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CONTROL SYSTEM

● A control system is a set of mechanical or electronic devices that regulates other devices
or systems by way of control loops.
● A control system manages, commands, directs, or regulates the behavior of other
devices or systems using control loops.
● Today, virtually all control systems are implemented digitally, on platforms that range from
large computer systems (e.g. the mainframe of an industrial SCADA1 system) to small
embedded processors.

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ANALOG SYSTEM

● A system that uses continuous time signal for processing is known as

an analog system. The analog signals or continuous time signals are the
signals whose magnitude continuously changes with time. Most analog
systems use continuous time signals having sinusoidal waveforms.

DIGITAL SYSTEM

● A system of components like a computer which uses discrete time signals to

operate is called a digital system. Digital systems uses such signals that
have square shaped waveforms. Digital systems first accept the outside data
in the form of analog signal, then transforms them into digital signal by
employing a sampling technique. Once an equivalent digital signal is
produced, the system uses this to produce a desired output. Due to this
conversion process, digital systems are slower in comparison to analog
systems.

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SAMPLED DATA CONTROL SYSTEM

● A sampled-data system is a control system that uses a digital device to control a

continuous-time plant. These systems are useful for digital control of continuous-time
systems.
● Control systems that combine an analog part with some digital components are
traditionally referred to as sampled-data systems.
● Sampled data system converts continuous analog signals into discrete signals to control a
plant or process.

IMPORTANT TERMS

● ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER(A/D): In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter

is a system that converts an analog signal, such as a sound picked up by a microphone or
light entering a digital camera, into a digital signal. This converter is one kind of integrated
circuit or IC that converts the signal directly from continuous form to discrete form.

● DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER(D/A): In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter

(DAC, D/A, D2A, or D-to-A) is a system that converts a digital signal into an analog signal.

● PLANT: Plant is any physical object or system that needs to be controlled.

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SAMPLING

Sampling is the process of converting a continuous time signal into a sequence of numbers
at discrete time intervals. It's a fundamental property of digital control systems because
digital computers operate in a discrete manner.
Sampling is done with the help of a switch, also known as a sampler. The sampler is a
continuous ON and OFF switch that directly converts analog signals into digital signals.
A sampler is basically a switch that closes every T seconds.

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r(t): continuous signal r*(t): sampled signal

Sampling Techniques

● The process by which a continuous time signal is converted to a sampled signal is called sampling,
and it is carried out using a specific circuitry.

● The sampling of a signal is done in several ways. Generally, there are three types of sampling
techniques viz. −
○ Ideal Sampling
○ Natural Sampling
○ Flat top Sampling

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Introduction
Digital controllers are electronic devices or systems that are used to manage and regulate
various processes and systems in a digital or discrete manner. These controllers are a key
component in automation and control systems, allowing for precise and efficient control of
various parameters. They are widely used in industries such as manufacturing, automotive,
aerospace, and more.

Advantages of Digital Controllers:

Precision: Digital controllers offer high precision and accuracy in control tasks.
Flexibility: Control algorithms can be easily modified or updated through software changes.
Data Logging: Digital controllers can record and store data for analysis and process
optimization. Communication: Many digital controllers have communication capabilities,
enabling remote monitoring and control.

Components of Digital Controller

• Microcontroller or Microprocessor: The brain of the controller that
processes data, executes control algorithms, and interfaces with
other components.
• Sensors: These devices detect and measure physical parameters
such as temperature, pressure, position, or flow.
• Actuators: Components that carry out actions based on the
controller's instructions, like motors, solenoids, or valves.
• Digital Input/Output Interfaces: To connect with sensors and
actuators. Memory:Used for storing control algorithms, setpoints,
and historical data. ControlSoftware:Contains the control algorithms
and logic.

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Block Diagram of Digital Controller

Analog-to-digital conversion
(ADC) An analog-to-digital converter
changes an analog signal that's
Analog-to-digital conversion
continuous in terms of both time
(ADC) is an electronic and amplitude to a digital signal
process in which a that's discrete in terms of both
continuously variable, or time and amplitude. The analog
analog, signal is changed into input to a converter consists of a
a multilevel digital signal voltage that varies among a
without altering its essential theoretically infinite number of
content. values. Examples are sine waves,
the waveforms representing
human speech and the signals
from a conventional television
camera.

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TYPES OF A/D CONVERTERS

• Dual slope A/D Converter

• Flash A/D Converter
• Counter type A/D Converter
• Sigma-Delta A/D Converter
• Pipelined A/D Converter

Dual slope A/D Converter

• An indirect ADC that integrates the input sampling voltage and
reference voltage twice to get a time interval proportional to the
average value of the sampling voltage.

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Dual slope A/D Converter

Pros Cons
• High accuracy • Slow
• Fewer adverse effects from noise • Accuracy depends on the use of precision external
components.

Applications for A/D Converters

• Computers: Convert analog signals to • Scientific instruments
digital signals
• Music reproduction
• Sensor Integration (Robotics) technology
• Audio Devices • Data acquisition
• Video Devices • Radar detection
• Cell phones • Wideband radio receivers
• Microcontrollers • Electronic test equipment
• Digital signal processing • Optical communication links
• Digital storage oscilloscopes

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DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER (DAC)

A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

converts a digital input signal into an
analog output signal. The digital
signal is represented with a binary
code, which is a combination of bits 0
and 1.

A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) consists of a number of binary

inputs and a single output. In general, the number of binary
inputs of a DAC will be a power of two.
Types of DACs
There are two types of DACs
1. Weighted Resistor DAC

2. R-2R Ladder DAC

This sec on discusses about these two types of DACs in detail −

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Weighted Resistor DAC

• A weighted resistor DAC produces an analog output, which is almost equal to the
digital (binary) input by using binary weighted resistors in the inverting adder
circuit. In short, a binary weighted resistor DAC is called as weighted resistor DAC.
• The circuit diagram of a 3-bit binary weighted resistor DAC is shown in the
following figure −

Introduction to Microprocessors
■ Invention of Microprocessors in the Early 1970s: In the early 1970s, microprocessors were first invented.
This refers to the development of the Intel 4004 in 1971.

■ Revolutionizing Computing by Consolidating Multiple Functions on a Single Chip: Microprocessors

revolutionized computing by consolidating various functions that were traditionally handled by separate
components onto a single chip. Instead of having 5different components for processing, memory, and other
tasks, a microprocessor could perform all these functions within a compact integrated circuit. This
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consolidation dramatically reduced the size, cost, and complexity of computer systems.

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Some Major Milestones

 Five key milestones in the development of microprocessors are:

● The Intel 4004.

● The Intel 8080: This microprocessor, launched in 1974, played a pivotal role in the early days of
personal computing.
● The Intel 8086: Introduced in 1978, which has become the dominant architecture in personal
computing, powering countless PCs and servers.
● The Intel 386: The Intel 386, released in 1985, was a major milestone as it introduced 32-bit
computing.
● The AMD Athlon 64: In 2003, the AMD Athlon 64 marked the introduction of 64-bit
microprocessors. This was a critical development, as 64-bit computing enabled greater memory
access and support for more complex tasks, including handling large datasets and running
advanced software.

Evolution of Microprocessors

Over the years, microprocessors

have undergone remarkable
advancements. From the early 4-bit
processors to the current multi-core
64-bit architectures, the evolution has
been staggering. Moore's Law, which
states that the number of transistors
on a chip doubles approximately
every two years, has been a driving
force behind this progress. The
constant increase in computing power
has revolutionized industries and
transformed our lives.

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Microprocessor Architecture
The microprocessor
architecture refers to the
organization, structure, and
interconnections of the
various components. Two
common architectures are
the von Neumann
architecture, where data and
instructions share the same
memory, and the Harvard
architecture, which uses
separate memories for data
and instructions. Each
architecture has its
advantages and trade-offs in
terms of performance and
flexibility.

Application Of Microprocessor

A microprocessor makes daily life easier because of its low cost, low
power, small weight, and vast application in every field. There are several
applications of microprocessors. Some of the important applications are:

• Household Devices
• Industrial Applications of Microprocessors
• Transportation Industry
• Computers and Electronics
• In Medicals

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POWER
ACTUATORS
INTERFACING IN AMPLIFICATION

MECHANICAL

CONTOLLER
SYSTEM
MECHATRONICS
SYSTEM
CONFIGURATION SENSORS
SIGNAL
PROCESSING

INTERFACING

Pull-up and pull-down resistors are used in electronic logic circuits to ensure that inputs to logic
systems settle at expected logic levels if external devices are disconnected or high-impedance is
introduced. They may also be used at the interface between two different types of logic devices,
possibly operating at different power supply voltages.

INTERFACING A
SWITCH (INPUT
DEVICE) TO A
digital circuit

When the switch is open the voltage of the gate input is pulled up to the level of Vin. When the
switch is closed, the input voltage at the gate goes to ground.

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The relay is an electromechanical device, which transforms an electrical signal into mechanical
movement. It consists of a coil of insulated wire on a metal core, and a metal armature with one or
more contacts. When a supply voltage was delivered to the coil, current would flow and a
magnetic field would be produced that moves the armature to close one set of contacts and/or
open another set. When power is removed from the relay, the magnetic flux in the coil collapses
and produces a fairly high voltage in the opposite direction.

THE RELAY

Pulse Width Modulation - Using digital pulses to create some analog value other than just ‘high’'
and ‘low' signal levels. Many digital systems are powered by a 5-Volt power supply, so if you
filter a signal that has a 50% duty cycle you get an average voltage of 2.5 Volts. Other duty
cycles produce any voltage in the range of 0 to 100% of the ’high' voltage, depending upon the
PWM resolution.
The duty cycle is defined as the percentage of digital 'high' to digital ‘low' signals present during
a PWM period.
The PWM resolution is defined as the maximum number of pulses that you can pack into a
PWM period.
PULSE WIDTH The PWM period is an arbitrarily time period in which PWM takes place. It is chosen to give best

MODULATION results for your particular use.

Uses for PWM:

1) To digitally create an analog output voltage level for control functions and power supplies.
2) To digitally create analog signals for arbitrary waveforms, sounds, music and speech.

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Data Acquisition, Conversion, And

Distribution Systems
With the rapid growth in the use of digital
computers to perform digital control, both the
data-acquisition system and the distribution
system have become an important part of the
entire control system. The signal conversion
that takes place in the digital control system
involves the following operations:

1. Multiplexing and demultiplexing

2. Sample and hold

3. Analog-to-digital conversion (quantizing and Digital Controller

encoding)

4. Digital-to-analog conversion (decoding)

Components of Data Acquisition Systems

Data acquisition involves three key components:
Role of Sensors
• Sensors are the bridge between the physical world and digital
controllers:
⚬ They come in various types to measure temperature, pressure,
light, motion, and much more.
⚬ The type of sensor depends on the data needed for control.
Signal Conditioning
• Signal conditioning ensures that raw sensor data is reliable and
suitable for processing:
⚬ Amplification: Adjusts the signal's strength for optimal processing.
⚬ Filtering: Removes noise and unwanted frequencies.
⚬ Linearization: Makes the relationship between input and output
linear.
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion
• A/D conversion is the critical step where analog data becomes digital:
⚬ It involves the measurement of the analog signal at discrete
intervals.
⚬ The resulting digital data is a representation of the real-world data
in a format that computers and digital controllers can work with.

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DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

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DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

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DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

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DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

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DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

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DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

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DIGITAL DATA
ACQUISITION

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