dt Parenzo 9 2da edizione. Padova,
Le Tre Venezie, 1943 (finely illustrated).
Painting
J. EBERSOLT, La Miniature byzantine. Paris and Brussels, Vanoest, 1926.
H. GERSTINGER, Die griechische Buchmaleret. Vienna, Oesterreichische
Staatsdruckerei, 1926. Vol. i, Text; vol. ii, Pktes.
KURT WEITZMANN, Die fyzantinische Buchmalerei des IX. und X. Jahr-
hunderts. Berlin, Mann, 1935 (Archaologisches Institut des deutschen
Reiches: Abteilung Istanbul).
H. OMONT, Miniatures ties plus anciens Manuscrits grecs de la Bibliothique
Nationale du FI e au XIF* siecles. Paris, Champion, 1929. 2nd ed.,
vol. i, Text; vol. ii, Pktes.
C. R. MOREY, 'Notes on East Christian Miniatures', The Art Bulletin, xi
(1929), pp. 5-103 (i 19 figs.).
H. GERSTINGER, Die Wiener Genesis. Vienna, Filser, [1931]. Vol. i, Text;
vol. ii, Pktes.

HUGO BUCHTHAL, The Miniatures of the Paris Psalter. A Study in Middle
Byzantine Painting (= Studies of the Warburg Institute, ed. F. SaxI,
no. 3). London, The Warburg Institute, 1938.
G. DE JERPHANION, Une nouvelle province de I'art byzannn. Les figlises
rupestres de Cappadoce. Paris, Geuthner, 2 vols., each in two parts;
3 Albums, 1925-42.
D. TALBOT RICE and others, The Icons of Cyprus. London, Allen & Unwin s
1937-
G. MILLET and D. TALBOT RICE, Byzantine Painting at TrebizonJ. London,
Allen & Unwin, 1936.
Portrait Sculpture and Minor Arts
For sculpture see H. P. L'ORANGE and A. VON GERKAN, Der spatantike
Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogens (= Studien zur spatantiken Kunst-
geschichte, No. 10, edd. H. Lietzmann and G. Rodenwaldt), text volume
and a magnificent album of plates. Berlin, De Gruyter, 1939; and in
the same series of Studies R. DELBRUCK, Antike Porphyrwerke, No. 6,
Berlin, 1932; id., Spatantike Kaiserportrats von Constantinus Magnus
bis zum Ende des Westreichs, No. 8. Berlin, 1933; id., Die Consular-
diptychen und verwandte Denkmaler, No. 2. Berlin, 1929. (With an
album of reproductions.)
J. EBERSOLT, Sanctuaires de Byzance. Recherches sur les anciens Tre'sors des
tglises de Constantinople. Paris, Leroux, 1921.
Id., Les Arts somptuaires de Byzance. Etude sur I 3 Art imperial de Constanti-
nople. Paris, Leroux, 1923.
L. BRHIER, La Sculpture et les Arts Mineurs byzantins (in the Histoire de
I 9 Art byzantin, ed. Ch. Diehl). Paris, Les Editions d'Art et d'Histoire,
1936.
Ivories
W, F. VOLBACH, Mittelalterliche Elfenbeinarbeiten (in the series Orbis
P ictus). Berlin, Wasmuth, no date.
R. GOLDSCHMIDT and KURT WEITZMANN, Die tyzantinischen Elfenbein-
skutpturendesX.-XIII.JaArhunderts. 2vok Berlin, B. Cassirer, vol. i,
Kasten, 1930; vol. ii, Rdiefs, 1934. On the revolutionary dating in this
magnificent book cf. A. S. Keck and C. R. Morey, Art Bulletin, xvii
(i935)> PP- 397-406.
O. M. DALTON, Catalogue of the Ivory Carvings of the Christian Era. British
Museum, 1909.
Decoration
A. GRABAR, La Decoration byzantine. Paris and Brussels, Van Oest, 1928.
OTTO VON FALKE, Decorative Silks, 3rd ed. London, Zwemmer, 1936 (5
coloured plates, 537 reproductions).
G. MILLET, Broderies religieuses de style byzantin (= Bibliotheque de Fficole
des Hautes Etudes, Sciences religieuses, vol. Iv), Fasc. i, Album (40
pktes). Paris, Leroux, 1939.
For the motifs of Byzantine illuminated ornament: M. A. FRANTZ, The Art
Bulletin, xvi (1934), pp. 43-76 (25 pktes).

Silverwork
L. MATZULEWITSCH, Byzantinische Antike. Studien auf Grund der SUber-
gefasse der Ermitage (= Archaologische Mitteilungen aus russischen
Sammlungen, vol. ii). Berlin, De Gruyter, 1929 (50 plates, 51 figures).
Pottery
D. TALBOT RICE, Byzantine Glazed Pottery. Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1930.
C. H. MORGAN, Corinth, vol. xi, The Byzantine Pottery, American School of
Classical Studies in Athens, Harvard University Press, 1942 (53 pktes).
Jewellery, &c.
W. DENNISON and C. R. MOREY, Studies in East Christian and Roman Art,
part 2. New York, Macmillan, 1918.
For the radiation of Byzantine Art (and see bibliography to Chapter XIV):
J. EBERSOLT, Orient et Occident. Recherches sur les influences byzantines et
orientales en France avant les croisades. Paris and Brussels, Van Oest,
1928; vol. ii for the period 'pendant les croisades', ibid., 1929 (full
bibliographies).
CH. DIEHL, UArt byzantin dans fltahe mtridionale. Paris, Librairie de
1'Art, 1894.
& BERTAUX, UArt dans FItalie MMdionale, tome i: De la Fin de I 9 Empire
Romain a la Conqutte de Charles d'Anjou. Paris, Fontemoing, 1904.
W. R. ZALOZIECKY, Die Sophienkirche in Konstantinopel und ihre Stellung
in der Geschichte der abendlandischen Archltektur (= Studt di antichita
cristiana, No. 12). Citta del Vaticano, Pontificio Istituto di archeologia
cristiana, 1936.
Id., Syzanz undAbendland im Spiegel ihrer Kunsterscheinungen. Salzburg-
Leipzig, Pustet, 1936.
P. SCHWEINFURTH, Die byzantiniscke Form: ihr Wesen und ihre Wirkung.
Berlin, Florian Kupferberg Verkg, 1943 (126 pktes, 180 figures).
S. DER NERSESSIAN, Armenia and the Byzantine Empire. A Brief Study of
Armenian Art and Civilization. Harvard University Press (London,
Oxford University Press), 1945.
In the series Orient et Byzance, ed. G. Millet, there have been published
(Geuthner, Paris):
(i) A. GRABAR, La Pcinture religieuse en Bulgarie. Text vol. and
Album, 1928.
(iv) UArt byzantin chez les Slaves. Les Balkans, ^ vols., 1930.
(v) UArt iyzantin chez les Slaves. Uancienne Russie, Les Slaves
catkoliques. 2 vols., 1932.
M. J. PUPIN, South Slav Monuments: (i) Serbian Orthodox Church. London,
Murray, 1918.
G.MiujLT 9 UAncienArtserbe. Les figlises. Paris, Boccard, 1919.
B. FILOW, Early Bulgarian Art. Berne, Haupt, 1919.

B. FILOW, Geschichte der altbulgarischen Kunst (down to the Turkish con-
quest). Berlin and Leipzig, De Gruyter, 1932. (More fully illustrated.)
Id., UAncien Art Bulgare. Paris, Alcan, 1922.
Addenda.
C. Stewart, Byzantine Legacy. Allen & Unwin, 1947.
The Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors. London, Oxford University
Press, 1947 (58 plates, 6 plans).
VII
BYZANTINE EDUCATION
JOHN W. H. WALDEN, The Universities of Ancient Greece. London, Routledge,
Louis BRHIER, 'Notes sur 1'histoire de 1'enseignement superieur a Con-

stantinople', Byzantion, iii (1927), pp. 73-94; 'L'enseignement supe-
rieur a Constantinople dans la dermere moitie du XI e siecle', Revue
Internationale del'Enseignement, xxxviii (i 899), pp. 97-1 1 2 ; 'L'enseigne-
ment classique et Tenseignement religieux a Byzance', Revue d'Histoire
et de philosophic religteuse de la Facultt protestante de /' Universite 1 de
Strasbourg, 1941, pp. 34-69.
FRIEDRICH FUCHS, Die hoheren Schulen von Kontfantinopel im Mittelalter
(= Byzantinisches Archiv, ed. August Heisenberg, Heft 8). Leipzig,
Teubner, 1926.
GEORGINA BUCKLER, Anna Comnena, pp. 165-221. London, Oxford
University Press, 1929.
J. M. HUSSEY, Church and Learning in the Byzantine Empire 867-1185,
pp. 22-116. London, Oxford University Press, 1937.
For special studies of the East Roman schools of learning:
Antioch: ALBERT HARRENT, Les fcolcs d'Antioche. Essai sur le Savoir et
PEnseignement en Orient au IV* siecle. Paris, Fontemoing, 1898.
Athens: on the University of Athens in the fourth and fifth centuries,
FRITZ SCHEMMEL, Neue Jahrbiicher fur das klassische Aliertum, xxii
(1908), pp. 494-5 13.
Berytus: id., Philologische Wochenschnft for 10 March 1923, cols. 236-
40; PAUL COLLINET, Eistoire de FEcole de Droit de Beyrouth. Paris,
Rdcueil Sirey, 1925.
Constantinople: in the fourth century, FRITZ SCHEMMEL, Neue Jahrbucher
fur das klassische Altertum> xxii (1908), pp. 1477-68 ; id., Dte Hochschule
von Konstantinopel vom V. bis IX. Jahrhundert (= Wissenschafdiche
Beikge zu dem Jahresbericht des Konigl. Wilhelms-Gymnasiums in
Berlin). Berlin, 1912; from the ninth to the eleventh century: id.,
Philologische Wochenschrift for 29 Dec. 1923, cols. 1178-81 ; from the
twelfth to the fifteenth century: id., ibid., 21 Feb. 1925, cols. 236-9;
and for the eleventh century cf. CHR. ZERVOS, Un philosophe nfaplatoni-
cien du XI e siecle, Michel Psellos\ sa vie, son auvre, ses luttes philoso-
phiques, son influence. Paris, Leroux, 1920.
4io BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX

For Salonica, O. TAFRALI, Thessaknique au quatorzieme Siecle* Paris,
Geuthner, 1913.
For the University of Constantinople as a training ground for service in the
administration of the State see A. ANDREADES, *Le Recrutement des
fonctionnaires et les Universites dans 1'empire byzantin', Melanges de
droit remain dtdifs a Georges Cornil, Paris, 1926, pp. 17-40.
For the use of the Latin and Greek languages cf. L. HAHN, Rom undRomanis-
mus im griechisch-romischen Qsten. Leipzig, Dieterich, 1906 (for the
early Empire) ; id., 'Zum Sprachenkampf im romischen Reich. Bis auf
die Zeit Justinians. Eine Skizze*, Philologus Supplementband X, Heft 4,
I97> pp- 675-718; H. ZILLIACUS, 7,um Kampf der Weltsprachen im
ostromischen Reich^ Helsingfors, 1935 [on this cf. F. Dolger, Byzan-
tinische Zeitschrift, xxxvi (1936), pp. 108-17]; for Latin words in the
popular speech of the Byzantine Empire as evidenced by the biographies
of the Saints see ZILLIACUS, Byzanttmsche Zeitschrift, xxxvii (1937),
pp. 302-44, xxxviii (1938), pp. 333-5-
For the strength of Hellenism in Asia Minor see KARL DIETERICH, Hellenism
in Asia Minor. New York, Oxford University Press, 1918.
For references to the original texts of biographies of Saints see Eibliotkeca
Hagiographica graeca, ed. 2, Brussels, 1909. For the Law School of Berytus
in the fifth century our best source is the Syriac Life of Severus written by
Zacharias the Scholastic; of this there is a French translation by M.-A.
KUGENER in Patrologia Qrientalis, vol. ii, fasc. i, Paris, 1903; an earlier
French translation was published by Nau in the Revue de FQrient chrttien, iv
(1899), pp. 343-53.* 544-7^ v (1900), pp. 74-98, 293-302. The only
account of the teaching of arithmetic in an elementary school would seem to
be given by Mesarites: of this there is a German translation in AUGUST
HEISENBERG, GrabesMrchc und Apostelkirche, Teil 2, p. 21. Leipzig, Hin-
richs, 1908.
VIII
BYZANTINE LITERATURE
There does not appear to be any history of Byzantine literature in English.
The essential work is KARL KRTJMBACHER, Geschichte der byzantinischen
Litteratur (527-1453), 2nd ed., Munich, Beck, 1897 (in the Handbuch
der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, ed. Iwan von Muller, vol. ix,
first part).
There is a short Italian work: G. MONTELATICI, Storia della Letteratura
bizantina (324-1453). Milan, Hoepli, 1916.
For the patristic period of Byzantine literature see AIM PUECH, Histoire de
la Literature grecque chrltienne^ vol. iii. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1930,
and OTTO BARDENHEWER, Geschichte der altkirchlichen Literatur, vols.
iii-v. Freiburg im Breisgau, Herder, 1912-32.
And for reference to recent work: BERTHOLD ALTANER, Patro/ogie. Freiburg
im Breisgau, Herder, 1938.
F. A. WRIGHT, A History of Later Greek Literature (down to A.D. 565).
London, Routledge, 1932.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 4x1

M. GUIGNET, Saint Grtgoire de Nazianze et la Rhttorique. Paris, Picard,
1911.
M. PEIXEGRINO, La Poesia di S. Gregono Nazianzeno. Milano, Vita e
Pensiero, 1932.
F. M. PADELFORD, Essays on the Study and Use of Poetry by Plutarch and
Basil the Great (= Yale Studies in English, no. 15). New York., Holt,
1902. (Contains an English translation of Basil's Address to Young Men
on the Right Use of Greek Literature.)
A. VENIERO, Paolo Silenziario* Studi sulla Letteratura bizantina del Fl*
secolo. Catania, Battiato, 1916.
For a translation of Paul the Silentiary's poem cf. W. R. LETHABY and HAROLD
SWAINSON, The Church of Sancta Sophia Constantinople, London, Mac-
millan, 1894, pp. 35-65.
J. B. BURY, A History of the later Roman Empire, London, Macmillan, 1889,
vol. i, pp. 310-30; vol. ii, pp. 175-94; PP- 254-7; PP- 5 l8 ~34- (These
sections are not reproduced in the edition of 1923.)
HEINRICH GELZER, 'Ein griechischer Volkschriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts',
Ausgewahlte kleine Schriften (Leipzig, Teubner, 1907), pp. 1-56. (On
Leontios who wrote the Life of St. John the Almsgiver, Patriarch of
Alexandria.)
MARY H. ALLIES, St. John Damascene on Holy Images, London, Baker, 1898
(an English translation), and cf. H. MENGES, Die Ellderlehre des hL
Johannes von Damaskus. Munster, AschendorfF, 1938.
On Theodore the Studi te monk see:
ALICE GARDNER, Theodore of Studium. London, Arnold, 1905.
L'ABBE MARIN, Saint Theodore (759826), in the series "Les Saints'.
2 me ed., Paris, Lecoffre, 1906.
For Anna Comnena see:
ELIZABETH A. S. DAWES, The Alexiad of the Princess Anna Comnena.
London, Kegan Paul, 1928. (An English translation of the Alexiad.)
BERNARD LEIB, Anne Comnene, Alexiade (Greek text and French transla-
tion). 3 vols. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1937, 1943, 1945.
GEORGINA BUCKLER, Anna Comnena: A Study. London, Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1929.
NAOMI MITCHISON, Anna Comnena, London, Howe, 1928.
WILLIAM MILLER, 'A Byzantine Blue Stocking: Anna Comnena' in Essays
on the Latin Orient, pp. 533-50. Cambridge University Press, 1921.
History
The works of Procopius have appeared in a complete English translation by
H. B. Dewing (together with the Greek text) in the Loeb Classical
Library, 7 vols. London, Heinemann.
For Psellus's history of his own time: J. B. BURY, Selected Essays, ed.
H. Temperley, pp. 126-214. Cambridge University Press, 1930.
fimile Renaud has given a French translation of the history (with the
Greek text) in Psellos, Chronographie. ^ vols. Paris, Les Belles Lettres,
1926, 1928.

CARL NEUMANN, Griechische Geschichtsckreiber und Geschichtsquellen im
zwolften Jahrkundert. Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, 1888.
WILLIAM MILLER, 'The Historians Doukas and Phrantzes', Journal of
Hellenic Studies, xlvi (1926), pp. 63-71.
Id., 'The Last Athenian Historian: Laonikos Chalkokondyles', Journal of
Hellenic Studies, xlii (1922), pp. 36-49.
R. GUILLAND, Essai sur Nictphore Grlgoras. Paris, Geuthner, 1926.
H. F. TOZER, 'Byzantine Satire', Journal of Hellenic Studies, ii (1881),
pp. 233-70.
J. W. McCniNDLE, The Christian Topography of Cosmas (= The Hakluyt
Society, vol. 98). London, 1897.
Poetry and Drama
For Syriac influences on Byzantine hymnography see E. WELLESZ, Journal of
Theological Studies, xliv (1943), pp. 41-51, and see his book Eastern
Elements in Western Chant (= Monumenta Musicae Byzantinae,
American Series, vol. i). Byzantine Institute, Boston, 1947. It is ex-
pected that his book A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography will
be published by the Ckrendon Press, Oxford.
There is an Italian translation of some of the hymns of Romanus in CAM-
MELLI, Romano il Me lode. Inni. Florence, 1930; and for works on
Romanus see the bibliography in E. MIONI, Romano il Melode. Torino,
Paravia, 1937-
GUSTAV SOYTER, Byzantiniscke Dichtung (fourth to fifteenth century, Greek
texts with German verse translations) (= Texte und Forschungen zur
byzantinisch-neugriechischen Philologie, ed. N. A. Bees, no. 28).
Athens, 1938.
W. R. PATON, The Greek Anthology, in the Loeb Classical Library. 5 vols.,
London, Heinemann, 1916-18. (A complete English translation of the
Anthology together with the Greek text.)
J. W. MACKAIL, Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology (new and revised
edition). London, Longmans, 1906.
F. A. WRIGHT, The Poets of the Greek Anthology (in the series Broadway
Translations). London, Routledge, no date.
Id., The Girdle of Aphrodite. The Complete Love-Poems of the Palatine
Anthology (in the series Broadway Translations). London, Routledge,
no date.
ARTHUR S. WAY, Greek Anthology, Books VVII. London, Macmilkn, 1939.
A. VOGT, 'fitudes sur le Th&tre byzantin. Un Mystere de k Passion',
Byzantion, vi (1931), pp. 37-74-
S. BAUD-BOVY, 'Sur un "Sacrifice d'Abraham" de Romanes et sur Texistence
d'un Th&tre religieux a Byzance*, ibid., xiii (1938), pp. 321-34. (Cf.
Hubert Pernot, Etudes de Literature grecque modeme 9 Paris, Maison-
neuve, 1916, pp. 231-70.)
G. LA PIANA, Le Rappresentazioni sacre nella letteratura bixantina dalle
origini al sec. IX con rapporti al teatro sacro d'Occidente. Grottaferrata,
1912.
Id., 'The Byzantine Theater', Speculum, xi (1936), pp. 171-211 in which

there is a discussion of Venetia Cottas, Le Th^tre a Byzance. Paris,
Geuthner, 1931.
MARJORIE CARPENTER, 'Romanos and the Mystery Pky of the East*, Univer-
sity of Missouri Studies (Philological Studies in honour of W. Miller),
xi (1936), pp. 21-51; and for the origins of the Western hturgical
drama MARIA SOFIA DE VITO, L 9 origins del Dramma hturgico. Milan,
Albrighi Segati & C., 1938.
For the Byzantine theatre see:
A. MULLER, 'Das Buhnenwesen in der Zeit von Constantin d. Gr. bis
Justinian', Neue J ahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum, xxiii (1909),
pp. 36-55-
A. VOGT, 'Le Th&tre a Byzance et dans 1'Empire du IV e au XIII e sifccle:
Le theatre profane*, Revue des Questions historiques, cxv (1931), pp.
257-96.
Id., Byzantion, vi (1931), pp. 623-40.
On Belthandros and Chrysantza, and Li bistros and Rhodamne: CHARLES
DIEHL, Figures byzantines, 2 me se*r., pp. 320-53, Paris, Colin, 1908.
and on Libistros and Rhodamne: D. C. HESSELIKG, Uit Byzantium en
Hellas* pp. 5 1-8 1 . Haarlem, Willink & Zoon, 1911.
For Digenes Akritas:
SALVATORE IMPELLIZERI, // Digenis Akritas. L'Epopea di Bisanzio.
Florence, Sansoni, 1940. This contains an Italian translation of the text
of the MS. of Grottaferrata.
C. SATHAS and E. LEGRAND, Les Exploits de Digtnis Acritas. Paris, 1875.
This contains a French translation of the Trebizond version of the
epic.
A. RAMBAUD, *Une pope*e byzantine au X e sicle*, in the Revue des deux
mondes. Paris, 1875; reprinted in his Etudes sur I'histoire Byzantine*
pp. 63108. Paris, Colin, 1912.
CHARLES DIEHL, 'Le Roman de Digdnis Akritis', Figures byzantines, 2 me se*r.,
pp. 291-319. Paris, Colin, 1908.
J. B. BURY, Romances of Chivalry on Greek Soil. Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1911.
H. PERNOT, Etudes de Litttrature grecque moderne, pp. 1-70. Paris, Maison-
neuve, 1916.
The epic and the ballads associated with it have been studied in many
articles published since 1929 by Professor Gr^goire and scholars who have
followed his initiative. A summary of the earlier results which, it was ckimed,
had been established by these studies is given by Grlgoire and R. Goossens
in 'Les Recherches rcentes sur I'ljipope'e byzantine', UAntiquite* classique
(Louvain), i (1932), pp. 419-39; ii (1933% PP- 449-7^5 and c f- the follow-
ing papers by Gr^goire: *L'pope*e byzantine et ses rapports avec l'pope*e
turque et 1'^popee romane', Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences
morales etpolitiques de rAcadtmie royale de Be/gifue, 5 e s&., tome 17 (1931
),
pp. 463-93; 'L'Age h&roique de Byzance', Melanges ojferts a M. Nicolas
lorga, pp. 382-97. Paris, Gamber, 1933; 'Etudes sur l'pop& byzantine',
4H BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX
Revue des fitudes grecquesj xlvi (1933), pp. 29-69; and the reviews of these
and other articles by R. Goossens in Byzantion, vol. ix (1934). In addi-
tion it may suffice to cite the following articles which have appeared in
Byzantion (where furtaer references can be found): xi (1936), pp. 571-5;
on the Skv version of the epic, x (1935), pp. 301-39; XL (1936), pp. 320-4;
xiii (1938), pp. 249-51 ; Nouvelles chansons dpiyues ties IX e et X e siecles, x
iv
(1939), pp. 235-63; illustrations of the epic, xv (1940-1), pp. 87-103;
historical elements in the epics of East and West, xvi (1942-3), pp. 527-44.
X
THE EMPEROR AND THE IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATION
(See also the bibliography on Chapters I, II, III.)
J. B. BURY, The Constitution of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1910; reprinted in Selected Essays ofj. B. Bury, pp. 99-125.
Cambridge University Press, 1930.
E. STEIN, Studien zur Geschichte des byzantinischen Retches. Stuttgart,
Metzler, 1919.
O. KARLOWA, Rdmische Rechtsgeschichte, vol. i. Leipzig, von Veit, 1885.
F. DOLGER, 'Rom in der Gedankenwelt der Byzantiner', Ztitschrift fur
Ktrchengeschtckte, Ivi (1937), pp. 1-42.
N. H. BAYNES, 'Eusebius and the Christian Empire', Annuaire de FInstitut de
Philologie et d'Histoire Orientates, ii (1933-4), pp. 13-18. Brussels,
1933-
W. ENSSLIN, 'Das Gottesgnadentum des autokratischen Kaisertums. der
fruhbyzantinischen Zeit*, Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici, v (1939),
pp. 154-66.
Id., 'Gottkaiser und Kaiser von Gottes Gnaden', Sitzungsberichte der Bay-
ertschen Akademieder Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-kistonscheAbteilung,
Jahrgang 1943, Heft 6.
O. TREITINGER, Die osfromische Kaiser- und Reichsidee im hofischen Zere-
momelL Jena, Biedermann, 1938.
J. STRAUB, Pom Herrscherideal in der Spatantike (= Forschungen zur Kirchen-
und Geistesgeschlchte, edd. E. Seeberg, W. Weber, and R. Holtzmann,
vol. xviii). Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 1939.
A. GRABAR, UEmpereur dans L'Art byzantin. Recherches sur Fart offiriel de
PEmpire d'Onent. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1936.
L. BREHIER and P. BATIFFOL, Les Survivances du culte imperial romain. Paris,
Picard, 1920.
W. SICKEL, 'Das byzantinische Kronungsrecht bis zum 10. Jahrhundert',
Byzantinische Zeitschrift, vii (1898), pp. 511-57.
F. E. BRIGHTMAN, 'Byzantine Imperial Coronations', Journal of Theological
Studies, ii (1901), pp. 359-92.
Cf. A. E. R. BOAK, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, xxr (1919),
pp. 37-47; P. CHARANIS, Byzantion, xv (1940-1), pp. 49-66.
K. VOIGT, Staat und Kirche von Konstantin dem Grossen bis zum Ende der
Karolingerzeit, i Teil, chs. i-iv. Stuttgart^ Kohlhammer, 1936.

H. GELZER, *Das Verhaltnis von Staat und Kirche in Byzanz', Ausgewahlte
kleine Schriften y pp. 57-141. Leipzig, Teubner, 1907.
A. GASQUET, L'Autontt imftnale en mattere rehgieuse a Byzance. Pans,
Thorin, 1879.
J. EBERSOLT, Melanges d'Htstoire et d* Archfohgie Byzantines (extract from
the Revue de FHistoire des Religions, vol. Ixxvi). Paris, Leroux, 1917.
J. B. BURY, The Imperial Administrative System in the Ninth Century (= The
British Academy, Supplementary Papers, i). London, Oxford University
Press, 1911.
A text, and a translation by A. VOGT (together with a commentary) of the De
Ceremoniis of Constantine VII is in course of publication in the Bud6
Collection byzantine, vol. i (in two parts), 1935, vol. ii (in two parts),
1939, 1940. Paris, Les Belles Lettres.
A. E. R. BOAK, The Roman Magistri in the Civil and Military Service of the
Empire', Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, xxvi (1915), pp. 73-
164.
Id., The Master of the Offices in the Later Roman and Byzantine Empires (=
University of Michigan Studies. Humanistic Series 9 vol. xiv). New
York, Macmillan, 1919.
J. E. DUNLAP, The Office of the Grand Chamberlain in the Later Roman and
Byzantine Empires (= University of Michigan Studies. Humanistic
Series, vol. xiv). New York, Macmillan, 1924.
CH. DIEHL, *Un haut fonctionnaire byzantin: le Logoth&te% in Melanges
offerts a M. Nicolas lorga, Paris, Gamber, 1933, pp. 217-27 [and see
Byzantinische Zeitschrift 9 xxxiv (1934), pp. 373-9]-
R. GUILLAND, 'Les Eunuques dans 1'Empire Byzantin', tudes Byzantines, i
(1943) published by the Institut francais d'fitudes byzantmes de
Bucarest pp. 197-238; ii (1944), pp. 185-225; iii (1945% PP- T 79-
214.
G. ROUILLARD, L' Administration civile de I'Egypte fyzantine, 2 e e*d. Paris,
Geuthner, 1928.
For the Byzantine army see:
R. GROSSE, Romische Militargeschichte von Qalhenus bis zum Beginn der
byzantinischen Themenverfassung. Berlin, Weidmann, 1920.
W. ENSSLIN, *Zum Heermeisteramt des spatromischen Reiches', Klio, xyiii
(1929), pp. 306-25 ; xxiv (1930), pp. 102-47, 467-502.
J. MASPERO, Organisation mihtaire de Ffigypte byzantine. Paris, Champion,
1912.
F. AUSSARESSES, UArmte byzantine & la fin du VI* sttcle. Paris, Fonte-
moing, 1909.
On the Themes see:
H. GELZER, 'Die Genesis der byzantinischen Themenverfassung*, Abhand-
lungen der KgL Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, PhiloL-hist.
Klasse 9 xviii, no. 5. Leipzig, 1899.
CHARLES DIEHL, 'L'origine du regime des th&mes dans 1'empire byzandn',
Etudes byzantines 9 pp. 276-92. Paris, Picard, 1905.
ERNST STEIN, Studien (see above), pp. 1 17-40.

There is a map of the Byzantine themes in the ninth century in E. W.
Brooks's paper: Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxi (1901), pp. 67-77.
C. W. C OMAN, The History of the Art of War. The Middle Ages. London,
Methuen, 1898.
For diplomatic usage see:
G. OSTROGORSKT, 'Die byzantmische Staatenhierarchie*, Seminarium
Kondakovianum* viii (1936), pp. 4161.
XI
BYZANTIUM AND ISLAM
M. CANARD, 'Les Expeditions des Arabes centre Constantinople dans 1'His-
toire et dans la Legende', Journal asiatiquc, ccviii (1926), pp. 61-121.
GAUDEFROT-DEMOMBYNES and PLATONOV, Le Monde musulman et byzantin
jusqu'aux Croisades (= Histoire du Monde 9 ed. M. E. Cavaignac, vii 1 ).
Paris, Boccard, 1931.
A. A. VASILIEV, Byxance et les Arabes 9 Tome i. La Dynastie d'Amorium
(820-867) (= Corpus Bruxellense Hist. Byzant., vol.i). Brussels, 1935.
XII AND XIII
BYZANTIUM AND THE SLAVS
THE BYZANTINE INHERITANCE IN SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE
W. MILLER, The Balkans (in the series The Story of the Nations). London,
Fisher Unwin, 1896.
L. NIEDERLE, Manuel de I 9 Antiquitl slave, tome i, L* Histoire \ tome ii, La
Civilisation, Paris, Champion, 1923, 1926.
M. SPINKA, A History of Christianity in the Balkans. Illinois, American
Society of Church History, 1933.
From the vast literature on Cyril and Methodius may be cited:
L. K. GOETZ, Geschichte der Slavenapostel Konstantinus (Kyrillus) und
Methodius. Gotha, Perthes, 1897.
F. DVORNIK, Les Slaves, Byzance et Rome an IX* siecle. Paris, Champion,
1926 (with bibliography).
Id., Les Ltgendes de Constantin et de M&hode vues de Byzance. Prag,
4 Orbis', 1933.
For the origin of the Cyrillic and Glagolitic scripts: E. H. MINNS, 'Saint
Cyril really knew Hebrew' in Melanges Paul Boyer, pp. 94-7. Paris,
Champion, 1925.
I do not know of any modern English history of Croatia or Bosnia: I can refer
only to F. VON SiSi6, Geschichte der Kroaten 9 Part I (to A.D. 1102).
Zagreb, Matica Hrvatska, 1917.
IVAN VON BojNici6, Geschichte Bosniens (down to 1463). Leipzig, Friedrich,
1885.
AUGUST NAEGLE, Kirchengeschichte Bohmens, vol. i, part i, Einfuhrung des
Chris tentums in Bdhmen. Vienna & Leipzig, Braumiiller, 1915.
H. W. V. TEMPERLEY, History of Serbia. London, Bell, 1919.
THE BYZANTINE INHERITANCE IN RUSSIA 385

letter dating from the first quarter of the sixteenth century
we read:
'I wish to add a few words on the present orthodox Empire of our
ruler: he is on earth the sole Emperor (Tsar) of the Christians, the
leader of the Apostolic Church which stands no longer in Rome or in
Constantinople, but in the blessed city of Moscow. She alone shines
in the whole world brighter than the sun. . . . All Christian Empires
are fallen and in their stead stands alone the Empire of our ruler in
accordance with the prophetical books. Two Romes have fallen, but
the third stands and a fourth there will not be.'
When Constantinople united with the Latins the 'Woman'
of the twelfth chapter of the Apocalypse fled to the Third
Rome, that is, the 'new Great Russia'. When Heberstein
in the middle of the sixteenth century composed his famous
description of Russia he could write: 'Fatentur publice
voluntatem Principis Dei esse voluntatem et quicquid Prin-
ceps egerit ex voluntate Dei agere.' Men said: *Deus scit et
magnus Princeps/ At the Council of the Hundred Chapters
(Stoglav) held in 1551 it was declared that the orthodoxy of
Moscow was the pattern for the whole of the Eastern Church.
In 1589 the Metropolitan of Moscow received the title of
Patriarch and after long negotiation this was recognized by
the Eastern Patriarchates. In the charter of installation,
when in Moscow the Patriarch of Constantinople, Jeremiah,
elevated the Metropolitan to the Patriarchate of all Russia,
the words of Philotheus were reaffirmed:
'Because the old Rome has collapsed on account of the heresy of
Apollinaris, and because the second Rome which is Constantinople is
now in possession of the godless Turks, thy great kingdom, o pious
Tsar, is the Third Rome. It surpasses in devotion every other, and
all Christian kingdoms are now merged in thy realm. Thou art
the only Christian Sovereign in the world, the Master of all faithful
Christians.' 1
From February 1498 dates the first Russian order of
coronation founded on Byzantine models. At the coronation
of Ivan IV in 1 547 we hear for the first time that the regalia
had been sent to Russia by the Emperor Constantine Mono-
1 This translation is taken from N. Zernov, The Russians and their Church
(S.P.C.K., 1945), p. 71.
392 cc
386 THE BYZANTINE INHERITANCE IN RUSSIA

machus (104254). But this is not enough: the dynasty of
Rurik traces its descent from the brother of Augustus. Thus
did Russia become the heir of Rome and of Byzantium, the
sole defender of the orthodox faith. 'Holy Russia' was born :
Christian Tsar and Christian Church were united in a
common mission. The faith of the Byzantine Caesars, the
confidence that their rule was stayed on God, was planted
securely, as men thought, on Russian soil.
Likewise Russia made its own the Byzantine theory of
imperial authority. The Muscovite Tsar as defender of the
faith summons the Councils of the Church, determines their
composition, propounds the subjects for their discussion,
and gives to their decisions the force of law. 'As God in
Heaven, so is on earth the Tsar', says the Russian proverb.
And then wider horizons opened up: in reunion with the
Greek Church the Tsar could take the lead as defender of
the Eastern Patriarchates, as liberator of the Balkans from
the rule of the Turk. But union with the Greeks carried
with it the revision, on the basis of Greek texts, of the
service books of the Russian Church. The guardian of
orthodoxy 'Holy Russia' was to go to school with those
who had betrayed the faith at the Council of Florence. And
western currents began to flow eastwards: a new spirit of
inquiry and research led to the opening of schools in Moscow ;
the teaching of Greek and Latin grammar, the study of
rhetoric invaded the world of tradition. New naturalistic
icons were painted 'with red lips, curly hair and thick
muscles'. Literature for the Russian had meant in a word
edification (Jagoditsch), and as for the new spirit of inquiry
blowing from the West the traditionalists had their answer:
'Do not seek learning, seek humility.' 'The fishermen of
the Gospels were not learned in books: they had found wis-
dom through the Holy Ghost and thus were given the power
to draw to themselves the whole world.' Profane learning
was the breeding-ground of arrogance: 'learning is the
coming of Anti-christ.'
The new age found its embodiment in Nikon appointed
Patriarch of Russia in 1 652. Nikon, the Russian Cerularius,
who sought to set the Church above the State, began ruth-

lessly to enforce Greek forms Greek chants, Greek vest-
ments, Greek texts upon the Church. After the appalling
devastation of the 'Time of Troubles' the movement which
had begun as a reform, initiated through the preaching of
the parochial clergy, became with Nikon a crusade of violence
against the treasured inheritance of the centuries, 'I am a
Russian', was his confession, 'but my faith is Greek/ In the
sixteenth century the traditional shape of Russian life in
State and Church had been formulated in the Stoglav (at
the Council of the Hundred Chapters) and of life in the
family in the Domostroi, itself framed on a Byzantine model,
and now that statement was challenged, and the issue of that
challenge was the Great Schism. The Schism meant the
destruction of the unity of the Russian civilization of the
Middle Age based upon a Byzantine tradition; in the heroic
grandeur of the resistance of the Old Believers there is
demonstrated how deeply that tradition had taken root.
And it is a singular good fortune that the modern student
can re-live that tragedy in the autobiography of Awakum
(c. 162(3-82) the one great literary masterpiece which has
been bequeathed to us by early Russia.
Without any previous politic explanation of his action
Nikon issued an order which spread dismay through the
Church: instead of making the sign of the Cross with two
fingers it was to be made with three; instead of a double
Alleluia a triple Alleluia was to be sung. Both practices Irad
been pronounced heretical by the Council of the Hundred
Chapters (1551). The faithful met together and took coun-
sel: 'It was as if winter was of a mind to come; our hearts
froze, our limbs shook.' The order aroused widespread
resistance: the body of the 'Old Believers' was formed, and
against them Nikon waged a bitter persecution. 'Wife', asks
Awakum, 'what must I do ? The winter of heresy is at the
door. Am I to speak or to hold my peace ?' Her answer was :
'Christ is strong and He will not abandon us. Get thee gone,
get thee gone to Church, Petrovich. Unmask the whore of
Heresy.' Superficially it may seem an insufficient change
to justify the splitting of a Church in two. But it is easy to
overlook the significance of the physical act in worship : it is
the habitual physical act which awakes the response of the

spirit. Religion is bound up with profound emotions which
are impervious to logic. Russians have often pointed to the
aesthetic character of Russian religion and in such a sphere
a very slight change may effectually break the link of associa-
tion.
'Religious apprehension', Kluchevsky has written, 'is distinguished
from apprehension based upon logic or upon mathematics by the fact
that, in it, an idea or a motive is indissolubly bound up with the form
through which it is expressed. . . . The law of psychological association
causes an idea or a motive to become organically one with the text, the
rite, the form, the rhythm or the sound through which that idea or
that motive is expressed. Forget the picture or the musical com-
bination of sounds which has evoked in you a given frame of mind
and instantly you find yourself powerless to reproduce that mental
attitude/ 1
A translation of the New Testament in modern speech may
be closer to the original text, but for the Christian in this
country it can never have the same value as the familiar words
of the Authorized Version. In his loyalty to the past the
Old Believer was preserving a Byzantine tradition: 'Even
the smallest neglect of the traditions leads to the complete
contempt of dogma/ These words of Photius found their
echo in Russia. The passion which had inspired Byzantine
monks in their defence of the icons animated the Old Be-
lievers during the persecution of Nikon.
'Blessed are those who die for the Lord,' wrote Avvakum, *and even
if they do begin to scourge you or to burn you, all the more glory to
God for that! For this we came out of our mother's womb You will
not be very long burning in the fire just the twinkling of an eye
and the soul is free. Are you afraid of the furnace ? Play the man, spit
at it, do not be afraid ! Fear comes before the fire; but once you are in
it, you forget it all. You catch fire, and here they are Christ and the
hosts of angels with Him, they take your soul out of the body and
carry it to Christ, and He, the good Lord, blesses it and fortifies it with
divine force. It is no longer heavy, but becomes as though winged; it
flies off in company with the angels, it hovers like a bird, glad to be free
from its prison.
*The Nikonites have massacred myriads of people, believing it to be
agreeable to God. And I rejoice that they should have done so; they
1 A History of Russia (London, Dent, 1913), vol. lii, p. 198.

have hallowed the Russian land with Martyrs' blood. . . . Run and
jump into the flames. Here is my body. Devil Take and eat it. My
soul you cannot take.'
The resistance of the faithful no brutality could overcome:
banished to Siberia, their tongues cut out, executed, muti-
lated, burnt alive, they welcomed death in the cause of their
Lord, and even an amputated hand miraculously brought
together its two fingers to make the Sign of the Cross in the
fashion hallowed by the Fathers of the Church. The East
Roman had preferred the triumph of the Turk to the victory
of the papal tiara: similarly Awakum hopes for a second
Titus to destroy the New Jerusalem (Nikon's monastery)
and the heretical city Moscow. 'I trust in God that he will
raise the Turk to avenge the blood of our Martyrs/ To the
Tsar Theodore he writes: 'If you let me have my way, I
would lay them all low in a single day as did Elijah. . . . This
would not have sullied my hands, but sanctified them
We would begin by quartering the dog Nikon and afterwards
all the Nikonites/ With God's prophet Awakum could
claim: 'I have been very jealous for the Lord God of Hosts/
Devotion to the Lord of life and for the Nikonite blasting
scorn : 'All we need to do is to spit on their doings and their
ritual and on their new-fangled books, then all will be well/
And thus in the Cathedral Church, in the presence of the
Tsar, Login, Archpriest of Murom, 'was consumed with
the zeal of God's Fire and he defied Nikon and spat across the
threshold to the altar straight into his eyes, and loosening
his girdle he tore off his shirt and flung it at the altar into
Nikon's face*.
But despite the passionate loyalty of the Old Believers to
the traditional faith Anti-Christ triumphed. Though Nikon
was forced to withdraw from Moscow to a monastery, the
Nikonites carried the day. At the Council of 1666 Nikon
was condemned and imprisoned, but Awakum and the Old
Believers were excommunicated, and at the same Council the
Russian bishops under the influence of the Patriarchs of
Alexandria and Antioch were constrained to disavow the
Council of 1551 which had proclaimed Russian orthodoxy
as the pattern for the Church of the East: 'the Metropolitan
Macarius and those with him had acted and made their

decisions in ignorance and without reason/ The claim of
Russia to be the Third Rome was surrendered, and before
many years had passed Peter the Great would inaugurate
the new age of Westernization.
In course of time the Scandinavian conquerors learned
to speak the tongue of their Slav subjects, and perhaps the
greatest and the most permanent gift of East Rome to Russia
was the Byzantine liturgy in the Slav language. In the west
of Europe during the early centuries of our era there had
been only one universal language, Latin, and that language
the Church naturally adopted in its services; gradually usage
hardened into a theory of the illegitimacy of native languages
for the celebration of the liturgy. The Eastern Church was
more liberal : it had already recognized Armenian and Syriac ;
its missionaries were thus prepared to employ a Slav language
in their work of evangelization. The Slav liturgy was one
of the most important factors in promoting unity within the
national Church of Russia; it was on the ground of liturgical
errors that the Church waged its conflict with the Latins ; it
is the liturgy which to-day is the common possession of the
national Slav Churches. It is true that since there was no
need for the Russian clergy to know either Latin or Greek,
they were cut off from the thought of western Europe: the
theological discussions of Scholasticism have no parallel in
Russia; the Latin language in which those discussions were
conducted acted as an iron curtain. But there is much to be
set on the other side. The Russian Christian seeks the satis-
faction of his religious need not through reason that is
transcended but in the spiritual awareness of the Divine
Presence: 'We do not consider God, we experience Him.'
Religion is Christocentric and at its heart are the Passion and
the Resurrection of the Lord of Life as they are re-lived in
the drama of the liturgy. It is through Byzantine forms of
worship that 'the splendour of eternity breaks into the reality
of to-day and the worshipper is borne aloft into the sphere
of the invisible and the eternal'. It was through attending
East Roman rites that the envoys sent to Constantinople by
Vladimir were persuaded that the true glory rested there and
not with Bulgars or Germans : The Greeks led us', they said,

'to the edifices where they worship their God and we knew
not whether we were in heaven or on earth. For on earth
there is no such splendour or such beauty, and we are at a
loss how to describe it. We only know that God dwells there
among men and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of
other nations. For we cannot forget that beauty/ And
through the centuries the Russian Church has remembered
that beauty.
BARON MEYENDORFF AND NORMAN H. BAYNES
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX
A SELECT bibliography like the present can satisfy no one, not even the com-
piler, but nevertheless it is hoped that this Appendix may prove to be of some
service. Only works in West European languages are included, and those
subjects which are likely to be of special interest to students have been treate
d
most fully. N. H. B.
INTRODUCTION
ARNOLD J. TOYNBEE, A Study of History, especially vol. iv, pp. 320-408. Lon-
don, Oxford University Press, 1939.
A. HEISENBERG, 'Die Grundlagen der byzantinischen Kultur*, Neue Jahr-
bucherfur das klassische Altertum, xxiii (1909), pp. 196-208.
N. H. BAYNES, The Byzantine Empire (in the Home University Library),
revised 1943. London, Oxford University Press.
Id., The Hellenistic Civilization and East Rome (a lecture). Ibid., 1946.
Id., The Thought World of East Rome (a lecture). Ibid., 1947.
I
THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
EDWARD GIBBON, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B. Bury
(new edition). London, Methuen, 1900, 7 vols. (Gibbon's master-
piece is still essential for the history of the Roman Empire until the
seventh century.)
GEORGE FINLAY, A History of Greece, 7 vols. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1877.
(Vols. i-iii cover the Byzantine Empire.) There is a reprint in Every-
man's Library: vol. i, Greece under the Romans \ vol. ii, History of the
Byzantine Empire (down to 1057).
L. BREHIER, Le Monde byzantin. Fie et Mort de Byzance (in the series Utvo-
lution de FHumanite*, ed. Henri Ben). Paris, Michel, 1947.
J. B. BURY, 'Roman Empire, Later", in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, nth ed.,
vol. xxiii, pp. 5 1 0-2 5 . Cambridge University Press, 1911.
The Cambridge Medieval History, vols. i ii and specially vol. iv, The Eastern
Roman Empire (7171453). Cambridge University Press, 1923.
GEORG OSTROGORSKY, Geschichte des byzantinischen Staates. Munich, Beck,
1940.
A. A. VASIUEV, Histoire de r Empire byzantin, 2 vols. Paris, Picard, 1932.
It is understood that the English translation published at Madison (= Univer-
sity of Wisconsin Studies in the Social Sciences and History, nos. 13 & 14,
19289) is now being revised and will be reissued.
C. W. C. OMAN, The Byzantine Empire (in the series The Story of the Nations).
London, Fisher Unwin, 1892.
CH. DIEHL, Histoire del' Empire byzantin* Paris, Picard, 1919.
H. GELZER, 'Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeschichte' in Karl Krum-
bacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur 9 2nd ed. Munich,
Beck, 1897.

CHARLES DIEHL and GEORGES MARÂIS, Le Monde oriental de 595 a 1081 (=
Histoire gfafrale, ed. G. Glotz, Histoire du May en Age, vol. iii). Pans,
Les Presses universitaires de France, 1936; and in the same series vol. ix,
ist part, UEurope orientale de 1081 a 14539 by Charles Diehl, R.
Guilknd, L. Oeconomos, and R. Grousset, ibid., 1945.
ERNST STEIN, Geschichte des spatrdmischen Reiches, vol i. Vienna, Seidel,
1928. (A valuable work of reference.)
ANDRE PIGANIOL, L 9 Empire chrhien 325395 (in G. Glotz, Histoire ge'ne'rale,
Histoire romaine, tome iv, 2^ me partie). Pans, Presses universitaires de
France, 1947.
H. ST. L. B. Moss, The Birth of the Middle Ages, 395-814. Oxford, Claren-
don Press, 1935.
O. SEECK, Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt. 6 vols. with separate
Anhang of notes to each (vol. i, 4th ed., 1921-2; vols. n-v, 2nd ed.,
1921-3; vol. vi, 1920-1). Stuttgart, Metzler.
CHRISTOPHER DAWSON, The Making of Europe. London, Sheed and Ward,
1932.
FREDERIC HARRISON'S Rede Lecture (1900) should be read and his paper on
the Eastern Roman Empire: both are to be found in his Among My Books.
London, Macmilkn, 1912.
J. B. BURY, Selected Essays, ed. Harold Temperley. Cambridge University
Press, 1930.
Id., History of the Later Roman Empire, 2 vols. London, Macmilkn, 1923.
J. W. HOLMES, The Age of Justinian and Theodora. London, Bell, 2 vols.,
1905, 1907.
CHARLES DIEHL, Justinien et la Civilisation byzantine an FP siecle. Paris,
Leroux, 1901.
J. B. BURY, A History of the Eastern Roman Empire (A.D. 802-867). London,
Macmilkn, 1912.
STEVEN RUNCIMAN, The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign. A Study
of Tenth-Century Byzantium. Cambridge University Press, 1929.
GUSTAVE SCHLUMBERGER, Un Empereur byzantin au dixieme siecle. Paris,
Firmin-Didot, 1890. (The kter reprint lacks the valuable illustrations.)
Id., Upope*e byzantine a la fin du dixieme siecle, 3 vols. Paris, Hachette,
1896, 1900, 1905. (A magnificent work.)
Cri. DIEHL, Dans TOrient byzantin. Paris, Boccard, 1917.
Id., C hoses et Gens de Byzance. Paris, Boccard, 1926.
Id., Byzance. Grandeur et Decadence. Paris, Fkmmarion, 1919.
Id., Etudes byzantines. Paris, Picard, 1905.
Id., Theodora Impe'ratrice de Byzance, reprint, no date. Paris, Boccard.
Id., Figures byzantines, 2 vols. Paris, Colin, 1906, 1908.
Id., L'Egypte chrttienne et byzantine (= Gabriel Hanotaux, Histoire de la
Nation 4gyptienne,vQ\.ii\, pp. 401-5 57). Paris, Plon, no date. With this
cf. H. I. Bell, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, iv (1917), pp. 86-106.
Id., UAfrique byzantine. Histoire de la Domination byzantine en Afrique
(533-709). Paris, Leroux, 1896.
Id., Les Grands Problemes de I histoire byzantine. Paris, Colin, 1943.
STEVEN RUNCIMAN, Byzantine Civilisation. London, Arnold, 1933.

N. TURCHI, La Civilta bizantina. Torino, Bocca, 1915.
HEINRICH GELZER, Byzantinische Kulturgeschickte. Tubingen, Mohr, 1909.
N. IORGA, Histoire de la vie fyzantine, 3 vols. Bucharest, 1934.
G. MANOJLOVIC, *Le Peuple de Constantinople' (written in 1904), Byzantion,
xi (1936), pp. 617-716.
A. H. M. JONES, The Greek City from Alexander to Justinian. Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1937.
D. C. HESSELING, Essai sur la Civilisation byzantine. Paris, Picard, 1907.
A. RAMBAUD, tudes surl'histoire byzantine. Paris, Colin, 1912.
K. DIETERICH, Byzantinische Chora kterkopfe. Leipzig, Teubner, 1909.
J. LAURENT, Byzance et les Turcs Seldjoucides dans lAsie occidental jusqu* en
1081 (= Annales de FEst, 28 annee, fasc. 2). Paris, Berger-Levrault,
1919.
CHARLES DIEHL, La Bocittl byzantine a Ftpoque des Comnenes. Paris, Gamber,
1929.
CARL NEUMANN, Die Weltstellung des byzantinischen Reiches vor den Kreuz-
zugen. Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, 1 894. Also in a French transla-
tion: La Situation mondtale de I 9 Empire byzantin avant let Croisadcs.
Paris, Leroux, 1905. (Extrait de k Revue de I' Orient latin, tome x.)
ERNEST BARKER, The Crusades. London, Oxford University Press, 1923.
R. A. NEWHALL, The Crusades. London, Bell, 1930.
R. GROUSSET, Histoire des Croisades et du Royaut? e franc de Jerusalem, 3 vols.
Paris, Plon, 1934, 1935, 1936.
Id., UEpopte des Croisades. Paris, Plon, 1939.
D. C. MUNRO, The Kingdom of the Crusaders. New York, Appleton-Century
Company, 1935.
WILLIAM MILLER, The Latins in the Levant. A History of Prankish Greece.
London, Murray, 1908.
Id., Essays on the Latin Orient. Cambridge University Press, 1921.
W. B. STEVENSON, The Crusaders in the East. Cambridge University Press,
1907.
K. NEUMANN, 'Die byzantinische Marine', Historische Zeitschrift 9 N.F., xlv
(1898), pp. 1-23.
The literature on the history of Venice is very extensive; here it may suffice t
o
cite F. C. HODGSON, The Early History of Venice (to A.D. 1204). London,
Allen, 1 90 1; and CH. DIEHL, Une rfyublique patricienne. Venise. Paris,
Flammarion, 1913.
EDWIN PEARS, The Fall of Constantinople; being the story of the Fourth Crusade.
London, Longmans, 1885.
WALTER NORDEN, Der Fierte Kreuzzug im Rahmen der Beziehungen Jes
Alendlandes zu Byzanz. Berlin, Behr, 1898.
ERNST GERLAND, Geschichte des lateinischen Kaiserreichs von Konstantinopel,
Part I (1204-16). (No more published.) Homburg v. d. Hohe,
1905.
CONRAD CHAPMAN, Michel PalMogue Restaurateur de f Empire byzantin
(1261-1282). Paris, Figuiere, 1926.
ALICE GARDNER, The Lascarids ofNicaea. The Story of an Empire in Exile.
London, Methuen, 1912.

WILLIAM MILLER, Trebizond: the last Greek Empire. London, Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1926.
SIR RENNELL ROOD, The Princes ofAchala and the Chronicles ofMorea, 2 vols.
London, Arnold, 1907.
D. A. ZAKYTHINOS, Le Despotatgrec de More f e. Vol. i: Histoirepolitique. Pans,
Les Belles Lettres, 1932. (No more published.)
E. PEARS, The Destruction of the Greek Empire and the Story of the Capture of
Constantinople by the Turks. London, Longmans, 1903.
G. SCHLUMBERGER, Le Siege, la Prise et le Sac de Constantinople par les Turcs
en 1453- 4th ed., Paris, Plon-Nourrit, 1915.
II AND III
THE ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
PUBLIC FINANCES
For studies in the Skv knguages see the bibliography of G. OSTROGORSKY,
The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. i. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1941, ch. 5 ('Agrarian Conditions in the Byzantine Empire
in the Middle Ages', pp. 194-223, 579-83); and cf. his Geschichte des
byzantinischen Staates. Munich, Beck, 1940.
For the trade of the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages see:
W. HEYD, Histoire du Commerce du Levant au Moyen Age. French trans-
lation: R&mpression, 2 vols. Leipzig, Harrassowitz, 1923.
ADOLF SCHAUBE, Handelsgeschichte der Romanischen Folker des Mittelmcer-
gebiets bis zum Ende der Kreuzzuge. Munich and Berlin, Oldenbourg,
1906.
RUDOLF KOTZSCHKE, Allgemeine Wirtschaftsgtschichte des Mittelalters.
Jena, Fischer, 1924.
For the economic history of the Empire see:
L. BRENTANO, 'Die bysantinische Volkswirtschaft*, Schmollers Jahrbuch,
Jahrgang 41, Heft 2 (1917), pp. 7~5 2 -
G. I. BRXTIANU, Etudes byzantines dhistoire tconomique et social*. Paris,
Geuthner, 1938.
G. OSTROGORSKY, 'Die wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Entwicklungsgrund-
lagen des byzantinischen Reiches', Tierteljahrs chrift fur Sozial- und
Wirtschaftsgeschichte, xxii (1929), pp. 129-43. (With bibliography.)
For the silk industry cf. R. HENNIG, Byzantinischt Zeitschrift, xxxiii
( I 933) PP- 295-312; R. S. LOPEZ, Speculum, xx (1945), pp. 1-42.
(With valuable bibliographical material.)
L. M. HARTMANN, Ein Kapitel vom spdtantiken und fruhmittelalterlichen
Staate. Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 1913.
ERIK GREN, Kleinasien und der Ostbalkan in der wirtschaftlichen Entooick-
lung der rom ischen Kaiserzeit (= Uppsala Universitets Arsskrift, 1941,
No. 9). Uppsak, Lindequist, 1941. (Especially for Constantinople as a
centre both of production and consumption, pp. 156-64.)

K. DIETERICH, *Zur Kulturgeographie und Kulturgeschichte des byzan-
tinischen Balkanhandels*, ByzantinischeZeitschrift, xxxi (193 1), pp. 37-
57, 334-50.
E. STEIN, 'Untersuchungen zur spatbyzantmischen Verfassungs- und
Wirtschaftsgeschichte 5 , Mitteilungen zur osmamschen Gesckichte, ii
(i9 2 3-5)> PP- 1-62.
A. ANDREADES, *L' Empire byzantin et le Commerce international',
Annali della R. Scuola Norm ale Superiors di Pisa. Lettere> Storia e
Filosqfia, serie 2, vol. iv (1935), pp. 13948.
G. MICKWITZ, *Un probleme d'mfluence: Byzance et Teconomie de
TOccident medieval', Annales d'histoire tconomique et soriale, viii (1936),
pp. 21-8. (On emprunts maritime* of the West from the Byzantine
Empire.)
For the Byzantine taxation system:
G. OSTROGORSKY, 'Das Steuersystem im byzantimschen Altertum und
Mittelalter', Byzantiox, vi (1931), pp. 229-40.
JOHN DANSTRUP, 'Indirect Taxation at Byzantium', Classics et Mediae-
valia, viii (1946), pp. 139-67-
L. M. HA.RTMANN, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der byzantmischen
Verwaltung in Itahen (540-750). Leipzig, Hirzel, 1889. (Finanzver-
waltung, pp. 74-i5> 165-75.)
F. DOLGER, 'Das Aerikon', Byzantinische Zeitschnft, xxx (1929-30), pp.
450-7 (for bibliography of studies upon this tax).
For administration and taxation in Egypt see:
S. LE ROT WALLACE, Taxation in Egypt from Augustus to Diocletian (=
Princeton University Studies in Papyrology, no. 2, ed. A. C. Johnson).
Princeton University Press, 1938.
GERMAINE ROUILLARD, L 9 administration civile de !'gypte byzantine, 2nd
ed. Paris, Geuthner, 1928. Cf. Gnomon, vi (1930), pp. 401-20 (a
review by Ernst Stein).
H. I. BELL, The Byzantine Servile State in Egypt', Journal of Egyptian
Archaeology, iv (1917), pp. 86-106.
L. WENGER, Folk und Staat in Agypten am Ausgang der Rbmerherrschaft.
Munich, Bayensche Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1922.
E. R. HARDY, Jun., The Large Estates of Byzantine Egypt (= Studies in
History , Economics, and Public Law. Edited by the Faculty of Political
Science of Columbia University, no. 354). Columbia University Press,
1931.
On Byzantine Finances and a money economy see:
HANS GEISS, Geld- und naturalwirtschaftliche Erscheinungsformen im staat-
lichen Aufbau Itahens wahrend der Gotenzeit (= Fierteljahrschrift fur
Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Beiheft 27). Stuttgart, Kohlhammer,
1931.
A. ANDRiADis, *Les Finances byzantines', Revue des sciences pohtiques, 3 mc
s6ne, 26 annee, 1911, pp. 268-86, 620-30.

Id., 'De la monnaie et de la puissance d'achat des metaux precieux dans
TEmpire byzantin 7 , Byzantwn, i (1924), pp. 75-115.
On the Byzantine budget: E. STEIN, Studien zur Geschichte des byzanti-
nischen Reiches, Stuttgart, Metzler, 1919, pp. 141-60, and Byzantimsche
Zeitschrift, xxiv (1924), pp. 377-87.
G. OSTROGORSKY, 'Lohne und Preise in Byzanz', Byzantinische Zeitschrift,
xxxii (1932), pp. 293-333.
F. DOLGER, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der byzantinischen Finanzverwaltung
besonders des 10. und 11. J ahrhunderts (= Byzantinisches Archiv, ed.
August Heisenberg, Heft 9). Leipzig, Teubner, 1927; and see the
reviews of recent work which Dolger published in Byzantimsche TLeit-
schrtft, xzxvi (1936), pp. 123-61.
Id., *Zum Gebuhrenwesen der Byzantiner', tudes de'diles & la Me'moire
d* Andre* Andrtades, Athens, 1939, pp. 3559-
E. STEIN, 'Vom Altertum im Mitteklter. Zur Geschichte der byzantini-
schen Finanzverwaltung', Vierteljahrschriftfur Sozial- und Wirtschafts-
geschichte, xxi (1928), pp. 158-70.
On the Book of the Prefect see:
JULES NICOLE, Le Livre du Prtfet ou I 9 dtt de FEmpereur Lton le Sage sur
les Corporations de Constantinople. Geneva, H. Georg, 1893 (with a
Latin translation) ; with the same title Nicole published a French trans-
lation in 1894.
There is an English translation by A. E. R. BOAK in the Journal of Economic
and Business History, i (1929), pp. 597-619, and another by E. H.
FRESHFIELD in his book Roman Law in the Later Roman Empire. Byzan-
tine Guilds, professional and commercial. Cambridge, 1938.
A. STOCRXE, Spatromische und byzantinische Zunfte (= Klio, Beiheft 9).
Leipzig, 1911.
P. S. LEICHT, Corporazioni romane e arti medievali, ch. 3. Torino, Einaudi,
1937-
G. MICKWITZ, Die Kartellfunktionen der Zunfte (= Societas Scientiarum
Fennica, Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 8, Fasc. 3), chs. 7 and
8. Helsingfors, 1936.
For a useful bibliography cf. G. OSTROGORSKY, Geschichte des byzantini-
schen Staatcs, Munich, 1940, pp. 177-8 and cf. Byzantinische Zeit-
schrift) Tnnciii (1933), pp. 376-80.
For the problem of landownership, the peasantry, and ti&potentiores see:
F. MARTROYE, 'Les patronages d'agriculteurs et de vici au IV e et au V c
si^cles', Revue historique de droit franfais et Stranger, 4 e s&ie, vii (192
8),
pp. 202-48.
W. ASHBURNER, 'The Farmers Law', Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxx
(1910), pp. 85-95 (with an English translation of the law). Cf. G.
Veraadsky, Byzantion, ii (1926), pp. 169-80.
N. H. BAYNES, The Byzantine Empire, ch. vi, pp. 99-1 1 3 . London, Oxford
University Press, 1925, revised 1943.
G. STADTMULLER, 'Ostromische Bauern- und Wehrpohtik', Neue Jahr-
bucherfiir Jeutsche WissmcAaft, xiii (1937), pp. 421-38.

G. STADTMULLER, *Landesverteidigung und Siedlungspolitik im ostrdmi-
schen Reich', Bull, de I'lnst. archtoL bulgare, ix (1935)? pp- 392-9.
F. DOLGER, 'Die Frage des Grundeigentums in Byzanz', Bulletin of the
International Committee of Historical Sciences, v (1933)* pp- 5"" 1 5-
For the growth of a 'feodalite administrative' in Italy within the exarchate
of the sixth century see C. DIEHL, Etudes sur I 9 administration byzantine
dans fExarchat de Ravenne 568-751 (= Bibliothegue des tcoles fran-
faises d'Atktnes et de Rome, Fasc. 53), pp. 292 ff. Paris, Thorin, 1888.
A. VASILIEV, 'On the Question of Byzantine Feudalism', Byzantion, viii
(1933% PP- 584-604-
G. TESTAUD, Des Rapports des Puissants et des petits Propritiaires ruraux
dans I 'Empire byzantin au X e siecle (These, Faculte de Droit de 1'Uni-
versite 1 de Bordeaux). Bordeaux, 1898.
For the political aim of the Emperors in their legislation against the
'powerful' see ERIK BACH, 'Les Lois agraires byzantines du X e siecle*,
Classica et Mtdiaevalia (Copenhagen), v (1942), pp. 70-91.
A. ANDRADES, 'Floraison et decadence de la petite propriete* dans Tem-
pire byzantin', Melanges Ernest Mahaim, Paris, Recueil Sirey, 1935,
pp. 261-6.
H. MONNIER, 'fitudes de Droit byzantin. I. De YEmjioXri 9 , Nouvelle revue
historique de droit franfais et Stranger, xvi (1892), pp. 12564, 330-52,
497-542* 637-72; xviii (1894), pp. 433-86; xix (1895), pp. 59-103.
II. Meditation sur la institution 'EKATEPQI et le Jus PoenitendL
Paris, Larose, 1900. (On the Tuissants'.)
On the continuance of the epibole at least until the twelfth century see
FRANZ DOLGER in Studt in memoria di Aldo Albertoni, vol. ii, pp. i-i i.
Padova, Cedam, 1937.
M. G. PLATON, Observations sur le droit de IIPQTIMHZIE en Droit
byzantin. Paris, Fontemoing, 1906.
G. OSTROGORSKY, 'Die kndfiche Steuergemeinde des byzantinischen
Reiches im X. Jahrhundert*, Vierteljahrschrift fur Soxial- und Win-
schaftsgeschichte, xx (1927), pp. 1-108.
E. STEIN, 'Paysannerie et grands domaines dans 1'Empire byzantin*,
Recueil de la SocUttJean Bodtn, Brussels, 1937, pp. 123-33.
R. GAIGNEROT, Des Btntfices militaires dans r Empire romain et sptcialement
en Orient et au X* w siecle. Bordeaux, Cadoret, 1898.
A. FERRADOU, Les Biens des Monasteres a Byzance. Bordeaux, Cadoret, 1896.
N. A. CONSTANTINESCU, 'Rcforme sociale ou R^forme fiscale? Une
hypothese pour expliquer k disparition du servage de k glebe dans
1'empire byzantin*, Acad^mie Roumaine, Bucharest, Bulletin de la
Section histonque, xi (1924), pp. 94-109.
Id., 6 La Communaut^ de vilkge byzantine et ses Rapports avec le petit
"Traite fiscal byzantin" ', ibid, xiii (1927), pp. 160-74.
For the position of the Jews in the Empire see:
JOSHUA STARR, The Jews in the Byzantine Empire 641-1204 (= Texte und
Forschungen zur byxantinisch-neugriechtscken Philolo&e, ed. N. A. Bees,
No. 30). Athens, 1939.

A. ANDREADES, 'The Jews in the Byzantine Empire', Economic History, iii
(1934), pp. 1-23. (Supplement to the Economic Journal!)
P. BROWE, 'Die Judengesetzgebung Justinians', Analecta Gregoriana
(Rome), vin (i935) PP- IQ9-4 6 -
F. DOLGER, 'Die Frage der Judensteuer in Byzanz', Vierteljahrschnft fur
Social- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, xxvi (1933), pp. 1-24.
IV
THE BYZANTINE CHURCH
L. DUCHESNE, Histoire ancienne de l'glise. Pans, Fontemoing, 19068,
3 vols. Several editions. The English translation is from the 4th ed.:
Early History of the Christian Church* vol. i (1909), vol. ii (1912),
vol. iii (1924). London, Murray.
Id., Ufiglise au Pf** siecle. Paris, Fontemoing, 1925.
Id., fighses s/par/es. 2 me ed., Pans, Fontemoing, 1905.
H. VON SCHUBERT, Geschichte der christhchen Kirche im Fruhmittelalter (pub-
lished in two parts). Tubingen, Mohr, 1917, 1921.
F. HEILER, Urkirche und Ostkirche. Munich, Reinhardt, 1937. (With full
bibliographies.)
J. PARGOIRE, L'fghse byzantine de 527 a 847. Paris, Lecoffre, 1905.
L. BREVIER, UEghse et VOnent au Moyen Age. Les Croisades. 2 me ed.,
Paris, Lecoffre, 1907.
J. M. HUSSET, Church and Learning in the Byzantine Empire 5671155.
London, Oxford University Press, 1937.
HEINRICH GELZER, 'Das Verhaltnis von Staat und Kirche in Byzanz', Aus-
gewahlte kleine Schnften. Leipzig, Teubner, 1907, pp. 57-141.
In the Histoire de I'figlise edited by A. Fliche and V. Martin, Paris, Bloud
& Gay: vol. iii (1936) by J. R. PALANQTJE, G. BARDY, and P. DE
LABRIOLLE covers the period De la Paix constantinienne a la Mort de
Thtodose\ vol. iv (1937) by P. DE LABRIOLLE, G. BARDY, G. DE PLINVAL,
and L. BRHIER the period De la Mort de Thlodose a I 'flection di Grt-
goire le Grand\ vol. v by L. BREHIER and R. Ai GRAIN (1938) is entitled
Grtgoire le Grand, les ttats barbares et la conque'te arabe 590-757; vol. vi
by E. AMANN (1937) covers U/pogue carolingienne\ vol. vii by E. AMANN
and A. DUMAS (1942) entitled L'Eglise aupouvoir des laiques (88810 57)
treats of the eleventh-century schism between the East and the West.
A. FORTESCUE, The Orthodox Eastern Church, 3rd ed. London, Catholic
Truth Society, 1911.
W. F. ADENEY, The Greek and Eastern Churches. Edinburgh, Ckrk, 1908.
H. F. TOZER, The Church and the Eastern Empire. London, Longmans, 1888.
SIR W. M. RAMSAY, Luke the Physician, ch. iv. London, Hodder & Stoughton,
1908.
MARY HAMILTON, Incubation or the Cure of Disease in Pagan Temples and
Christian Churches. St. Andrews, Henderson, 1906.
STEFAN ZANKOV, The Eastern Orthodox Church. London, Student Christian
Movement Press, 2nd ed., 1930.
4oo BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX

SERGIUS BULGAKOV, The Orthodox Church London, The Centenary Press,
1935-
A. E. BURN, The Council of Nicaea. London, Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, 1925.
A. D'ALES, Le Dogme de Nice's. Pans, Beauchesne, 1926.
Id., Le Dogme d'fiphese. Ibid., 1931.
R. V. SELLERS, Two Ancient Chnstologies. London, Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, 1940. (On the schools of Alexandria and
Antioch.)
W. A. WIGRAM, The Separation of the Monophysites. London, Faith Press,
1923.
G. OSTROGORSKY, 'Les Debuts de la Querelle des Images' in Melanges Charles
Diekl, i, pp. 235-55. Paris, Leroux, 1930.
E. J. MARTIN, A History of the Iconoclastic Controversy. London, Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge (no date).
L. BREHIER, La Querelle des Images. Pans, Bloud, 1904.
KARL SCHWARZLOSE, Der Bilderstreit. Gotha, Perthes, 1 890.
ERICH CASPAR, Geschichte des Papsttums, vol. li, Das Papsttum unter byzan-
tmlscher Heirs chaft. Tubingen, Mohr, 1933. (Fifth to eighth century.)
M. JUGIE, Le Schisme byzantin. Paris, Lethifiieux, 1941.
F. DVORNIK, 'Le second Schisme de Photios. Une mystification histonque',
Byzantion, viii (1933)* PP- 425~74-
W. NORDEN, Das Papsttum undByzanz (down to 1453). Berlin, Behr, 1903.
F. X. SEPPELT, Das Papsttum undByzanz (= Kirchengesc hichtliche Abhand-
lungen, ed. M. Sdralek, vol. ii). Bresku, Aderholz, 1904.
L. BREHIER, Lf Schisme oriental du XI* siecle. Paris, Leroux, 1899.
JEAN DANIELOU, Platonisme et Thtologic mystique. Essai sur la doctrine
spirituelle de Saint Grlgoire de Nysse. Paris, Aubier, 1944.
IftENEE HAUSHERR, Fie de SymJon le nouveau Thtologien (= Qrientalia
Christiana xii, no. 45, 1928). Rome, Pont. Institutum Orientalium
Studiorum.
Symeon derneue Tkeologe> Lichtvom Licht, Hellerau, Hegner, 1930. (Trans-
lation of Symeon's Hymns by Kilian Kirchhoff.)
N. ARSENIEV, Mysticism and the Eastern Church. London, Student Christian
Movement, 1926.
V. LOSSKY, Essai sur la Tktologie mystique de l'ghse d' Orient. Paris, Aubier,
1944.
Orthodox Spirituality by A Monk of the Eastern Church. London, Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1945.
M. JUGIE, 'Les origines de k methode d'oraison des Hesychastes', Echos
d'Orient, xxx (1931), pp. 179-85.
L HAUSHERR, La mtthode d'oraison htsychaste. (Orientaha Christiana ix,
Part 2, 1927 [cf. ibid, xx (1930), pp. 179-182].)
M. JUGIE, Talamas*, Dictionnaire de Thtohgie catholique, ed. A, Vacant, &c.,
xi (1931), cok 1735-76.

Id., Talamite (Controverse)*, ibid., cols. 1777-1818.
Id., Theologia dogmatica Christianorum Orientalium^ vol. ii, Paris, 1932, pp.
47-183; and cf. tchos d'Onent, xxx (1931), pp. 396-421.
XIV
THE BYZANTINE INHERITANCE IN RUSSIA
THE Byzantine inheritance in Russia to that title objection
might with some reason be taken, for the heir comes into his
inheritance only after the death of his ancestor, and it is true
that East Rome had evangelized Russia centuries before
Constantinople fell into the hands of the Muslim. But the
phrase may perhaps be justified, since it is also true that it
was only after 1453 that Holy Russia became fully conscious
that she and she alone could claim as of right the inheritance
which the Second Rome had been powerless to defend.
To estimate the range and the intensity of Byzantine
influence upon pre-Mongolian Russia one must always bear
in mind the historical background. It is now generally
recognized that the creation of the Kievan State was the work
not of the Slavs but of the predatory Northmen who raided
far and wide round the coasts of Europe in the early Middle
Ages. The Scandinavian advance was at the first directed
towards the south by way of the Volga and it is the Russians
of this eastern route who are known to the Arabic geogra-
phers. Their statements have been supported by the
evidence of archaeology: post-Sassanid ornaments and Arab
coins dating from the ninth century have been found in
Sweden and Arab coins (A.D. 745900) in north Russia.
But it is with the later western Scandinavian advance that
the future lay. Here the Swedes first established themselves
in the neighbourhood of Novgorod under the half-legendary
figure of Rurik. After a repulse he withdrew to his own
country only to be recalled by the disunited tribesmen.
Such is the account given in the saga which is preserved in
the Russian Primary Chronicle. From Novgorod the North-
men made their way southward down the Dnieper under the
leadership of Askold and Deir until they reached Kiev
which they captured from the Slavs. The invaders found in
their path Slav cities: they were not city-founders but
organizers, warrior-merchants entering into possession
where others had already builded. It was from Kiev that
3982 - U

Askold and Deir following the course of the Dnieper reached
the Black Sea and in A.D. 860 delivered the first Russian
attack upon Constantinople at a time when the Emperor was
campaigning against the Arabs in Asia and the Byzantine
fleet was operating in the Western Mediterranean. Photius,
the Patriarch of Constantinople, had inspired the successful
defence of the capital and when the attack had been repulsed
it was ecclesiastical statesmanship which presented to him
a vision of a new world to conquer: not only should the
Christian message be carried to the Slavs and Bulgars of the
Balkans, here was yet another mission-field for the Christian
Church. A bishop was consecrated and later Photius could
proudly report the progress of the work of conversion. After
the fall of Photius his successor Ignatius appointed an arch-
bishop for the Russian Church, while the Emperor Basil I
sent an embassy which concluded a treaty of peace between
the Russians and the Empire.
It was, however, a false dawn. From Novgorod by way of
Smolensk there came a new invasion of pagan Northmen,
and when Askold and Deir had been treacherously slain
Oleg, as guardian of Rurik's young son Igor, ruled in Kiev,
and by his successes over the Slav tribes of the south was the
real founder of the Russian State. Kiev, said the victorious
Oleg, was to be 'the mother of the Russian cities'. The
economic and political centre of Russia shifts from the north
to the south from Lake Ilmen to the banks of the Dnieper.
The overlordship of the Great Prince of Kiev was recognized,
though other Scandinavian princes or Slav tribal chiefs
might retain a wide independence. Trade with the Empire
was extended and was regulated by a succession of treaties
(907, 911, 945, 971) the text of which is preserved only in
the Russian Primary Chronicle.
'It has never been satisfactorily determined whether the copies
preserved in the Chronicle represent Old -Russian texts of the treaties
made when they were negotiated or whether they are translations
afterwards prepared from Greek originals which subsequently came
to light in Kiev itself. It is not likely that the Russian princes of the
tenth century, who were by no means superior to Scandinavian free-
booters elsewhere on the Continent, attached any giave significance to
these scraps of paper, and the fact that there is but one Greek allusion

to them would indicate that to the Byzantine authorities they were
more a gesture than a contract' (S. H. Cross).
Their importance lies in the fact that they permit to Russian
merchants during the summer months free access to the
capital, while we know that Russians early served as sailors
in the Byzantine navy. Thus constant contact was main-
tained with the Christian civilization of the Empire; Igor's
attack upon Constantinople in 941 did but lead after the
defeat of the Russian navy to a renewal of the former treaty
with Byzantium,
When Igor had been murdered leaving as his successor a
young son Svyatoslav, the government was undertaken by
Igor's widow Olga, of whose subtlety and diplomatic skill the
Primary Chronicle gives a lengthy account. While Svyatoslav
followed the warrior pagan tradition of the Northmen and
engaged in one campaign after another, Olga turned to
Christianity: she was received by the Emperor in Con-
stantinople (A.D. 957) and on baptism assumed the Empress's
name of Helen. Her son refused to follow her example: his
men, he said, 'would laugh him to scorn'.
After Oleg's capture of Kiev we have no further report of
any direct missionary activity on the part of the Greek
Church, yet Christianity must have gained a foothold in
Russia. Southern Slavs would have come in contact with
Christians in the imperial outpost of Cherson in the Crimefi;
we know that there was already a Christian church in Kiev,
while in the treaty of 944 the Christian Russians are dis-
tinguished from the pagan Northmen. In 969 Olga, the
first Christian Russian princess, died and in 972 Svyatoslav
fell in battle with the Petchenegs; while his bastard son
Vladimir governed Novgorod, the territory of the Great
Prince of Kiev was divided between Svyatoslav's two sons.
When civil war had broken out between the brothers and one
had been killed, Vladimir, fearing an attack from the survivor,
Yaropolk, fled to Scandinavia and there gathered a strong
force of Northmen. As in the days of Rurik, from Novgorod
the Scandinavians advanced against Kiev. Vladimir removed
Yaropolk by treachery and re-established the unity of
government with Kiev for his capital. And it was Vladimir
who accepted Christian baptism and made Christianity the

religion of the Russian State. The date and the circumstances
of this conversion are disputed. It is strange that there is no
mention of Vladimir's baptism in the Greek sources. It
would seem, however, that we may accept the account of the
Russian Primary Chronicle and date the conversion to A,D.
989. According to that account, when the Emperor was
hard pressed by the revolt of Bardas Phocas he appealed to
Vladimir for military aid. The Russian saw in this appeal
an opportunity to rid himself of some of his dissatisfied
followers and agreed to send support, but his price was high:
he was to be given in marriage a Byzantine princess. The
Emperor on his side must have stipulated that Vladimir
should accept baptism. But when Vladimir's Northmen had
won a victory for the Emperor over his rival, East Rome was
unwilling to fulfil the terms of the contract. To force the
Emperor to send the princess Anna to Russia Vladimir
attacked and captured the imperial city of Cherson. Thereby
he carried his point: at Cherson he was baptized and
married. At his baptism he assumed the Emperor's name,
Basil, as Olga at her baptism had taken the Empress's name
of Helen. Vladimir returned to Russia and began the
destruction of idols and the imposition upon his subjects of
his new faith. Such is the historical framework of delayed
conversion within which the introduction into Russia of
Byzantine influence must be placed.
Since Christianity was brought to Russia from East Rome
the Russian Church followed from the first the Byzantine
model. Already within the Empire orthodox dogma had
attained to its full expression: the Iconoclast attack upon the
tradition of the Eastern Church had been repulsed. That
system of dogma was transported in its entirety to Russia
and was never questioned. There are no controversies
concerning the fundamental issues of the faith within the
Russian Church, and to the Russian liturgical forms were
part of the same deposit which was hallowed by the authority
of the Fathers. The strands of the inherited faith and the
liturgical tradition were interwoven and each element in that
interweaving was sacrosanct.
The Russia to which Christianity came was a primitive and
barbarous land: all culture necessarily emanated from the

Church and in this field there was no rival to contest the
ecclesiastical supremacy. Greek architects planned and
Greek workmen built the early Russian churches. The
decoration of the churches naturally followed the pattern set
by Constantinople: through mosaics and icons the Greek
view of the ascent by way of the saints and the angelic
hierarchy up to the majesty of Christ as Pantokrator Lord
of All was faithfully reproduced. In time Russia would
introduce her own architectural developments such as the
characteristic 'onion dome', but however deeply the Greek
might later be suspected as a renegade from the faith of the
Fathers, the Russian converts did but cling the more
tenaciously to the creed which Greek thinkers had formu-
lated in the Seven Oecumenical Councils.
Yet from the outset from the conversion of Vladimir,
'the new Constantine' it was clear that the Christian
Church on Russian soil was a very different thing from the
Church within the Roman Empire. The Christian faith
had penetrated East Roman society from below before it had
been adopted as his personal belief by the first Christian
Emperor. The Church had developed through centuries of
conflict and had in the course of that development secured
the passionate loyalty of the Byzantine people: it had become
an integral part of a long-established social organization. In
Russia Christianity was not thus securely founded in history :
it had no such deep roots. It was an alien religion set against
a pagan world; it had been imposed from above upon Slav
and Northman alike. There was no wealth of native tradition
to which it could appeal for support. The Christian clergy
was therefore, of necessity, bound in close alliance with the
Great Princes of Kiev. The Church needed the tithe which
the Prince of Kiev granted to it from the revenues of the
State : it was the Prince who founded monasteries and built
churches ; the State placed its powers of compulsion at the
service of the bishops who sought to suppress paganism and
to turn the 'double faith' of the converts half-pagan and
half-Christian into a complete allegiance to the ethical
demands of the new religion. And since the higher clergy
represented culture, the State for its part needed the advice
of bishops and monks, needed their intermediation in the

ceaseless princely feuds, needed a bishop's consecration
when the Prince at his accession 'was set upon his throne' or
an episcopal blessing when the ruler started upon a campaign.
It was through the Church that provision was made for the
poor, the sick, the widow, and the orphan, while it was in
monasteries that the Councils of the princes assembled. It
was thus imperative that the Russian State and the Russian
Church should be closely integrated in mutual defence and
co-operation.
What, in the period immediately following on Vladimir's
conversion, the relation of the Russian Church to the
Patriarchate of Constantinople may have been we do not
know; some have suggested that the Russian Church was
independent: while it may from the first have had, as it
undoubtedly had in the eleventh century, a single Metro-
politan appointed by and under the authority of the Patriarch.
Thus the Patriarch could summon the Metropolitan to the
Byzantine capital for trial and could entertain appeals from
the judgement of the Metropolitan; he might write advocat-
ing the adoption of the monastery of the common life rather
than the system of separate cells for monks, but in general, so
far as records show, he did not interfere in the administration
of the Russian Church. Of the Metropolitans themselves
during the pre-Mongolian period our sources tell us little.
We know that the princes, when they had chosen a diocesan
bishop, sent him for consecration to the Metropolitan, and
while it is regarded as needing no comment in a chronicle
that a prince should remove his bishop there is apparently no
record of the deposition of a Metropolitan by a Great Prince
of Kiev.
Thus through the appointment by the Patriarch of the
Metropolitan Byzantine influence in the Church of Russia
was continually reinforced ; for in the pre-Mongolian period
(down to 1237), apart from two exceptional cases, the
Metropolitan was always a Greek. Since there was only
one Metropolitan for the whole of Russia representing the
Church in Kiev by the side of the Great Prince, since all
claims to appoint a second Metropolitan in the north (as, for
example, in Rostov-Suzdal in the twelfth century) were
rejected by the Patriarch of Constantinople, the Church acted

as a unifying influence in a world of warring princes, while
the Metropolitan, being a Greek coining to Russia from the
Empire, was committed to neither of contending Russian
parties and could thus with impartiality attempt to perform
the task of peacemaker, could seek to persuade princes to
abide by their oaths which had been solemnized by 'kissing
the Cross'.
It would be easy, but it would be false, to idealize the
relation between State and Church in early Russia: that
relation, it has been said, was rather one of might than of
right. If he were strong the Russian prince could and did
ignore priestly admonitions; he would imprison outspoken
bishops : the formal respect shown to monks and clergy was
compatible with actual disobedience which set at nought
the threat of excommunication. The Church might, and did,
proclaim to the princes that they held their power from God
and that this fact imposed upon them the duty of punishing
evil-doers, of ruling with mercy and judging with justice,
that breach of faith would bring upon them vengeance in
this world and perpetual damnation after death, but perjury,
it appears, was so general that an archbishop forbade the
taking of an oath by the kiss upon the Cross on account of
the spiritual danger of broken pledges. In the civil wars
monasteries and churches were laid waste or burned down
without scruple. One Metropolitan, at least, weary of his
failures to control the feuds of the princes, retired dis-
heartened to Constantinople.
The literature of early Russia came of necessity from the
Church as the only source of culture. It was naturally a
religious and monastic literature. It was fed by Slav transla-
tions of Byzantine works and its original compositions were
moulded on Byzantine models. Of 240 Russian writers who
are known to have lived before the close of the sixteenth
century no less than 190 were monks, 20 belonged to the
secular clergy, and only 30 were laymen. Such in literature
is the debt of Russia to the Church. Byzantine influence can
be traced in the Russian Primary Chronicle, formerly known
as the Chronicle of Nestor, which is our principal source for
the history of pre-Mongolian Russia. Scandinavian sagas

may have been drawn upon in the early parts of the Chronicle,
but its author, a monk from the Kievan monastery of the
Caves, probably derived from East Rome the whole concep-
tion of writing a continuous history of the Russians, while
the annalistic form of his work would have been suggested
by Slav translations of Byzantine chronicles the Brief
Chronografhy of Nicephorus, the Patriarch of Constantinople
(died A.D. 828), and the Chronicle of Georgius Hamartolus
(George the Monk). The author of the Primary Chronicle
twice quotes by name Georgius Hamartolus, and his debts
to this Chronicle have been tabulated by the late Professor
S. H. Cross of Harvard University. These borrowings
extend from A.D. 858 to A.D. 943, while it is to the same
source that the Chronicle owes its account of the original
apportionment of the earth, of the tower of Babel and
the long description of the customs of the alien peoples.
Among other debts of the Chronicle to Greek sources may
be mentioned the lengthy creed taught to Vladimir I ; this
is translated from a Greek text of the ninth century
written by Michael Syncellus, the friend of St. Theodore of
the monastery of Studius in Constantinople.
Russia's devotion to Byzantine ascetic and anchoritic
ideals is reflected in its hagiography; the monumental
collection of Lives of the Saints compiled by Macarius in the
sixteenth century fills 27,057 folio pages of script. Anyone
who is conversant with the Greek biographies of saints feels
that he is on familiar ground when he reads the Life of a
Russian Saint such as that of St. Sergius of Radonezh.
Indeed one may wonder whether accounts given in such a
Life which have customarily been treated as resting upon
fact have not been simply incorporated from Greek hagio-
graphy. The story of the early difficulties of St. Sergius in
learning to read is suspiciously like the similar difficulties
experienced by St. Theodore of Edessa. It would be
interesting to study such a Life as that of St. Sergius in the
light of Greek hagiographic texts : the forms of exorcism, the
miracles granted during the celebration of the Eucharist and
the injunction to maintain secrecy concerning such miracles
during the lifetime of the saint, the protection of the poor
and the orphan, the punishment for doubts of the saint's

holiness, the warning given to the saint of his coming death,
the reception of the saint's soul by angels. Such a comparison
would illustrate in detail how faithfully the Russians followed
their Greek models.
In the sphere of law the influence of the Byzantine Empire
through the Russian Church was paramount. In eccle-
siastical law the Kormchaia was based upon a Byzantine
Nomokanon, 1 i.e. a digest of canon law and of imperial
constitutions affecting the Church, together with the
Church ordinances of Vladimir and Yaroslav. The civil law
of Russia the Russkaya Pravda consists of a brief state-
ment of customary law supplemented by the legislation of
the Russian princes and is modelled on the short Byzantine
systematic summaries of law of the eleventh and twelfth
centuries such as the Procheiros Nomos the 'handy' law-
book. In Kievan Russia delinquencies which were sins but
not crimes were in all cases subject only to the jurisdiction
of the Church. Those classes of the population which fell
under the description of 'church people' were exempted
completely from intervention by the courts of the State. The
term 'church people' as defined in detail by Vladimir has a
much wider range of application than might have been
expected: it embraces not only priests and deacons and the
members of their families, abbots, monks, and nuns, but also
(amongst others) pilgrims, doctors, freedmen, vagrants, the
blind, the lame, and inmates of hospitals and hostels. For
all these 'church people' even in criminal cases the Church
courts alone are competent, and since the Russkaya Pravda
has been preserved together with the Kormchaia it has been
contended by Kluchevsky that the texts of the Russkaya
Pravda as they have come down to us represent a compilation
drawn up by the clergy for application in the courts of the
Church. This might serve to explain the absence from our
texts of the Russkaya Pravda of any mention of such
practices as the judicial duel of which churchmen disap-
proved. But so far as we know the Church did not attempt
any widespread remodelling of Russian customary law. Not
1 It has been suggested that the grant of a tithe by the State to the Church is
evidence of Western influence.

otherwise in the fourth century of our era had the Christian
Church of the Roman Empire accepted the law of the pagan
State while developing for its own use through its canons
an independent body of ecclesiastical legislation. Indeed,
ecclesiastical legislation in Russia was forced to modify the
rigour of Byzantine Church law: thus pagan practices and
the resort to astrologers were so deeply rooted in the social
life of Kievan Russia that it was impracticable to enforce the
death penalty demanded by imperial legislations. A Greek
Metropolitan in the eleventh century might lay stress upon
the observance of rules laid down by the Greek Fathers
'Cleave unto the law of God, not unto the custom of the
land' but a Russian bishop of Novgorod was more liberal
in his interpretation of canon law, and a rising sentiment of
Russian nationalism as a protest against Byzantine domi-
nance may perhaps be traced in his boast that there was no
need for him to send money 'to another land', i.e. to the
Patriarch of Constantinople. The Church is on the way to
become the Church of the Russian people.
Probably the most potent channel of Byzantine influence
in Russia was Monasticism. One of the earliest of monastic
foundations was the Monastery of the Caves in the neigh-
bourhood of Kiev (1051). Here St. Theodosius (died 1074)
worked, introducing the rule of St. Theodore the Studite and
modelling the ascetic life on the more moderate Palestinian
practice rather than on the extreme forms of Syrian mortifi-
cation. It was only in his youth that St. Theodosius wore
chains. 'He created the model of Russian monastic piety/
In Russia as in the Empire it is the monk, who need not be a
priest, who awakes popular devotion: the monastery comes
to be regarded as the half-way house between earth and
Heaven the 'House of the Angels'. It is from the monks
that a father confessor is chosen ; it is to the monastery that
the destitute turn for relief. And from the monasteries the
diocesan bishops are drawn: they carry with them the
monastic scale of values and naturally desire to create new
monasteries in or near the capital of their province. In early
Russia most monasteries are placed in the neighbourhood of
the towns : the monastic colonization of the north belongs to a

later period. Up to the middle of the thirteenth century
some seventy monasteries were established in or near towns :
it has been estimated that both Kiev and Novgorod each
possessed some seventeen monasteries. In those monasteries
which had arisen spontaneously through the influence of
some holy man drawing disciples to his retreat the brother-
hood was free to choose its own abbot, but, just as in the
Byzantine Empire, so in Russia there was no little danger
to religious life from the rights possessed by the founder
(Ktitor) of a monastery. It was his generosity which had
called the monastery into being, and it was recognized that
he was entitled to administer the affairs of his foundation :
he could appoint and remove the abbot and his decisions
might be influenced by bribery. The founder's monastery
became the mausoleum of his family. To his monastery the
prince, when death was near, would retire to invest himself
in the sacred robes of the monk: having worn these for a few
days or even a few hours he would pass with better hope
to another world. As in Byzantium, again, the monastery
was the refuge for princesses, for widows, for those who had
made shipwreck of their lives, and once again as in the
Empire of East Rome defeated foes were tonsured and
confined within the monastery walls.
During the twelfth century, it would seem, monasticism
suffered a decline and after the period of subjection to the
Tartars the revival which followed in the fourteenth century
was largely due to St. Sergius of Radonezh: to him eight
monasteries owed their foundation. In the fifteenth century
monasteries acquired from princely donations such large
estates tilled by numerous peasants, their management and
organization required so much time and care that the primary
purpose of the ascetic life was gravely prejudiced. Monasti-
cism had become a part of the world from which it had
professed to withdraw. Pre-Mongolian Russia had early
established contact with Mount Athos; in 1169 a Russian
monastery was founded on the Sacred Mountain, and
St. Panteleimon was another such monastery. The Tartar
invasion severed this connexion, but at the end of the four-
teenth and in the fifteenth century a close intercourse was
re-established. It was on Mount Athos that Nil Sorski (born

1433) became acquainted with the mysticism of Hesychasm.
On his return to Russia he protested against monastic
absorption in worldly interests. Monks should surrender
their lands and return to their original profession of poverty.
His followers were nicknamed the 'Non-Possessors'. The
opposition to Nil Sorski's proposals was led by St. Joseph of
the Volokolamsk monastery (1439-1 5 1 5). The 'Possessors'
were able administrators ready to co-operate with the Tsar
in the tasks of government: monasteries were to become the
nursery of future bishops. If they were to be trained for
bishoprics, the monks must be freed from economic anxieties :
the possession of lands was a necessity. The Josephites in-
sisted on unquestioning obedience to superiors and a rigorous
enforcement of minute details of the external forms of asceti-
cism. Personality was to be reduced by strict discipline to a
common level. One's own opinion was 'the mother of all
passions: opinions are the second Fall of Man'. The 'Non-
Possessors' regarded asceticism as but a means to an end,
and their aim was that inner freedom for the activity of the
spirit which should lead to the soul's perfection. Through
this action of the spirit and through contemplation the monk
should ultimately attain by the path of prayer to union with
God. Monasticism must be liberated from the control of the
State, while the persecution of heretics must cease: heretics
should be confined in monasteries until they should come
to a realization of the truth. In the thought of Nil Sorski
we catch the echo of Byzantine mysticism: introspection and
silence, united with a never-sleeping watchfulness overman's
vagrant thoughts, will fashion a permanent attitude of the
soul so that temptation will lose its power. The fruit of the
surrendered life is joy ineffable : prayer unspoken rises spon-
taneously from the heart. The mind is taken captive by
Another's strength. Then doth the soul pray not by asking,
but doth rise above asking: it gains a foretaste of eternal
felicity and in that bliss forgets itself and everything terres-
trial.
But Nil Sorski failed to persuade the monks of Russia:
the 'Possessors' held their ground. His disciple Vassian
Kossoi stigmatizes in bitter denunciation the avarice and the
harshness of the wealthy monastic landlords : his pamphlet

may be compared with the picture drawn, in the twelfth cen-
tury by Eustathius of Salonica, of the monastic landlords
of the Empire. At length in 1533 a foreign visitor, Adam
Kliment, could estimate that one-third of the agricultural
land in Russia was owned by the religious houses. Nil
Sorski left the monastery of the ascetic community but did
not adopt the life of the solitary; he inaugurated in Russia
the monasticism of the 'middle way* (Skitsvo) where two or
three monks would live together in a cell often an old monk
and a novice and all would be under an abbot, receiving
food from the monastery and generally meeting for a com-
mon service on Saturday evening. The skete resembled
the Palestinian Laura of St. Sabas. Thus the Josephites
triumphed and their influence can be traced in the decisions
of the Council of the Hundred Chapters (the Stoglav) of
1551, but the sixteenth century saw a decline in the influence
exercised by Russian monasticism: the maintenance of the
monastery as the nursery of bishops and the handmaid
of the Muscovite State was secured, but the price paid
for such support was the stifling of that spiritual passion
which Nil Sorski had sought to kindle afresh in Russian
asceticism.
Perhaps the outstanding weakness of Byzantine monasti-
cism was its extreme individualism: each monastery was a
law unto itself. There were in East Rome no monastic orders
which might have given cohesion and control to the separate
foundations. The monastery depended too greatly upon the
sanctity or the administrative ability of its abbot. Were he
a reformer, there was the danger that his reforms would not
outlive him. The same would seem to have been true of
Russian monasticism, though here the evidence is not per-
haps so conclusive as for the Empire.
The strength of the ascetic appeal in Russia is most clearly
demonstrated by the reverence and devotion popularly shown
to the monk and the solitary. It is the ascete who first
penetrated into the Russian forests of the north and with
his own hands cleared the ground to secure his support.
And then the peasant was drawn as by a magnet to the cell
of Christ's athlete and a village was formed and the lands
about the upper course of the Volga and the Oka were

peopled. Thus was the Russian frontier extended. Just as
within the Empire Lives of the heroes of asceticism formed
the favourite reading of simple folk, so on Russian soil such
biographies of the holy men were multiplied and the Russian
Church constituted its own national calendar of the sainted
dead.
A Russian psychologist has studied these popular bio-
graphies in order to assess which moral values were most
highly esteemed by the common folk. He notes the strength
of will of these ascetes, their humility, their continence and
abstinence, their knowledge of the human heart. It might
be urged that all these virtues are traditional in biographic
literature : they could be paralleled through the whole range
of the Lives of Byzantine saints. As a distinguishing charac-
teristic it has been suggested that the Russian ascete did not
suffer at least to the same extent from those sins of the
flesh which tortured the monks living in a Mediterranean
climate. It is indeed instructive to consider who were the
heroes of the faith whom the Russian people chose for
canonization. Under Ivan IV the Metropolitan Macarius
summoned two Councils to determine what names should
be added to the list of the 22 holy dead already recognized
as 'national' saints in the Russian calendar. Thirty-nine
were canonized by the Councils of 1 547 and 1549. Amongst
these 6 1 saints there were 1 6 princes and princesses, I boyar,
3 Lithuanian martyrs, 14 higher dignitaries of the Church,
and 23 founders or superiors of monasteries. Amongst the
saints canonized between the Macarian Councils and the
constitution of the Holy Synod (1721) the founders or
superiors of monasteries numbered 74 out of 146. Thus is
reflected the veneration of the Russian people for the ascetic
life. 1
In art the debt of Russia to East Rome is obvious. Byzan-
tium had not only moulded dogma and ritual but it had
created types to which the mosaicist and the painter were
1 Of the 39 canonizations of the Macarian Councils, 30, it would seem, were
* national* saints while 9 were local* saints (revered within one diocese or a s
ingle
monastery or group of monasteries), formally canonized as such. I desire to
acknowledge the help of the Warden of All Souls College, Oxford, on the disputed
question of the number of Russian saints. N.H B.

bound. Russian art, like Byzantine art, is not illusionist or
naturalistic: it permits of no free play for individual fancy
save in its glorious colouring. It does not attempt to represent
the realism of this world, but seeks to transport the wor-
shipper into the world of a supernatural tranquillity into
that peace of soul which our troubled existence here can
neither give nor take away. In its bold simplicity the icon
can make its appeal to all alike ; it calls for no secret gnosis
for its understanding. It speaks a universal language and in
this it does but reflect the universality of the Christian faith.
The first great Russian victory over the Tartars was the
battle of Kulikovo Pole, 8 September 1380. St. Sergius of
Radonezh had bidden the Russians 'go forward and fear
not. God will help you', and the saint's words had been put
to a triumphant test. In 1472 Ivan III married Sophia
Palaeologus, the niece of the last East Roman Emperor. In
1480 Ivan renounced his subjection to the Tartar and adopted
the title of Tsar or autocrat : he was no longer the vassal of
any alien power.
In the early history of Russia there is no developed theory
of sovereignty, nor could there be in a land where the feuds of
the princes made unity impossible, where the authority of
the Great Prince of Kiev depended upon his power to enforce
it by arms. The developed theory of sovereignty came with
the establishment of the autocracy of the princes of Moscow
after the liberation from the Tartar domination. But though
that theory was derived from the Byzantine Empire, it did
not, it would seem, come to Russia directly from Constanti-
nople, but indirectly by way of Bulgaria. The second Bul-
garian Empire with its centre at Trnovo had for a time
controlled the Balkans (see Ch. 13); its rulers had styled
themselves Tsar and Autokrator and at their Court there
had been a literary revival when Greek works were translated
into Bulgarian. Among these translated works was the verse
chronicle of Manasses. In this chronicle the decline of the
Roman power in western Europe was described: the old
Rome of the West had failed, but Constantinople had taken
its place and still stood young and vigorous. In the Bulgarian
version Constantinople disappears, and in its stead the

chronicler's praise is transferred to 'our new TsarigracT and
the Bulgarian Tsar. Trnovo claimed for itself the imperial
glory of the city of Constantine. In 1393 the Bulgarian
Empire fell before the attack of the Turks and many exiles
fled from Bulgaria to Moscow. A Bulgarian, Kiprian, at
this time became Metropolitan of Moscow. It looks as if
these emigres had carried with them the imperial theory which
on Bulgarian soil had been shattered by the Turkish victory.
It was Kiprian who, when a dispute had arisen between
Moscow and the Empire, wrote to the Patriarch of Con-
stantinople: 'We have a Church but no Emperor, and we
do not recognize him.' Byzantium replied by a reassertion
of its sole claim to imperial sovreignty. In 1438-9 came
the Council of Florence and the Union of the Eastern and
Western Churches. Orthodoxy had been betrayed by the
Greeks : the Metropolitan Isidor who had played the traitor's
part at the Council was cursed as a renegade. In 1453
Constantinople itself fell into the hands of the Turks. The
lesson thus taught by history was obvious : here was the hand
of God. Already in 1458-9 the contrast is drawn between
heretical Greece and orthodox Russia: there only remains
one truly orthodox Church on earth the Russian Church.
In 1492 Ivan, Tsar in Moscow, has become the new Con-
stantine in the new city of Constantine. In 1 504 a Council
formulated in its Sixteen Chapters the duty of the Tsar: the
office of the sun is to give light to the whole creation, the
office of the Tsar is to care for all his subjects. 'Thou hast
received the sceptre from God: be mindful to satisfy Him
Who gave it thee. ... By nature the Tsar is like any other
man, but in power and office he is like the Highest God/
Thus did the Russian Church echo the words of Chrysostom
(Homilia in Efist. ad Rom. xxiii. 6892. Migne, Patrologia
Graeca, vol. Ix, col. 6 1 8). The chronographer of 1 5 1 2 writes :
'Constantine's city is fallen, but our Russian land through
the help of the Mother of God and the saints grows and is
young and exalted. So may it be, O Christ, until the end
of time!' The words which the Bulgarian translator of
Manasses had applied to Trnovo are here claimed for Mos-
cow. The new doctrine finds its final expression in the
writings of Philotheus of the monastery of Pskov. In a
course of the ninth century rebel Armenian heretics, known
as Paulicians, had been settled by Byzantine authorities on
the Bulgarian frontier. The Paulicians were styled Mani-
chaeans, a term inaccurately applied in the medieval world
to all Dualist sects. They believed in the equality of the
Powers of Evil with those of Good, assigning to the former
the realms of the Flesh and to the latter the realms of the
Spirit. Paulician doctrines apparently spread into Bulgaria ;
and in Tsar Peter's reign they were preached there in a
slightly different, rather simpler, form by a village priest
called Bogomil, whose followers were known as Bogomils
after him.
By the time of Peter's death (969) the Bogomils were
numerous all over Bulgaria amongst the peasant classes.
Their crude doctrines, the absence of a priesthood amongst
them, their simplicity and purity, all attracted men oppressed
by an elaborate hierarchy whose morals they suspected and
whose subtleties they could not grasp. But their own
practices caused alarm to the State. The Flesh is wicked,
therefore abstain as far as possible from the things of the
Flesh, meat and drink, marriage and the procreation of
children, even manual labour. Amongst them was a special
class, the elect, whose abstention was complete. The others
did their best. Politically they expressed their views in
apathy and passive resistance to authority; and the Bulgarian
Government found itself obliged to persecute them. The
persecution was ineffective. Bulgaria had to suffer this
disease of apathy and hostility within herself at a time
when every resource was needed to repel the enemies from
outside.
It was not indeed for another three centuries that Bogo-
milism faded out of Bulgaria, despite the persecutions of
Alexius Comnenus, who had also to suppress it in Con-
stantinople whither it had spread. In the meantime it was
flourishing farther to the west. In eastern Serbia it met with
a qualified success, but in Bosnia and Croatia it found a
second home. In Bosnia, indeed, it was the State religion for
the greater part of the period from the end of the twelfth
century till the Turkish Conquest. From Croatia the heresy
reached northern Italy and France, and the Cathari and
3982 Aa

the Albigensians talked darkly of their Black Pope in
Bulgaria. 1
The canker was especially dangerous in view of the foreign
problems that Bulgaria had to face. Peter's reign was peace-
able enough, despite two Magyar invasions and one Russian,
but at its close the war party came into power and by their
insolence provoked an attack from Constantinople. The
Emperor Nicephorus Phocas was busy in the East; so he
called on the Russians to punish Bulgaria. The Russians
did the work all too thoroughly; by 969, when the Emperor
was murdered, they had overrun all eastern Bulgaria and
were advancing on Constantinople. The next Emperor,
John Tzimisces, spent the first year of his reign in driving
the Russians back to the Danube. By 972 eastern Bulgaria
was liberated from the Russians, only to be annexed to
Byzantium. During the war the Bulgars, in helpless apathy,
had seen their lands overrun; they made no resistance now.
But John Tzimisces left the work unfinished. The great
province of the West, the Rilo country, the valleys of the
Vardar and the Morava and Upper Macedonia, remained
unconquered. There was probably very little Bulgar blood
in these districts, but they had long been part of the Bulga-
rian realm, and Bulgaria had given them their Slavonic
Cyrillic civilization. Their inhabitants considered themselves
Bulgarian, and amongst them a new Bulgaria was born.
Its history is the history of its Tsar Samuel (9761014), a
local governor's son, who took advantage of rebellion amongst
the Byzantines and the inexperience of the young Emperor
Basil II to build up an Empire as extensive as Symeon's.
The Eastern provinces were reconquered. The centre of
this Empire was in Macedonia by the high mountain lakes
of Ochrida and Prespa. Samuel's Court was wilder than
Symeon's; it produced little literature and little art. Of his
government we know almost nothing, not even on what
terms he was with his Bogomil subjects. Given time he
might have established his government on a lasting basis;
but most of his reign was filled with a struggle for existence.
1 The connexion between the Bogomils and the Albigensians is sometimes
doubted, but to anyone who compares Slavonic Bogomil literature with Albi-
gensian it is obvious.

By 990 Basil II had overcome internal rebellion and was
determined to destroy this dangerous Balkan kingdom.
After long campaigns, brilliant on either side, the Bulgarians
nearly achieving their age-long ambition of capturing
Salonica, at last Samuel's army was destroyed by the
Emperor in the defile of Cimbalongus (1014) and the old
Tsar died broken-hearted.
Samuel's successors were unequal to the task of saving
Bulgaria. During their family quarrels Basil advanced and
conquered their country. By 1018 the whole Balkan penin-
sula was his as far as Belgrade and the borders of Dalmatia;
and his grateful countrymen surnamed him Bulgaroctonus,
the Bulgar-slayer.
Those of the Bulgars whom he spared Basil treated wisely.
They were allowed to keep many of their local customs.
Their taxation remained taxation in kind at the same rate as
before. Their Slavonic Church was left to them. Their
Patriarchate was removed, and the Archbishop of Bulgaria,
the new head of the Church, was placed under the Patriarch
of Constantinople, ranking in the hierarchy after the
Patriarchs of the East. A Greek was almost always appointed
to the post. But in the less exalted ranks nothing was
altered; the Cyrillic liturgy kept alive both the Bulgaro
Slavonic language and national self-consciousness.
The annexation of Bulgaria was followed by the submis-
sion of the eastern Serbian princes to the Empire. Their
vassalage was never very strict; Serbia developed along her
own lines. But politically and culturally the influence of
Byzantium was paramount.
Meanwhile Byzantine influence had triumphed elsewhere,
with even more far-reaching results. The Russians, like the
Bulgars, were a non-Slavonic people who had superimposed
themselves on Slavonic territory and had given their sub-
jects the organization that the Slavs so seldom managed to
achieve. In the course of the ninth century Swedish
adventurers, known to the Eastern world as Varangians or
the Russ, overran the districts round Lake Peipus and Lake
Ilmen, establishing their rule over the Slavs there and
extending it slowly down the River Dnieper towards the
Black Sea. In about 860 the semi-legendary Rurik founded

a strong State at the old Slavonic town of Novgorod. His
successor Oleg added Kiev to the principality and Kiev
became the capital of the dynasty of Rurik.
The expansion of the principality was directed by economic
considerations. From Novgorod to the Dnieper past Kiev
ran the great trade-route from the Baltic to the Black Sea.
From the outset commerce was the main interest of the
Varangians. Their State had a feudal aspect; each town was
the domain of some prince or noble who administered the
district and drew military levies from it, and the princes were
the vassals of the Great Prince or Grand Duke of Kiev. But
the princes were also the chief merchants of their districts,
collecting and carrying its merchandise and leading the
local contingent on the yearly commercial expeditions to
Constantinople, These expeditions soon became a regular
feature in Russian life. When exactly they began we do not
know. By the middle of the tenth century there was a
definite route that the Russians followed, there was a
quarter at Constantinople assigned to them for their visits,
rules were drawn up determining their rights and obliga-
tions there, and these rules were confirmed in the various
treaties between the Russians and the Empire.
But the Russians did not always come as peaceful visitors.
The wealth of the great capital was a constant temptation ; and
if their trade was in any way interrupted, they retaliated with
an armed attack; indeed to secure new markets or new com-
mercial concessions they would raid as far afield as Persia.
Constantinople was several times in the ninth and tenth
centuries threatened by a Russian attack; and its statesmen
were anxious to find some means of checking the menace.
Their solution was to convert the Russians.
Already in the mid-ninth century Photius had sent mis-
sions to Kiev, where apparently they met with some initial
success but declined on the conquest of Kiev by the Varan-
gian Oleg. In the tenth century missionaries began to work
again, helped now by the perfected weapon of the Cyrillic
liturgy; and in 954 they made an eminent convert in the
person of the Dowager Grand Duchess Olga. Olga's con-
version and her subsequent visit to Constantinople did much
to popularize Byzantine civilization in Russia. But the bulk

of the Russian people remained heathen for another forty
years. The Balkan policy of the Emperor Nicephorus II and
John Tzimisces brought Byzantium into conflict with
Russia, and a little later the conflict was renewed owing to
Russian ambitions in the Crimea. In the first conflict the
Emperors succeeded in keeping Russia out of the Balkans,
but to keep her out of the Crimea was less easy. However,
the time was come for a compromise. Olga's grandson, the
Grand Duke Vladimir, saw, as so many princes before him,
the value of Christianity in building up the autocracy.
Already he had done much to assert the authority of Kiev
over the other Russian districts. Now, in 989, he agreed to
be baptized, and in return he was to receive the hand of the
Emperor Basil IFs sister Anna.
Vladimir's conversion was of paramount importance in
Russian history. It was followed by the rapid conversion of
tfie Russian people only a few outlying tribes remained
heathen ; the last of them, the people of Murom, embraced
Christianity in the thirteenth century. And the adoption of
Christianity, though it could not destroy at once Varangian
feudalism, contributed largely to the hegemony of Kiev and
the prestige of its ruler, the Emperor's brother-in-law. It
led in time, after the Mongol interruption, to the Byzantine
autocracy of the Muscovite Empire. It fixed Russia in the
politico-cultural system of Byzantium. When a few years
later Boleslav of Poland attempted to introduce Latin
Christianity into Russia his agents received a rebuff so firm
as to discourage any repetition of the attempt.
The influence of Byzantine civilization in Prussia reached
out in every direction. In art Byzantine pictures, such as the
famous twelfth-century icon known as Our Lady of Vladimir,
set the model for Russian iconography; Russian architecture
is based on Byzantine principles, modified however by
direct Caucasian influences, while the characteristic onion-
shaped dome of the Russians was probably their own
invention to deal with the winter snows. In religious thought,
in daily life Byzantine ideas could long be everywhere
traced, 1 and the language of St, Cyril became in Russia, as
in the Balkans, the basis of the native literature.
1 Cf. Chapter 14.
3S8 BYZANTIUM AND THE SLAVS

But the political influence of Byzantium in Russia was less
than might have been expected. Barbarian movements in
the twelfth century and the Mongol conquest in the thir-
teenth cut Russia off from the Black Sea. The centre of
Russian life moved northward, to Vladimir, Tver, and
Moscow. To the last Constantinople, Tsarigrad, remained
in Russian eyes the capital of the world; occasional Russian
pilgrims would journey there, and were certain of a welcome
from their fellow Orthodox; a Russian princess might even
become an Emperor's bride, popular in Constantinople
because she was not of hated heretic Latin blood; but con-
tacts grew fewer; Russia was left to develop her Byzantinism
in her own less adaptable manner. She remained a potential
guardian of the flank of the Orthodox East, but steadily less
useful. It was not till the nineteenth century that the Greeks
reaped the fruit of their conversion of Russia.
Thus by the eleventh century Byzantium was dominant
over the eastern Slavs. But her domination had come too
late; nations had already appeared amongst the Slavs, and
Byzantium had recognized the fact by using as her method of
domination the Cyrillic church-system. The Slavs of Serbia,
of Bulgaria, or of Russia would never be absorbed into the
Greek Christian world. They would therefore submit to the
domination of the Greek Christian world only so long as
Constantinople remained the great inviolable city with the
power to make her views felt. In the twelfth century this
power declined. Attacks from the Seljuk Turks and from
the West, the embarrassment of the Crusades, the commer-
cial rivalry of Italy and, to crown it all, the ineptitude of the
imperial house of Angelus, brought the Empire to a state of
obvious decay.
The southern Slavs had long been restive under the suze-
rainty of Byzantium; but fear of Hungary and of the strong
armies of the Comneni made revolts abortive. The troubles
that followed the death of the Emperor Manuel Comnenus
in 1 1 80 gave them their opportunity. The leading Serbian
figure of the time was the Zupan Stephen Nemanya of the
Zeta (Montenegro), who by the time of his abdication in
1196 had made himself Grand Zupan of the Serbs, the
independent ruler of all the Serbian lands save the little

district of Hum (Herzegovina) where his brother Miroslav
reigned. Farther north, about the same time, the Bosnian
Kulin established the independent monarchy of Bosnia.
Byzantium was powerless to prevent them. Hungary inter-
vened more effectively for a time in Bosnia and Hum but
without any permanent result. In 1186 Bulgaria, for a
century and a half an imperial province, 1 was whipped by
unjust taxation into revolt, and the brothers John and Peter
Asen proclaimed the independence of the country in the
little church of St. Demetrius at Trnovo. With the help of
the Cumans beyond the Danube and of the Vlachs in the
peninsula (the Asen were probably of Vlach origin) they
defeated the Byzantine armies and established a kingdom
stretching from the Black Sea to Sofia and into Macedonia,
and assumed an imperial title.
John Asen was murdered in 1196 and Peter in 1197.
Stephen Nemanya retired to a monastery in 1 196 and died
on Athos in 1200. Kulin died early in 1204. Under their
successors an event occurred that made certain the inde-
pendence of their kingdoms. The capture of Constantinople
by the Crusaders in 1204 is a turning-point in the history of
the southern Slavs. Hitherto, vassal or free, they had
regarded Constantinople as the centre of their universe, the
source of their culture and religion. Now suddenly and
unexpectedly they were orphaned.
Their first reaction was to believe that the lords of Con-
stantinople must be masters of the world and to make terms
with the Latin West. In 1205 the Bulgarian monarch
Kalojan, youngest of the Asen brothers, sent to Pope
Innocent III and was given by him a royal crown; 2 and
similarly, as late as 1217, the second Serbian Stephen, the
'first-crowned', won a royal crown from Pope Honorius III.
But by then Bulgaria had evolved a better policy.
The thirteenth century saw the zenith of the Second
Bulgarian Empire. The Latin Empire soon showed itself a
pathetic farce. The exiled Byzantine Emperors of Nicaea
were too busy piecing together the shattered Greek world to
1 There had been Bulgarian revolts in 1040 and 1073 but both had been sup-
pressed without much difficulty.
2 He had asked for an imperial crown.

be aggressive against the Slavs. The smaller succession-
states, Epirus and Salonica, were transient and weak. It
was Bulgaria's opportunity to come forward as the leading
power, the new centre of the Christian East. Kalojan quickly
saw his new role. In 1205 he took Philippopolis from
the Latins, defeating and capturing the Latin Emperor Bald-
win I before Adrianople. In 1206 he slew the Latin King
Boniface of Salonica. But in 1 207 he fell himself in a palace
intrigue.
The weak reign of the usurper Boril delayed the growth of
Bulgaria for eleven years; but in 1218 Kalojan's son John
Asen II assumed the throne and his father's aggressive
policy. But it was a little late now. The Greeks had re-
covered much of their lands from the Latins, and the local
inhabitant who preferred a Slav to a heretic Westerner was
now content under his own fellow countrymen. The goal of
every Balkan statesman who has not been deluded by vain
hopes for Constantinople is Macedonia and its great port of
Salonica. To hold the Balkan hinterland without Salonica is
to hold something incomplete. Kalojan had died on the eve
of an expedition against Salonica. John Asen II was aware
of its importance. Early in his reign he expanded his king-
dom towards the south-west. The medley of races in Mace-
donia (from which the culinary term macedoine is derived)
could not oppose any strong military invader. But Salonica
was a Greek city, and remained beyond his reach. Twice, .in
1230 and 1240, it lay almost in his power, but in his fear of
the growing Empire of Nicaea he allowed the Angeli of
Salonica to retain their rule. Similar complex considerations
marred his policy elsewhere. He could not decide whether
to win Prankish Thrace by an alliance with Nicaea or to
regard Nicaea as a menace to be opposed. He hesitated, and
the Nicaeans benefited by his hesitations.
Nevertheless his reign was a great age for Bulgaria. His
personality won him the respect even of his enemies, and his
international prestige was great. In his Court at Trnovo he
ruled with Byzantine pomp and ceremony through a bureau-
cracy formed on the Byzantine model. The Bulgarian
Church was reorganized under the Archbishop of Trnovo,
to whom the Patriarch of Nicaea conceded in 1235, as

price of an alliance against the Latins, autonomy and the
Patriarchal title. Commerce was encouraged and conducted
partly by Greek merchants, as in the old days, but mainly
through the Ragusans who had trading rights throughout
the Bulgarian Empire and introduced many of the products
of the West. But civilization remained fundamentally
Byzantine, modified to suit the temperament of the Balkan
Slav. Bulgarian buildings such as the churches of Trnovo
or Boiana are Byzantine in their conception. Only a greater
simplicity in their construction, a cruder touch in the
colouring of their decorations, show them to be the work of a
different people.
John Asen II died in 1 24 1 ; and at once Bulgaria began to
crumble. Its decline was due partly to the lack of a per-
sonality to hold the kingdom together, partly to the growing
power of the Nicaeans and their recovery of Salonica in
1246 and of Constantinople in 1261. John Asen's sons Kali-
man I (1241-6) and MichaelAsen(i246-57)andhisnephew
Kaliman II (12578) were active but unwise; and on
Kaliman IFs death the Asen dynasty was extinct. For the
next twenty years Bulgarian history is the tale of a sequence
of usurpers, supported by or reacting against the influence of
Constantinople, while Thrace and Macedonia fell from
Bulgarian hands.
In 1280 a stronger dynasty was founded by a Cuman,
George Terteri, which was to last till 1323, holding its own
against Tartar invaders and losing no ground to its Balkan
rivals. In 1323 Michael Shishmanitch of Vidin founded the
last Bulgarian dynasty. Its career started well; Michael all
but captured Constantinople; but in 1330 the Bulgarians
were badly defeated by the Serbs on the field of Velbufcd;
and Bulgaria became hardly more than a vassal of Serbia.
During the reign of John Alexander (1331-61) Bulgaria
enjoyed little political power. Defeatism even crept into that
great nationalist organization, the Church, where Bulgarian
ecclesiastics such as St. Theodosius of Trnovo opposed the
attempts of the Bulgarian Patriarch to assert his complete
equality with the Patriarch of Constantinople. But it was a
period of culture; St. Theodosius and his disciples formed the
last literary coterie of medieval Bulgaria. The Tsar caused

works to be translated from the Greek, such as the Historical
Synopsis of Manasses ; this translation is now in the Vatican
Library, illustrated in the somewhat crude but no longer
vigorous style of fourteenth-century Bulgaria. Architecture,
too, flourished, but again with neither new inspiration nor
improved technique.
In 1361 John Alexander died, dividing his inheritance.
His elder son, John Sracimir, was left the family fortress of
Vidin ; his favourite, John Shishman, inherited the kingdom :
while a usurper, Duvrotik, took the district called the
Dobrudja after him. The division only led to trouble. Five
years earlier the Ottoman Turks had established themselves
in Europe intending to stay.
Meanwhile the hegemony had passed to Serbia. The
Serbian monarchy founded by Stephen Nemanya had been
put on a firmer basis by his sons, Stephen 'the First-Crowned*
and St. Sava. Stephen was crowned first by a papal legate in
1217, then more popularly by St. Sava as Archbishop of
Serbia in 1222. Before his death in 1228 he had reasserted
once more the authority of his line over the other Serbian
princes. St. Sava's work was even more valuable. His
diplomacy and the respect accorded to his high personal
qualities not only made him of great international use to his
brother but also enabled him to reorganize the Serbian
Church and win recognition of its autonomy from Byzan-
tium. St. Sava was a man of wide experience, a traveller and
a scholar. The Serbian Church had hitherto been ruled
from Constantinople or Ochrida with little care or sympathy,
with the result that the Bogomils had vastly increased in
number. Sava understood the essential spirit of Cyrillism
and made Christianity more real to the Serbs by absorbing
many of their national beliefs and customs, and produced a
Church that was popular, linked to the new nationalist
dynasty but still in touch with the higher civilization of
Constantinople. In consequence the Bogomil faith soon
faded out from Serbia. His more political work in favour of
a Balkan entente was less permanently successful.
During the reigns of Stephen the First-Crowned's elder
sons, Radoslav and Vladislav, Serbia was overshadowed by
Bulgaria. But in 1243 the youngest, Stephen Uros I, sue-

ceeded, shortly after the death of John Asen II of Bulgaria.
Stephen Uros I reigned for thirty-three years, a period of
peace, during which the natural resources of the country and
its commerce were developed, largely by merchants from
the neighbouring Dalmatian coast. The King shocked the
Byzantines by the crude simplicity of his life; nevertheless
they sought his alliance in vain, as he was disinclined to
embark on restless political activities. Moreover, thanks
perhaps to his Latin wife, his sympathies were more Latin
than Greek.
In 1276 Stephen Uros was ousted by his son Stephen
Dragutin, a fanatical cripple, who eventually gave place to
his brother Stephen Milutin, Stephen Uros II (1281-1321).
Dragutin became Duke of Belgrade and Lower Bosnia, a
convert to Catholicism and an earnest persecutor of Bogo-
mils. Stephen Uros II was a man of few scruples. His
diplomacy was bewildering in its sudden betrayals; Con-
stantinople, Rome, Naples, and Hungary were all wooed and
deserted; Venice was given commercial privileges and then
saw the Serb issuing counterfeit Venetian coin. Neverthe-
less, by the time of his death Stephen had extended his
kingdom into Macedonia and Bosnia and down the Adriatic
coast. He had even for a while thought of winning Con-
stantinople in the right of his wife, the Byzantine Princess
Simonis.
His heir was his bastard Stephen Decanski, Stephen Uros
III, a worthy disciple of his father's methods. He, too,
increased the kingdom, his great feat being the battle of
Velbuzd, which left Serbia unquestionably supreme amongst
the southern Slavs and made the annexation of Bulgaria a
matter of practical politics. But Decanski, probably wisely,
preferred to leave Bulgaria a vassal state. A year later, in
1331, Decanski was deposed and strangled by his son
Stephen Dusan (Stephen Uros IV).
Under Dusan Serbia reached its zenith. His campaigns
in Bosnia and on the Adriatic coast were not wholly success-
ful; he neither crushed the former nor conquered all the
latter, though his influence was paramount there, as in
Bulgaria also. But his main political activities were directed
against Byzantium. Like so many great Balkan rulers he

dreamed of being Emperor there, and his dream was his
people's undoing. The civil war between John V and John
Cantacuzenus, which broke out in 1 34 1 , furnished the oppor-
tunity. By 1345 Dusan had conquered all Macedonia except
Salonica; a few years later he was master of western Thrace,
and by 1349 of Epirus and Thessaly, In 1355 he marched
on Constantinople, with every hope of success ; but on the
march he died,
Dusan's titles rose with his ambitions. In 1345, in
defiance of Constantinople, he raised the Archbishop of
Serbia, whose seat was Ipek, to the rank of Patriarch. In
1346 the Serbian and Bulgarian Patriarchs crowned him
Emperor or Tsar of the Serbs and the Greeks. As new
provinces were added to his Empire so their names were
added to his titles. Realizing that Macedonia is the centre
of the Balkan peninsula he moved his capital thither, to
Skoplie (Uskub); and so Macedonia, once the seat of a
Bulgarian Empire, became the seat of the Serbian. But
Salonica eluded his grasp. Further to complete the working
of his realm he collected the laws of Serbia and issued in
I349 1 his great Zakonnik, or code.
Dusan's code is less important from the purely legal point
of view; its significance rests upon the picture that it gives
of Serbian civilization. In Decanski's reign Serbia, though
rich, was primitive. The Armenian Archbishop Adam who
passed through the country says that there were no walled
castles ; all houses were of wood except on the Dalmatian
coast. The Byzantine writer Gregoras depicts the Serbian
Court as highly pretentious, yet sadly wanting in comforts
and decencies. But gold- and silver-mines were being
worked; the valleys were fertile and the hills well wooded.
Duan's code shows that fortresses and palaces were now
being built. The Court has become a Byzantine bureau-
cracy, each high-titled official with clear-cut functions. The
towns were under the Tsar's officials, Counts for the cities
and Captains for the smaller towns. But the country-sicte
remained unaffected by Byzantine autocratic methods.
There the nobility ruled, limiting the power of the Tsar.
1 The last sixteen articles of the code were actually issued in 1365, ten years
after his death.

There were the Vlastele^ the great nobles, and under them
the VlastelihcL Their fiefs were hereditary and commanded
jurisdiction over the peasants and serfs, though the peasants
had clearly defined rights so long as they did not meddle in
politics; the magnates even controlled the local church, as
patrons of every living that they founded. They paid a tithe
to the church and a death duty of their best armaments to the
Tsar to whom they owed military service. The Tsar, on the
other hand, summoned them to a parliament or sobor before
he could legislate and maintained a permanent council of
twenty-four of the greatest nobles. The Church organization
was officially under the Crown; but the Patriarch could
count on public support sufficiently to maintain his spiritual
freedom. The Code shows Serbia to be a preponderantly
agricultural society. The merchant classes were almost all
alien and restricted to the Adriatic cities ; the mines, mostly
state-owned and worked by slave labour, employed only a
tiny section of the community. The Code itself displays a
diversity of influences. The Church law is purely Byzantine,
as are the arrangements for the bureaucracy. The commercial
law is Dalmatian in origin. Trial by jury had been introduced
by Stephen Uros II, probably in imitation of the West. The
law of the country-side is derived from the ancient customs
of the Serbs.
Serbian culture was not very high. Church architecture
flourished. At first crudely Byzantine, it had in the mid-
thirteenth century undergone an Italo-Gothic influence, due
partly to the connexion with Dalmatia and Venice, partly to
the work of Stephen Uros I's Latin queen. By Dusan's time
it had developed its own characteristics. The architects were
probably usually Ragusans. Their buildings were funda-
mentally Byzantine but lighter, more fanciful, less classically
restrained on the outside, and inside more lavishly if more
crudely decorated. Serbian painting copied Byzantine.
Serbian literature barely existed, save for the great popular
epic-ballads that were now beginning to be sung, poetry that
owes nothing to Byzantium.
In 1355 Stephen Duan died and his Empire crumbled,
leaving behind only a memory and an ideal that no Serbian
patriot can forget. It crumbled because it was too diverse.

It contained too many races, Bulgarian, Italo-Dalmatian,
Vlach, Albanian, and Greek as well as Serb; the Dalmatians
and Albanians were largely Catholic, the Bosnians largely
Bogomil; the Greeks resented the nationalism of the
Serbian Church. Serbian civilization was itself too synthetic
to bind this mass together; the ceremonial and hieratic
aspects of Byzantium without its traditions, its outward
luxuries without its inward culture, superimposed on
Serbian agrarian feudalism, ornamented with a touch of
Latin chivalry and Italo-Dalmatian commercialism, made
up a medley acceptable to no one. Had Dusan won Con-
stantinople with its oecumenical past and prestige, he might
have founded a lasting realm, but the Serbian would have
been swallowed up in the Byzantine. Had he been content
to be a Slav monarch with Macedonia as his centre and
Salonica as his port, again his realm might have survived.
But his Byzantine ambitions and his failure to acquire
Salonica led to the downfall of his Empire.
The rest of the story is the chronicle of the steady Turkish
advance and need not be recounted in detail. From 1360 to
1370 the Turks were busy establishing themselves in
Thrace. The battle of the Maritza (1371) sealed the fate of
Bulgaria; Serbians and Bosnians were crushingly defeated
on the field of Kossovo (15 June 1389). The freedom of the
Balkans was lost. Four years later Bulgaria was annexed,
and Serbia suffered the same fate in 1459. It was not until
1463 that the Turks formally took over Bosnia.
The fourteenth century had seen the rise of another
Balkan people, the Roumanians of Wallachia and Moldavia.
The Roumanians claimed Roman origin and so were eagerly
susceptible to the influence of Byzantium. Moldavia never
acquired great political power, though its importance as a
mart of Byzantine and Slavonic culture during the next
centuries is vast if dimly known. Wallachia had its brief
eminence under the house of Bassaraba, but was too tightly
wedged between Hungary and the Turks to develop a
lasting position. Even its greatest prince, Mircea, was
a tributary of Hungary, and its hero John Hunyadi, the
White Knight of Wallachia, a soldier in the Hungarian
army. ButRoumania, despite its Roman andHungarian Latin

connexions, was firmly attached by religion to the Slavonic
world. Its Church had been organized under the Church of
Ochrida in the great days of Bulgaria. It was therefore Cyrillic
and inappropriately Slavonic-speaking, though it looked to
Constantinople as its true metropolis. But the story of
Roumanian civilization lies outside the scope of this chapter.
It developed after the Turkish Conquest at the close of the
fifteenth century, along lines that were very Byzantine,
thanks chiefly to the Viceroys that the Sultan provided,
scions of the Greek nobility of the Phanar.
Thus all the Balkan nations fell once more into the hands
of Constantinople, now the deadening fist of the Turk. It
remains to estimate what the old Constantinople, Christian
Byzantium, had done for them. It was inevitable that the
proximity of Constantinople should make the Slavs regard
her as the centre of the world ; nor was there in medieval days
any other city as rich or as cultured. In art they owed every-
thing to her. Russia and to a lesser extent Serbia evolved
their own art from a Byzantine basis ; Bulgaria, too close to
the source, never succeeded so well. Politically Byzantium
failed in her first object, to absorb the Slavs; she missed her
opportunities till it was too late. But she succeeded in
winning them to her sphere of influence by the most generous
and far-reaching of her gifts, the Cyrillic Church. The Slav
nations of Russia and the Balkans, with their national churches
in communion with one another and deriving from a common
source, could co-operate "without antipathy, while each
preserved its own individuality. It has been argued that the
Slavs would have fared better under the ecclesiastical
authority of Rome, or that at least Constantinople should not
have led them into schism with the West. Then they would
have had the full sympathy of the West at the time of crisis
in the Ottoman invasions. But the sympathy of the West was
of little help to Catholic Croatia; it did not save Hungary at
Mohacs. The autocratic tendencies of the Roman Church
were incompatible with Cyrillism, and Cyrillism was what
the Slavs needed, both to preserve them first against the
over-great cultural might of Byzantium and later against
the over-great militarist might of the Turks. The nationalism
of the Balkans is now to be deplored; but the nationalism
supplied by the Cyrillic Churches during the long night of
Turkish domination meant hope and a basis on which to
build, when the dawn at last should rise. 1 In religion, above
all else, Byzantium did well by the Slavs, better perhaps than
she intended; and the heroes of the story are the brothers
from Salonica, St. Cyril and St. Methodius.
STEVEN RUNCIMAN
1 The same is true, mutatis mutandis, of Russia under the Mongols.
PLATE 2
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PLATE 6
ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE INTERIOR

(f 168) 532-7
PLATE I I
CHURCH AT NAGORlClNO, SERBIA

(/> 194) Early i4th century
PLATE I 2
CHURCH OF THE HOLY ARCHANGELS, LESNOVO, SERBIA

(P- 194) 1341
PLATE 9
CHURCH AT KAISARIANI, NEAR ATHENS

End of roth century
PLATE 10
CHURCH OF THE HOLY APOSTLES, SALONICA

(p 180) 1312-15
PLATE I I
CHURCH AT NAGORlClNO, SERBIA

(p. 194) Early i4th century
PLATE 12
CHURCH OF TIIR HOLY ARCHANGELS, LESNOVO, SERBIA

(p. 194) 1341
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PLATE 14
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San Vitale, Ravenna (p 176). 526-47
PLA'It I 6
MOSAIC. EMPBROR KNKKUNCJ BKFORK CHRIST (,/

Niirthcx of St Sophia, ('onstaniinopli (/>. 168, note) Cunt SM
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PLATE 12
FRESCO DORMITION OF THE VIRGIN (detail)

Cathohcon of the Lavia, Mt Athos (/. 196) 1535
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PLATE 26
MINIATURES STORY OF JOSEPH

Vienna (Jencsis (p 176). $t.h (century
PLATE 29
MINIATURE ISAIAH'S PRAYER

Psalter Bibhotheque Nationale, Paris (/> 186) loth century
PLATE 30
PLATE 3 I
MINIATURE ST JOHN THE EVANGELIST GOSPEL

Butish Museum nth century
PLATE 32
MINIATURP; TUP: P:MPEROR BOTANIATES

Homilies of St Chrysostoin Bibhotht'que Nationalc, Pans (/> 186) Laic nth cen
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PLATE 33
M 'w *i **-' ^ r ^ f Jx -* c r r
MINIATURE STORY OF THE VIRGIN

Homilies of the Monk James Bibhotheque Nationale, Pans (p 187) i 3 th century
PLATE 34
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S2
^ S
w 2
U
PLATE 35
PLATE 36
IVORY ARCHANGEL
British Museum (/> 177) Circa 500
PLATE 37
BARBERINI IVORY TRIUMPH OF AN EMPEROR

Louvre (/. 177) Early 6th century
PLATE 38
IVORY 4 11IRONE OF MAXIMIAN'

Ravenna (f 177) 6th (
PLATE 39
>,
S s
p fe
>.
li
PLATE 40
IVORY ROMANUS AND EUDOCIA CROWNED BY CHRIST

Cabinet dcs Mc'daillcs, Pans(/>. 187) loth century
PLATE 4!
IVORY SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF CHRIST

South Kensington nth-i2th century
PLATE 42
SILVER DISH FROM KERYNIA, CYPRUS

David and Goliath Metropolitan Museum, New York (/> 177) 6th century
PLATE 43
RELIQUARY
Esztergon, Hungary (p iS8) 1 2th century
PLATE 44
WOOL TAPESTRIES FROM EGYPT

Hunting Scene South Kensington
b Nen ids riding on sea-monsters. Louvre
(/) 177) 4th-6th tentury
PLATE 45
SILK TEXTILE. RIDERS ON WINGED HORSES

Schloss iiujtum, Berlin, roth century
PLATS 46
TrO OF CHARLEMAGNE'
TftMSUry (f 197)
PLATE 47
3?
8 f
C s
P-i e
^ N
I 1
PLATE 48
ST. NK^}IOT,AS, METEORA, THESSALY
The Empire before J\

The Conquests of Jut
Prefectures 1
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Oxford University Press, Amen House, London E.G. 4

FIRST PUBLISHED 1948

xii LIST OF PLATES

xiv LIST OF PLATES

2 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

4 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

6 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

8 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

io THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

The forces of revival found their leader in Africa, per-

H THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

1 6 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

1 8 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

20 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

22 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

24 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

26 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

28 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

30 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

32 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

34 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

36 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

38 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

40 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

42 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

44 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

46 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

48 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

50 THE HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

52 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 53

54 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 55

inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire.

56 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 57

58 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 59

60 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 61

62 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 63

64 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 65

66 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 67

68 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 69

70 ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

1 It reached its zenith under Harun-al-Rashid (768-809); during the ninth

THE BYZANTINE CHURCH 87

88 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

90 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

THE BYZANTINE CHURCH 91

92 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH

THE BYZANTINE CHURCH 93

94 THE BYZANTINE CHURCH