Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity: Engineering Electromagnetics

Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field
Intensity
Engineering Electromagnetics
The Experimental Law of Coulomb
• Coulomb stated that the force between two very small objects
separated in vacuum or free space by a distance which is large
compared to their size is proportional to the charge on each
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑅
• In SI Units, the quantities of charge Q are measured in
coulombs (C), the separation R in meters (m), and the force F
should be newtons (N).
• This will be achieved if the constant of proportionality k is
written as:
1
𝑘=
4𝜋𝜀0
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity

• The permittivity of free space ε is measured in farads per meter
(F/m), and has the magnitude of:
−12
1 −9
F
𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10 = 10
36𝜋 m
• The Coulomb’s law is now:
1 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
• The force F acts along the line joining the two charges. It is
repulsive if the charges are alike in sign and attractive if the are
of opposite sign.
R12 R12 r2 − r1
a12 = = =
R12 𝑅12 r2 − r1
• In vector form, Coulomb’s law is written as:

1 𝑄1 𝑄2
F2 = 2 a12
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅12
• F2 is the force on Q2, for the case where Q1 and Q2 have the
same sign, while a12 is the unit vector in the direction of R12,
the line segment from Q1 to Q2.
• Example
A charge Q1 = 310–4 C at M(1,2,3) and a charge of
Q2 = –10–4 C at N(2,0,5) are located in a vacuum. Determine
the force exerted on Q2 by Q1.
R12
R12 = r2 − r1 a12 =
R12
= (2a x + 0a y + 5a z ) − (1a x + 2a y + 3a z )
1
= 1a x − 2a y + 2a z = (1a x − 2a y + 2a z )
3
1 Q1Q2
F2 = a12
4 0 R12
2
1 (3 10−4 )(−10−4 ) 1
= (1a x − 2a y + 2a z )
4 (8.854 10 )−12
3 2
3
= −10a𝑥 + 20a𝑦 − 20a𝑧 N 1 Q1Q2
F1 = −F2 =F = ? a 21
14 2
0 R12
Electric Field Intensity
• Let us consider one charge, say Q1, fixed in position in space.
• Now, imagine that we can introduce a second charge, Qt, as a
“unit test charge”, that we can move around.
• We know that there exists everywhere a force on this second
charge ► This second charge is displaying the existence of a
force field.
• The force on it is given by Coulomb’s law as:

1 Q1Qt
Ft = a1t
4 0 R1t
2
• Writing this force as a “force per unit charge” gives:

Ft 1 Q1
= a Vector Field,
Qt 4 0 R12t
1t
• We define the electric field intensity as the vector of force on a
unit positive test charge.
• Electric field intensity, E, is measured by the unit newtons per
coulomb (N/C) or volts per meter (V/m).
Ft 1 Q1
E= = a
Qt 4 0 R1t
2 1t
• The field of a single point charge can be written as:

1 Q
E= a
4 0 R 2 R
• aR is a unit vector in the direction from the point at which the

point charge Q is located, to the point at which E is
desired/measured.
• For a charge which is not at the origin
of the coordinate, the electric field
intensity is:
1 Q r − r
E(r ) =
4 0 r − r 2 r − r
1 Q(r − r)
=
4 0 r − r 3
1 Q ( x − x)a x + ( y − y)a y + ( z − z )a z 

=
4 0 ( x − x) 2 + ( y − y) 2 + ( z − z ) 2  3 2
 
• The electric field intensity due to two point charges, say Q1 at
r1 and Q2 at r2, is the sum of the electric field intensity on Qt
caused by Q1 and Q2 acting alone (Superposition Principle).
1 Q
E(r ) = a +
4 0 r − r1 2 1
1 Q
a2
4 0 r − r2 2
Chapter 2 Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity

◼ Example
A charge Q1 of 2 μC is located at at P1(0,0,0) and a second
charge of 3 μC is at P2(–1,2,3). Find E at M(3,–4,2).
r − r1 = 3a x − 4a y + 2a z , r − r1 = 29
r − r2 = 4a x − 6a y − a z , r − r2 = 53
1 Q1 1 Q2
E(r ) = a + a2
4 0 r − r1 2 1
4 0 r − r2 2
1  Q1 (r − r1 ) Q2 (r − r2 ) 
=  + 3 
4 0  r − r1 3
r − r2 
 −6 −6 
1  2 10 (3a x − 4a y + 2a z ) 3 10 (4a x − 6a y − a z ) 
=  + 
4 0  29
3
53
3

 
= 623.7a x − 879.92a y + 160.17a z V m
Field Due to a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution
• We denote the volume charge density by ρv, having the units of
coulombs per cubic meter (C/m3).
• The small amount of charge ΔQ in a small volume Δv is
Q = v v
• We may define ρv mathematically by using a limit on the above
equation: Q
v = lim
v → 0 v
• The total charge within some finite volume is obtained by

integrating throughout that volume:
Q=   dv
vol
v
Field Due to a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution
• Example
Find the total charge inside the volume indicated by ρv = 4xyz2,
0 ≤ ρ ≤ 2, 0 ≤ Φ ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ z ≤ 3. All values are in SI units.
x =  cos 
v = 4   sin    cos   z 2
y =  sin 
3  2 2
Q= 
vol
v dv =   
z =0 =0 =0
(4   sin    cos   z 2 )( d    d  dz )
3 22
=   z sin  cos  d  d dz
4  3 2
0 0 0 sin 2 = 2sin  cos 

3 2
=  16 z 2
sin  cos  d dz
0 0
3
=  8z 2 dz = 72 C
0
Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law,
and Divergence
Engineering Electromagnetics
Electric Flux Density
• About 1837, the Director of the Royal Society in London,
Michael Faraday, was interested in static electric fields and the
effect of various insulating materials on these fields.
• This is the lead to his famous invention, the electric motor.
• He found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an
electric current flowed in the wire. The current also flowed if the
loop was moved over a stationary magnet.
• Changing magnetic field produces an electric field.
• In one of his experiments, Faraday had a pair of concentric
metallic spheres constructed, the outer one consisting of two
hemispheres that could be firmly clamped together.
• He also prepared shells of insulating material (or dielectric
material), which would occupy the entire volume between the
concentric spheres.
• Faraday found out, that there was a sort of “charge
displacement” from the inner sphere to the outer sphere, which
was independent of the medium.
• We refer to this flow as displacement, displacement flux, or
simply electric flux.
ψ=Q
• Where ψ is the electric flux, measured in coulombs, and Q is

the total charge on the inner sphere, also in coulombs.
• At the surface of the inner sphere, ψ
coulombs of electric flux are
produced by the given charge Q
coulombs, and distributed uniformly
over a surface having an area of 4πa2
m2.
• The density of the flux at this surface
is ψ/4πa2 or Q/4πa2 C/m2.
• The new quantity, electric flux density, is measured in C/m2
and denoted with D.
• The direction of D at a point is the direction of the flux lines at
that point.
• The magnitude of D is given by the number of flux lines
crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by the surface
area.
Referring again to the concentric
spheres, the electric flux density is in
the radial direction :
Q
D r =a = a (inner sphere)
4 a 2 r
Q
D r =b = a (outer sphere)
4 b 2 r
• At a distance r, where a ≤ r ≤ b,
Q
D= a
4 r 2 r
• If we make the inner sphere smaller and smaller, it becomes a

point charge while still retaining a charge of Q. The electrix flux
density at a point r meters away is still given by:
Q
D= a
4 r 2 r
• Comparing with the previous chapter, the radial electric field
intensity of a point charge in free space is:
Q
E= ar
4 0 r 2
• Therefore, in free space, the following relation applies:

D =  0E
• For a general volume charge distribution in free space:

v dv
E= a
vol 4 R 2 R
0
v dv
D= a
vol 4 R 2 R
• Example
Find the electric flux density at a point having a distance 3 m
from a uniform line charge of 8 nC/m lying along the z axis in
free space.
L L 8 10−9 1.273 10−9

E= a  D = a = a = a C m2
2 0  2 2 
For the value ρ = 3 m,

1.273 10−9
D= = 4.244 10−10 a  C m 2 = 0.424a nC m2
3
• Can you determine the

electric flux density at
(1,7,7) and (3,4,5)?
• Example
Calculate D at point P(6,8,–10) produced by a uniform surface
charge density with ρs = 57.2 μC/m2 on the plane x = 9.
s  57.2  10 −6
E= aN  D = aN =
s
a N = 28.6a N  C m 2
2 0 2 2
At P(6,8,–10),
a N = −a x  D = −28.6a x  C m 2
• Can you determine D at

(1,8,2) and (12,–2,7)?
Gauss’s Law
• The results of Faraday’s experiments with the concentric
spheres could be summed up as an experimental law by
stating that the electric flux passing through any imaginary
spherical surface lying between the two conducting spheres is
equal to the charge enclosed within that imaginary surface.
ψ=Q
• Faraday’s experiment can be generalized to the following

statement, which is known as Gauss’s Law:
“The electric flux passing through any closed surface is
equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.”
Gauss’s Law
Imagine a distribution of charge, shown as a cloud of point
charges, surrounded by a closed surface of any shape.
• If the total charge is Q, the Q coulombs of electric flux will pass

through the enclosing surface.
• At every point on the surface the electric-flux-density vector D
will have some value DS (subscript S means that D must be
evaluated at the surface).

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Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field

The Experimental Law of Coulomb

• In vector form, Coulomb’s law is written as:

• The force on it is given by Coulomb’s law as:

• Writing this force as a “force per unit charge” gives:

• The field of a single point charge can be written as:

• aR is a unit vector in the direction from the point at which the

1 Q ( x − x)a x + ( y − y)a y + ( z − z )a z 

Electric Field Intensity

• The total charge within some finite volume is obtained by

0 0 0 sin 2 = 2sin  cos 

• Where ψ is the electric flux, measured in coulombs, and Q is

• If we make the inner sphere smaller and smaller, it becomes a

• Therefore, in free space, the following relation applies:

• For a general volume charge distribution in free space:

L L 8 10−9 1.273 10−9

For the value ρ = 3 m,

• Can you determine the

• Can you determine D at

• Faraday’s experiment can be generalized to the following

• If the total charge is Q, the Q coulombs of electric flux will pass

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