ASM Handbook, Volume 17, Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials Copyright # 2018 ASM InternationalW

Aquil Ahmad and Leonard J. Bond, editors All rights reserved

www.asminternational.org

Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Inspection*

Revised by Leonard J. Bond, Iowa State University

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION is a family of
Reflection of ultrasound from interfaces
An electronic signal generator that produces
nondestructive methods in which beams of consisting of material boundaries or discon- bursts of voltage (a negative spike or a square
high-frequency mechanical waves are intro- tinuities within the metal itself wave) when electronically triggered (pulsed)
duced into materials, using transducers, for
Velocity of the waves that control the time
A transmitting transducer (probe or search
the detection and characterization of both sur- of transit of an ultrasound wave through unit) that can be a single element or an
face and subsurface anomalies and flaws in the testpiece array that emits a beam of ultrasonic waves
the material. The mechanical waves travel
Attenuation of ultrasound waves caused when bursts of voltage are applied to it
through the material with some attendant loss by absorption and scattering within the
A couplant to transfer the input energy in
of energy (attenuation, including both scatter- testpiece the beam of ultrasonic waves from the
ing and absorption) and interact with interfaces
Features seen in the spectral response for transmitting transducer to the testpiece
(reflection, transmission) and discontinuities, either a transmitted or a reflected signal
A couplant to transfer the output ultrasonic
including flaws and other anomalies. Response waves (acoustic energy) from the testpiece
signals are detected, displayed, and then ana- Most conventional ultrasonic inspection is to the receiving transducer
lyzed to give signatures that are used to define performed using frequencies between 1.0 and
A receiving transducer (can be the same as
the presence, location, and characteristics of 25 MHz, which are well above the range of the transducer initiating the ultrasound or
flaws or other discontinuities. human hearing, which is approximately 20 Hz it can be a separate one) to accept and con-
The degree of reflection/transmission depends to 20 kHz. Ultrasonic waves are mechanical vert the output of ultrasonic waves from the
largely on the physical state of the materials vibrations, where the amplitudes of vibrations testpiece to corresponding bursts of alternat-
forming the interface and to a lesser extent on in metal parts being ultrasonically inspected ing voltage. In most systems, a single trans-
the specific physical properties of the material. impose stresses that are well below the elastic ducer or array alternately acts as sender
For example, ultrasonic waves are almost limit, thus preventing permanent effects on the (transmitter) and receiver
completely reflected at metal-gas interfaces. Par- parts. Many of the characteristics described in
An electronic device to amplify and, if nec-
tial reflection occurs at a metal-liquid interface this article for ultrasonic waves, especially in essary, demodulate or otherwise modify the
or at an interface between a metal and another the section “General Characteristics of Ultra- signals from the transducer (receiver)
solid, with the specific percentage of reflected sonic Waves,” also apply to audible sound waves
A display or indicating device to character-
energy depending mainly on the ratios of certain and to wave motion in general. ize and/or record the output from the test-
acoustic properties (acoustic impedance) of the Ultrasonic inspection is one of the most piece. The display device now is most
material on opposing sides of the interface and widely used families of methods employed commonly a computer screen, which is an
the angle of incidence. for nondestructive testing (NDT). Its primary integral part of many units; a full matrix
Cracks, delaminations, shrinkage cavities, application in the inspection of metals is the of data commonly is recorded and kept for
bursts, flakes, pores, disbonds, and other dis- detection and characterization of internal subsequent or repeat analysis.
continuities that produce reflective interfaces, flaws. It also is used to detect surface flaws,
An electronic clock, or timer, to control the
and which are large compared to the wave- to define bond characteristics, to measure the operation of the various components of the
length of the ultrasound, can, in general, be thickness and extent of corrosion, and (much system, to serve as a primary reference time
easily detected. Inclusions, voids, and other less frequently) to determine physical proper- point, and to provide coordination for the
inhomogeneities also can be detected by caus- ties, structure, grain size, and elastic constants. entire system
ing partial reflection or scattering of the ultra-
sonic waves or by producing some other In many cases the pulser, receiver, display,
detectable effect on the ultrasonic waves, Basic Equipment and clock are a single integrated unit that
which, in general, is a function of the wave may be digital or interfaced to an external
type and wavelength employed in relation to Most ultrasonic inspection systems include computer. Traditionally, many ultrasonic
feature size. the following basic equipment, although such inspections used single transducers in a pulse-
Most ultrasonic inspection instruments units are increasingly integrated into a digital echo mode, while others operated with two
detect flaws by monitoring one or more of system and in many cases now employ a phased transducers in transmission, with the object
the following: array, rather than a single-element transducer: under test between them. An example of a

*Adapted from P.G. Kenny, Ultrasonic Inspection, online update to ASM Handbook, Vol 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control; and Ultrasonic Inspection by Yoseph Bar-Cohen
et al., in Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, Vol 17, ASM Handbook, 1989, p 231–277
156 / Sonic and Ultrasonic Techniques

two-transducer NDT system is shown in sche-
Extensive technical knowledge is required for various implementations of the method can
matic form in Fig. 1 (Ref 1). Recent years have the development of inspection procedures. be used to detect internal flaws in many
seen increasing adoption of phased arrays;
Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very engineering materials. Bonds produced by
these are considered in the article “Phased small or thin, or not homogeneous are more welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesion
Array Ultrasound” in this Volume. difficult to reliably inspect. also can be ultrasonically inspected. In-line

Discontinuities that are present in a shallow techniques have been developed for monitor-
layer immediately beneath the surface (dead ing and classifying material as acceptable,
Advantages and Disadvantages zone) may not be detectable. salvageable, or scrap, and for process control.

For many types of piezoelectric-based Systems range from those that are line-
The principal advantages of ultrasonic inspec- transducers, couplants are needed to pro- powered with automated transducer move-
tion, as compared to other methods used for non- vide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave ment that may include scanning and robotics,
destructive inspection of parts, are: energy between transducers and parts being to battery-operated commercial equipment
inspected. and systems that in many cases enable manual

Superior penetrating power, which allows
Reference standards are needed in many inspection in laboratory, shop, warehouse,
the detection of flaws deep in the part applications, both for calibrating the equip- and field with applications at all points in

High sensitivity, permitting the detection of ment and for characterizing flaws. the life cycle.
extremely small flaws Figure 2 shows examples of field portable

Greater accuracy than other nondestructive Ultrasonic inspection is routinely applied to ultrasonic units with a single transducer and a
methods in determining the position of inter- large parts, such as those with thicknesses of phased array, as well as a large-scale inspec-
nal flaws, estimating their size, and character- more than a meter, and in the axial inspection tion unit.
izing their orientation, shape, and nature of parts such as long steel shafts or rotor for- Ultrasonic inspection is used for quality

Only one surface needs to be accessible. gings to ranges/thicknesses of 6 m (20 ft) and control and materials inspection in all major

Operation is electronic, which provides more, particularly when using guided waves. industries. This includes electrical and elec-
almost instantaneous indication of flaws. A diverse range of systems has now been tronic component manufacturing; production

With most systems, a permanent digital record developed, and these make the method in its of metallic and composite materials; and fabri-
of inspection data can be made for subsequent various implementations suitable for data digi- cation of structures such as airframes and
off-line review and for future reference. tization, immediate interpretation, automation, engines, piping and pressure vessels, ships,

Volumetric scanning ability, enabling the rapid scanning, in-line production monitoring, bridges, motor vehicles, machinery, and jet
inspection of a volume of metal extending and process control. Some of the coupling engines. In-service ultrasonic inspection is used
from front surface to back surface of a part requirements can be overcome, in some cases, for detecting anomalies (e.g., cracks and corro-

It is nonhazardous to operators or to nearby by using gas/air-coupled, laser, and electro- sion) with potential for failure of railroad-
personnel and has no effect on equipment magnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) ultra- rolling-stock axles, press columns, earth-moving
and materials in the vicinity. sonics, which are all addressed in articles on equipment, mill rolls, mining equipment, nuclear

Portability (in many implementations) transduction. The issues related to reference systems, airframes and engines, pipelines, and

It provides an output that can be processed standards and defect characterization are con- many other machines and components.
digitally in the test unit or by an external sidered in the article “Ultrasonic Imaging and Some of the major types of equipment that
computer to characterize defects and to Sizing” in this Volume. are ultrasonically inspected for the presence
determine material properties. of flaws are:
The disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection Applicability
Mill components: Rolls, shafts, drives, and
include: press columns

Power equipment: Turbine forgings, gener-

Manual implementations require careful Ultrasonic inspection is conducted princi-
pally for the detection of discontinuities. The ator rotors, pressure piping, weldments,
attention by experienced technicians. pressure vessels, nuclear fuel elements,
and other reactor components

Jet engine parts: Turbine and compressor
forgings, and gear blanks

Aircraft components: Forging stock, frame
sections, and honeycomb sandwich assemblies

Machinery materials: Die blocks, tool
steels, and drill pipe

Pipelines: Cracks in seams and welds

Railroad parts: Axles, wheels, track, and
welded rail

Automotive parts: Forgings, ductile cast-
ings, and brazed and/or welded components

Flaws that are detected include voids, cracks,

inclusions, pipe delaminations, debonding,
bursts, and flakes that occur in a wide range of
sizes. They may be inherent in the raw material,
result from fabrication and heat treatment, or
occur in service due to stressors that cause
fatigue, impact, abrasion, corrosion, or other
causes of degradation.
Government agencies and standards-
Fig. 1 Schematic for a two-transducer nondestructive testing (NDT) system making organizations have issued inspection
 Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Inspection / 157

Fig. 2 Examples of portable ultrasonic units (a) with transducer for pulse-echo measurement and (b) with phased array. Reprinted with permission from Olympus Corporation.
(c) system for testing round bars: ROWA B-130 (left), ROWA B-260 (right). Courtesy of Timken

procedures, acceptance codes, standards, and discontinuities may go undetected or be deemed gaseous, but not in a vacuum, and essentially
related documentation. These documents are unimportant. behave the same as audible sound waves. They
mainly concerned with the detection of flaws The term flaw as used in this article means a also are fundamentally similar to the seismic
in specific manufactured products, but they detectable lack of continuity or an imperfec- waves encountered in geophysics (Ref 1, 5).
also can serve as the basis for characterizing tion in a physical or dimensional attribute of In some respects, a beam of ultrasound is
flaws in many other applications and are com- a part. The fact that a part contains one or similar to a beam of light: both are waves
monly used when specifying the required qual- more flaws does not necessarily imply that and obey a general wave equation. Each tra-
ity in an item received from a supplier (Ref 2). the part is nonconforming to specification or vels at a characteristic velocity in a given
Ultrasonic inspection can also be used to unfit for use. Modern design philosophies will homogeneous medium—a velocity that
measure the thickness of materials. Thickness incorporate damage tolerance (Ref 3), an depends on the properties of the medium and
measurements are made for applications at approach that enables living with some flaws the wave type (Ref 5). Like beams of light,
fabrication and then in service for items that that are not considered structurally deleterious, ultrasonic waves are reflected from surfaces,
are as diverse as refinery and chemical proces- because materials are not perfectly isotropic or refracted when they cross a boundary between
sing equipment, shop plate, steel castings, sub- homogeneous. It is critical that codes and stan- two substances that have different characteris-
marine hulls, aircraft sections, and pressure dards be established so that decisions to accept tic acoustic velocities, and are diffracted at
vessels. A variety of ultrasonic techniques are or reject parts are based on the probable effect edges and around obstacles. Scattering by
available for thickness measurements, includ- that a given flaw will have on service life or rough surfaces or particles reduces the energy
ing the one shown in Fig. 3, and most now product safety under particular operating con- of an ultrasonic beam, which is analogous to
use units with a digital readout and, increas- ditions. Once such standards are established, the manner in which scattering reduces the
ingly, data recording. Performance depends ultrasonic inspection can be used to character- intensity of a light beam.
on the frequency used, but for structural mate- ize flaws in terms of impact on structural integ- Analogy with Waves in Water. The gen-
rial samples ranging in thickness from 0.2 mm rity, or life estimate, using a fracture mechanics eral characteristics of sonic or ultrasonic waves
(a few thousandths of an inch) to several and life assessment, rather than some arbitrary are conveniently illustrated by analogy with
meters can be measured with accuracies of bet- workmanship standard that may impose useless the behavior of waves produced in a body of
ter than 1%. Ultrasonic inspection methods are or redundant quality requirements. This is an water when a stone is dropped into it. Casual
particularly well suited to the assessment of area where NDT has evolved to leverage quanti- observation may lead to the erroneous conclu-
loss of thickness from corrosion inside closed fication of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) cap- sion that the resulting outward radial travel of
systems, such as chemical processing equip- abilities required by design tools that relate NDE alternate crests and troughs represents the
ment. Such measurements often can be made needs to the ability of an item to safely operate movement of water away from the point of
without shutting down the process. until repaired or replaced. This performance of impact. The fact that water is not thus trans-
Special ultrasonic techniques and equip- NDT is typically considered in terms of a proba- ported is readily deduced from the observation
ment have been used to operate at elevated bility of detection (POD) that becomes just that a small object floating on the surface of
temperatures and on such diverse problems part of a quality chain (Ref 4) which connects the water does not move away from the point
as the rate of growth of fatigue cracks, detec- research and development to standards and pro- of impact but instead merely bobs up and
tion of borehole eccentricity, measurement of cedures, the equipment used, as well as person- down. The waves travel outward only in the
elastic moduli, study of press fits, determina- nel training and certification that combine and sense that the crests and troughs (which can
tion of nodularity in cast iron, and metallurgical seek to optimize performance and at the same be compared to the compressions and rarefac-
research on phenomena such as structure, hard- time minimize the effects of human factors on tions of mechanical waves in an elastic
ening, and inclusion count in various metals. inspection performance. medium) and the energy associated with the
For the successful application of ultrasonic waves propagate radially outward. The water
inspection, the inspection physics and its particles remain in place and oscillate up and
implementation into a system must be well
General Characteristics of down from their normal positions of rest.
understood, performance requirements defined, Ultrasonic Waves Continuing the analogy, the distance
and then be suitable for the type of inspection between two successive crests or troughs is
being performed, and the operator must be Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves (in the wavelength, l. The fall from a crest to a
sufficiently trained and experienced. If these contrast to, for example, light or x-rays, which trough and subsequent rise to the next crest
prerequisites are not met, there is a high potential are electromagnetic waves) that consist of (which is accomplished within this distance)
for gross error in the inspection results. For oscillations or vibrations of the atomic or is a cycle. The number of cycles in a specific
example, with inappropriate equipment or with molecular particles of a substance about the unit of time is the frequency, f, of the waves.
a poorly trained operator, discontinuities having equilibrium positions of these particles. Ultra- The height of a crest or the depth of a trough
little or no bearing on product performance may sonic waves can propagate in an elastic in relation to the surface at equilibrium is the
be deemed serious, or potentially damaging medium, which can be solid, liquid, or amplitude of the wave.
158 / Sonic and Ultrasonic Techniques

restore the particles to their original positions.

Because of the interatomic forces between
adjacent particles of material, a displacement
at one point induces displacements at neigh-
boring points and so on, thus propagating a
stress-strain wave. The actual displacement of
matter that occurs in ultrasonic waves is
extremely small. The amplitude, vibration
mode, and velocity of the waves differ due to
variation in elastic properties in solids, liquids,
and gases because of the large differences in
the mean distance between particles in these
forms of matter. These differences influence
the forces of attraction between particles and
the elastic properties and behavior of the
materials.
The concepts of wavelength, cycle, fre-
quency, amplitude, velocity, and attenuation
described in the preceding section “Analogy
with Waves in Water” in this article apply, in
general, to ultrasonic waves and other mechan-
ical waves. The relationship between to fre-
quency and wavelength is given by:

V ¼ fl (Eq 1)

Where V is velocity (in meters per second), f is

frequency (in hertz), and l is wavelength (in
meters for one cycle). Other consistent units
of measure can be used for the variables in
Eq 1, where convenient.
On the basis of the mode of particle dis-
placement, ultrasonic waves are classified as
longitudinal waves, transverse (shear) waves,
surface (Rayleigh) waves, and Lamb waves.
These four types of waves are described in
the following sections (Ref 1, 5).
Longitudinal waves, sometimes called com-
pression waves, are the type of ultrasonic
waves most widely used in the inspection of
materials. These waves travel through materi-
als as a series of alternate compressions and
rarefactions in which the particles transmitting
the wave vibrate back and forth in the direc-
tion of travel of the waves.
Longitudinal ultrasonic waves and the
corresponding particle oscillation and resultant
rarefaction and compression are shown sche-
matically in Fig. 4(a); a plot of amplitude of
Fig. 3 (a) Example of a handheld ultrasonic thickness gage. Courtesy of DeFelsko Corporation. (b) Table showing
particle displacement versus distance of wave
transducer type, accuracy, and wave form. Used with permission from Olympus Corporation
travel, together with the resultant rarefaction
trough and compression crest, is shown in
The velocity of a wave, of a particular type, the elastic medium move, but they do not Fig. 4(b). The distance from one crest to the
and the rates at which the amplitude and migrate from their initial spatial orbits; only next (which equals the distance for one com-
energy of a wave decrease as it propagates the energy travels through the medium. The plete cycle of rarefaction and compression) is
are constants that are characteristic of the amplitude and energy of mechanical waves in the wavelength, l. The vertical axis in Fig.4(b)
medium in which the wave is propagating. the elastic medium depend on the amount of could represent pressure instead of particle dis-
Stones of equal size and mass striking oil and energy supplied. The velocity and attenuation placement. The horizontal axis could represent
water with equal force will generate waves that (loss of amplitude and energy) of the acoustic time instead of travel distance, because the
travel at different velocities in the two media. waves depend on the properties of the medium speed of sound/ultrasound is constant in a
Stones impacting a given medium with greater in which they are propagating. given homogeneous material, and because of
energy will generate waves having greater Wave Propagation. Ultrasonic waves (and this the relationship is used in the measure-
amplitude and energy but the same wave other mechanical waves) propagate to some ments made in ultrasonic inspection.
velocity. extent in any elastic material. When the atomic Longitudinal ultrasonic waves are readily
The aforementioned attributes apply simi- or molecular particles of an elastic material are propagated in liquids and gases as well as in
larly to both audible and ultrasonic waves pro- displaced from their equilibrium positions by elastic solids. The mean free paths of the mole-
pagating in an elastic medium. The particles of any applied force, internal stresses act to cules of liquids and gases at a pressure of
 Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Inspection / 159

101 kPa (1 atmosphere or 14.7 psi) are so short Surface waves (Rayleigh waves) (Ref 1, 6) Detection and Materials Characterization” in
that longitudinal waves can be propagated sim- are another type of ultrasonic wave used in the this Volume.
ply by the elastic collision of one molecule inspection of materials. These waves travel Lamb waves, also known as plate or guided
with the next. The velocity of longitudinal along the flat or curved surface of relatively waves (Ref 7, 8), are another type of ultrasonic
ultrasonic waves is approximately 5960 m/s thick solid parts. For the propagation of waves wave used in the nondestructive inspection of
(20,000 ft/s) in steel, 1500 m/s (5000 ft/s) in of this type, the waves must be traveling along materials. Lamb waves are propagated in
water, and 330 m/s (1080 ft/s) in air. an interface bounded on one side by the strong plates (made of composites or metals) that
Transverse waves, which also are called elastic forces of a solid and on the other side are only a few wavelengths thick. A Lamb
shear waves, also are extensively used in the by the practically negligible elastic forces wave consists of a complex pattern of vibra-
ultrasonic inspection of materials. Transverse between gas molecules. Surface waves leak tions that occurs throughout the thickness of
waves are visualized readily in terms of vibra- energy into liquid and couplants, and use of the material. The propagation characteristics
tions of a rope that is shaken rhythmically such leaky waves forms a special class of of Lamb waves depend on the density, elastic
from side to side, in which each particle, rather inspections (Ref 1). In general, leaky surface properties, and structure of the material as well
than vibrating parallel to the direction of wave waves do not exist for any significant distance as the thickness of the testpiece and the fre-
motion as in the longitudinal wave, vibrates along the surface of a solid immersed in a liq- quency. Their behavior, in general, resembles
side to side or up and down in a plane perpen- uid, unless the liquid covers the solid surface that observed in the transmission of electro-
dicular to the direction of propagation. A trans- only as a very thin film. magnetic waves through waveguides.
verse wave is illustrated schematically in Surface waves are subject to attenuation in a There are two basic forms of Lamb waves:
Fig. 5, which shows particle oscillation, given material, as are longitudinal or trans-
wave-front, direction of wave travel, and the verse waves. They have a velocity approxi-
Symmetrical, or dilatational
wavelength, l, corresponding to one cycle. mately 90% of the transverse wave velocity
Asymmetrical, or bending
Unlike longitudinal waves, transverse waves in the same material. The region within which
cannot be supported by the elastic collision of these waves propagate with effective energy is The form is determined by whether the particle
adjacent molecular or atomic particles. For not much thicker than approximately one motion is symmetrical or asymmetrical with
the propagation of transverse waves, it is nec- wavelength beneath the surface of the metal, respect to the neutral axis of the testpiece. In
essary that each particle exhibit a strong force which in aluminum at 1 MHz is 2.9 mm symmetrical (dilatational) Lamb waves, there
of attraction to its neighbors so that as a parti- (0.1 in.). At this depth, wave energy is approx- is a compressional (longitudinal) particle dis-
cle moves back and forth it pulls its neighbor imately 4% of the wave energy at the surface, placement along the neutral axis of the plate
with it, thus causing the energy to move and the amplitude of oscillation decreases and an elliptical particle displacement on each
through the material with the velocity asso- sharply to a negligible value at greater depths. surface (Fig. 7a). In asymmetrical (bending)
ciated with transverse waves. The velocity of Surface waves can follow contoured sur- Lamb waves, there is a shear (transverse) par-
transverse waves is approximately 50% of faces. For example, surface waves traveling ticle displacement along the neutral axis of
the longitudinal wave velocity for the same on the top surface of a metal block are the plate and an elliptical particle displacement
material. reflected from a sharp edge, but if the edge is on each surface (Fig. 7b). The ratio of the
Air and water will not support transverse rounded off, the waves continue down the side major to minor axes of the ellipse is a function
waves. In gases, the forces of attraction face and are reflected at a defect or the lower of the material in which the wave is being
between molecules are so small that transverse edge, returning to the sending point. Surface propagated.
waves cannot be transmitted. The same is true waves will travel completely around a cube if Each class of Lamb waves is further subdi-
of a liquid, unless it is particularly viscous or is all edges of the cube are rounded off. Surface vided into several modes having different velo-
present as a very thin layer. waves can be used to inspect many parts that cities. Theoretically, there are an infinite
have complex contours. number of specific velocities at which Lamb
In surface waves, particle oscillation gener- waves can travel in a given material. Within
ally follows an elliptical orbit, as shown sche- a given plate, the specific velocities for Lamb
matically in Fig. 6. The major axis of the waves are complex functions of plate thickness
ellipse is perpendicular to the surface along and frequency. An example of a dispersion
which the waves are traveling. The minor axis curve is shown as Fig. 8 for the case of a
is parallel to the direction of propagation. Sur- 1.0 mm thick aluminum plate, and modes are
face waves can exist in complex forms that are shown in a normalized thickness-frequency
variations of the simplified waveform illu- scale with units of MHz-mm. These waves
strated in Fig. 6. These waves, and their appli- are seeing increased use in inspection of plates,
cations, are discussed in the article “Rayleigh rods, and pipes. Many aspects of these waves
Wave Nondestructive Evaluation for Defect and their applications in NDT as well as Lamb

Fig. 4 Schematic of longitudinal ultrasonic waves.

(a) Particle oscillation and resultant rarefaction
and compression. (b) Amplitude of particle displacement Fig. 6 Diagram of surface (Rayleigh) waves propagating
Fig. 5 Schematic of transverse (shear) waves. The at the surface of a metal along a metal-air
versus distance of wave travel. The wavelength, l, is the
wavelength, l, is the distance corresponding interface. The wavelength, l, is the distance corresponding
distance corresponding to one complete cycle.
to one complete cycle. to one complete cycle.
160 / Sonic and Ultrasonic Techniques

(a)

Fig. 8 Example of dispersion curves, calculated for aluminum 1.0 mm thick, with symmetric and antisymmetric
modes, shown in normalized units (MHz-mm). A0 and S0 are fundamental modes; index indicates
increasing higher order. Calculated by N. Pei, Iowa State University

and in lateral position, is directly proportional determines the amount of reflection and trans-
(b) to frequency bandwidth and inversely related mission is the ratio of the acoustic impedance
to pulse length. Resolution generally improves of the two materials on either side of the
with an increase of frequency and bandwidth boundary. If the acoustic impedances of the
Fig. 7 Diagram of the basic patterns of (a) symmetrical
that accompanies a reduction in pulse length. two materials are equal, there will be no reflec-
(dilatational) and (b) asymmetrical (bending) Lamb
waves. The wavelength, l, is the distance corresponding to Penetration, or the maximum depth (range) tion. If the acoustic impedances differ greatly
one complete cycle. in a material from which useful indications (as between a metal and air, for example),
can be detected, is reduced by the use of higher there will be virtually complete reflection. This
frequencies. This effect is most pronounced in characteristic is used in the ultrasonic inspec-
wave generation and detection are discussed the inspection of metal that has coarse grain tion of metals to calculate the amounts of
in the article “Guided Wave Testing” in this structure or minute inhomogeneities, and in energy reflected and transmitted at impedance
Volume. composite materials because of the resultant discontinuities and to aid in the selection of
attenuation and scattering of the ultrasonic suitable materials for the effective transfer of
waves. Penetration limits due to attenuation acoustic energy between components in ultra-
Major Variables in Ultrasonic are of less consequence in the inspection of sonic inspection systems.
Inspection fine-grained, homogeneous metal and are more The acoustic impedance for a longitudinal
significant in a cast austenitic stainless steel wave, Zl, given in Pascal second per cubic
The major variables that must be considered with large and complex-shaped grains. meter (Pa. s/m3) or the Rayl per square meter
in ultrasonic inspection include both the char- Beam spread, or the divergence from the (Rayl/m2), which is defined as the product of
acteristics of the ultrasonic waves used and central beam axis for a single-element ultra- material density, r, given in Kg per cubic
the characteristics of the parts being inspected. sonic transducer with a particular aperture, is meter, and longitudinal wave velocity, Vl,
Equipment type and capability interact with also affected by frequency. As frequency given in meters per second, is:
these variables; often, different types of equip- decreases, the shape of an ultrasonic beam
ment and wave types must be selected to increasingly departs from the ideal of zero Zl ¼ rVl (Eq 2)
accomplish different inspection objectives beam spread. This characteristic is observed
(Ref 1, 5). The transduction mechanism employed at almost all frequencies used in inspection. The acoustic properties of several metals
is also a key element in an inspection, not the least Other factors, such as the transducer (search and nonmetals are listed in Table 1. The acous-
with regard to the wave field employed and ulti- unit) diameter and the use of focusing equip- tic properties of materials are influenced by
mate sensitivity. ment, also affect beam spread. These issues variations in structure and metallurgical condi-
The frequency of the ultrasonic waves used are discussed in greater detail in the section tion. Therefore, for a given testpiece the prop-
affects inspection capability in several ways. “Beam Spreading” in this article, and in the erties may differ somewhat from the values
Generally, a compromise must be made article “Ultrasonic Transduction (Transducer listed in Table 1.
between favorable and adverse effects to Elements)” in this Volume. The percentage of incident energy reflected
achieve an optimal balance and to overcome Sensitivity, resolution, penetration, and beam from the interface between two materials
the limitations imposed by equipment and the spread are largely determined by the selection depends on the ratio of acoustic impedances
material under test. of the transducer and are only slightly modified (Z2/Z1) and the angle of incidence. When the
Sensitivity, or the ability of an ultrasonic by changes in other test variables. angle of incidence is 0 (normal incidence),
inspection system to detect a very small dis- Acoustic Impedance. When ultrasonic the reflection coefficient, R, which is the ratio
continuity, is generally increased by using rel- waves traveling through one medium impinge of reflected beam intensity, Ir, to incident beam
atively high frequencies (short wavelengths). on the boundary of a second medium at normal intensity, Ii, is given by:
Resolution, or the ability of the system to incidence, a portion of the incident acoustic
give simultaneous, separate indications from energy is reflected back from the boundary
R ¼ Ir =Ii ¼ ½ðZ2  Z1 Þ=Z2 þ Z1 Þ2
discontinuities that are close together both in while the remaining energy is transmitted into
the second medium. The characteristic that ¼ ½ðr  1Þ=ðr þ 1Þ2 (Eq 3)
depth below the front surface of the testpiece
 Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Inspection / 161

Table 1 Acoustic properties of several metals and nonmetals transmitted beam, It, to that of the incident
beam, Ii, from:
Sonic velocities, m/s
Density (r), kg/m3 Vl(a) Vt(b) Vs(c)
Material Acoustic impedance (Z1)(d), MRayl
T ¼ It =Ii ¼ 4Z2 Z1 =ðZ2 þ Z1 Þ2 ¼ 4r=ðr þ 1Þ2
Ferrous metals (Eq 4)
Carbon steel, annealed 7850 5940 3240 3000 46.6
Alloy steel When a longitudinal ultrasonic wave in
Annealed 7860 5950 3260 3000 46.8 water (medium 1) is incident at right angles
Hardened 7800 5900 3230 ... 46.0
Cast iron 6950–7350 3500–5600 2200–3200 ... 25–40 to the surface of an aluminum alloy 1100 test-
52100 steel piece (medium 2), the percentages of acoustic
Annealed 7830 5990 3270 ... 46.9 energy reflected and transmitted are calculated
Hardened 7800 5890 3200 ... 46.0 (based on data from Table 1) as:
D6 tool steel
Annealed 7700 6140 3310 ... 47.0
Hardened 7700 6010 3220 ... 46.0 Impedance ratio ðrÞ ¼ Z2 Z1 ¼ 1:72=0:149 ¼ 11:54
Stainless steels Reflection coefficient ðRÞ ¼ ½ðr  1Þ=ðr þ 1Þ2
Type 302 7900 5660 3120 3120 44.7 ¼ ð10:54=12:54Þ 2
Type 304L 7900 5640 3070 ... 44.6
Type 347 7910 5740 3100 2800 45.4 ¼ 0:71 ¼ 71%
Type 410 7670 5390 2990 2160 41.3 Transmission coefficient ðTÞ ¼ 1  R ¼ 0:29 ¼ 29%
Type 430 7700 6010 3360 ... 46.3
Nonferrous metals
The same values are obtained for R and T
when medium 1 is the aluminum alloy and
Aluminum 1100-O 2710 6350 3100 2900 17.2
Aluminum alloy 2117-T4 2800 6250 3100 2790 17.5
medium 2 is water.
Beryllium 1850 12800 8710 7870 23.7 For normal incidence the energy transmitted
Copper 110 8900 4700 2260 1930 41.8 as a function of acoustic impedance ratio for
Copper alloys two semi-infinite media is shown in Fig. 9.
260 (cartridge brass, 70%) 8530 3830 2050 1860 32.7
464 to 467 (naval brass) 8410 4430 2120 1950 37.3
Angle of Incidence. Only when an ultra-
510 (phosphor bronze, 5% A) 8860 3530 2230 2010 31.2 sonic wave is incident at right angles on an
752 (nickel silver 65-18) 8750 4620 2320 1690 40.4 interface between two materials (normal inci-
Lead dence; i.e., angle of incidence = 0 ) do trans-
Pure 11340 2160 700 640 24.5
Hard (94Pb-6Sb) 10880 2160 800 730 23.5
mission and reflection occur at the interface
Magnesium alloy M1A 1760 5740 3100 2870 10.1 without any change in beam direction. At any
Mercury, liquid 13550 1450 ... ... 19.5 other angle of incidence, the phenomena of
Molybdenum 10200 6250 3350 3110 63.8 mode conversion (a change in the nature of
Nickel
Pure 8800 5630 2960 2640 4.95
the wave motion) and refraction (a change in
Inconel 8500 5820 3020 2790 4.95 direction of wave propagation) must be consid-
Inconel X-750 8300 5940 3120 ... 4.93 ered. These phenomena may affect the entire
Monel 8830 5350 2720 2460 4.72 beam or only a portion of the beam, and the
Titanium, commercially pure 4500 6100 3120 2790 2.75
Tungsten 19250 5180 2870 2650 9.98
sum total of the changes that occur at the inter-
face depends on the angle of incidence and the
Nonmetals
velocity of the ultrasonic waves on either side
Air(e) 1.29 331 ... ... 0.0004
... ...
of the point of impingement on the interface.
Ethylene glycol 1110 1660 1.8
Glass
All possible ultrasonic waves leaving this point
Plate 2500 5770 3430 3140 14.4 are shown for an incident longitudinal ultra-
Pyrex 2230 5570 3440 3130 12.4 sonic wave in Fig. 10. In many cases, not all
Glycerin 1260 1920 ... ... 2.4 of the waves shown in Fig. 10 will be pro-
Oil
Machine (SAE 20) 870 1740 ... ... 1.50
duced in any specific instance of oblique
Transformer 920 1380 ... ... 1.27 impingement of an ultrasonic wave on the
Paraffin wax 900 2200 ... ... 2.0 interface between two materials. The waves
Plastics that propagate in a given instance depend on
Methylmethacrylate (Lucite, 1180 2670 1120 1130 3.2
Plexiglas)
the ability of a particular wave mode to exist
Polyamide (nylon) 1000–1200 1800–2200 ... ... 1.8–2.7 in a given material, the angle of incidence of
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) 2200 1350 ... ... 3.0 the initial beam, and the velocities of the wave
Quartz, natural 2650 5730 ... ... 15.2
... ...
modes in both materials.
Rubber, vulcanized 1100–1600 2300 2.5–3.7
Tungsten carbide 10000–15000 6660 3980 ... 67.0–99.0
The general law that describes wave behav-
Water ior at an interface is known as Snell’s law.
Liquid(f) 1000 1490 ... ... 1.49 Although originally derived for light waves,
Ice(g) 900 3980 1990 ... 3.6 Snell’s law applies to acoustic (elastic) waves,
(a) Longitudinal (compression) waves. (b) Transverse (shear) waves. (c) Surface waves. (d) For longitudinal waves Z1 = rV1. (e) At standard including ultrasound, and also to many other
temperature and pressure. (f) At 4  C (39  F). (g) At 0  C (32  F)
types of waves. According to Snell’s law, the
ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to
the sine of the angle of reflection or refraction
equals the ratio of the corresponding wave
Where Z1 is the acoustic impedance of R + T = 100%, because all the energy is either velocities. Snell’s law applies even if mode
medium 1, Z2 is the acoustic impedance of reflected or transmitted, and T is simply conversion takes place. Mathematically,
medium 2, and r equals Z2/Z1 and is the obtained from this relationship. Snell’s law can be expressed as:
impedance ratio, or mismatch factor. With The transmission coefficient, T, also can be
T designating the transmission coefficient, calculated as the ratio of the intensity of the sin a= sin b ¼ V1 =V2 (Eq 5)
162 / Sonic and Ultrasonic Techniques

10 would be replaced by an incident transverse

Energy transmission coefficient, T angle at equal to a0 t (with velocity Vt(1)).
T = 4z2/z1 T = 4z1/z2
Critical Angles. If the angle of incidence
(al, Fig. 10) is small, ultrasound waves propa-
0.1
gating in a given medium may undergo mode
Semi-infinite Semi-infinite conversion at a boundary, resulting in the
medium 1 medium 2
simultaneous propagation of longitudinal and
z1 z2 transverse (shear) waves in a second medium.
0.01
If the angle is increased, the direction of the
Incident Transmitted
energy energy
refracted longitudinal wave will approach the
Reflected energy plane of the boundary (b1 ! 90 ). At some
0.001 specific value of a1, bl will exactly equal 90 ,
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
above which the refracted longitudinal wave
Impedance ratio z2/z1
will no longer propagate in the material, leav-
ing only a refracted (mode-converted) shear
Fig. 9 Acoustic energy transmission across an interface between two semi-infinite media, calculated at normal wave to propagate in the second medium.
incidence. Source: Ref 9. Reprinted with permission from Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), # Copyright 1965
This value of a1 is known as the first critical
angle. If a1is increased beyond the first critical
angle, the direction of the refracted shear
wave will approach the plane of the boundary
(bt ! 90 ). At a second specific value of a1,
Material 1 bt will exactly equal 90 , above which the
α1
α′1 refracted transverse wave no longer will prop-
Vl(1) Vl(1) agate in the material. This second value of al is
called the second critical angle.
Vt(1) Critical angles are of special importance in
ultrasonic inspection. Values of al between
α′t the first and second critical angles are required
Interface
for most angle-beam inspections. Surface wave
inspection is accomplished by adjusting the
Vs(2) incident angle of a contact-type search unit so
βs
that it is a few tenths of a degree greater than
the second critical angle. At this value, the
refracted shear wave in the bulk material is
β1
replaced by a Rayleigh wave traveling along
βt Vl(2) the surface of the testpiece. As mentioned pre-
Vt(2)
viously in this article, Rayleigh waves can be
effectively sustained only when the medium
Material 2 on one side of the interface (in this case, the
surface of the testpiece) is a gas. Conse-
quently, surface wave inspection is primarily
used with contact methods.
Fig. 10 Diagram showing relationship (by vectors) of all possible reflected and refracted waves to an incident In ordinary angle-beam inspection, it is
longitudinal wave of velocity Vl(1) impinging on an interface at angle al relative to normal to the
interface. See text for explanation of vectors. usually desirable to have only a shear wave
propagating in the test material. Because longi-
tudinal waves and shear waves propagate at
where a is the angle of incidence, b is the longitudinal wave in material 2, bt is the angle different speeds, echo signals will be received
angle of reflection or refraction, and V1 and of refraction for refracted transverse wave in at different times, depending on which type
V2 are the respective velocities of the incident material 2, Vl(1) is the velocity of incident lon- of wave produced the echo. When both types
and reflected or refracted waves. Both a and gitudinal wave in material 1 = velocity of are present in the test material, confusing echo
b are measured from a line normal to the reflected longitudinal wave in material 1, Vt(1) patterns may be shown on the display device,
interface. is the velocity of reflected transverse wave in which can lead to erroneous interpretations of
The general relationship applying to reflec- material 1, Vl(2) is the velocity of refracted lon- testpiece quality. Frequently, it is desirable to
tion and refraction, taking into account all gitudinal wave in material 2, and Vt(2) is the produce shear waves in a material at an angle
possible effects of mode conversion for an velocity of refracted transverse wave in mate- of 45 to the surface. In most materials, inci-
incident longitudinal ultrasonic wave, as rial 2. dent angles for mode conversion to a 45 shear
shown in Fig. 10, is given as: For quantities that are shown in Fig. 10 but wave lie between the first and second critical
do not appear in Eq 6, bs is the angle of refrac- angles. Typical values of al for all three of
sin a1 =Vlð1Þ ¼ sin a01 =Vlð1Þ ¼ sin a0t =Vtð1Þ tion for refracted surface (Rayleigh) wave in these—first critical angle, second critical
(Eq 6)
sin b1 =Vlð2Þ ¼ sin bt =Vtð2Þ material 2 = 90 , and Vs(2) is the velocity of angle, and incident angle for mode conversion
refracted surface (Rayleigh) wave in material to 45 shear waves—are listed in Table 2 for
where al is the angle of incidence for incident 2. Equation 6 can apply to similar relationships various metals.
longitudinal wave in material 1, a0 l is the angle for an incident transverse (instead of longitudi- Beam Intensity. The intensity of an ultra-
of reflection for reflected longitudinal wave in nal) wave by substituting the term sin at/Vt(1) sonic beam is related to the amplitude of parti-
material 1 = al, a0 t is the angle of reflection for the first term, sin al/Vl(1). Correspondingly, cle vibrations. Acoustic pressure is the term
for reflected transverse wave in material 1, bl in Fig. 10, the incident longitudinal wave at most often used to denote the amplitude of
is the angle of refraction for refracted angle al (with velocity Vl(1) in material 1) alternating stresses exerted on a material by a
 Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Inspection / 163

Table 2 Critical angles for immersion and contact testing, and incident angle for 45 5
shear wave transmission, in various metals
First critical angle, Second critical angle, 45 shear wave incident angle, 4

Acoustic pressure, arbitrary units

degrees(a), for: degrees(a), for: degrees(a), for: Refracted longitudinal
Immersion Contact Immersion Contact Immersion Contact wave in aluminum
Metal testing(b) testing(c) testing(b) testing(c) testing(b) testing(c)
3
Steel 14.5 26.5 27.5 55 19 35.5 Reflected longitudinal
Cast iron 15–25 28–50 ... ... ... ...
wave in water
Type 302 stainless steel 15 28 29 59 19.5 37
Type 410 stainless steel 11.5 21 30 63 20.5 39 2
Aluminum alloy 2117-T4 13.5 25 29 59.5 20 37.5
Beryllium 6.5 12 10 18 7 12.5
... A B Total reflection
Copper alloy 260 (cartridge 23 44 46.5 31 67 1
brass, 70%)
Inconel 11 20 30 62 20.5 38.5 Refracted transverse
Magnesium alloy M1A 15 27.5 29 59.5 20 37.5 wave in aluminum
0 A′
Monel 16.5 30 33 79 23 44
Titanium 14 26 29 59 20 37 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle of reflection or refraction, degrees
(a) Measured from a direction normal to surface of test material. (b) In water at 4  C (39  F). (c) Using angle block (wedge) made of acrylic plastic

Fig. 11 Variation of acoustic pressure with angle of

reflection or refraction during immersion
0
propagating ultrasonic wave. Acoustic pres- incidence (al = a l = bl = 0), acoustic energy ultrasonic inspection of aluminum. The acoustic
pressure of the incident wave equals 1.0 arbitrary unit.
sure is directly proportional to the product of is partitioned between a reflected longitudinal Points A and A0 correspond to the first critical angle,
acoustic impedance and amplitude of particle wave in water and a refracted (transmitted) and point B to the second critical angle, for this system.
motion. The acoustic pressure exerted by a longitudinal wave in aluminum. Because of
given particle varies in the same direction different acoustic impedances, this partition
and with the same frequency as the position induces acoustic pressures of approximately
of that particle changes with time. Acoustic 0.8 arbitrary units in the reflected wave in an aluminum-water interface, peak transmis-
pressure is the most important property of an water and approximately 1.9 units in the trans- sion of acoustic pressure for a returning trans-
ultrasonic wave, and its square determines the mitted wave in aluminum. Although it may verse wave echo occurs in the sector from
amount of energy (acoustic power) in the seem anomalous that the transmitted wave approximately 16 to 22 in the water relative
wave. It should be noted that acoustic pressure has a higher acoustic pressure than the incident to a line normal to the interface. Consequently,
is not the intensity of the ultrasonic beam. wave, it must be recognized that it is acoustic 35 to 51 angle beams in aluminum are the
Intensity, which is the energy transmitted energy, not acoustic pressure, that is parti- most efficient in transmitting detectable echoes
through a unit cross-sectional area of the beam, tioned and conserved. across the front surface during immersion
is proportional to the square of acoustic In Fig. 11, as the incident angle, a1, is inspection and therefore can resolve smaller
pressure. increased, there is a slight drop in the acoustic discontinuities than beams directed at other
Although piezoelectric transducer elements pressure of the reflected wave, a corresponding angles in the aluminum. The partition of
sense acoustic pressure, ultrasonic systems do slight rise in the acoustic pressure of the acoustic energy at a water-steel interface is
not measure acoustic pressure directly. How- refracted longitudinal wave, and a sharper rise illustrated with Fig. 12, which shows that
ever, receiver-amplifier circuits of most ultra- in the acoustic pressure of the refracted trans- shear waves, with no longitudinal component,
sonic instruments are designed to produce an verse wave. At the first critical angle for the in steel can be produced between approxi-
output voltage proportional to the square of water-aluminum interface (a1 = 13.6, b1 = 90, mately 15 and 28 angle of incidence. An
the input voltage from the transducer. There- and bt = 29.2), the acoustic pressure of the lon- example showing the utilization of these
fore, the signal amplitude of ultrasound that gitudinal waves reaches a peak, and the mode-conversion phenomena in shear wave
is typically displayed in a commercial ultra- refracted waves go rapidly to zero (point A0 , transducers is given in Fig. 13, which displays
sound NDT unit is a value proportional to the Fig. 11). Between the first and second critical the pressure ratios and critical angles for
true intensity of the reflected ultrasound. angles, the acoustic pressure in the reflected Plexiglas (Perspex) on aluminum.
The law of reflection and refraction described longitudinal wave in water varies as shown
in Eq 5 or 6 gives information regarding only the between points A and B in Fig. 11. The
direction of propagation of reflected and refracted longitudinal wave in aluminum Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beams
refracted waves and says nothing about the meanwhile has disappeared. Beyond the sec-
acoustic pressure in the reflected or refracted ond critical angle (al = 28.8 ), the transverse The intensity of an ultrasonic beam that is
waves. When ultrasonic waves are reflected or wave in aluminum disappears, and there is sensed by a receiving transducer is consider-
refracted, the energy in the incident wave is par- total reflection at the interface with no partition ably less than the intensity of that initially
titioned among the various reflected and of energy and no variation in acoustic pressure, transmitted. The factors primarily responsible
refracted waves. The relationship among acous- as shown to the right of point B in Fig. 11. for the loss in beam intensity can be classified
tic energies in the resultant waves is complex Curves similar to those in Fig. 11 can be as transmission losses, interference effects, and
and depends both on the angle of incidence and constructed for the reverse instance of incident beam spreading.
on the acoustic properties of the matter on oppo- longitudinal waves in aluminum impinging on Causes of transmission losses include
site sides of the interface. an aluminum-water interface, for incident absorption, scattering, and acoustic impedance
The variation of acoustic pressure (not transverse waves in aluminum, and for other mismatch effects at interfaces. Interference
energy) with angle of reflection or refraction combinations of wave types and materials. effects include diffraction and other effects
(a0 l, bl, or bt, defined in Fig. 10) that results Details of this procedure are available in vari- that create wave fringes, phase shift, or fre-
when an incident longitudinal wave in water ous texts (Ref 1, 5). These curves are impor- quency shift. Beam spreading involves mainly
having an acoustic pressure of 1.0 arbitrary tant because they indicate the angles of a transition from plane waves to either spheri-
unit impinges on the surface of an aluminum incidence at which energy transfer across the cal or cylindrical waves, depending on the
testpiece is shown as Fig. 11. At normal boundary is most effective. For example, at shape of the transducer-element face. The
164 / Sonic and Ultrasonic Techniques

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90° βL1 θJ le,

L θf
ng 10 0 10
lA 1
t i ca 5.6° 20 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90° β Cr
i 2
30
1 30
0.8

S
40 40
1.0

.4° le,
62 Ang
50 50

al
0.6

itic
Cr
60 60
0.9
R 0.4
R 70 70

0.8 0.2
80 80
Energy ratio

Water a R
r = 1.00 g/cm3
V1 = 1490 m/s 90 90
Liquid 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
Steel
3 Solid
r = 7.7 g/cm L
V1 = 5900 m/s bt S 0.2 80
Vt = 3230 m/s b t
0.2 7 70
0f 0.4
0RN
θr
S Plexiglass

Loss, dB
L 60
Aluminum 0TL 0.6
0.1 10 θTS 50
13
S 0.8 40
0 20
30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
1 20
Angle of incidence, a, deg 0 10 θTS

Longitudinal Shear
Fig. 12 Partition of acoustic energy at a water-steel interface. The reflection
coefficient, R, is equal to 1 – (L + S), where L is the transmission
coefficient of the longitudinal wave and S is the transmission coefficient of the Fig. 13 Pressure ratios for refracted shear (transverse) wave for Plexiglas and steel
transverse (or shear) wave. interface. Calculated by M. Baquera, Iowa State University

wave physics that completely describe these expressed as a percentage of the intensity of
three effects are discussed in various texts the incident beam. Table 3 Back-reflected intensity at metal-
(Ref 1, 5). The loss (knockdown) for graphite epoxy water interfaces
Acoustic impedance effects (see the sec- composite materials is even larger than for Back-reflection intensity,
Material % of incident beam intensity
tion “Acoustic Impedance” in this article) can metals with fiber attenuation and lower mate-
be used to calculate the amount of energy that rial density. The loss in intensity of returning Magnesium alloy 11.0
is reflected during the ultrasonic inspection of ultrasonic beams is one basis for characterizing M1A
Titanium 3.0
a testpiece immersed in water. This reduction flaws in testpieces. As indicated previously, Type 302 stainless 1.4
in intensity occurs primarily because of energy acoustic impedance losses can severely dimin- steel
partition when waves are only partly reflected, ish the intensity of an ultrasonic beam. Carbon steel 1.3
for example, at the aluminum-water or steel- Because only a small fraction of the area of Inconel 0.7
Tungsten 0.3
water interfaces. Additional losses would an ultrasound beam is reflected from small dis-
occur due to absorption and scattering of the continuities, it is obvious that ultrasonic instru-
ultrasonic waves, as discussed in the sections ments must be extremely sensitive to small applications, any couplant with an acoustic
“Absorption” and “Scattering” in this article. variations in intensity if small discontinuities impedance higher than that of water is pre-
Similarly, energy loss can be calculated for are to be detected. The ultrasound intensity of ferred. Several of these are listed in the
a discontinuity that constitutes an ideal reflect- contact techniques is usually greater than that nonmetals group in Table 1. In addition to
ing surface, such as a delamination that is nor- of immersion techniques; that is, smaller dis- the liquid couplants listed in Table 1, sev-
mal to the beam path that interposes a metal- continuities will result in higher amplitude sig- eral semisolid or solid couplants (including
air interface larger than the ultrasound beam. nals. Two factors are mainly responsible for wallpaper paste, certain greases, honey,
For example, in the straight-beam inspection this difference: elastomers, and some adhesives) have
of an aluminum alloy 1100 plate containing a higher acoustic impedances than water.
delamination, the final returning beam, after
The back surface of the testpiece is a metal-air
partial reflection at the front surface of the interface, which can be considered a total Absorption of ultrasonic energy occurs
plate and total reflection from the delamina- reflector. Compared to a metal-water interface, mainly by the conversion of mechanical
tion, would have a maximum intensity 8% of this results in an approximately 30% increase energy into heat. Elastic motion within a sub-
the incident beam. By comparison, only 6% in back-reflection intensity at the receiving stance as an ultrasonic wave propagates
was found for the returning beam from the search unit for an aluminum testpiece coupled through it alternately heats the substance dur-
plate that did not contain a delamination. Sim- to the search unit through a layer of water. ing compression and cools it during rarefac-
ilar calculations of the energy losses caused by
If a couplant whose acoustic impedance tion. Because heat flows so much more
impedance effects at metal-water interfaces for more nearly matches that of the testpiece slowly than an ultrasonic wave, thermal losses
the ultrasonic immersion inspection of several is substituted for the water, more energy is are incurred, and this progressively reduces
of the metals listed in Table 3 yield the follow- transmitted across the interface for both energy in the propagating wave. A related ther-
ing back-reflection intensities, which are the incident and returning beams. For most mal loss occurs in polycrystalline materials; a
 Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Inspection / 165

thermoelastic loss arises from heat flow away Metallurgy Parts” and “Nondestructive Evalu- that correspond to regions where interfering
from grains that have received more compres- ation of Additively Manufactured Metallic scattered waves are respectively in phase and
sion or expansion in the course of wave motion Parts” in this Volume. This assessment of out of phase (Ref 1, 5, 14, 15).
than did adjacent grains. For most polycrystal- material state (material state awareness) is see- Diffraction phenomena must be taken into
line materials, this effect is most pronounced ing increased attention as fabricators seek to account during the development of ultrasonic
at the low end of the ultrasonic frequency use designed microstructures. It is also becom- inspection procedures. Unfortunately, only
spectrum (Ref 1). ing increasingly necessary in addition to qualitative guidelines can be provided. Entry-
Vibrational stress in ferromagnetic and fer- macrodefect detection (cracks) to address surface roughness, the type of machined sur-
roelectric materials generated by the passage microstructure characterization and detect met- face, and machining direction all can influence
of an acoustic wave can cause motion of allurgical anomalies such as hard a inclusions inspection procedures. In addition, the rough-
domain walls or rotation of domain directions. in titanium disks and local zones where there ness of a flaw surface affects its echo pattern
These effects may cause domains to be are variations in either microstructure, such and must be considered (Ref 16).
strengthened in directions parallel, antiparallel, as grain size, or elastic properties. An ultrasonic beam striking a smooth inter-
or perpendicular to the direction of stress. The significance of the various mechanisms face is reflected and refracted; but the field
Energy losses in ferromagnetic and ferroelec- for scattering and absorption vary with fre- maintains phase coherence, and beam behavior
tric materials also may be caused by a micro- quency. An example of the range of frequency- can be predicted analytically. A rough inter-
hysteresis effect, in which domain wall dependent absorption and scattering effects for face, however, modifies boundary conditions,
motion or domain rotation lags behind the the case of a 0.6 mm mean grain diameter alumi- and some of the beam energy is diffracted.
vibrational stress to produce a hysteresis loop. num is illustrated with the frequency depen- Beyond the interface, a coherent wave must
In addition to the types of losses discussed dence of attenuation from 0.1 MHz to 1 GHz as re-form through phase reinforcement and can-
previously, other types exist that have not been shown in Fig. 14. The dominant scattering cellation. The wave then continues to propa-
accounted for quantitatively. For example, it effects are seen to be closely related to the wave- gate as a modified wave.
has been suggested that some losses are caused length-grain size ratio (Ref 1, 13). The influence on the beam depends on the
by elastic-hysteresis effects due to cyclic dis- Diffraction. An acoustic beam propagating roughness, size, and contour of the modifying
placements of dislocations in grains or grain in a homogeneous medium is coherent; that interface. For example, a plane wave striking
boundaries of metals. is, all particles that lie along any given plane a diaphragm containing a single hole one
Absorption can be thought of as a braking parallel to the wave front vibrate in identical wavelength in diameter will propagate as a
action on the motion of oscillating particles. patterns. When a wave front passes the edge spherical wave from a point (Huygens)
This braking action is more pronounced when of a reflecting surface, the front bends around source. The wave from a larger hole will re-
oscillations are more rapid, that is, at high fre- the edge in a manner similar to that in which form in accordance with the number of wave-
quencies. For most materials, absorption losses light bends around the edge of an opaque lengths in the diameter. In ultrasonic inspec-
increase directly with frequency. object. When the reflector is very small com- tion, a 2.5 mm (100 min.) surface finish may
Scattering of an ultrasonic wave occurs pared to the ultrasound beam, as is usual for have little influence at one inspection fre-
because most materials are not homogeneous. a small crack, pore, or an inclusion, wave quency and search-unit diameter, defined in
Crystal discontinuities, such as grain bound- bending (forward scattering) around the edges terms of roughness to wavelength ratio, but
aries, twin boundaries, composite materials, of the reflector produces an interference pat- may completely mask subsurface discontinu-
and minute nonmetallic inclusions, deflect tern in a zone immediately behind the reflector ities at other inspection frequencies or
small amounts of ultrasonic energy out of the because of phase differences among different search-unit diameters.
main ultrasonic beam. In addition, especially portions of the forward-scattered beam. The Diffracted signals have seen increased inter-
in mixed microstructures or anisotropic materi- interference pattern consists of alternate est in terms of their use for defect sizing. This
als, mode conversion at crystallite boundaries regions of maximum and minimum intensity topic is considered in the articles “Ultrasonic
tends to occur because of slight differences in
acoustic velocity and acoustic impedance
across the boundaries.
Scattering in metals is highly dependent on
the relation of crystallite size (mainly grain
size) to ultrasonic wavelength. When grain
size is less than 0.01 times the wavelength,
scatter is negligible. Scattering effects vary
approximately with the third power of grain
size, and when the grain size is 0.1 times the
wavelength or larger, excessive scattering
may make it nearly impossible to conduct
valid ultrasonic inspections.
In some cases, determination of the degree
of scattering can be used as a basis for accep-
tance or rejection of parts. Some cast irons
can be inspected for the size and distribution
of graphite flakes. Similarly, the size and dis-
tribution of grain size, microscopic voids in
some powder metallurgy parts, or of strength-
eners in some fiber-reinforced or dispersion-
strengthened materials, can be evaluated by
measuring attenuation (scattering) of an ultra-
sonic beam (Ref 10–12). This topic is dis-
cussed further in the articles “Nondestructive Fig. 14 Attenuation of longitudinal waves in polycrystalline aluminum. Source: Ref 13. Reprinted by permission of
Evaluation of Pressed and Sintered Powder the publisher Taylor & Francis Ltd
166 / Sonic and Ultrasonic Techniques

Imaging and Sizing” and “Sizing with Time- Near- and far-field effects also occur when Beam diameter also depends on the diame-
of-Flight Diffraction” in this Volume (Ref 17). ultrasonic waves are reflected from interfaces. ter of the radiator and the ultrasonic wave-
Near- and Far-Field Effects. The face of a The reasons are similar to those for near- and length. The theoretical equation for –6 dB
single-element ultrasonic transducer piezo- far-field effects for transducer crystals. That pulse-echo beam diameter is:
electric crystal does not vibrate uniformly is, reflecting interfaces do not vibrate uni-
D
under the influence of an impressed electrical formly in response to the acoustic pressure of 6 dB beam diameter ¼ 1:032 S (Eq 10)
voltage. Rather, the crystal face vibrates in a an impinging ultrasound wave. Near-field 4
complex manner that can most easily be lengths for circular reflecting interfaces can Where S is the focusing factor and is  1.
described as a mosaic of tiny, individual crys- be calculated from Eq 7 and 8. Table 4 lists Focusing the transducer (S > 1) produces a
tals, each vibrating in the same direction but near-field lengths corresponding to several smaller beam. For a flat (nonfocused) trans-
slightly out of phase with its neighbors. Each combinations of radiator diameter and ultra- ducer (S = 1), the beam has a diameter of
element in the mosaic acts like a point (Huy- sonic frequency. The values in Table 4 were 0.25 D at the near-field distance N, where N
gens) source and radiates a spherical wave calculated from Eq 7 for circular radiators in depends on the ultrasonic wavelength as
outward from the plane of the crystal face. a material having an ultrasonic velocity of defined in Eq 7.
Near the face of the crystal, the composite 6000 m/s (~4 miles/s) and closely approximate The overall attenuation of an ultrasonic
ultrasonic beam propagates chiefly as a plane actual lengths of near-fields for longitudinal wave in the far-field can be expressed as:
wave, although spherical waves emanating waves in steel, aluminum alloys, and certain
from the periphery of the crystal face produce other materials. Values for radiators with P ¼ P0 expðaLÞ (Eq 11)
short-range ultrasonic beams referred to as diameters of 25, 13, and 10 mm (1, ½, and
side lobes. Because of interference effects, 3/ 8 in.) correspond to typical search-unit sizes, Where P0 and P are the acoustic pressures at
as these spherical waves encounter one and values for radiators with diameters of 3 and the beginning and end, respectively, of a sec-
another in the region near the crystal face, a 1.5 mm (1/ 8 and 0.060 in.) correspond to typical tion of material having a length L and an atten-
spatial pattern of acoustic pressure maxima “hole sizes” in standard reference blocks. uation coefficient a. Attenuation coefficients
and minima is set up in the composite ultra- Beam Spreading. In the far-field of an most often are expressed in nepers per centi-
sound beam. The region in which these max- ultrasonic beam, the wave front expands with meter or decibels per millimeter. Both nepers
ima and minima occur is known as the near- distance from a radiator. The angle of diver- and decibels are units based on logarithms—
field (Fresnel field) of the ultrasound beam gence from the central axis of the beam from nepers on natural logarithms (base e) and
(Ref 1, 5, 18). a circular radiator is determined from ultra- decibels on common logarithms (base 10).
Along the central axis of the composite sonic wavelength and radiator size as: Numerically, the value of a in decibels per
ultrasound beam, the series of acoustic pres-  
millimeter (dB/mm) is equal to 0.868, the
l value in nepers per centimeter.
sure maxima and minima becomes broader g ¼ 2 sin1 0:5 (Eq 9)
and more widely spaced as the distance from D A table of exact attenuation coefficients for
the crystal face, d, increases. Where d becomes various materials, if such data could be deter-
where g is the angle of divergence in degrees, mined, would be of doubtful value. Ultrasonic
equal to N (with N denoting the length of the
l is the ultrasonic wavelength, and D is the inspection is a process subject to wide varia-
near-field), the acoustic pressure reaches a
diameter of a circular radiator. Equation 9 is tion in responses, and these variations are
final maximum and then decreases approxi-
valid only for small values of l/D, that is, only highly dependent on structure and properties
mately exponentially with increasing distance.
when the beam angle is small. in each individual testpiece. Attenuation
Both a graphical and pictorial representation
When the radiator is not circular, the angle mainly determines the depth to which ultra-
of the near- and far-field acoustic pressures
of divergence cannot be assessed accurately sonic inspection can be performed as well as
are shown in Fig. 15. The length of the near-
by applying Eq 9. For noncircular search units, the signal amplitude from reflectors within a
field is determined by the size of the radiating
beam spreading is most accurately found testpiece. Table 5 lists the types of materials
crystal and the wavelength, l, of the ultrasonic
experimentally. and approximate maximum inspection depth
wave. For a circular radiator of diameter D, the
length of the near-field can be calculated from:


D2  l 2
N¼ (Eq 7)
4l
When the wavelength is small with respect to
the crystal diameter, the near-field length can
be approximated by:

D2 A
N¼ ¼ (Eq 8)
4l pl
where A is the area of the crystal face.
At distances greater than N, known as the
far-field of the ultrasonic beam, there are no
interference effects. At distances from N to
approximately 3N from the face of a circular
radiator, there is a gradual transition to a
spherical wave front. At distances of more than
approximately 3N, the ultrasonic beam from a
rectangular radiator more closely resembles a Fig. 15 (a) Data curve showing variation of acoustic pressure with distance ratio for a circular search unit.
Distance ratio is the distance from the crystal face, d, divided by the length of the near field, N.
cylindrical wave, with the wave front being (b) Image of a transducer pressure field, with Y1 associated with distance ratio of approximately ½ and Y0
curved about an axis parallel to the long associated with distance ratio of 1. Reprinted with permission of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing
dimension of the rectangle. (ASNT) Inc. This reprint contains copyrighted property of ASNT and may not be duplicated or altered in any manner.
 Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Inspection / 167

Table 4 Near-field lengths for circular radiators in a material having an ultrasonic frequency modulation technique, spectral analy-
velocity of 6000 m/s (4 miles/s) sis, and ultrasound conduction. The first of these
methods is discussed in the article “Acoustic
Near-field length for radiator with diameter of: Microscopy” in this Volume. The second of
9.5 mm (3/ 8 in.) 3.2 mm (1/ 8 in.)
/
Wavelength 25 mm (1 in.) 13 mm (1 2 in.) 1.5 mm (0.060 in.) these is covered in the article “Acoustical Holog-
Frequency, MHz mm in. cm in. cm in. cm in. cm in. cm in. raphy” in this Volume. Three less commonly
1.0 6.0 0.24 2.5 1.0 0.52 0.20 0.23 0.09 ... ... ... ... used methods are briefly summarized as follows.
2.0 3.0 0.12 5.3 2.1 1.3 0.50 0.68 0.27 0.009 0.0035 ... ... The frequency modulation (FM) method,
5.0 1.2 0.04 13.4 5.3 3.3 1.3 1.9 0.75 0.18 0.07 0.02 0.008 which was the precursor of the pulse-echo
10.0 0.6 0.02 27 11 6.7 2.6 3.8 1.5 0.40 0.16 0.08 0.03
15.0 0.4 0.015 40 16 10 4.0 5.7 2.2 0.62 0.24 0.14 0.055
method, is another flaw-detection technique.
25.0 0.24 0.009 67 26 17 6.7 9.4 3.7 1.04 0.41 0.24 0.095 In the FM method, the ultrasonic pulses are
transmitted in wave packets whose frequency
varies linearly with time. The frequency varia-
tion is repeated in successive wave packets so
Table 5 Approximate attenuation coefficients and useful depths of inspection for various that a plot of frequency versus time has a
metallic and nonmetallic materials, using 2 MHz longitudinal waves at room temperature saw tooth pattern. There is a time delay
Attenuation coefficient, Useful depth of between successive packets. Returning echoes
dB/mm (dB/in.) inspection, m (ft) Type of material inspected
are displayed on the readout device only if
Low: 0.001–0.01 1–10 (3–30) Cast metals: aluminum(a), magnesium(a). Wrought metals: steel, aluminum, they have certain characteristics as determined
(0.025–0.25) magnesium, nickel, titanium, tungsten, uranium by the electronic circuitry in the instrument.
Medium: 0.01–0.1 0.1–1 (0.3–3) Cast metals(b): steel(c), high-strength cast iron, aluminum(d), magnesium(d).
(0.25–2.5) Wrought metals(b): copper, lead, zinc. Nonmetals: sintered carbides(b), Although not as widely used as the pulse-echo
some plastics(e), some rubbers(e) method, the FM method has a lower signal-to-
High: >0.1 (>2.5) 0–0.1 (0–0.3)(f) Cast metals(b): steel(d), low-strength cast iron, copper, zinc. Nonmetals(e): noise ratio and therefore somewhat greater
porous ceramics, filled plastics, some rubbers resolving power (Ref 19).
(a) Pure or slightly alloyed. (b) Attenuation mostly by scattering. (c) Plain carbon or slightly alloyed. (d) Highly alloyed. (e) Attenuation mostly by Spectral analysis, which can be used with
absorption. (f) Excessive attenuation may preclude inspection.
both the through-transmission or pulse-echo
methods, involves determination of the fre-
quency spectrum of an ultrasonic wave after
corresponding to low, medium, and high atten- ultrasound reflected from a reference reflector it has propagated through a testpiece. The fre-
uation coefficients. Inspection depth is also of known size or from the back surface of a quency spectrum can be determined either by
influenced by the decibel gain built into the testpiece having no flaws. transmitting a pulse and using a fast Fourier
receiver-amplifier of an ultrasonic instrument The transmission method, either reflection transform (FFT) to obtain the frequency spec-
and by the ability of the instrument to discrim- (pitch-catch) or through-transmission, involves trum of the received signal or by sweeping
inate between low-amplitude echoes and elec- only measurement of signal attenuation, and the transmission frequency in real-time and
tronic noise at high gain settings. also can be used in flaw detection. In the acquiring the response at each frequency. The
pulse-echo method, it is necessary that an increasing use of the pulse method is attributed
internal flaw reflect at least part of the ultra- to improvements in the speed of digital signal
Common Implementations for sound energy onto a receiving transducer. processing including using a FFT.
Ultrasonic Inspection However, echoes from flaws are not essential Spectral analysis is used in transducer eva-
to their detection. Merely the fact that the luations and may be useful in defect character-
The two major methods that most commonly amplitude of the back-reflection from a test- ization. However, because the spectral
implement ultrasonic inspection with single- piece is lower than that from an identical signatures of defects are influenced by several
element transducers are the pulse-echo and the workpiece known to be free of flaws implies other factors (such as the spectrum of the input
transmission methods. The primary difference that the testpiece contains one or more flaws. pulse, coupling details, and signal attenuation),
between these two methods is that the transmis- The technique of detecting the presence of defect characterization primarily involves the
sion method involves two transducers and flaws by ultrasound attenuation is used in qualitative interpretation of echoes in the time
involves only the measurement of signal attenua- transmission methods as well as in the pulse- domain.
tion, while the pulse-echo method can be imple- echo method. The main disadvantage of atten- Spectral analysis also can be used to mea-
mented with a single transducer and is used to uation methods is that flaw depth cannot be sure the thickness of thin-walled specimens.
measure both transit time and signal attenuation. measured. A short pulse of ultrasound is a form of coher-
The pulse-echo method also can be imple- The principles of each of these two inspec- ent radiation; in a thin-walled specimen that
mented with a phased array, and it remains tion methods are discussed in the articles produces front- and back-wall echoes, the two
one of the most widely used ultrasonic modal- “Basic Inspection Methods (Pulse-Echo and reflected pulses show phase differences and
ities, involving the detection of echoes pro- Transmission Methods)” and “Ultrasonic can interfere coherently. If the pulse contains
duced when an ultrasonic pulse is reflected Imaging and Sizing” in this Volume, which a wide band of frequencies, interference max-
from a discontinuity or an interface in a test- also present forms of data presentation, inter- ima and minima can occur at particular fre-
piece. This method is used in flaw location pretation of data, and effects of operating quencies, and these can be related to the
and thickness measurements. Flaw depth is variables, together with presentations of the specimen thickness. These approaches have
determined from the time-of-flight between various forms of implementation including been known by various terms including ultra-
the initial pulse and the echo produced by a use of phased arrays. Subsequent articles in sonic spectroscopy (Ref 20, 21).
flaw. Flaw depth also may be determined by this Volume describe various components and Ultrasound conduction is used in flaw
the relative transit time between the echo pro- systems for ultrasonic inspection, reference detection by monitoring the intensity of arbi-
duced by a flaw and the echo from the back standards, and inspection procedures and trary waveforms at a given point on the test-
surface. Flaw sizes are estimated by comparing applications. piece. These waveforms transmit ultrasonic
the signal amplitudes of reflected ultrasound The application of ultrasonic techniques also energy, which is fed into the testpiece at some
from an interface (either within the testpiece involves other methods, such as acoustical other point without the existence of a well-
or at the back surface) with the amplitude of microscopy, acoustical holography, the defined beam path between the two points.
168 / Sonic and Ultrasonic Techniques

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