Environ Sci Pollut Res

DOI 10.1007/s11356-016-6329-6

REVIEW ARTICLE

The capacity of aquatic macrophytes for phytoremediation

and their disposal with specific reference to water hyacinth
Solomon W. Newete 1 & Marcus J. Byrne 1,2

Received: 23 September 2015 / Accepted: 19 February 2016

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016

Abstract The actual amount of fresh water readily accessible Keywords Tailings dam . Macrophytes . Decomposition .
for use is <1 % of the total amount of water on earth, and is Pollution . Phytoremediation . Safe disposal
expected to shrink further due to the projected growth of the
population by a third in 2050. Worse yet are the major issues
of water pollution, including mining and industrial waste Introduction
which account for the bulk of contamination sources. The
use of aquatic macrophytes as a cost-effective and eco- Water is the source of life and has no substitute. Considering
friendly tool for phytoremediation is well documented. that our planet is 70 % covered by water, it is a shock to realize
However, little is known about the fate of those plants after that the actual amount of fresh water readily accessible for
phytoremediation. This paper reviews the options for safe dis- human use in the world is <1 % (Postel et al. 1996).
posal of waste plant biomass after phytoremediation. Among Currently a third of the world’s population lives under water
the few mentioned in the literature are briquetting, incinera- stress and the future is bleak as the figure is expected to double
tion and biogasification. The economic viability of such pro- by 2025 at the current rate of water consumption (Arnell
cesses and the safety of their economic products for domestic 1999). Furthermore, water scarcity is also likely to increase
use are however, not yet established. Over half of the nations due to the impacts of climate change (Arnell 2004). It is there-
in the world are involved in mining of precious metals, and fore, imperative that we pay the utmost attention to manage-
tailings dams are the widespread legacy of such activities. ment and conservation of our renewable surface waters which
Thus, the disposal of polluted plant biomass onto mine storage will remain the main source of domestic and agricultural water
facilities such as tailing dams could be an interim solution. supplies, particularly in developing countries. While deter-
There, the material can act as mulch for the establishment of mining the sources of water pollution and preventing them
stabilizing vegetation and suppress dust. Plant decomposition from reaching our water stores has to be the focal point of
might liberate its contaminants, but in a site where contain- any solution, cleaning water by conventional means (chemi-
ment is a priority. cal, physical and biological) or by phytoremediation is inevi-
tably becoming more important. Conventional methods are
however, often less cost-effective and less eco-friendly than
Responsible editor: Elena Maestri
phytoremediation where plants are used to remove contami-
nants from soil or water (Ahluwalia and Goyal 2007).
* Solomon W. Newete
solomonnewete@gmail.com Nevertheless, despite increased public interest in the method,
particularly in the last three decades (Henry 2000), its practical
use is curtailed by a number of factors, among which is the
1
School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of
fate of the phytoremediating plants after use which about little
the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa is known. This review investigates the use of aquatic macro-
2
Centre for Invasion Biology, School of Animal, Plant and
phytes in phytoremediation and options for their safe disposal
Environmental Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, after the process of phytoremediation. Special reference to
Johannesburg 2050, South Africa water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Laubach is made because of its wide distribution and reputa- quality as a result of acid mine drainage from abandoned coal
tion as an invasive weed, in contrast to its ability to remove mines (Sheer et al. 1982). Acid mine drainage directly con-
pollutants from water. taminates a total of 700 km of streams and rivers and more
than 2300 ha of lakes and reservoirs in the USA (Cohen
Sources of water pollution 2006). Similarly, the rapidly declining surface and ground
water quality as a result of effluents and decants from aban-
While water pollution also occurs through natural physical doned mines in Gauteng and the North West Provinces (South
weathering of geological structures and leaching by runoff, Africa) has raised alarms over the last five years (van Eeden et
the water pollution that results from a number of anthropogen- al. 2009). The gold mines in the West Rand and Far West rand
ic activities such as mining, industrial and agricultural prac- near Johannesburg, alone discharge an estimated 50 tonnes of
tices is unprecedented and remains a major issue of concern uranium annually into the receiving surface water courses
(Sood et al. 2012). Disposal of untreated sewage and effluents (Coetzee et al. 2006).
into surface water is still the norm in many countries (Ismail While water scarcity problems continue to rise as a factor
and Beddri 2009). Globally, an estimated 80 % of used water of increasing world population and unpredicted impacts of
is neither collected nor treated and is simply discharged into global climate change, industrial and mining waste effluents
our waterways (Corcoran et al. 2010). The water bodies in the remain the main concern of governments and environmental-
state of Lagos in Nigeria are used as waste water reservoirs by ists in water related issues. Thus, while increasing our water
the nearby medium and large scale industries (Anetekhai et al. use efficiency and reducing our domestic and economic foot-
2007). Both organic and inorganic contaminants of water from prints on water resources is of immense importance and a
such activities put all aquatic life and human health at risk and matter of urgency, implementing an effective remediation
particularly threaten developing countries, where between 75 technology in the abatement of water pollutants could make
and 90 % of their populations are exposed to unsafe drinking an important contribution to water security.
water (Sood et al. 2012). The common contaminants include
heavy metals, radionuclides, nitrates, phosphates, inorganic Conventional methods of remediation
acids and organic chemicals (Arthur et al. 2005). The water
pollutants of major concern are the heavy metals such as lead, A wide range of traditional methods for treating industrial and
arsenic, cadmium, mercury, chromium, and thallium, due to mine wastewaters are used to remove both organic and inor-
their non-biodegradability and persistence in the environment. ganic contaminants before their discharge into receiving wa-
These share a high level of toxicity to aquatic organisms (e.g. tercourses. Ion exchange, reverse osmosis and electro-dialysis
copper) and carcinogenic or neurotoxic effects to humans (e.g. are used to remove nitrates from contaminated waters
lead and mercury) even at low concentrations (Sood et al. (Shrimali and Singh 2001). The same methods are also used
2012). in removal of heavy metals from water in addition to other
Mining is by far the biggest source of heavy metal contam- methods such as chemical precipitation, coagulation-floccula-
inants of the environment for many countries involved in such tion, floatation, ultrafiltration, activated carbon adsorption,
activities and particularly in developing countries (Kalin et al. and solvent extraction (Kurniawan et al. 2006). The effective-
2006). The issue of acid mine drainage (AMD) is at the centre ness of each of these remediation methods however, depends
of ecological problems associated with mining and it affects on a number of factors, among which are the type and the
about 70 % of the world’s mining sites (Global Capital concentration of the pollutants in the target solution. Heavy
Magazine 2008). AMD is formed when metal sulphides (e.g. metals such as zinc, cadmium and manganese can be
pyrites) from mining solid wastes rocks are exposed to water completely removed by chemical precipitation using lime
and oxygen which results in dissolved metals and H2SO4 that treatments (Charerntanyarak 1999). The same method howev-
cause a low pH (<4) in the tailings environment. er, does not achieve complete removal of lead, or mercury
Consequently this leads to leaching and increased metal mo- contaminant from water unless pre- or follow-up treatments
bility from mine tailings (Dudka and Adriano 1997). The (e.g. reducing the solution with soda ash or sodium sulphide)
AMD crisis in the province of Gauteng (South Africa) has are implemented (Dean et al. 1972).
been one such issue of environmental pollution over the last Like many other techniques the traditional remediation
decade with AMD flooding the western basins of the methods have some limitations. Complete removal of con-
Witwatersrand (McCarthy 2010). In Papua New Guinea, con- taminants is not achievable by most methods (Dean et al.
taminated mine wastes from the Ok Tedi, Porgera and 1972) and the massive amount of sludge and other residues
Tolukuma mines are discharged directly into local rivers generated in the process of mine effluent treatment raises
(Christmann and Stolojan 2001). The upper North Branch of the issue of their safe disposal into the environment
the Potomac River between the border of western Maryland (Rebhun and Galil 1990). In Canada, such sludge wastes
and West Virginia in the USA is reported to have a poor water reach an estimated 6.7 million cubic metres annually,
Environ Sci Pollut Res

which is simply the transformation of one form of waste Hyperaccumulators and accumulators
into another, then released into the environment (Hall
2012). The pressing issue with traditional methods of re- Some plants are naturally capable of accumulating heavy
mediation is however, the cost associated with them, which metals in their shoots, at concentrations between 100–000
often discourages the moral and financial liability of min- times greater than normal non-accumulator plants, without
ing companies to address their environmental footprints. any symptoms of stress (Manousaki et al. 2009; Kadukova
While there is an urgent need for the development of new et al. 2008). Reeves and Baker (2000) refer these ‘absolute
techniques to effectively reduce water pollution of all metalophytes’ as hyperaccumulators and they have identified
kinds, the use of green plants to clean contaminated water over 400 of such vascular plant species in at least 45 different
has been widely publicized and accepted as a potential families worldwide, of which Brassicaceae, Flacourtiaceae,
solution. Caryophylaceae, Cyperaceae, Cunouniaceae, Fabaceae,
Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Violaceae, and Euphobiaceae are among
Phytoremediation these included in the list (Gratäo et al. 2005). The members of
the Brassicaceae family constitute one of the most important
Phytoremediation is the reduction of harmful contaminants groups of hyperaccumulators since they are capable of
in the environment to safer concentrations using green hyperaccumulating several metal elements in their shoots
plants (Pivetz 2001; Garbisu and Alkorta 2001; Gratäo (Prasad and Freitas 2003). For instance, Thlapsi caerulescens
et al. 2005; Sharma et al. 2014; Emmanuel et al. 2014). (J. & C. Presl) is found to hyperaccumulate Cd, Co and other
Although, the inception of this concept goes back over trace metals besides zinc, if the plant is exposed to these
three centuries, it has been revived as a new innovative metals concurrently (Baker et al. 1994).
technology for environmental rehabilitation and has had Phytoremediation is a broad term that encompasses several
greater public acceptance from the mid 1970s onwards methods and among them are phytoextraction, rhizofiltration,
(Henry 2000). This is largely attributed to the fact that phytovolotalization, phytostabilization, phytodegradation,
phytoremediation is a green and cost-effective technology and rhizodegradation (Vangronsveld et al. 2009). The most
compared to the conventional methods of remediation widely used method for removing and reducing heavy metals
(Rahman et al. 2007; Suresh and Ravishankar 2004; Sood a n d m e t a l l o i d s f r o m p o l l u t e d s o i l s i s h o w e v e r,
et al. 2012; Emmanuel et al. 2014; Rai 2009; Gratäo et al. phytoextraction, which involves the removal of contaminants
2005; Sharma et al. 2014). The USA is leading the world in from the soil via the plant’s roots and their accumulation in
phytoremediation with the potential value of the market their harvestable biomass, followed by safe disposal (Salt et al.
estimated between US$33.8 and 49.7 billion annually, 1998). Ideally, hyperaccumulators would fit this method.
and similar companies are rising fast in Europe and Nevertheless, there are only a handful known of such species
Canada (Suresh and Ravishankar 2004). Although a true in the world, many of which are geographically restricted.
cost comparison between the conventional remediation and Thus, many other non-hyperaccumulator plants, with fast
phytoremediation methods has not yet been well growth and a large plant biomass can trade-off against their
established for removal of water pollutants, there are few relatively low metal accumulation capabilities and have been
anecdotal examples in the literature. For example selected as candidates for phytoremediation. Corn Zea mays
phytoremediation of contaminated soils costs 2–8 times (L.), sorghum, Sorghum bicolour (L.) Moench, alfalfa,
less than the current conventional technology used. Medicago sativa L., and willow trees (Salix spp.) are a few
Similarly, the cost of phytoremediating contaminated water such examples (Pivetz 2001). As far as phytoremediation of
could be 7–50 times less than the traditional methods polluted waters is concerned, however, the only applicable
(Table 1). method is rhizofiltration, a sub-category of phytoremediation,

Table 1 Comparisons between the cost of phytoremediation and traditional (physical and chemical remediation) methods of remediation

Contaminant Phytoremediation cost ‘Traditional’ remediation cost Depth of soil (cm) Source
(US$/unit area) (US$/unit area)

Pb 6/m2 15/m2 –730/m2 60-cm deep soil Berti and Cunningham 1997
Cd, Zn, Cs 60,000–100,000/acre >400,000/acre 50.8-cm deep soil Salt et al. 1995
Unspecified contaminant 250,000/acre 660,000/acre 610-cm deep aquifer Gatliff 1994
Petroleum 2500–15000/ha 20,000–60,000/ha 15-cm deep soil Cunningham et al. 1996
Unspecified contaminant 0.02–40/kilolitre 1–300/kilolitre Water Weiersbye 2007
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

where contaminants are removed by absorption, adsorption or effective and suitable for phytoremediation of water contam-
precipitation and are accumulated in or on the plant roots inants and particularly for treatment of domestic effluents and
(Tomé et al. 2008). It is the method best-suited for cleanup wastewaters than terrestrial plants (Sood et al. 2012). It is no
of contaminated waters and is carried out by aquatic macro- surprise therefore to see an explosion in researches and re-
phytes, since the remaining of the phytoremediation methods views of aquatic plants as potential tools of phytoremediation
are associated with terrestrial plants only (Pivetz 2001). in the last two decades, particularly in the first six major aquat-
ic macrophytes mentioned above. This could also be due to
Aquatic macrophytes in phytoremediation their widespread occurrence across the major fresh water bod-
ies of the world, often as invasive weeds, and their persistence
According to their growth forms in relation to the growth despite the massive efforts directed at their control (Rai 2009).
substratum, aquatic plants are categorized into four major Although much research on the ability of aquatic macro-
groups (Brix and Schierup 1989; Rai 2009; Sood et al. 2012): phytes to clean metal contaminated waters is commonly con-
ducted in a controlled environment at a laboratory scale, they
– Emergent macrophytes: with roots embedded in the soil have all shown a high level of efficiency and relatively greater
and shoots growing above water, e.g. Phragmites capacity for metal accumulation in their tissues compared to
australis (Cav.) Train, ex Steud., Typha latifolia L. (TL). terrestrial plants. This is because metal contaminants are more
– Floating leaved macrophytes: growing on sediments sub- bioavailable in water than in the soil where aquatic macro-
merged at a depth range of 0.5–3.0 m, e.g. angiosperms phytes have direct access to them (Sood et al. 2012).
such as Potamogeton pectinatus (L)., water lilies Nuphar Rai (2008b) investigated the metal removal efficiency of
and Nymphea. the free-floating macrophyte, Azolla pinnata (R.) Br., in an
– Submerged macrophytes: occur entirely below the water aquarium with varying concentrations of 0.5, 1 and 3 mg l−1
surface, e.g. the obligate aquatic green algae, the of Hg and Cd in isolation, and found 90, 94 and 80 % removal
charophytes, a few vascular plants the pteridophytes such for Hg and 90, 91 and 70 % removal for Cd, respectively after
as Ceratophyllum demersum L. (coontail), and many 13 days of exposure. Other similar laboratory studies also
flowering plants, the angiosperms such as Vallisneria found 93 % removal of Hg by Azolla caroliniana (Willd.)
spirallis (L.), and Hydrilla verticillata (LF). after 12 days (Bennicelli et al. 2004).
– Free-floating macrophytes: the roots float freely and no Among the other aquatic macrophytes researched extensive-
roots are anchored in the substratum, e.g. Eichhornia ly for phytoremediation are duckweeds, Lemna spp. They are
crassipes, Salvinia sp., Azolla sp., and Lemna sp. among the few free-floating aquatic macrophytes that have
been used in constructed wetlands for removal of heavy metals
Some of the main limitations of phytoremediation are: the (Vaillant et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2002; Zayed et al. 1998). The
extent of the plant’s root system in relation to the depth of the two common species of the duck weed often cited in the liter-
contaminant occurrence; the growth period required to reach a ature are: Lemna gibba L, and Lemna minor, L. Mkandawire et
well differentiated system of roots and shoots, the kind and al. (2004), found removal of 84.5 % of uranium and 88.2 % of
concentration of heavy metal contaminants and tolerance of arsenic by Lemna from contaminated water after 21 days of
plants to metal toxicity (Pivetz 2001). Nevertheless, aquatic exposure. Lemna spp. has been occasionally indicated as a
plants are relatively easy to propagate and grow fast, accumu- hyperaccumulator of heavy metals (Kara et al. 2003; Vaillant
lating a large biomass within a short period. In fact most of the et al. 2004; Mokhtar et al. 2011) because of their ability to
aquatic plants researched for their phytoremediation ability accumulate enormous amount of such contaminants in their
are often invasive and resilient to nutrient deficiency and en- tissues. Lemna gibba was found to grow naturally on tailing
vironmental variability. Among these are Eichhornia ponds of abandoned uranium mines, with 186.0 ± 81.2 μg/l
crassipes, Azolla sp, Lemna spp, and Myriophyllum uranium and 47.37 ± 21.3 μg/l arsenic concentrations greater
aquaticum (Vell) Verdc., Ceratophyllum demersum, Hydrilla than the background reference sites with 7.9 μg/l and
verticillata (L.F.) Royle, Phragmites australis, Typha latifolia, 3.02 μg/l, respectively (Mkandawire et al. 2004). Many other
Arundo donax (L.), Vallisneria spiralis (L.). They have an aquatic plants had also been investigated for their potential as a
extensive root system and root surface area for uptake and tool of phytoremediation. (See Dhir et al. 2009).
removal of water contaminants, which occurs by adsorption The bioconcentration of metals by different aquatic macro-
of cations onto the negatively charged root surfaces (Elifantz phytes is variable but usually exceeds the concentration of
and Tel-or 2002; Kivaisi 2001). The fact that most of the metals in the occupied water by >100,000 times (Cardwell
heavy metals removed by aquatic plants are accumulated in et al. 2002). Kumari and Tripathi (2015) investigated the emer-
their root systems means that the plant’s susceptible photosyn- gent macrophytes, P. australis and T. latifolia in glass aquarium
thetic tissues are out of reach of metal toxicity, unlike in many (75 L) with known concentrations of Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Fe, Pb
terrestrial plants. Thus, aquatic macrophytes are more tolerant, and Zn metal contaminants collected from five different
Environ Sci Pollut Res

Bsampling stations of untreated urban sewage mixed with in- (González et al. 2007). Most species in the family are found
dustrial effluents^ along the river Ganga at Varanasi, India and in two genera, Chara and Nitella (Meurer and Bueno 2012).
found an average of 40 to 57 % removal of the contaminants at Al-Homaidan et al. (2011) found a concentrations of 339 Mn,
the end of the experiment in day 14. Other halophytic plants 44 Cu and 69 As μg/g dwt in the thali (plant body) of
such as Sarcocornia fruticosa (L) A.J. Scott., Halimione Enteromorpha intestinalis (Linnaeus) Nees and 211 Mn, 66
portulacoides (L.) Aellen, and Spartina maritima (Curtis) Cu and 8 As μg/g dwt in Cladophora glomerata (Linnaeus).
Fernald, also accumulate 9 fold of concentrations Hg and 44 The macroalgae Chlorophyta is known as a hyperaccumultor
fold MeHg (methylmercury) in their roots from coastal wet- of As and Boron (B) (Baker 1981).
lands (Canario et al. 2007). However, the relationship between Among the aquatic macrophytes, the only group with a
the amount of metal uptake by emergent wetland macrophytes limited research for phytoremediation is the floating-leaved
and the metal concentrations in the underlying sediments is macrophytes. Nevertheless, some studies have already shown
generally poor and inconsistent (Dunbabin and Bowmer their potential for removal of metal contaminants and their use
1992; Keller et al. 1998; Cardwell et al. 2002). Nevertheless, for phytoremediation. For instance, Choo et al. (2006) tested
some emergent macrophytes show a predictable affinity for the removal of chromium, Cr (VI) from aqueous solutions
selected metal contaminants. The amount of Cu, Ni, Fe and with five different concentrations ranging from 1–10 mg/l
Mn sequestered in the roots of the emergent aquatic macro- using the tropical water lily, Nymphaea spontanea. They
phyte, cattails (Typha latifolia (L.)) were directly correlated found a removal of >60 % of Cr within seven days and metal
with their concentrations in the sediment where they grew accumulation in the plant’s tissues increased with the increase
(Taylor and Crowder 1983). Deng et al. (2004) also found of the Cr concentrations in the solution.
similar correlation with the uptake of Pb, Zn and Cu by the Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-
emergents, Leersia hexandra (Swartz.), Equisetum ramosisti Laubach (Pontederiaceae) is native to the Amazonian region
(Desf.) and Juncus effuses (L.) from mine effluents in China. in South America (Harley 1990). It is the world’s worst aquat-
Some submerged macrophytes also show a positive corre- ic weed. Water hyacinth is resilient to a wide range of climatic
lation between the bioconcentration of metal contaminants conditions and can survive temperatures between 1–40 °C and
and their sediment concentrations. Chen et al. (2015) found extremes of water nutrient levels (Malik 2007). Water hya-
an increase in the accumulation of heavy metals in the tissues cinth is also prevalent in waters contaminated with trace
of the submerged rootless macrophytes, C. demersum with the amounts of heavy metals and other inorganic and organic
increase in Pb concentrations when the plants were exposed to contaminants from mining and industrial wastewater dis-
five different Pb solutions (5–80 μM). They found a maxi- charges. The water quality of the 750 km long Lerma River
mum accumulation of 4016.4 mg/kg dry weight (dwt) of plant in west-central Mexico is highly compromised by wastewaters
biomass. Similarly, the accumulation of Ni in the tissue of the discharges from 20 urban municipalities and over 2500 indus-
submerged plant, H. verticillata (LF) Royle increased from a tries in the course of the river, making it one of the most
concentration of 40 μg/g when exposed to a Ni solution of polluted waters in the country (Tejeda et al. 2010; Helmer
5 μM to 502, 1198, 1474, 2168 and 4684 μg/g dwt at solu- and Hespanhol 1997; de México 2000). Nevertheless, water
tions of 10, 25, 50 and 100 μM of Ni, respectively after six hyacinth is one of the few aquatic plants prevalent in this river
days (Sinha and Pandey 2003). The bioconcentration of (Tejeda et al. 2010).
metals is also relatively higher in submerged macrophytes The wide geographical spread of water hyacinth and its
than the emergents or other aquatic macrophyte groups ability to have a high biomass turnover within a single grow-
(Albers and Camardese 1993). Dogan et al. (2015) compared ing season, coupled with its resistance to elevated concentra-
two submerged macrophytes (C. demersum and Rotala tions of organic and inorganic water contaminants, makes it
rotundifolia (Roxb.) Koehne) and the emergent Bacopa one of the most widely tested plants for phytoremediation,
monnieri (L) Pernnell, in the removal of Cd from an aqueous particularly among the aquatic plants (Brooks and Robinson
solution with concentrations of 0.1, 1 and 10 mg/l and found 1998; Vymazal 2008). The effectiveness of water hyacinth in
the first two submerged macrophytes accumulated more cad- the removal of both organic and inorganic water contaminants
mium than the emergent macrophytes, B. Monnieri with con- has been tested on a number of occasions and usually a reduc-
centrations of 825, 1459 and 757 mg/g dry weight, tion of over 80 % in contaminants had been reported (Table 2).
respectively.
The macroalgae in the family of Characeae are also among Aquatic macrophytes in constructed wetlands
the aquatic macrophytes, with a potential for wastewater treat-
ment. They have high tolerance to heavy metals, and grow The mobility of metal contaminants in soil depends on several
through autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition, factors, among which are, concentrations, chemical form, met-
and have a large surface area, through which they detoxify al property, binding state, organic matter, pH and root exu-
heavy metals by complexing them into phytochelatins dates. For instance, arsenic in mine affected soils binds with
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 2 The phytoremediation

capacity of water hyacinth Wastewater source Metal Removal Duration of Reference
(Adapted and modified from removed from experiment
Newete, 2014) from water water (%) (days)

Coal mine effluent As 80.00 21 Mishra et al. 2008a

Contaminated solution (1.5 mg Cu/L) Cu 97.00 21 Mokhtar et al. 2011
Textile effluents Cr 94.78 4 Mahmood et al. 2005
Textile effluents Zn 96.88 4 Mahmood et al. 2005
Coal mining effluent Cd 66.4 21 Mishra et al. 2008b
Coal mining effluent Fe 70.5 21 Mishra et al. 2008b
Contaminated solution (1 mg Hg/L) Hg 99.9 30 Newete 2014
Contaminated solution (1 mg Mn/L) Mn 78.4 21 Newete 2014
Contaminated solution (1 mg U/L) Newete 2014
Contaminated solution (0.8 mg NO3−N/L) NO3−N 62.00 1 Petrucio and Esteves
2000
Contaminated solution (0.6 mg NO3−N/L) PO4−P 68.20 1 Petrucio and Esteves
2000

Fe and Mn oxides or is retained as sulphides (Moreno- 0.05 mg/l Cd, 11.5 mg/l Pb and 14.5 mg/l Zn, all of which
Jiménez et al. 2010; 2011). Over 70–90 % of arsenic is found were well above the legal industrial wastewater limits (Yang
in its inert form in soils contaminated by mines (Conesa et al. et al. 2006). Similarly a constructed wetland with cattails,
2008). Thus, unlike soil contaminants, water contaminants are Typha Latifolia L., at Springdale, Pennsylvania (USA) is used
relatively bioavailable and readily accessible for for the treatment of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co)
phytoremediation. As a result aquatic plants are more effective and nickel (Ni) contaminants from an electrical power station
for phytoremediation than terrestrial plants (Brooks and and has achieved a reduction of up to 94, 98, 98 and 63 %,
Robinson 1998) and have widely been implemented. respectively over two years (Ye et al. 2001). The success of the
There are at least 650 constructed and natural wetlands in method is such that the USA has 400 constructed wetlands
North America and over 5000 of them in Europe (Kivaisi exclusively for the treatment of coal mine waste water drain-
2001). The dominant forms of aquatic plants in most wetlands age (Perry and Kleinmann 1991).
are the emergent aquatic macrophytes (Vymazal et al. 1998) The underlying sediments of wetlands are the largest sink
which are suitable for temperate regions (Nahlik and Mitsch of most metal contaminants (Ye et al. 2001). This suggests the
2006) because free-floating aquatic plants such as water hya- use of rooted submerged macrophytes, besides the emergents,
cinth is affected by frost in cold temperate regions (Vymazal is more suitable candidate for phytoremediation than the free-
et al. 1998). floating aquatic macrophytes that only absorb/adsorb metals
Although constructed wetlands were primarily designed to from the water column. The submerged macrophytes are how-
improve the water quality of domestic, municipal and agricul- ever, considered to be more efficient in metal accumulation
tural wastewaters, they have evolved over the years and been than the emergent macrophytes (Albers and Camardese 1993)
extended to include industrial and mine wastewater treat- because of the large surface area of the entire plant biomass in
ments. Natural and constructed wetlands with emergent aquat- direct contact with contaminants in the water system (Xing
ic macrophytes such as reeds (Phragmites australis), cattails et al. 2013). Nevertheless, the practical function of the sub-
(Typha spp.), and bulrushes (Scirpus spp. and Schoenoplectus merged macrophytes and floating leaved macrophytes are still
spp.) have been used effectively in the treatment of domestic in its infancy stage and is not yet implemented or developed
effluents, mine and industrial wastewaters with heavy metals (Bashyal 2010).
contaminants (Yang et al. 2006). A wetland constructed with
Typha latifolia, Phragmites australis and Cyperus Weeds for phytoremediation
malaccensis (Lam.) in 1983 for the treatment of Pb/Zn mine
discharges, at Shaoguan in Guangdong Province (China) suc- Although water hyacinth and duckweed are the two plants
cessfully ‘polished’ the wastewater and significantly im- predominantly used in constructed wetlands, particularly in
proved the water quality by removing 94 % of Cd, 99.04 % tropical and subtropical regions (Kadlec and Knight 1996;
of lead (Pb), 97.30 % of zinc (Zn), and 98.95 % of total Bashyal 2010), their invasive nature makes their application
suspended solids (TSS) from their initial concentrations of as a phytoremediation tool controversial and subsequently
Environ Sci Pollut Res

they have not yet been fully exploited properly despite the will eventually die, decompose and then release the elements
intensive research conducted on their potential as tool of sequestered, back to the source more rapidly than terrestrial
phytoremediation. Nahlik and Mitsch (2006) compared seven plants would (Rai 2008a). However, despite increasing re-
species of aquatic plants including the dominant free-floating search in the field of phytoremediation, the issue of safe dis-
macrophytes water hyacinth and water lettuce (Pistia posal of phytoremediating plants has rarely been addressed.
stratiotes L.), in various constructed wetlands for the treat- The harvest and disposal of plants (usually weeds) re-
ment of wastewaters from a dairy farm, a dairy processing moved from heavily infested aquatic waters, whether such
plant, a banana paper plant, and a landfill in the Parismina plants have been used for the purpose of phytoremediation
River Basin in eastern Costa Rica. The concentration of am- or not, is often expensive and discouraging. As a result several
monium in the constructed wetlands was reduced by 92 % and attempts have been made to convert the harvested waste plant
Phosphorus by 45–92 %. Similarly, Maine et al. (2007) used biomass into economically beneficial material to offset the
water hyacinth in a large constructed surface wetland for the cost of harvest and disposal. One common example is
treatment of wastewaters with Cr, Ni and Zn contaminants biogasification of harvested waste plant biomass. The use of
from a tool factory in Santo Tomé, Santa Fe, Argentina which some aquatic macrophytes such as water hyacinth as biofuel is
effectively removed 89, 93 and 99 % of the contaminants well established (Rahman and Hasegaw 2011; Isarankura-Na-
respectively, although in the second year Typha domingensis Ayudhya et al. 2007; Awasthi et al. 2013; Bergier et al. 2012;
(Pers.) was incorporated into the wetland to replace the declin- Bhattacharya and Kumar 2010; Gunnarsson and Petersen
ing population of the water hyacinth as a result of elevated 2007) often in an attempt to deal with aquatic plant biomass
metal toxicity. after their removal from invaded water systems. However, the
Compared to water hyacinth, the inclusion of the duckweed process of economically viable production of ethanol from
species in constructed wetland is more limited due to their water hyacinth biomass is complicated by the presence of a
reduced roots, for direct exposure to the contaminants and considerable amount of hemicelluloses, cellulose, and lignin
small root surface area for the attachment of microorganisms components (Abraham and Kurup 1997), which constitutes
involved in the remediation process (Kivaisi 2001). Thus, they 35, 25 and 10 % of the plant dry matter, respectively
are often limited to small scale surface water structures and (Gunnarsson and Petersen 2007). Thus, to optimize the extrac-
lagoons (Vymazal et al. 1998; Bashyal 2010). tion of fermentable soluble sugars, the plant biomass has to
While a selection of appropriate plants, based on their tol- undergo pre-treatment prior to the actual process of scarifica-
erance, rate of biomass turnover, and their efficiency in the tion, and microbial fermentation to produce ethanol (Abraham
abatement of wastewater is of a paramount importance, the and Kurup 1997; Cheng et al. 2014; Masami et al. 2008;
safe disposal of the phytoremediating plants is an issue that Bhattacharya and Kumar 2010). However, while directing
has to be addressed and this will be reviewed for aquatic the biomass waste of aquatic macrophytes into a source of
macrophytes with particular reference to water hyacinth. biofuel is highly publicized, it is still in its experimental stage
and its economic viability is confounded by the cost of pre-
The fate of water hyacinth after phytoremediation treatment reagents and the lack of a single prescription for
such reagents in processing the biomass of different aquatic
Phytoremedaiton has been labelled by many researchers as an macrophytes (Mishima et al. 2006; Awasthi et al. 2013).
emerging, cost-effective and environmentally friendly method Furthermore, the potential technology of generating biofuel
for the rehabilitation of polluted environments (Sharma et al. from such plants does not address the issue of disposal of
2014; Rai 2008a; Garbisu and Alkorta 2001; Sood et al. 2012; the heavy metals in the plant tissue of the aquatic macrophytes
Emmanuel et al. 2014; Rahman et al. 2007). While this is true have been used in phytoremediation of industrial and mine
in many aspects compared to conventional methods of reme- wastewaters.
diation, it has its own drawbacks. Fast growth and biomass Other disposal methods include briquetting or carboniza-
production is good for the efficacy, but plant seasonality (Rai tion to make charcoal, and incineration, (Rahman and
2008a; Maine et al. 2007) and poor tolerance to high metal Hasegawa 2011). Although, water hyacinth can be sun dried
concentrations is a constraint on the technology (Mannino for incineration to use directly as source of energy (e.g.
et al. 2008). Thus, unlike domestic wastewater treatment, cooking fires), its commercialization beyond a small scale
aquatic plants in constructed wetlands are used in secondary production is curtailed by the fact that 90 % of the plant bio-
or tertiary industrial and mine wastewater treatments, because mass is made of water (Abdelhamid and Gabr 1991) and the
of the high concentration of heavy metals and their toxicity to amount of energy produced is less than 1.3 GJ/m3 compared
the plants (Avsara et al. 2007; Sharma et al. 2014; Susarla et al. to the same volume of charcoal (9.8 GJ/m3) (Gunnarsson and
2002). Furthermore, effective phytoremediation processes Petersen 2007). Improving this method by compacting the
should involve a regular harvest and safe disposal of plants dried water hyacinth into briquettes or pellets produces about
(Rai 2008a), particularly with aquatic macrophytes, since they the same amount of energy (8.3 GJ/m3) that the same volume
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

of charcoal can produce (9.8 GJ/m3) (Thomas and Eden to occur between 2 to 5 a year at least for the last three decades
1990). This could work, but the initial investment in machin- (Davies 2002). According to Davies and Martin (2000) the
ery, and the cost of large areas required for drying plant bio- total number of tailing dams in the world is estimated to be
mass followed by their transportation to the site of production over 3500. Of this approximately 400 of them are found in
is not encouraging and requires proper evaluation (Rahman South Africa (van Wyk 2002) which were erected since the
and Hasegawa 2011). The obvious limitation of the method is start of gold mining on the Witwatersrand in 1886, and which
however, the large amount of ash produced (40 % for water collectively have accumulated an estimated 6 billion tonnes of
hyacinth) (Rahman and Hasegawa 2011) compared to the av- tailings (Winde and van der Walt 2004). The USA generates
erage ash content of between 0.5 and 5 %, depending on the an estimated 2 billion tonnes of solid wastes from mining
wood species and materials (commonly Sawdust, planer shav- operations annually (White 2003). Similarly mine waste in
ings and dry chips) used to make pellets (Lehtikangas 2001). tailing dams was estimated to be 265.4 million tonnes in
In addition, using briquettes made from water hyacinth con- 2002 in China (Li 2006). The disposal of waste from the
taminated by heavy metals for domestic purposes could lead mining of silver, cadmium, copper, indium, sulfuric acid and
to health hazards. For instance incineration of arsenic contam- zinc since 1966 in tailing dams at Kidd Creek mining in north-
inated water hyacinth could be a source of air pollution and ern Ontario, Canada is expected to reach over 130 million
related health problem (Rahman and Hasegawa 2011). tonnes by 2023 when mining at the site closes (Hudson-
Edwards et al. 2011).
Water hyacinth biomass as a compost Although many countries have adopted stricter laws and
measures that force mining companies to reduce their en-
The use of water hyacinth as a compost to improve soil struc- vironmental footprint, the rehabilitation of mine solid
ture and nutrient could be an option in the management of wastes in tailing dams after mine closure is very slow and
waste biomass and particularly in developing countries, where is expected to last more than a 1000 years (Szymanski and
the artificial fertilizers are often not affordable (Gunnarsson Davies 2004; Chambers and Higman 2011). For instance
and Petersen 2007). Water hyacinth retains a considerable the Goldenville mine at Nova Scotia, Canada that was once
amount of nutrients such as N, P and K and making water operational between 1860 and 1945 still has 3 million
hyacinth compost takes a relatively short period (less than tonnes of mine solid waste in tailing dams left behind after
30 days) (Polprasert et al. 1980) which makes it feasible for the mine closure (Müezzinoğlu 2003). Mine tailings dams
farmers seeking to improve their soil conditions. In the past are therefore, here to stay at least for the foreseeable future
water hyacinth compost was even commercialized by a com- and their number will keep rising, since there is more waste
pany in Florida, USA which produced a finished compost rock generated for the same amount of a precious metal
from a mixture of equal proportion of water hyacinth and peat than was the case in the last century. The average copper
at a cost of $1.31 and sold for $1.75 per bushel in 1973 (Mara ore grade has dropped to 0.5 % in 1975 from an average of
1974). This could be a viable option for waste plant biomass 4 % in 1900 (Cooke and Johnson 2002). Consequently
treatment if the management target is only to address the in- such mining escalation has raised the amount of tailings
fe statio n o f w ate r hy ac inth . H owe ver, exp osi ng generated globally from 17 to 290 Mt per annum within
phytoremediating aquatic macrophytes to a suite of heavy the same period (Williamson et al. 1982). Thus, intensive
metals, which are then used as a compost to improve soil remedial efforts and effective restorations methods for
nutrients, would simply mean relocating the environmental mine tailings dams are essential to reduce their environ-
problem from point A to point B. mental impacts.
The best and internationally accepted restoration practice is
Disposal of phytoremediating plants in mine tailings dams the levelling of tailing dams followed by revegetation with
native plants improving the soil’s physical and chemical prop-
Mine tailings dams The impoundment of mining waste into erties. However, the cost of such total restoration of tailing
tailing storage facilities (tailings dams) and the associated dams is expensive and could exceed the total income generat-
problems of acid mine drainage in surface and ground waters ed by the mine (van Wyk 2002). Consequently, the econom-
are of a major concern as a result of runoff, infiltration, and ically viable option and ecologically sound approach for many
leaching, or even a collapse of the tailing dams either due to of these tailing dams remains the revegetation of the slopes
poor design or earthquake. For instance the Ok Tedi gold and with native plants (Mendez et al. 2007). The first such practice
copper mine dam failure in 1984 in Papua New Guinea led in gold mine tailings dams in South Africa started in 1894
into a devastating environmental impact with annual dis- (Gunn 1973). Nevertheless, a complete vegetation cover and
charges of 60 million tonnes of tailings into the Fly River successful establishment of functional ecological systems
and the Gulf of Papua for many years (Cooke and Johnson could not be achieved due to the hostile soil properties of the
2002). Such incidents of major tailing dam failure are reported tailing dams for plant growth (Cook 1971).
Environ Sci Pollut Res

Tailing dams lack one of the main structural components of hyacinth doubling time in Ugandan waters was between 4–
the soil profile, the topsoil and soil organic matter (Wanenge 7 days with the highest growth rate of 228 tonnes per hectare
2012; Wong 2003). This together with soil properties such as per year. They also found the nutrient content of the 33 ha
low pH, high silt content, increased toxic metal concentration, plant biomass behind the dam at Owen Falls in Uganda was
high erosion and poor nutrient levels, make the environment estimated to be 23.2 tonnes of N, 3.5 tonnes of P and
of tailing dams inhospitable for plant growth (Mendez et al. 52.0 tonnes of K. Water hyacinth invasion is an environmental
2007; Cooke and Johnson 2002; Witkowski and Weiersbye menace, but could be redirected for soil amendment to en-
1998). As a result, improving the soil’s physical and chemical hance the revegetation of mine tailings dams in remedial
properties and soil microbial activities is an integral process efforts.
that precedes the revegetation processes. Phytoremediating While water hyacinth as mulch might protect soil from
plants disposed on mine tailings dams could therefore be used wind and water erosion and increase its water retention capac-
as mulches for soil amendments, while the metal contaminants ity, such advantages are often short lived due to its rapid de-
in the plant tissues are released back to the source of water composition (Brady 1990), even though such decomposition
contamination, the mine tailings dams. leads to rapid release of nutrients to the soil. For instance, the
application of wet water hyacinth as mulches at a rate of
Mulching and decomposition on mine tailings dams The 150 kg/ha to 450 kg/ha in a maize field in Rwanda led to an
elevated heights of tailings dams above the natural ground increased soil fertility and maize production compared to the
surface expose the soil of the storage facilities to wind disper- control treatments (without mulch) (Gashamura 2009). Unlike
sion and water erosion (Witkowski and Weiersbye 1998). agricultural soils, in mine tailings dams, rapid decomposition
Thus, short term revegetation of tailings dams was initially of mulches may not be a problem as a result of few soil mi-
conceived to restrict wind and runoff erosion and to minimize croorganisms (Tomlin 2012). Litter decomposition depends
environmental pollution. Such revegetation however, was on several factors among which are litter chemical composi-
eventually adopted as the long term solution to the growing tion, temperature, soil moisture, and the soil fauna which in-
number of associated environmental hazards (Johnson et al. cludes the soil organisms such bacteria, fungi and protozoa
1994; Carroll et al. 2000). Sewage sludge, organic compost and nematodes and arthropods (Singh and Gupta 1977). The
and mulches are among few soil additives applied to improve hostile soil environment of mine tailings dams predominantly
the soil properties of mine tailings dams to enhance plant characterized by low pH (<4) and toxic heavy metals howev-
growth (Okalebo et al. 2006). Sewage sludge has more nutri- er, inhibits, soil organisms which are consequently found in
ents and can improve tailing dams’ soil fertility faster than low numbers. Grigg (2002) found microbial biomass to be 3–
organic compost and mulches. However, due to their high 5 times less in a tailings dam at the Kidston Gold Mine in
heavy metal content, compost and mulches are the preferred north Queensland, Australia, than in the surrounding unmined
soil amendment materials used for agricultural and mine tail- soils. Thus, although the decomposition rate of water hyacinth
ings dam soils (Wanenge 2012). mulch in mine tailings dams could be slow, improvement of
Water hyacinth is a notorious invasive alien plant outside soil fertility could be expected over a period of time. For
its native geographical locations and a widely used plant for instance, Wanenge (2012) tested five different tailings amend-
phytoremediation. Its fast growth makes the plant an extraor- ments among which were fresh and dry water hyacinth bio-
dinary sink for nutrients and an important mulch and soil mass applied as mulches in order to determine its effects on
fertility improvement in low nutrient soils. According to soil fertility, seed emergence and plant survival of different
Reddy and D’Angelo (1990) the carrying capacity of water native plant species. He showed that most of the plant species
hyacinth, which is the maximum biomass of a species sup- tested generally performed well compared to those on the
ported per unit area (Maler 2000), is 70 kg/m2, although the control tailings (which were not amended), where no plants
time taken to reach such carrying capacity largely depends on grew at all. He also found tailings amended with 0.5 % fresh
environmental factors such as temperature and nutrient levels. water hyacinth mulch induced the most favourable plant con-
Hauptfleisch (2015) compared the time taken to reach the ditions compared to other amendments, such as sewage
carrying capacity of water hyacinth at two sites in South sludge, or dry water hyacinth. Similarly, Grigg (2002) found
Africa, namely Delta Park and Mbozambo Swamp. While an overall litter weight loss of 52–63 % from both mined and
the first with a maximum growth rate of 0.053/g/g/day and a unmined sites in a litter decomposition experiment after
minimum growth rate of −0.004/g/g/day took 315 days to 80 weeks, although, the litter weight loss was greater in the
reach the carrying capacity, the latter took only 92 days at latter. The build-up of microbial biomass generally takes more
growth rates of 0.058/g/g/day and 0.024 g/g/day, respectively. than 15 years on agricultural lands (Insam and Domsch 1988)
The difference is attributed to the fact that Mbozambo Swamp and even longer in mine tailings dams. Nevertheless, the pres-
is warmer and more eutrophied than the Delta Park (Byrne ence of a carbon source such as fresh organic matter or plant
et al. 2010). Similarly, Amoding et al. (1999) found the water materials on tailings dams can facilitate the rapid build-up of
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

soil microbial population faster. Thus, mulching of mine tail- Conclusion

ings dams with plant materials has a pivotal role in the im-
provement of soil in the mine tailings dam besides protection Aquatic macrophytes have widely been used as a tool of
from soil erosion. phytoremediation of contaminated waters. Despite increased
research on aquatic macrophytes for phytoremediation how-
ever, the safe disposal of the phytoremediating plants is not
Cost of harvest and transportation of aquatic plants well established. Over half of the nations in the world are
Revegetation and ecological restoration of mine tailings dams involved in mining of precious metals and other minerals.
has long been adopted as a viable option of remediation. The Tailings dams are the prominent waste storage facilities in
cost of harvesting and transporting phytoremediating aquatic such activities. The disposal of phytoremediating plants on
plants from water to mine tailings dams for mulching is slopes of these tailing dams could act as mulches to suppress
relatively cheap. Trouzeau (1972) estimated the transportation dust, while decomposition would return the heavy metals back
cost of water hyacinth in Florida, USA as $0.27/tonne/mile. to where they belong and reinstate soil fertility for revegeta-
Similarly, the cost of water hyacinth removal from point A to tion in the tailing dams.
point B determined from a 20 years of cost analysis, was
estimated to be $400/acre or $2/tonne (Thayer and Ramey Acknowledgments We would like to thank the Working for Water
(WfW), the Agricultural Research Commission (ARC) of South Africa
1986). The harvesting cost of water hyacinth was estimated
and the Research Council of the University of the Witwatersrand (URC)
over the same period in Florida, from 23 mechanical harvest- for collectively funding this study.
ing contracts, to be about $4 649/acre (Haller 1995). In anoth-
er example the cost of mechanical and manual removal of
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