DBMS (DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM)

ORGANIZATION :- A company, business, firm, or association.

ENTERPRISE :- An enterprise is any kind of organization such as bank,a university,a

manufacturing plant or hospital.

DATA:-

It is a collection of related information or is used to assert meaningfull

information.

OR

Data can be defined as representation of facts,concepts or instructions in a formalized

manner suitable for communication,interpretation or processing by human or electronic
machine.Data is represented with the help of characters like Alphabets(A-Z), digits(0-9),
special characters(+.-,/,<,>,= etc).

DATA ITEM(FIELD) :-

A set of characters which are used together to represent a specific data

element. E.g – name of student in a class is represented by the data item, say, NAME.

OR

An individual item in a record is called Data Item.

There are two types of Data Item depending upon the usage are as follow:-

1) Elementary Data Item:-

These data item can not be further sub-divided.For eg – Roll No
2) Group Data Item:-
These can be further sub-divided into elementary data item.For Eg-
Date.Date may be divided into Days,Months,Years.
 FILE (DATA FILE):- File is a collection of related record.E.g – Payroll file might
consist of the employee pay record for a company.
E.g :- Consider the STUDENT file.
RECORD DATA ITEM

ROLL_NO NAME MARKS

1001 AMIT 85

1002 RITU 75

1003 AMAN 50

TYPES OF FILE :-

Types of files are classified into 2 categories :-

1) According to the FUNCTION

2) According to the MODE OF ACCESS
Now , we will discuss all these types of files one by one as follow:-

a) Types of files (acc. To function) :-

1) MATER FILE :- It contain data which is required during each processing cycle
& needs to ne retained permanently.For eg – The file containing data for the
railway reservation/cancellation.
2) TRANSACTION FILE :- Changes which are applied to a master file are
collected on a transaction file.
3) REPORT FILE :- Contain data that are formatted for presentation to a user.e.g
– pay slip,electrictity bill are the report file.
4) WORK FILE :- It is the temporary file in the system.These files are created
during the processing for storing some intermediate data & are deleted after the
processing is over.
5) PROGRAM FILE :- It contain instruction for the processing of data.Instruction
may be in the form of source code written in programming language like Pascal,
C,C++ Etc.
 6) TEXT FILE :- Contains numeric & graphic data input using a text editor
program.
7) BACKUP FILE:- It is used to store a duplicate copy of the data or program files
on secondary storage device like Magnetic Tape or Disk.

b) Types of files ( acc to mode of access) :-

1) INPUT FILE :- Input file is only read by a program.For Eg – A file of tax rates
would be an input files for the program that computes income taxes.The
transaction file is generally input file to an update program.
2) OUTPUT FILE :- output is created by the program. Eg – report file may be
output of a program that updates a master file.
3) INPUT/OUTPUT :- I/O files are both read from & written to during a program
execution. E.g – A payroll master file might be used by a payroll program
both as a source of data about employees pay rate & as a report for month to
date & year to date pay totals.A master file is commonly an I/O files.

FILE OPERATIONS:-
1) File Creation :-

Major work in creating transaction & master file involves

data collection & validation.First we defined the data structure(field structure)
contains field name,filed type & size.After that we enter the data into the
corresponding fields.

2) File Updation :-
It means insert new record,delete the existing record or
changing the existing records.Activities of file updation are :-
a) Record Insretion :- Record insertion means adding the new record.e.g –
adding a record for newly appointed employees in the employees file.
b) Record Modifcation :- Record Modification means modification of
existing record.E.g –Changing the basic pay of a employee in the
employee file.
c) Record Deletion :- It means deletion of existing record.e.g – delete the
record of an employee who has left the company.
 3) File Retrieval :-
There are 2 types :-
a) Inquiry: - If retrieval is processed interactively than it called an inquiry
or query. e.g – find all the records whose basic pay is greater than 5000
from the employee file is a inquiry.
b) Report Generation :-
If a retrieval is processed in batch mode then the
retrieval would be called report generation. It can be comprehensive or
selective comprehensive report means if retrieval applies some criteria to
select records.

4) File Maintenance :-
Changes that are made to file to improve the
performance of the programs are known as maintenance activities. There are
two types of maintenance operations :-
a) Restructuring :- Means change in the field structure. e.g – filed size could
be changed.
b) Reorganization:- Means a change from one file organization to another

FILE SYSTEM :-

File System provides support to enable programmers to retrieve files

without being concered about details of storage characteristics & devices.File system
converts the programmer’s relatively simple file excess statement to low level i/o
instruction.

Responsibilties of the file system are :-

1) Maintaining a directory of file identification & location information.

2) Establishing pathways for data flow b/w main memory & secondary memory.
3) Coordinating communicating b/w CPU & secondary storage devices & vice-versa.
4) Preparing files for input or output use.
5) Handling files when their input or output use has terminated.
 FILE ORGANISATION :-
It refers to various schemes of data storage.Th term file
organization refers to the relationship of the key of the record to the physical
location of that record. It helps us in understanding silent features of magnetic
disk.There are 3 methods of file organization are:-

1) Sequential File organisation

2) Direct(random) file organization
3) Indexed file organisation
Now,we explain all these one by one as follow:-

1) Sequential File Organisation :-

Under this, record are written in the same sequence in
which they are collected but they are placed on the disk according to the
ascending or descending order of the record key.To access records in
sequential files,it is necessary to read the file from beginning to examine each
record in sequence until the desired record is located.

Sequential File Operations:-

The various sequential file operations are:-

1) Creating a sequential file :-

The creating of a sequential file involves writing records in the desired
sequence onto a storage medium as shown in figure :-

RECORD 1
Beginning of file

RECORD 2

.
.
.
.
 RECORD N END OF FILE

2) Retireving from sequential file(searching):-

To access records,it is necessary to read the file from
beginning to examine each record in sequence until the desired record is located.A
binay search technique may be used to search for a record.

3) Updating sequential files:-

Updation involves addition of new records,deletion of existing
record & modifaction of existing records.Updating usually rquires the creation of a
new file.To maintain file sequence,records are copied to the point where amendment
is required .The changes are then made & copied into the new file.Lastly,the
remaining records in the original file are copied to the new file.It includes addition
of new record,Deletion of an existing record & modification of a record.

ADVANTAGES :-

1) Simple to understand.
2) Loading & locating a record requires only the record key.
3) Easy to organize & maintain.
4) Files are easier to reconstruct.
5) It is economical.
6) Efficiency of storage.

Dis-ADVANTAGES :-

1) Transaction need to be stored in sequence before processing can commence.

2) Search of a record take a time.
3) In efficient to update.
4) Cannot be used for ad-hoc queries.
5) Data redundancy is typically high,since the the same data may be stored in
several files sequenced in different keys.
Direct(Random) file organization :-

In this, data is stored on the disk by its KEY-FIELD & the computer
directly locates the key of the required record,without having to search the sequence of
other records.For this purpose, the computer carries out an arithmetic procedure known as
transform(hashing) by means of which record key number is converted into storage
location number.

To illustrate the record key number is divided by a value determined by arithmetic

procedure.The record is then stored on the disk in a location corresponding to the various
calculated by the division carried out.Given, key of the record to be processed on the later
date,the computer uses the transform procedure(hasing algorithm) again to locate a
particular record.Thus,the record gets directly accessed for processing.

Direct file operation :-

1) Creation of direct files :- For ceating direct file, a hshing algorithm & collision
handling algorithm must be specified by programmer.Using the given hashing
algorithm,the primary key value of input record is translated into physical address
& then the record is written into the location corresponding to the physical
address.This process continues until all the input records have been written to the
storage medium.
2) Retrieving from direct file (searching):- To retrieve a record from a direct file,user
must supply the primary key value of that record.Using the given hashing algorithm
, the primary key value is translated into physical address & program retrives the
record from that address.If there is no record at that address,then the desired
record at the transformed address,the specified collision method is used to retrieve
the desired record.
3) Updatin a direct file:- To add,delete or modify the record, primary key value of the
record is translated into physical address using hashing algorithm first.Then- it
includes addition of a new record,deletion of an existing record & modification of a
record.

ADVANTAGES:-
1) Fast retrieval of records
2) There is no need to sort transactions.
 3) Very suitable for ad-hoc & query requirements.
4) It is also possible to process direct file records sequentially in a record key
sequence.
5) Updating of any record or group of records does not require the re-writing the
entire file.

DIS-ADVANTAGES :-

1) Expensive hardware & software resources are required.

2) Some wastage of storage space is involved.
3) Algorithm to access a record may entail complex calculation.
4) Addition & deletion of record are somewhat difficult to carry out.
5) Special security measures are necessary for online direct files that are accessible
for several stations.

INDEXED SEQUENTIAL FILE ORGANISATION(ISAM) :-

This approach combines the advantage of both sequential & direct access file
organization.In this orgnisation.the records are organised in sequence but direct access to
individual records is possible through an index.

The external storages devices that support both direct & sequential access are magnetic
drums & magnetic disk.So an indexed sequential file is stored on to direct access
storage.Indexed sequential files are composed of three areas.

1) Prime Area :- The prime area contains records of the file when the file is created or
reorganized.Recprds in the prime area are in order by key.
2) Overflow area :- Records are placed in overflow area when additions to the file
cannot fitted into the prime area.
3) Indexed Area :- The indexes are used to locate a particular record for random
processing.

Operation of index sequential file :-

1) Creating indexed sequential file:- When an indexed sequential file is created all
records are written itno the prime area in sequence by key.The indexes are
generated at this time.
2) Retrieving from indexed sequential file :-
 Suppose it is desired to read record 79.One way to access this record
is to sequentially read the records in a file until record 79 is found.This may be a
very slow peocess.A faster way of finding record 79 is to use the track index.
The Highest key of track 3 is 75 & the highest key on track 4 is 82.Therefore, if
record 79 exist, it must be on track 4.Consequently, the next step is to read track
4 to find record 79.Using the track index does not eliminate sequential
searching.It just reduces the magnitude of the task.Instead of searching a large
file of records, we are able to search a table that points towards the desired
record location.

3) Updation:-
It includes the following :-
1) Modification :- It is similar to the retrieval process.Th indexes are used used
to find the desired record & the new record is written on the top of the old
one.
2) Deletion :- A deletion from the file is also straight forward. The indexes are
used to find the desired record & a apecial mark is inserted into the record to
indicate that it has been deleted.
3) Insertion :- Is to an indexed sequential file are quite troublesome because the
key order of the file must be maintained.

ADVANTAGES:-
1) Can be processed both randomly as well as sequentially as needed
2) Very suitable for urgent & ad-hoc information retrieval
3) It permits more efficient use of sequential processing approach, particularly
in situation where activity of files is high.
4) It permit quick access to records when the activity is only the fraction of the
total workload.

Dis-Advantages :-

1) Takes addition storage space for indexed files i.e less efficient in use of storage space
2) Indices need to be designed carefully
3) Slower than direct access.
4) Its implementation requires expensive software resource

Data processing :- Step by step refinement of data in order to achieve a meaningful

the restricting information or data is caleed data processing.It is the restricting or
reordering of data by people or machine to increase their usefulness & value for
some particular purpose.
 DATA RESULT( INFORMATION)

(RAW INFORMATION) PROCESSING (USEFUL INFORMATION)

DATA AGGREGATE :-

It is a collection of data item within a record,which is given a

name & reffered to as a whole.Date & Name are data aggregate because these again
are divided into sub group such as date is divided into three data item.i.e-
Month,day & year .Similarly Name is also divided into 3 data item,i.e-initial
name,middle name & last name .

Information :- It is the processed form of data on which decisions & actions are
based.For the decision to be meaningful,the processed data must qualify for the
following features:-
1) Timely
2) Accurate
3) Complete
4) Given to the right persons

Example :- Marks obtained in different subjects in a particular examination of

a student act as data.By processing this data, result may be obtained.The result
is the information, teacher uses to declare a student pass or fail.

Characteristics/Qualities of Information:-

1) Accuracy :- Information,If it is to be of value,should be accurate & should

truly reflect the situation or behavior of an event as it really is.
2) Relevance:- It refers to current utility of information in decision making or
problem solving.Thus,information gains value if it is relevant.
3) Timeliness: It means that information should be made available when it is
needed for a particular purpose & not before & in any case not after.
4) Completeness:- Information is considered as complete if it tells its user all
what he wishes to know about a particular situation/problem.The more than
completeness of information,the higher is its value.
5) Purpose:- Information must have purpose at the time it is transmitted to a
person or machine,otherwise it is simply data.
 6) Reliability:- The information should be reliable & external force relied upon
indicated.
7) Validity:- It measures the closeness of the information to the purpose.

NEED OF INFORMATION :-

1) It is useful for making decisions.

2) It helps managers(or users) in lowering the level of uncertainities where they have to
make a choice among several available alternatives.
3) It helps the user in trackling problems relating to their respective functional areas.
4) It is used by top management to plan the objectives of the organization & to access
whether the objectives are being met in practice.

TYPES OF INFORMATION :-

1) Operational
2) Tactical
3) Strategical
Database :- It is composed of a collection of files that are linked in such way that
information from one of the files may be combined with information from other files so
that user may receive the exact information needed.A database is well organized collection
of data that are related in a meaningful way which can be accessed in different logical
orders but are stored only once.

Characteristics of Database:-

1) A database represents some aspects of the real world application.any changes in the
real world are reflected in the database.For eg – consider the students database,we
have in our mind certain applications of maintaining records of attendance,unit
examination marks,scholarship etc. realted to each student of the college.
2) A database is designed & built With data for specific purpose.
3) Operations like update,insert,retrieve etc on the database can be carried out in
simple & flexible way.
4) A database provides a logical relational b/w its records & data.Thus various records
can be accessed depending on same logical conditions by a single query from the
database.Thus various records can be accessed depending on same logical
Conditions by a single query from the database
5) It has an intended group of users & some preconceived applications in which these
users are interested.For eg – in a student database,the user groups are the
administrative officials of the college, the students & the teachers.

ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE:-

1) Flexibility:- Acc to the requirements,we can change the structure of a

database,without affecting the existing application programs.We can add new user
group or new file to the database.
2) Availability of up-to-date information :- DBMS allow multiple users to access the
database,all other users can immediately see this change or update.This availability
of up-to-date information is essential for many applications,such as railway
reservation system or banking databases.
3) Potential for enforcing standards:- With central control of the database, the DBA
can ensure that all applicable standards are followed in the representation of the
data such as format of data items,conventions on data names, documentation
standards etc. which will result in uniformity of the entire database as well as its
usage.

4) Reduced Application Development Time:- The main feature of the database

approach is that developing a new application takes very little time.For eg – time
required to retrieve of certain data from the database for printing a new report is
very less. Development time using a DBMS is estimated to be one sixth to one-fourth
of that for a traditional file system.

5) Reduced Cost :- No need to purchase the equipment for each department in

database approach. Man-power is also reduced in this approach.We just need to
purchase more powerful processors, storage devices etc.

DATABASE SYSTEM :-

A database system consist of a collection of interrelated data & a set

of programs to access that data.Hence, database system is the DBMS software
together with the data itself.It is a software that assists in maintaining & utilizing a
database.

ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE SYSTEM :-

1) Minimal Redundancy :-
In file system each application has redundancy in stored
data, with resultant waste in storage space.For eg – personnel application &
an education-records application may each own a file containing department
information for employees.These two files can be integrated & the redundancy
eliminated, if the DBA is aware of the data requirements for both applications.

2) Inconsistency can be avoided :-

This is really a corollary of the previous point.Suppose that a
given fact about the real world-say, the fact that employee E3 works in
department D8 is represented by two distinct entries in the database & that the
system is not aware of this duplication.Then there will be some occasions on
which the two entries will not agree.At such times the database is said to be
 inconsistent.Obiviously, a database that is in an inconsistent state is capable of
supplying incorrect or conflicting information.

3) Sharing of data :-
It means not only that existing applications can share the data in the
database,but also that new applications can be developed to operate against that
same stored data.In other words, the data requirements of new applications may
be satisfied without having to create any new stored files.

4) Search Capability :-
The user of a database may ask a wide variety of the questions
about the data.If a quick answer is needed at a terminal the search will have to
be fast the capability to search a database quickly & with diff search criteria is
highly dependent on the physical data organization.An objective of data-base
organization, then may be to achieve fast flexible search capability.

5) Integrity :-
By integrity we mean unification of several files into one file.when a
database contains data employed by many different users it is important that the
data items & associations b/w data items not be destroyed.Hardware failures &
various types of accidents will occur occasionally.The storage of data & its
updating & insertion procedures,must be such that the system can recover from
these circumstance without harm to the data.This integration reduces
redundancy & also eliminates inconsistency.

6) Power user Language:-

It is possible that in the future the most important reason to have
database system will be that they permit end users to employ data without
application programs necessarily having to be written powerful languages
arecoming into existence which permit untrained users to query, search &
update data in database, to manipulate the data & to generate reports or
documents which use it.

7) Faster Development of new application:-

When a new application proposed,it is likely that the
data required is already stored in the database.Therefore, development time is
reduced as no file creation phase is required for the new application.
8) Privacy & Security :- Data in database sytem must be kept secure &
private.Data security refers to protection of data against accidental or
intentional disclosure to unauthorized persons or modifications.
9) Privacy refers to the right of individual & organizations to determine for
themselves when, how & to what extent information about them is to be
transmitted to others.

10) The interface with the past :-

Organizations which have been using data processing for some time
having a major investment in their existing programs, procedures & data.When an
organization installs new data-base software it is imp that it can work with the
existing programs & procedures & that the existing data can be converted.This need
for compatibility can be a major constraints in switching to a new data-base system.

11) The Interface with the future:-

Most important is the nterface with the future.In the future
data & its storage media will change in many ways.change has been extremely
costly to data processing users.So,one of the most imp objectives of data base
design is to plan the database in such way that changes can be made to it without
having to modify the application programs.To obtain this essential protection
two characteristics are necessary in the database design & both are complex to
achieve.

12) Data Migration:-

Some data are used to represent the overall logical view of data
should be conceived in a simple & neat fashion.In many systems, pointers are
used in the logical representation to show relationships b/w data items.
A problem with logical pointers is that more & more relationships are added b/w
items the overall collection of pointers becomes highly complex & it is difficult to
represent the overall logical view of the database with clearly.
Dis-Advantages of database system :-

1) High cost of DBMS :-

Because a complete DBMS is very large & sophisticated piece of
software,it is expensive to purchase.

2) High Hardware Cost:-

Additional memory & processing power may be required to run the
DBMS, resulting in the need to upgrade the hardware.

3) High Conversion Cost :-

Which an organization converts to a database system, data has
to be removed from files & loaded into the database which may be difficult &
time consuming process.

4) Higher Programming Cost:-

Bacause a DBMS is a complex tool with many features, it
requires experienced programmers resulting in extra payment for their hire
& expertise.

5) Complex :-
Another major disadvantage is that database processing tends to
complex,large amounts of data in many diff formats can be interrelated in
the database.Both the database system & the application programs must be
able to process these structure.

6) Backup & Recovery are more difficult :-

This is because of increased complexity & because
database are often processed by several users concurrently.Determining the
exact state of the database at the time of failure may be a problem.Given
that, it may be even more difficult to determine what should be done
next.Even the failure of just one application program may pose serious
problems.

7) Confidentiality, privacy & security:-

When information is centralized & is made available to
users from remote locations, the possibilities of abuse are often more that in a
conventional data processing data.
 8) Data Integrity:-
Since a large number of users could be using a database
concurrently, technical safeguards are necessary to ensure that the data
remain correct during operation.The main threat to data integrity comes
from several diff users attempting to update the same data at the same time.

9) Increased Vulnerability:-
A final disadvantage is that integration & ence centralized,
increases vulnerability.A failure in one component of an integrated system
can stop the entire system.This event is especially critical if, as is often the
case, the operation of the user organization depends on the database.

COMPONENTS OF DATABASE SYTEM:-

It involves four major components ; data, hardware, software & user.nw

we briefly explain all these one by one as below :

1) DATA :- The data stored in the system is partitioned into one or more database.A
database is both integrated & shared.By ‘shared’ we mean that individual pieces of
data in the database may be shared among several diff users, in the sense that each
of those users may have access to the same piece of data.Such sharing is really a
consequence of the fact that the database is integrated.

2) HARDWARE:- The hardware consist of the secondary storage volumes –

disks,drums etc on which the database resides,together with the associated
devices,control units, channels & so forth.

3) SOFTWARE:- Between the hardware & the users there is layer of software, usually
called the database management system or DBMS.All requests from users for access
to the database are handled by the DBMS.
4) DATABASE USERS:- There are three classes of user

a) Application Programmer :- The application programmer, responsible for

writing application programs that use the database, typically in a language such
as COBOL or PL/1 to meet the user requirement.Theses application programs
operates on the data in all the usual ways : retrieving information, creating new
information, deleting or changing existing information.Functions are performed
by issuing the appropriate request to the DBMS.

b) End-User:- The second class user, is the end-users, accessing the database from
a terminal. There are two types of END-USERS.
1) CASUAL USERS:- Are trained in the use of the on-line query language &
access data by entering queries at terminals
2) NAÏVE USERS :- Thses users access data through application programs
that have been written for them.They do not need to know any details of
the structure or language of the database system.

c) DBA(DATA BASE ADMINISTRATOR):-

DBA is a person or group of persons responsible for over all
control of database. A person responsible for the design and management of one
or more databases and for the evaluation, selection and implementation of
database management systems. In smaller organisations, the data administrator
and database administrator are often one in the same; however, when they are
different, the database administrator's function is more technical. The database
administrator would implement the database software that meets the
requirements outlined by the organisation's data administrator and systems
analysts.Tasks might include controling an organisation's data resources, using
data dictionary software to ensure data integrity and security, recovering
corrupted data and eliminating data redundancy and uses tuning tools to
improve database performance.
 END – USER

APPLICATION
CASUAL NAIVE
PROGRAMMERS
DBA USER USER

Commands that Programs write in

create & modify PASCAL,COBOL, On-line Pre-written
data base FORTRAN etc. quercy programs
structure language

DBMS

DATABASE
 DBMS (DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM):-

Is a collection of related information so that it is available to

many users for different purposes. The content of database is obtained by combining the
data from different sources in an organization.

Technically speaking, it is a software system that uses a standard method of

cataloging, retrieving, and running queries on data. The DBMS manages incoming data,
organizes it, and provides ways for the data to be modified or extracted by users or other
programs.

Some DBMS examples include MySQL, Microsoft Access, SQL Server, Oracle,
RDBMS, dBASE, and FoxPro. Since there are so many database management systems
available, it is important for there to be a way for them to communicate with each other.

QUERIE
S

DATABASE
OPERATING
DBM SYSTEM

PASCAL/C

FUNCTIONS:-
 There are various types of functions available in DBMS are as follow :-

1) DATA DEFINATION(DDL):-
DBMS must be able to accept data definition in source from & then convert
it into the appropriate object form.In the other words DBMS must include language
processor components for each of the various data definition language(DDL).

2) DATA MANUPULATION(DML):-
DBMS must include a DML processor component.The DBMS
must be able to handle request from the user to see retrieve, update, delete or add
the new record to the database.

3) DATA SECURITY & INTEGRITY:-

DBMS must monitor user request & reject any attempt to
violate the security & integrity rule defined by the DBA.
Data Security one of the most important functions in the DBMS.
Security management sets rules that determine specific users that are allowed to
access the database. Users are given a username and password or sometimes
through biometric authentication (such as a fingerprint or retina scan) but these
types of authentication tend to be more costly. This function also sets restraints on
what specific data any user can see or manage.

4) DATA RECOVERY & BACKUP:-

Backup and recovery is brought to mind whenever there is potential
outside threats to a database. For example if there is a power outage, recovery
management is how long it takes to recover the database after the outage. Backup
management refers to the data safety and integrity; for example backing up all your
mp3 files on a disk.

5) DATA DICTIONARY:-
Data Dictionary is where the DBMS stores definitions of the data
elements and their relationships (metadata). The DBMS uses this function to look
up the required data component structures and relationships. When programs
access data in a database they are basically going through the DBMS. This function
removes structural and data dependency and provides the user with data
abstraction. In turn, this makes things a lot easier on the end user. The Data
Dictionary is often hidden from the user and is used by Database Administrators
and Programmers.

6) PERFORMANCE:-
 DBMS should perform all of the functions identified above as
efficiently as possible.

COMPONENTS OF DBMS:-

1) DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE(DDL) COMPILER:-

DDL Compiler take the data definition statement that is in the
source form & convert them into the object form.
The DML commands such as insert, update, delete, retrieve
from the application program are sent to the DML compiler for compilation into
object code for database access. The object code is then optimized in the best
way to execute a query by the query optimizer and then send to the data
manager.

2) DATA MANAGER:-
Data Manager convert the user queries from the user logical view to
a physical file system. It is also take care of backup & recovery operation.in
addition, to maintain or control the consistency & integrity of the data as well as
its security are also perform by the data manager.

3) FILE MANAGER:-
File manager takes care of structure of the file & manage the file space.

4) DISK MANAGER:-
It is responsible for controlling the information that is stored on the
disk.It transfer the block requested by the file manager. So that, file manager
need not be concerned with the physical characteristics of storage media.

5) QUERY PROCESSOR:-
The query entered by the users are handled by the query
processor. The query is analyzed & executed by generating call to the database
engine.It is used to interprete the online user query convert it into an efficient
series of operation in a form capable of being send to the data manager for
execution.

6) Tele-Communication System :-
 Online user of the computer system weather remote or local
communicate with it by sending & receiving message over communication
line.These messages routed by tele-communication system.

7) Data Files:-
It contains the data portion of the database.

8) Data Dictionary:-
DBMS must provide a data dictionary function.It contains data
about the data.Rather than just raw data.Data dictionary contains the
information about entity, attritubtes, mapping & cross-reference information.

9) Access Aids :-
To improve the performance of a DBMS, a set of access aids in the form
of indexes are usually provided in a database system.

CLASSIFICATION OF DBMS:-

There are two classes of DBMS users :-

1) Workers on the scene :-

Persons whose job involves daily use of a large database are:-

a) Database Administrator
b) Database Designers
c) End-Users
d) System Analysts
e) Application Programmer

2) Workers behind the scene :-

Persons whose job involves design, development, operation & maintenance of
the DBMS software are:-

a) DBMS dsigners & implementers

b) Tool Developers
c) Operator & maintenance personnel

DBA (DATA BASE ADMINISTRATOR):-

 DBA is a person or group of persons responsible for over all
control of database system.All the activities in a database system are controlled by
DBA. Some of the main activities that to be performed are as follow:-

1) Deciding the information contents of database system

It is the DBA who decides information contents of database system.
DBA decides fields, type of fields & range of values that can be stored in fields.In
other words, DBA decides schema of database.

2) Deciding hardware device to be used

It is a database administrator’s job to decide which hardware device
will be most suitable for current database applications.Trade off b/w cost & efficiency
is performed by DBA to decide the storage device.

3) Deciding the users & data to be used by users

It is the DBA who decides users of the database system.DBA
also decides which information contents are to be used by any particular user.This is
performed by writing subschema.

4) Deciding the back-up & recovery method

To avoid accidental loss of data backup of the data is
maintained on regular intervals.It is the DBA who decides which data is to be backed
up & when i.e amount of data & frequency of data is decided by DBA. If data is losed
then it is the DBA how to recover data from the existing back-up.

5) Deciding the validation checks on the data

It is the DBA who decides which checks are to be maintained on
existing data in database system & the standards to be maintained are also decided by
DBA.

6) Monitoring performance & responding to changing requirement

The DBA is responsible for organizing the system as to get the
performance that is “best for the enterprise” & for making the appropriate
adjustments as requirement change.

DATA BASE DESIGNER:-

 Database designer task is before the database is actually implemented.
Responsibilities of database designer are:-

1) SCHEMA DEFINITION:-
i.e. the creation of the original database schema.

2) Storage Structure & Access method definition:-

i.e. writing a set of definitions translated by the data storage & definition
language compiler.

3) Schema & physical organization modification:-

i.e. writing a set of definitions to generate modifications to
appropriate internal system tables(e.g. data dictionary).

Hence, Database Designer are responsible for :

. Identifying the data to be stored in the database.
. Choosing appropriate structures to reperesent & store this data.

END-USERS:-
The term end-user is to describe the person who accesses the database in
the course of their day-to-day work.

There are three types of end-users :-

1) Sophisticated end-users:-
This user interact with the system without writing programs.They form
requests by writing queries in a database query language.The category of users are
very familiar with the system & can use the database to meet their requirements.

2) Specialized end-users:-
This uuser interact with the system with writing special database
application programs.Specialized users can write a specialized program like
CAD,CASE or Multimedia Database programs.This specialized programmer is
called specialized user.

3) Naïve user:-
 It access data through application programs that have been written for
them. They do not need to know any details of the structure of language of the
database system.They are totally unsophisticated users who never know writing
programs or even small queries.

SYSTEM ANALYST:-

System Analyst determine the requirements of end-users, especially naïve end-

user & develop specifications for canned transactions that meet these requirement. Not only
this he also analyses the user requirement so that the DBMS data fields can be selected
appropriately to fulfill the user needs.This requirement includes the number
fields,size,type,constraints etc.Once analyzing all these skills for coding so that codes can be
decided for efficient use of DBMS.After complete analysis he hands it over to the database
designer, who proceeds with the actual designing of the database.

Application Programmers:-

The application programmer, responsible for writing application

programs that use the database,Typically in a language such as COBOL or PL/1 to meet the
user requirement.These application programs operate on the data in all the usual ways:
retrieving information, creating new information, deleting or changing existing
information.They actually make use of DMA calls which are embedded in the programs
written by them.These programs are known as application programs.For eg – programs
written for credit accounts & debit account in a banking system, a pay bill generator
program or a hospital management system program etc.

DBMS DESIGNER & IMPLEMENTERS:-

They perform tough & responsible jobs.The DBMS system designer knows the
hardware requierements of the system & through his analyzing & designing capability, he
produces an efficient system design for the DBMS.The DBMS system implementers are
those who help for hardware implementation of the entire system.They do not play any role
in the software implementation as it is the job of DBA & application/system programmers.

Tool Developers:-
 It helps to develop the software tools for DBMS. It is their job to provide complete
management, help & other database creation & maintenance tools for the DBMS.

Operator & maintenance personal:-

The operators,who know how to operate the netire system, are fully
responsible for proper running & operation of the hardware parts of complete system.

The final job is the maintenance of machinery for the entire system.The maintenance not
only includes repair & proper working, it also includes the upgradation of the equipments
as & when required.All of them are technical people & the know how to maintain,operate &
upgrade the system.

DBMS ARCHITECTURE:-

DBMS Architecture is divided into three levels:-

1) External level
2) Conceptual level
3) Internal level(PHYSICAL LEVEL)

1) EXTERNAL LEVEL:-
This level is one closed to the users, that is the one concerned with the way
in which the data is viewed by individual users.At the external level the DBMS
presents each user with a shared or single view or schema of the data.There are
many views of the data is this level, & each view is a representation of prt of the total
database.A view allows a user access to their portion of the database & shields the
rest of the database from them.
For eg – one user may view date in the form as day,month,year while another may
view as year,month,day.Some views might include derived or calculated data, that is
data is not stored in the database but are created when needed.The individual age of
all employees stored in the database.
Each external view is defined by means of an external schema, which consists
basically of definitions of each of the various types of external record found in that
external view.

2) CONCEPTUAL LEVEL:-
 This level is the representation of entire content of the database.If the
external level is concerned with the individual user views the conceptual level may be
thought of as defining a community user view.In other words, there will be many
external views,each consisting of a similarly abstract representation of some portion
of the database & there will be a single “conceptual view” , consisting of a similarly
abstaract representation of the database in its entirety.

The conceptual view is defined by the conceptual schema which includes definitions
of each of the various types of data or the various types of conceptual record.The
conceptual schema hides the detail of physical storage structures & concentrates on
describing entities, data types, relationships, use operations & constraints.This view
is normally more stable than the other two views.

The ultimate objective of the conceptual schema is to describe the complete

enterprise-not just its data but also how that data is used, how it flows point to point
within the enterprise – not just its data but also how that data is used, how it flows
from point to point within the enterprise, what it is used for at each point, what
controls are to be applied at each point & so on.

In most existing system the “conceptual schema” is little more than a simple union of
all individual external schema, with addition of certain security & integrity rules.

3) INTERNAL LEVEL(PHYSICAL LEVEL):-

The internal level is the one closest to physical storage, that is the one
concerned with the way in which the data is actually stored.
The following aspects are considered at this level:
1) Storage allocation e.g. B – tress, hashing etc.
2) Access paths e.g. specification of primary & secondary keys, indexes & pointers.
3) Miscellaneous e.g. data compression & encryption techniques, optimization of the
internal structures.

The internal view is described by means of the internal schema, which not only
defines the various stored record types but also specifies the indexes, how stored
fields are represented, what physical sequence the stored records are in & so on.

END USERS
 EXTERNAL EXTERNAL VIEW
VIEW

CONCEPTUAL SCHEMA

INTERNAL SCHEMA

STORED DATABASE

(DBMS ARCHITECTURE)

DATA INDEPENDENCE:-
 The ability to use the database without knowing the representation details
is called data independence .We can also define data independence as the capacity to
change the schema at next higher level needs to be be changed.

The reason for data independence are as follw:-

1) To allow the DBA to make changes in the content, location, representation &
organization of a database without causing reprogramming of application programs
which use the database.
2) To allow the supplier of data processing equipment & software to introduce new
technologies without causing reprogramming of the customer’s application
3) To facilitate data sharing by allowing the same data to appear to be organized
differently for different application programs.
4) To simplify application program development in particular, to facilitate the
development of programs for interactive data base processing.
5) To provide the centralization of control needed by the databse administrator(DBA)
to insure the security & integrity of the database.

TWO TYPES OF DATA INDEPENDENCE :-

1) Logical Data Independence

2) Physical Data Independence

1) Logical data independence:-

It means that the overall logical structure of data may be changed
without changing the application programs. Hence, logical data independence is
the ability to modify the logical conceptual schema without causing application
programs to be re-written or any change to external schema
Changes or alterations in the conceptual schema may include addition or
deletion of fresh entities, attributes & relationships. These changes should be
possible without having alteration to existing external schemas.

2) Physical Data Independence:-

 It means that the physical layout & organization of the data may
be changed without changing either the overall logical structure of the data
or the application programs.
Hence, Physical data independence is the ability to modify internal schema
without causing any changes in the conceptual schema. Alteration in the
internal schema might include:-

1) Using new storage devices.

2) Using different data structures.
3) Switching from one access method to another.
4) Using different file organization or storage structures.
5) Modifying indexes.

The above mentioned changes should be possible without having to

change the conceptual or external schemas.