Notes Grade: 9

Subject: Biology

Chapter no: 9

Chapter name: Transport in animals

OBJECTIVES
• Introduction
• Circulation
• Heart
• Heart disease and exercise
• Blood vessels
• The lymphatic system
• Blood
Introduction
Transport- take or carry (substances) from one part of the body to another
by means of a medium.

Why to transport? (in all organisms)

The process of transport allows substances to move from,

a. One organ to another

b. One tissue to another
c. One cell to another
d. Within the cell cytoplasm
e. Body fluids to inside of a cell across the cell membrane

What to transport? (in all organisms)

Every organism including animals require substances (Both organic and

inorganic nutrients and water) to maintain the fundamental structural and
functional features to survive and they obtain those substances from the
environment that organism lives.

These substances are present in the food water and the air.

• Nutrients such as simple and complex carbohydrates, amino acids and

proteins, fatty acids and glycerol, mineral ions and salts and vitamins.
• Oxygen
• Water
• Waste substances such as ammonia, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine,
carbon dioxide and substances in excess such as sugar, amino acids,
water minerals and salts.
• Hormones and enzymes
How to transport? (in animals)
Transport is done with the help of,
Body fluids
a) Blood
b) Lymph
c) Extracellular and intracellular fluids
Cell membrane
a) Carriers
b) Channels
c) Based on oncentration gradients

Circulation
Blood and lymph, the major two body fluids are circulated in organised system
called circulatory system.
There are two separate physiological systems for circulation of the two body
fluids. They are,
1) Cardiovascular system
2) Lymphatic system

1) The cardiovascular system.

Consists of,

a) Heart- the pumping organ

b) Blood vessels- the pathways for blood
c) Blood- the medium of transport

Animals differ in their structural organizations and features; hence they possess
different types of circulatory systems and hence circulation.

1) Single circulation
2) Double circulation
1) Single circulation

• Fish have a two-chambered heart and a single circulation.

• This means that for every one circuit of the body, the blood passes
through the heart once.

The single circulatory system in fish

2) Double circulation

• Mammals have a four-chambered heart and a double circulation.

• This means that for every one circuit of the body, the blood passes
through the heart twice.
• The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body
and pumps it to the lungs (the pulmonary circulation).
• The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
and pumps it to the body (the systemic circulation).

The double circulatory system in mammals

 Advantages of a Double Circulation

• Blood travelling through the small capillaries in the lungs loses a lot of
pressure that was given to it by the pumping of the heart, meaning
it cannot travel as fast.
• By returning the blood to the heart after going through the lungs
its pressure can be raised again before sending it to the body,
meaning cells can be supplied with the oxygen and glucose they need for
respiration faster and more frequently.

The human heart

Position and Structure
➔ Located in the chest cavity in between the lungs.
Note: The mediastinum is an important region of the body located between the
lungs. Structures that lie in this region include the heart, the
oesophagus/esophagus, the trachea, and large blood vessels including the aorta.

➔ A human heart is a muscular organ roughly the size of a large fist.

Note: The heart weighs between 280 to 340 grams in men and 230 to 280 grams in
women.

It is approximately 12 cm (5 in) in length, 8 cm (3.5 in) wide, and 6 cm (2.5 in) in

thickness.

Note: The heart is protected by the bony rib cage and the sternum/breastbone.

Since the heart is between the lungs, the left lung is smaller than the right lung and
has a cardiac notch in its border to accommodate the heart.

The heart is labelled as if it was in the chest so what is your left on a diagram is
actually the right-hand side and vice versa.

➔ The heart is made of muscle tissue known as Cardiac muscles.

➔ It is covered by a fluid filled double membrane structure called
Pericardium. It protects heart from external shocks to an extent.

Note Cardiac muscle (also called heart muscle or myocardium) is one of three
types of vertebrate muscles, with the other two being skeletal and smooth muscles.

It is an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the walls of
the heart. They are made up of heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes).

They contract and relax using the electric impulses generated in the conduction
system of heart which apparently makes heart pump the blood.

➔ It is divided into two halves by a thick muscular dividing wall called

Septum. This separates the Chambers on the right with those in the left.
➔ The right side (right heart) of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the
body and pumps it to the lungs.
➔ The left side (left heart) of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
and pumps it to the body.
➔ The muscle tissues are supplied with blood by the coronary arteries- small
branches of aorta.
 1. Heart chambers
Heart has four chambers through which the blood is collected in and pumped out.

A) Two upper chambers- Atria (Atrium-singular)

B) Two lower chambers- Ventricles
A) Atria- Collectors

They collect blood from different body parts through veins.

A1) Right atrium collects deoxygenated (CO2 rich) blood from different
tissues of the body through two major and largest veins called Venae cavae
(Vena cava- singular) and coronary sinus (collection of veins from heart itself).

❖ Superior vena cava drains/transport deoxygenated blood from the

upper parts of the body such as head, neck, arm, and chest regions.
❖ Inferior vena cava drains/transport deoxygenated blood from the lower
parts of the body such as liver, kidney, lower alimentary canal,
reproductive and excretory organs, limbs etc.
❖ Coronary sinus drains/transport deoxygenated blood from the heart.

A2) Left atrium

 Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins that bring blood
from the lungs after oxygenation.
 Right and left atria further transport the blood into right and left ventricles
respectively.
 Both atria are made of comparatively thinner muscular walls as they
do not pump blood in higher pressure as ventricles do.
B) Ventricles- Distributors

They receive blood from atria and pump/distribute blood to different body
parts.
B1) Right ventricle

❖ It collects deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and pump to the
lungs through one of the major arteries called the Pulmonary artery.

B2) Left ventricle

 Collects oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pump to different
body parts through the major and largest artery known as the Aorta.
✓ Both ventricles are made of comparatively thicker muscular walls than
atria as the ventricles have to pump blood in higher pressure.
✓ The left ventricle’s wall is made up of especially thicker muscular wall
than the right ventricle’s wall. Why?
✓ The left ventricle has to pump the blood further all around the body, and
against higher pressure, compared with the right ventricle which pumps
blood only to the lungs that are located nearby.
2. Heart valves
 Valves in the heart are special structures incorporated with flaps
called leaflets or cusps.
 A heart valve is a one-way valve that normally allows blood to flow in
only one direction through the heart.
 The four valves found in a mammalian heart determine the pathway
of blood flow through the heart.
 A heart valve opens or closes due to the differential blood pressure on
each side of it.
Valve

Valve

Valve
Valve

Heart valves
The four valves in the mammalian heart are:

 The two atrioventricular (AV) valves, which are present between the
upper chambers (atria) and the lower chambers (ventricles).
1. Right AV Valve
✓ Present b/w RA and RV.
✓ Commonly known as Tricuspid valve.
✓ Has three leaflets/flaps attached to the wall of right ventricle.
✓ Prevents back flow of blood from RV to RA.
2. Left AV Valve
✓ Present b/w LA and LV.
✓ Commonly known as Bicuspid valve OR Mitral valve.
✓ Has two leaflets/flaps attached to the wall of left ventricle.
✓ Prevents back flow of blood from LV to LA.
 The two semilunar (SL) valves, which are present at the base of the
major arteries leaving the heart.
1. Pulmonic Valve
✓ Present b/w RV and Pulmonary artery.
✓ Has three half-moon-shaped leaflets/flaps.
✓ Prevents back flow of blood from Pulmonary artery to RV.
2. Aortic Valve
✓ Present b/w LV and Aorta.
✓ Has three half-moon-shaped leaflets/flaps.
✓ Prevents back flow of blood from Aorta to LV.

Note: These valves are pushed open when the atria contract but when
the ventricles contract, they are pushed shut to prevent blood flowing back into
the atria.

The closing of valves causes the heart to generate heart sound, “lub” and “dub”
 Structure of the heart

Structure of the heart showing the different valves

Pathway of Blood through the Heart
 Deoxygenated blood coming from the body flows into the right
atrium via the vena cava.
 Once the right atrium has filled with blood the heart gives a little beat and
the blood is pushed through the tricuspid (atrioventricular) valve into
the right ventricle.
 The walls of the ventricle contract and the blood is pushed into
the pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve which prevents blood
flowing backwards into the heart.
 The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the capillaries past the
alveoli where gas exchange takes place (this is why there has to be low
pressure on this side of the heart – blood is going directly to capillaries
which would burst under higher pressure).
 Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein
 It passes through the bicuspid (atrioventricular) valve into the left
ventricle.
 The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract strongly to push the
blood forcefully into the aorta and all the way around the body.
 The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood flowing back down
into the heart.

The cardiac cycle

The cardiac cycle is defined as a sequence of alternating contraction and
relaxation of the atria and ventricles in order to pump blood throughout the body.
It starts at the beginning of one heartbeat and ends at the beginning of another.
A single cycle of cardiac activity can be divided into two basic phases –
1. diastole:
2. systole
1. diastole: the heart muscle relaxes and refills with blood.
a) from veins to atria
b) from atria to ventricles
2. Systole: contracts and pumps the blood,
a) from atria to ventricles
b) from ventricles to the aorta

State of heart during the phases- Systole and Diastole

Details of major events and changes during a cardiac cycle are listed in the table
below.

Semilunar
Stage AV valves* Status of ventricles and atria; and blood flow
valves†

Isovolumic • semilunar (pulmonary and aortic) valves close at

closed closed
relaxation end of ejection stage; blood flow stops.

2a Inflow: • ventricles and atria together relax and

(Ventricular open closed expand; blood flows to the heart during ventricular
filling) and atrial diastole.

2b Inflow:
(Ventricular • ventricles relaxed and expanded; atrial
filling with open closed contraction (systole) forces blood under pressure
Atrial into ventricles during ventricular diastole–late.
systole#)

3 Isovolumic • AV valves close at end of ventricular diastole;

closed closed
contraction blood flow stops; ventricles begin to contract.

4 Ejection: • ventricles contract (ventricular systole); blood

Ventricular closed open flows from the heart—to the lungs and to rest of
ejection body during ventricular ejection.
 Cardiac diastole Cardiac systole

Phases of a cardiac cycle

Note: What actually makes the heart work?
 The heart’s electrical generation and conduction system keeps it beating in a
regular rhythm and adjusts the rate at which it beats.
 Heart muscle cells called myocardiocytes are unique cells found in the heart that
are able to independently generate and spread electrical activity from one cell
to another.
 There is an area of sub-specialized cells known as the sinoatrial node (SA
node).located near the opening of the superior vena cava, on the wall of RA.
 The SA node is able to contract faster than the rest of the heart tissue and as a
result, it sets the pace of cardiac contraction. Therefore, it is referred to as
the pacemaker of the heart.
 The SA node is able to spread its impulse to the rest of the right and left atria
through conductive pathways.
 There is a secondary area of concentrated conductive tissue known as
the atrioventricular node (AV node) is located near to the tricuspid valve, on
the wall of AV junction.
 Like the SA node, the AV node also is able to generate an action potential.
However, these cells are slower in conduction than cells in SA node, Hence,
acts in response to activity from the SA node.
 The AV node is connected to a network of fibres that run down the
interventricular (between the two ventricles) septum then through the walls of
the ventricles.
 The initial segment of this pathway is called the bundle of His. The bundle of
his then divides into the left and right bundle branches.
 Both the left and right bundle branches give off numerous branches known
as Purkinje fibres that supply the ventricular myocardium.

Note: There are many ion channels in the membrane of each cardiac muscle cells.
These facilitate ions to be passed in and out of conducting cells that makes the
potential difference or action potential- the electric impulse.
Heart disease and exercise
 Heart activity can be monitored by,
listening to the sounds of valves closing using a stethoscope.
measuring pulse rate
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
 Heart rate (and pulse rate) is measured in beats per minute (bpm), (the
number of times the heart beats within a certain time period, usually a
minute.)
 To investigate the effects of exercise on heart rate, record the pulse
rate at rest for a minute.
 Immediately after they do some exercise, record the pulse rate every
minute until it returns to the resting rate
 This experiment will show that during exercise the heart rate increases
and may take several minutes to return to normal.

Why does Heart Rate Increase during Exercise?

 So that sufficient blood is taken to the working muscles to provide them
with enough nutrients and oxygen for increased respiration.
 An increase in heart rate also allows for waste products to be removed at
a faster rate.
 Following exercise, the heart continues to beat faster for a while to ensure
that all excess waste products are removed from muscle cells.
 It is also likely that muscle cells have been respiring anaerobically during
exercise and so have built up an oxygen debt.
 This needs to be ‘repaid’ following exercise and so the heart continues to
beat faster to ensure that extra oxygen is still being delivered to muscle
cells.
 The extra oxygen is used to break down the lactic acid that has been built
up in cells as a result of anaerobic respiration.
 The coronary circulation
 Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels that
supply the heart muscle (myocardium).
 Coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle,
and cardiac veins drain away the blood once it has been deoxygenated.

The coronary arteries

 The heart is made of muscle cells that need their own supply of blood
to deliver oxygen, glucose and other nutrients.
 The blood is supplied by the coronary arteries.

Coronary circulation
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
 If a coronary artery becomes partially or completely blocked by fatty
deposits called ‘plaques’ (mainly formed from cholesterol), the arteries
are not as elastic as they should be and therefore cannot stretch to
accommodate the blood which is being forced through them – leading
to coronary heart disease.
 Partial blockage of the coronary arteries creates a restricted blood flow to
the cardiac muscle cells and results in severe chest pains called angina.
 Complete blockage means cells in that area of the heart will not be able to
respire and can no longer contract, leading to a heart attack.
 Build-up of plaque in the coronary arteries

Effect of narrowing of arteries

 Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease

Prevention & Treatment

Reducing the risks of developing coronary heart disease
 Quit smoking
 Reduce animal fats in diet and eat more fruits and vegetables – this will
reduce cholesterol levels in the blood and help with weight loss if
overweight.
 Exercise regularly – again, this will help with weight loss, decrease blood
pressure and cholesterol levels and help reduce stress.
Treatment of coronary heart disease
1. Medication
 Aspirin can be taken daily to reduce the risk of blood clots forming in
arteries.
 Cholesterol-modifying medication
 Beta blockers
 Calcium channel blockers
 2. Angioplasty
 Perform when the block is not severe but affects the circulation severely.
 A narrow catheter (tube) is threaded through the groin up to the blocked
vessel.
 A tiny balloon inserted into the catheter is pushed up to the blocked vessel
and then performed inflation and deflation.
 This flattens the plaque against the wall of the artery, clearing the blockage.
 To keep the artery clear, a stent (piece of metal / plastic mesh) is also
inserted which pushes against the wall of the artery.
 Sometimes the stent is coated with a drug that slowly releases medication
to prevent further build-up of plaque.

Inflated balloon inside the coronary artery during angioplasty

 Inserting a stent into a blocked artery by angioplasty
3. Coronary bypass surgery
 A piece of blood vessel is taken from the patient’s leg, arm, or chest and
used to create a new passage for the flow of blood to the cardiac muscle,
bypassing the blocked area.
 The number of bypass grafts gives rise to the name of the surgery, so a
‘triple heart bypass’ would mean three new bypass grafts being attached.

CABG (Coronary artery bypass grafting)

Blood vessels
➔ The blood vessels are the components of the circulatory system that
transport blood throughout the human body.
➔ These vessels transport blood cells, nutrients and oxygen to the
tissues of the body. They also take waste and carbon dioxide away from
the tissues.
➔ The word vascular, meaning relating to the blood vessels.
➔ There are three major types of blood vessels.
 Arteries
 Capillaries
 Veins
1. Arteries
➔ Carry blood at high pressure.
➔ Carry blood away from the heart.
➔ Carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery).
➔ Smaller arteries are known as arteriole.
➔ Have thick muscular walls containing more muscle and elastic fibres
and connective tissue.
➔ Have a narrow lumen.
➔ Speed of flow is fast.
2. Capillaries
➔ Carry blood at low pressure within tissues.
➔ Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
➔ Have walls that are one cell thick.
➔ Distance for the substances to pass through is very less (only two cells).
➔ They are the smallest fine vessels found inside the tissues.
➔ Have ‘leaky’ walls.
➔ Speed of flow is very slow.
3. Veins
➔ Carry blood at low pressure.
➔ Carry blood towards the heart.
➔ Carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein).
➔ Smaller veins are known as venules.
➔ Have thin walls with fibrous tissue and less muscle and elastic fibres.
➔ Have a large/wide lumen.
➔ Contain valves to prevent backflow due to low pressure.
➔ Speed of flow is slow.

Passage of blood from and to the heart

How Structure of Blood Vessels is Adapted to their Function?

 Comparing arteries and veins

Shunt Vessels
 Sometimes the cardiovascular system needs to redistribute the blood to
specific areas of the body.
 For example:
 During exercise, more of it goes to the working muscles and less of it goes
to other body organs such as the digestive system.
 When we are hot, more blood flows through the surface of the skin and
when we are cold, less blood flows through the surface of the skin.
 This redirection of blood flow is caused by the use of a vascular shunt
vessel.
 The shunt vessels can open or close to control the amount of blood
flowing to a specific area.
 A shunt vessel in the skin when we are cold

A shunt vessel in the skin when we are hot

 Circulation Around the Body & Important Blood Vessels
 Oxygenated blood is transported primarily into the Aorta.
 Aorta, outside the heart is then divided into branches that supply upper and
lower body parts.
 Upper body parts are provided with blood through the branches of
Ascending Aorta.
 Lower parts get blood through branches of Descending Aorta.
 On reaching different parts of the body, arteries branch further into
arterioles.
 When arterioles enter the tissue, they further divide into smaller capillaries.
 Capillaries transport oxygenated blood travelling near to the cells.
 Substances are moved in and out of the cells by passive and active
transport.
 Oxygen molecules diffuse into the cells and Carbo dioxide molecules
diffuse out of the cell.
 Blood turns deoxygenated.
 Capillaries drain the deoxygenated blood into venules.
 Venules drain blood from different body parts into large veins.
 Large veins join into the superior vena cava in the upper body parts (above
chest) and inferior vena cava in the lower body parts (below the chest).
 Superior and inferior venae cavae transport the deoxygenated blood back
to the heart and the cycle continues.

Blood pathway in circulation

Circulation of blood to different organs through different
blood vessels
Hepatic portal system:
 In case of all organs, an organ receives oxygenated blood from the heart
through an artery and a vein drains the deoxygenated blood from the
organ to the heart.
 The branches of aorta pass down through the trunk and supply oxygenated
blood to every organ.
  One of the branches of the aorta passes through a large portion of
abdominal cavity and supply blood to stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, pancreas, liver, gall bladder, spleen etc.
 Veins from these organs carry deoxygenated blood into hepatic portal vein
which apparently drains that blood into the liver.
 This helps liver process the substances absorbed from the digestive tract
and perform necessary steps.
 Liver finally drains the deoxygenated blood into the hepatic vein and that
joins to the inferior vena cava which finally transports the blood into the
heart.

Hepatic portal vein

The liver gets blood from,
 Oxygen rich blood from aorta.
 Carbon dioxide and nutrient rich blood from organs in the
digestive system and spleen.
The liver carries blood to,
 Carbon dioxide rich blood to the heart.
The lymphatic system
 The lymphatic system, or lymphoid system, is an organ system in
vertebrates that is part of the circulatory system and the immune
system.
 It is made up of a large network of lymphatic vessels, lymphatic or
lymphoid organs, and lymphoid tissues.
 The vessels carry a clear fluid called lymph (the Latin
word lympha refers to the deity of fresh water, "Lympha") towards
the heart.
 Unlike the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system is not a closed
system.
Note:
 The human circulatory system processes an average of 20 litres
of blood per day through capillary filtration, which removes plasma from
the blood.
 Roughly 17 litres of the filtered plasma is reabsorbed directly into
the blood vessels, while the remaining three litres remain in the interstitial
fluid(tissue fluid).
 One of the main functions of the lymphatic system is to provide an
accessory return route to the blood for the surplus three litres.

The lymph
The colourless fluid that travels in the lymphatic system.
Components

 Water
 Proteins
 Fatty acids and glycerol
 Salts
 Live and dead bacteria
 Cellular debris
 White blood cells (Specifically lymphocytes)
Formation
 Fluid from circulating blood leaks into the tissues of the body by
capillary action, carrying nutrients to the cells.
 The fluid bathes the tissues as interstitial fluid, collecting waste
products, bacteria, and damaged cells, and then ‘drains as lymph’ into
the lymphatic capillaries and lymphatic vessels.
 These vessels carry the lymph throughout the body, passing through
numerous lymph nodes and lymphoid organs which filter out unwanted
materials such as bacteria and damaged cells.
 Lymph then passes into much larger lymph vessels known
as lymph/lymphatic ducts.
 The right lymphatic duct drains the right side and the much larger left
lymphatic duct, known as the thoracic duct, drains the left side of the
body.
 The ducts empty into the subclavian veins to return to the blood
circulation. Lymph is moved through the system by skeletal muscle
contractions, smooth muscles of large blood vessels and thoracic
pressure during breathing
 The lymphatic vessels have one-way valves to maintain the flow towards
the heart.

Lymph formation
Note: In some vertebrates, a lymph heart is present that pumps the lymph to the
veins. Example: lungfishes, amphibians, reptiles, and flightless birds.

Functions
 It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues.
 It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle (Chylomicrons)
from the digestive system.
 It transports white blood cells to and from the lymph nodes into the
bones.
 The lymph transports antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, to
the lymph nodes where an immune response is stimulated.
Blood
 Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary
substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.
 In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma.
 Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by
volume) and contains proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon
dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product
transportation), other metabolic wastes, and blood cells themselves.
 Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the
colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.
 The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or
erythrocytes), white blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes)
and platelets (also called thrombocytes).
 The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells.
 These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates
oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly
increasing its solubility in blood.
 In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly
as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma.
 WBCs are of different types with various functions in generating immune
responses by the body in the presence of an antigen, a foreign substance.
 Platelets are essential for the formation of primary clot when blood vessels
and tissues are cut.
 Red blood cells of non-mammalian vertebrates are flattened and ovoid in
form, and retain their cell nuclei.
 In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a specialized form
of connective tissue, originated in the bones.
Composition of human blood
Functions
 Blood performs many important functions within the body, including:
 Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to haemoglobin, which is carried in red
cells).
 Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty
acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood
lipids)).
 Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.
 Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and
detection of foreign material by antibodies.
 Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel, the conversion of blood
from a liquid to a semisolid gel to stop bleeding.
 Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the
signaling of tissue damage.
 Regulation of core body temperature.
 Hydraulic functions.
Blood micrograph

Components of blood Electron micrograph

WBCs

 White blood cells are part of the body’s immune system, defending
against infection by pathogenic microorganisms.
 There are two main types, phagocytes and lymphocytes.
Phagocytes
 Carry out phagocytosis by engulfing and digesting pathogens.
 Phagocytes have a sensitive cell surface membrane that can detect
chemicals produced by pathogenic cells.
 Once they encounter the pathogenic cell, they will engulf it and release
digestive enzymes to digest it.
 They can be easily recognised under the microscope by their multi-
lobed nucleus and their granular cytoplasm. These granules contain
digestive enzymes to destroy the antigens(foreign substances).
Phagocytosis

Process of phagocytosis
Lymphocytes

 Produce antibodies to destroy pathogenic cells and antitoxins to

neutralise toxins released by pathogens.
 They can easily be recognised under the microscope by their large
round nucleus which takes up nearly the whole cell and their clear,
non-granular cytoplasm.
 The antibodies cause pathogens to stick together and make it easier for
phagocytes to engulf them.

Antibody production by B-Lymphocytes

 Blood Clotting
Platelets are fragments of cells which are involved in blood clotting and
forming scabs where skin has been cut or punctured.
Blood clotting prevents continued / significant blood loss from wounds.
Scab formation seals the wound with an insoluble patch that prevents entry of
microorganisms that could cause infection.
It remains in place until new skin has grown underneath it, sealing the skin again.
When the skin is broken (i.e. there is a wound) platelets arrive to stop the bleeding
by platelet activation and adhesion process.
A series of reactions occur within the blood plasma.
Platelets release chemicals that cause soluble fibrinogen proteins to convert
into insoluble fibrin and form an insoluble mesh across the wound, trapping red
blood cells and therefore forming a clot.

(Soluble) (Insoluble)
The clot eventually dries and develops into a scab to protect the wound from
bacteria entering.

Process of blood clotting