Electrical Engineering Department

University of Hail
Hail-2019

Advanced Digital Control Syst

EE554
Chapter 1
Introduction to digital control systems

Dr Mourad Kchaou
Electrical Engineering Department
Hail University

Thursday 6th February, 2020

Presented by Dr Mourad v. (b.2002060955)

Outline

1 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals

2 Systems

3 Structure of digital control systems

4 The z-Transform
z-transform of elementary discrete-time signals
Properties of z-transform
Systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Continuous-time signals:
A signal is called continuous-time (CT), if it is defined for all
values of time t
Discrete-time signals:
If a signal is defined only at discrete values of time, it is called a
discrete-time (DT)
A system is a set of devices, processes, or
computer-implemented algorithms able to transform a signal
called input into another signal called output. Systems are
classified based on the category of input and output signals.

Introduction 3 / 1
Systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Continuous-time systems:
When the inputs, x(t), and outputs, y(t), are continuous-time
signals, the system is said to be a continuous-time system or an
analogue system. Mathematically, a continuous-time system is
represented by

y(t) = H(x(t)) (1)

Introduction 4 / 1
Systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Discrete-time systems:
When the inputs, x(k), and outputs, y(k, are discrete-time
signals, the system is said to be a discrete-time system.
Mathematically, a discrete-time system is represented by

y(k) = H(x(k)) (2)

where H denotes the mathematical operator characterizing the

system.

Introduction 5 / 1
Systems

Introduction to digital control systems

In modern control engineering, the negative feedback operation

is introduced, where controllers are placed within the system to
modify the dynamics of the closed-loop system such that a more
satisfactory system response is ensured. This structure of
closed-loop system is illustrated in Figure 1. The physical
system or process to be controlled is called the plant. The
sensor measures the controlled variable (response) which is then
compared to the reference signal. The controller manipulates
the difference signal (error) to determine the desired input
signal.

Introduction 6 / 1
Systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Desired Input
Response signal Respnse
+
- Controller Plant

Sensor

Figure: Closed-loop system

Introduction 7 / 1
Systems

Introduction to digital control systems

he controller is designed to process the error signal in order to

guarantee satisfactory control criteria or performances in the
presence of disturbances and model uncertainties. The
performances may generally involve
I Steady state-error
I Transient response
I Disturbance rejection
I Robustness

Introduction 8 / 1
Systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Classically, we refer to analog or continuous-time systems, the

systems in which all signals can change continuously with time.
i.e. These signals are defined over a continuous time interval
and have values that are defined over a continuous range of
amplitudes. However, the discrete-time systems have signals
that can change values only at discrete instants.
Recently, digital controllers which can be in the form of digital
circuits, digital computers, or microprocessors, have been used
to replace the analog controllers.

Introduction 9 / 1
Structure of digital control systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Figure 2, illustrates the structure of a digital control system.

The error between the reference r(t) and the output of the
plant y(t) is converted into digital form by an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC), at sampling instants k defined by the
synchronization clock. The digital computer generates a new
sequence of numbers u(k) representing the control. The
analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is introduced as an interface
behind the computer to convert the continuous-time error signal
into a digital form. At the output of the computer the a
digital-to- analog (D/A) is introduced to convert the digital
signal of the computer into an anlog form required by the
process.

Introduction 10 / 1
Structure of digital control systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Controller

r(t) e(t) e(k) u(k) u(t) y(t)

+
- ADC Computer DAC Plant

Sensor

Figure: Structure a digital control system

Introduction 11 / 1
Structure of digital control systems

Introduction to digital control systems

To explain the structure of the digital control systems in Figure

2 , we give the following definitions:
Sample and Hold (S/H): this term is used for a
sample-and-hold amplifier. It is a description of a circuit that
receives an analog signal as an input and holds it as a constant
value for a specified period time.
Analog-to-Digital converter (A/D): An analog-to-digital
converter, also called an encoder, used as interface between
analog and digital components. It is a device that converts an
analog signal into a digital signal.
Digital-to-Analog converter (D/A): A digital-to-analog
converter, also called an decoder, used as interface between
digital and analog components. It is a device that converts a
digital signal into an analog signal.

Introduction 12 / 1
Structure of digital control systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Digital
A/D D/A +
+ Controller
- -
+

Sensor

Introduction 13 / 1
Structure of digital control systems

Introduction to digital control systems

Digital reference Antenna

input signal

Power θ
Amplifier Motor

+ C(z) Receiver
D/A K
¡ Decoder

wireless communica�on
channel
Digital Receiver
Encoder
Filter Decoder

Binary code

Introduction 14 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform
It is well known that digital signal processing is being very
useful in modern system. To grasp the analysis and design of
digital systems, the discrete-time concepts is needed to be
understood. Fourier analysis is extensively used in signal and
system analysis. The generalization of the Fourier analysis for a
large class of discrete signals, the z-transform, is introduced in
this chapter. The z-transform concept is also frequently used to
study LTI systems described linear difference equations.
Definition
The z-transform of a sequence {x(k)} is defined as
∞
X
X(z) = Z[x(k)] = x(k)z −k (3)
k=0

Introduction 15 / 1
The z-Transform

Introduction to digital control systems

Definition
Given the impulse train representation of a discrete-time signal
∞
X
x∗ (t) = x(kT )δ(t − kT ) (4)
k=0

The Laplace transform gives

∞
X ∞
X
∗
L(x (t)) = L(x(kT )δ(t − kT )) = (x(kT )e−ksT )
k=0 k=0
∞ (5)
X
= xk z −k = X(z), z = esT
k=0

The variable z −1 can be regarded as a time delay operator.

Introduction 16 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform
Example
The unit-impulse function
(
1 k=0
δ(k) = (6)
6 0
0 k=

2
δ(k)
1
k
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

The z-transform of the unit impulse function is

δ(z) = 1, Introduction
ROC: entire z-plane (7)
17 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

Example
The unit-step
(
1 k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
u(k) = (8)
0 k<0

2
u(k)
1
k
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

Introduction 18 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

The z-transform of the unit step function is given


X∞  1 , |z −1 | < 1
−k
U (z) = Z[u(k)] = z = 1 − z −1 (9)
undefined elsewhere
k=0

The z-transform pair for a unit step sequence is given by

z
U (z) = , ROC:|z| > 1 (10)
z−1

Introduction 19 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform
Example
Exponential sequence
(
ak k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
x(k) = (11)
0 k<0

2
ak
1
k
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

Figure: Sampled exponential

Introduction 20 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

The z-transform of the exponential function is given

z
X(z) = , ROC:|z| > a (12)
z−a

Introduction 21 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

Several properties of the z-transform will be developed. These

properties are useful in the analysis of discrete-time systems.
Linearity: This property follows directly from the linearity of
the Laplace transform.
linearity

Z[a1 x1 (k) + a2 x2 (k)] = a1 X1 (z) + a2 X2 (z) (13)

Introduction 22 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

Example
Find the z-transform of the causal sequence
3
f (k) = 2δ(k) − u(k) (14)
2k
Using linearity, the transform of the sequence is
3z
F (z) = 2 − (15)
1
z−
2

Introduction 23 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

This property follows from the time delay property of the

Laplace transform.
Time delay

Z[x(k − n)] = z −n X(z) (16)

Introduction 24 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

Example
Find the z-transform of the causal sequence

f (k) = 3u(k − 2) (17)

Using the delay property, we get

3z
F (z) = (18)
z 2 (z
− 1)

Introduction 25 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform
If xk+n is n advanced period signal of xk
Time advance:

n−1
X
n
Z[x(k + n)] = z X(z) − xi z n−i (19)
i=0

Example
Find the z-transform of the causal sequence

f (k) = 2k+2 (20)

Using the advanced property, we obtain

4z
Introduction 26 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform
Multiplication by exponential:

Z[x(k) = a−k x(k) = X(az) (22)

Example
Find the z-transform of the causal sequence

f (k) = 2k+2 , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . (23)

Using the advanced property, we obtain

4z
F (z) = (24)
(z − 2)
Introduction 27 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform
Convolution:
If both x(k) and y(k) are causal

Z[x(k) ∗ y(k)] = X(z)Y (z) (25)

Time Difference

Z[x(k) − x(k − 1)] = (1 − z −1 )X(z) (26)

Proof:

Z[x(k)−x(k−1)] = X(z)−z −1 X(z)−x(−1) = (1−z −1 )X(z)−x(−1)

Introduction 28 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

Accumulation

k
X 1
Z[ x(i)] = X(z) (27)
1 − z −1
i=0

Differentiation in z-Domain

d
Z[kx(k)] = −z X(z) (28)
dz

Introduction 29 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

Example
Calculate the unilateral z-transform of the first-order,
time-rising, exponential sequence defined as
(
kak u(k) k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
x(k) = (29)
0 k<0

Using the previous property, the z-transform is given by

az
X(z) = , ROC:|z| > a (30)
(z − a)2

Introduction 30 / 1
The z-Transform

The z-Transform

Initial/final Value Theorem

If x(k), is causal, then

x(0) = lim X(z) (31)

z→∞

lim x(k) = x[∞] = lim (1 − z −1 )X(z) (32)

n→∞ z→1

Introduction 31 / 1