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BRIEF CONTENTS
Unit I: Foundations of Learning and Motivation
Chapter 1 1
Academic Self-Management
Chapter 2 26
Understanding Learning and Memory
Chapter 3 42
Understanding Motivation
Unit II: Motivational Strategies
Chapter 4 67
Goal Setting
Chapter 5 81
Management of Mood and Effort
Unit III: Behavioral Strategies
Chapter 6 97
Time Management
Chapter 7 123
Management of Physical and Social Environment
Unit IV: Learning and Study Strategies
Chapter 8 141
Learning from Textbooks
Chapter 9 159
Learning from Lectures
Chapter 10 182
Preparing for Exams
Chapter 11 198
Taking Exams
Glossary 218
Page viii
Appendices
Appendix a 223
A Guide for Completing a Self-Management Study
Amy Gimino
Appendix B 237
Examples of Self-Management Studies
References 259
Page ix
DETAILED CONTENTS
Preface xv
Unit I: Foundations of Learning and Motivation
Chapter 1 3
Academic Self-Management
What is Academic Self-Management? 4
What is the Difference Between High School and 6
College?
Why are Some Students Less Successful Learners? 7
They Hold Faulty Beliefs About their Ability, Learning, 7
and Motivation
They are Unaware of their Ineffective Learning 8
Behavior
They Fail to Sustain Effective Learning and 8
Motivational Strategies
They are Not Ready to Change their Learning and 8
Study Behavior
How can I Manage My Academic Behavior? 9
Motivation 9
Methods of Learning 11
Use of Time 12
Physical and Social Environment 13
Performance 14
The Six Components of Academic Self-Management 15
Exercise 1.1: Self-Observation: Assessing your Self- 16
Management Skills
How can I Change My Behavior? 17
How Does Self-Management Occur in an Academic 21
Context?
Key Points 22
Follow-up Activities 23
Page x
Chapter 2 26
Understanding Learning and Memory
How Does the Information Processing System Explain 26
Learning?
Short-Term Sensory Store 27
Working Memory 28
Exercise 2.1: Demonstrating the Capacity of 29
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory 31
What is the Difference Between Rote and Meaningful 32
Learning?
Exercise 2.2: Understanding the Importance of Prior 32
Knowledge
What Learning Strategies Promote Learning and 33
Retention?
Rehearsal Strategies 34
Elaboration Strategies 35
Organizational Strategies 37
Exercise 2.3: Demonstrating the Importance of 37
Categorizing Knowledge
Exercise 2.4: Identifying Learning Strategies 39
Key Points 39
Follow-up Activities 40
Chapter 3 42
Understanding Motivation
Motivational Problems 42
What is Motivation and what Factors Influence it? 44
Motivated Behavior 45
Sociocultural Factors 45
Exercise 3.1: Self-Observation: Analyzing Social 46
and Cultural Background
Classroom Environmental Factors 47
Exercise 3.2: Self-Observation: Analyzing 47
Classroom Experiences
Internal Factors 48
How do I Value Different Academic Courses or 48
Tasks?
What are My Goals? 49
What is My Goal Orientation? 49
Exercise 3.3: Identifying Mastery and Performance 51
Goal Orientations
Do I Believe I can do Well on Different Academic 52
Tasks?
What are the Causes of My Successes and Failures? 53
How do I Feel About Academic Demands? 55
Covington’s Self-Worth Theory 56
Key Points 58
Follow-up Activities 59
Unit II: Motivational Strategies
Chapter 4 67
Goal Setting
Exercise 4.1: Self-Observation: Identifying your 69
Values
Why is Goal Setting Important? 69
Page xi
Carry your Calendar with you and Write Down Any 106
Appointments as Soon as you Make Them
How do I Develop a System of Time Planning and 106
Management?
Semester Calendar 106
Weekly Priority Tasks List 106
Weekly Schedule 109
Procedures for Developing and Implementing a Time- 109
Management Plan
What is Procrastination? 112
Do I Procrastinate? 112
What are the Causes of Procrastination? 112
What can I do About My Tendency to Procrastinate? 113
Procrastination Elimination Strategies 113
Challenging and Changing Beliefs and Misperceptions113
Exercise 6.3: Challenge Irrational Beliefs 114
Key Points 115
Follow-up Activities 115
Chapter 7 123
Management of Physical and Social Environment
Is there a Difference Between Attention and 125
Concentration?
Exercise 7.1: Self-Observation: Evaluating Study 125
Environments
What Factors Influence Attention and Concentration? 127
Exercise 7.2: Self-Observation: Becoming Aware of 127
Misdirected Attention
How can I Improve My Attention and Concentration 127
Exercise 7.3: Dealing with Distracters 129
Procedures for Monitoring and Dealing with Attention 131
and Concentration Problems
How do I Seek Academic Help? 131
How can I Work More Effectively in Groups? 133
Procedures for Forming and Studying in Groups 133
How can I Help Make My Study Group More Productive 135
Key Points 136
Follow-up Activities 136
Unit IV: Learning and Study Strategies
Chapter 8 141
Learning from Textbooks
What Does Research Tell Us About Good Readers? 142
Exercise 8.1 Self-Observation: Assessing Reading 143
Strategies
What Learning Strategies can I Use to Improve My 145
Reading Comprehension and Retention?
Before Reading 145
During Reading 146
After Reading 151
How do I Construct Representations? 156
Page xiii
Chapter 11 198
Taking Exams
Exercise 11.1: Self-Observation: Assessing Test- 199
Taking Strategies
What Strategies can I Use to Answer Objective Test 200
Questions?
How Should you Manage your Time? 200
How Should you Approach Each Question? 201
When Should you Change an Answer? 201
Strategies for True-False Questions 201
Exercise 11.2: Identifying Key Words 202
Strategies for Matching Questions 203
Strategies for Fill in the Blank Questions 203
Strategies for Multiple-Choice Questions 204
Exercise 11.3: Taking a Multiple-Choice Exam 205
What Strategies can I Use for Answering Essay 206
Questions?
Read the Directions Carefully and do Exactly what is 206
Asked
Read Each Question Carefully to Determine what is 207
Expected in the Response
Determine how you will Use your Time 208
Determine the Order in which you will Respond to the 208
Question
Organize your Response by Making an Outline or 209
Representation (Map)
Write your Answer Following Specific Procedures 209
If Given an Opportunity, Review your Exam Results 209
Exercise 11.4: Evaluating Responses to an Essay 210
Question
Evaluating the Two Essay Responses 212
Procedures for Answering Multiple-Choice and Essay 213
Questions
Key Points 214
Follow-up Activities 215
Glossary 218
Appendices
Appendix a 223
A Guide for Completing a Self-Management Study
by Amy Gimino
Appendix B 237
Examples of Self-Management Studies
References 259
Author Index 264
Subject Index 267
Page xv
PREFACE
Many textbooks are available on how to become a more
successful learner. As an instructor of a ”learning to
learn” course, I have been concerned that many
students who take such a course to improve their
learning and study skills fail to change their behavior
during or after the course. I strongly believe that simply
telling students how to learn and providing some
practice does not necessarily change attitudes, beliefs,
or behavior. Changing ineffective learning and study
habits is a difficult process, as is losing weight or
stopping smoking.
This textbook is the result of an instructional program I
developed and evaluated with a wide range of college
students from those identified as “at risk” to those
entering college with a “B” or higher grade point
average. I have used the approach presented in this text
with students in high school, community college, and 4-
year colleges.
The primary purpose of this text is to help students
change aspects of their motivation and learning
strategies. I place the responsibility for determining
what behaviors or beliefs need to be changed on them,
not on the instructor. The process of change begins by
observing and reflecting on one’s own behavior and
then determining what needs to be changed and
learning how to change. The features of this textbook
are designed to identify the components of academic
learning that contribute to high achievement, help
students learn and practice effective learning and study
strategies, and then complete self-management studies
whereby they are taught a process for improving their
academic behavior.
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge a number of individuals
who played an important role in the development of
this textbook: Alonzo Anderson, who encouraged me to
work in the area of learning strategies; Claire Ellen
Weinstein and Paul Pintrich, who provided helpful
insights as to how to teach learning strategies; Bill
Webber, who encouraged me to write a book in the
area; Barry
Page xviii
Zimmerman, whose work on self-regulation provided a
framework for organizing the content in the book;
Richard Clark, who offered many suggestions
concerning the design of the text; Amy Gimino, who
wrote Appendix A, read drafts of the manuscript, and
provided feedback on the effectiveness of the material
as a teaching assistant in my course; and Steve Condly,
who provided some exercises from the text.
I also would like to thank the following reviewers who
provided helpful feedback on the manuscript: Julie
Beyeler, The University of AkronWayne College;
Carolyn Hopper, Middle Tennessee State University;
Patricia A. Haught, West Virginia University; and
Cynthia R. Hynd, University of Georgia
Finally, I would like to acknowledge two individuals at
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers: Robin
Marks Weisberg, Book Production Manager, for
helping me transform the manuscript to a finished text;
and Naomi Silverman, my editor, who provided helpful
assistance throughout the project. Naomi and I had
worked together on another textbook in our earlier lives
and it was a pleasure to be reunited again!
MYRON H. DEMBO
Page 1
UNIT I
FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING AND
MOTIVATION
Chapter 1: Academic Self-Management
Chapter 2: Understanding Learning and Memory
Chapter 3: Understanding Motivation
The purpose of this unit is to explain how you can
become a more successful learner by taking charge and
managing your own learning. To accomplish this goal,
you need to understand how you learn and the factors
that determine your motivation to learn. Learning and
motivation are interrelated processes. Simply learning a
new skill does not mean that you will use it unless you
are motivated to do so. Therefore, my objectives are to
teach you some new learning strategies and to convince
you that there are “payoffs” for using them. These
payoffs include the possibility of higher grades, more
time to participate in enjoyable activities, and the
confidence to become a successful learner in any
course.
The three chapters in this unit provide a framework for
understanding why you need to use different strategies
to manage the factors influencing your academic
achievement. The remaining units teach you how and
when to use these strategies.
Chapter 1 presents a model for academic self-
management, identifying six components that you can
controlmotivation, methods of learning, use
Page 2
of time, physical and social environment, and
performance (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). These
components are organized by categoriesmotivational,
behavioral, and learning and study strategies. Finally, a
four-step process is described to help you change
aspects of your academic behavior.
Chapters 2 and 3 provide an overview of learning and
motivation from a cognitive perspective. Cognitive
psychologists believe that behavior is always based on
cognitionan act of knowing or thinking about the
situation in which the behavior occurs. As a result, they
believe that learning can be explained by how
knowledge is processed and organized. This means that
the way one learns is an important factor in how much
is remembered.
The cognitive view of motivation focuses on how an
individual’s internal state (i.e., his or her goals, beliefs,
perceptions, and emotions) influences behavior. The
guiding principle of motivational change can be
described as follows: If an individual wants to change
his or her motivation, beliefs and perceptions must be
changed. However, before beliefs and perceptions can
be changed, they first must be identified.
Page 3
1
Academic Self-Management
As readers of this book, you are a diverse group with
varied backgrounds and goals. Some of you are
beginning your education at a college or university,
whereas others of you have selected community
colleges. Some of you may have taken college courses
last term, whereas others are returning to school after
an absence. Some of you are taking a learning and
study skills course because it is required, whereas
others are enrolled in the course as an elective. Some of
you are looking forward to taking the course, whereas
others may doubt its usefulness. Although I recognize
the wide range of interests, motivation, and abilities of
those of you reading this book, I have one goal: to help
all those who read this volume become more successful
learners. Once you learn “how to learn,” you can apply
these skills to any academic or work setting in which
you participate.
Who is a successful learner? Most of us know, read
about, or have observed successful and expert
individuals in some field or profession (e.g., a plumber,
musician, athlete, teacher, or artist). These individuals
have special knowledge and skills in a particular field.
Similarly, successful learners also possess special
knowledge and skills that differentiate them from less
successful learners.
Successful students are not simply individuals who
know more than others. They also have more effective
and efficient learning strategies for accessing and using
their knowledge, can motivate themselves, and can
monitor and change their behaviors when learning does
not occur.
Just as individuals cannot learn to become expert
musicians, dancers, or golfers without practice, learning
to be a successful learner requires more than simply
reading and listening to class lectures. For this reason,
you will
Page 4
be asked throughout this book to respond to questions
and exercises, and to actually practice some new ways
of learning. The key to success is practicing the
learning strategies taught here so they become
automatic. As you practice, you will be able to learn
more material in less time than prior to using these new
strategies. Thus, you will learn to study smarter, not
necessarily harder!
Most of you have expertise in some activity or hobby.
You have spent considerable effort and persistence in
acquiring knowledge and developing your skills and
probably feel competent and motivated to excel. You
are now beginning the process of developing the
necessary expertise to meet the academic demands of
college learning. Much of the same self-discipline and
self-motivation you apply to your present area(s) of
expertise will be needed in your pursuit of academic
excellence.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
Identify specific behaviors that influence the level of
academic success.
Use a process to self-manage your academic behavior.
Exercise 1.1
Self-Observation:
Assessing Your Self-Management Skills
Directions: Rate the extent to which you generally
manage or control the factors influencing your learning
by checking Always, Sometimes, or Never in the
corresponding box and be prepared to offer a short
explanation of your ratings. What areas are your
strengths and weakness? Explain why you rated each
dimension as you did.
Page 17
Figure 1.1
A process for self-management of academic behavior
(adapted from Zimmerman et al., 1996).
Self-management involves the four interrelated
processes defined here:
Self-observation and evaluation occur when students
judge their personal effectiveness, often from
observations and recordings of prior performances and
outcomes.
Each semester, students come into my office to discuss
a poor performance on an examination. They tell me
they were prepared for the examination because they
read each chapter two or three times. Obviously, these
students have not learned to check their understanding.
Baker (1989) referred to this situation as the illusion of
knowing. Students often think they understand but do
not test themselves to confirm or deny their belief. This
lack of understanding is one of the reasons why many
students are so confident of their performance during
the first few weeks of college. They do not know they
are in trouble! They wait for an examination for
feedback, and then learn they don’t know the material.
Think about a science or mathematics examination you
have taken. How often have you memorized formulas,
but could not solve new problems because you did not
understand the basic principles involved? You may
have convinced yourself that you understood the
material before the examination, but you really did not.
One problem is that some students study and prepare
for examinations in the same way that they did in high
school. They have yet to realize the differences in the
two academic environments. In high school, teachers
take most of the responsibility for their students’ level
of comprehension. High school teachers actively
monitor the degree to which content is understood: they
constantly quiz students, ask questions as they present
new material,
Page 19
and place key ideas on the board. In contrast, college
instructors expect students to do their own monitoring
of their understanding. Therefore, problems arise early
during the first college term if students do not know
how to monitor their own understanding. An important
part of becoming a more successful student is
developing the ability to monitor one’s knowledge and
recognize when something is not understood.
Think about expert performers in a variety of fields. In
sports, elite athletes begin observing their performances
by viewing videotapes. After a short period of time,
they are able to modify their performances from the
feelings and feedback they obtain by viewing their own
physical movements; dance studios place handrails next
to mirrors to enable students to self-observe as they
practice their routines; musicians learn to listen to their
playing in order to critique their own performances
(Glaser, 1996).
Behavior cannot be managed unless you are aware of it.
Therefore, you will be asked throughout this book to
observe and evaluate your current learning and study
methods to determine those that are ineffective so they
can be replaced by better methods. Most important, you
need to become aware of when and how these new
learning and study methods improve your learning.
Each semester I ask students to assess their use of time
for a week. They usually are surprised to learn how
much time they waste. They appear more motivated to
change their time management after they have
monitored and observed their use of time. Self-
observation is an important first step in motivating
students to consider changing their learning and study
behaviors.
Goal setting and strategic planning occur when students
analyze the learning task, set specific goals, and plan or
refine the strategy to attain the goal (p. 11).
This second step is important in all academic tasks,
including writing a paper. When given the task of
writing a paper, you should start by analyzing your
strengths and weaknesses. Then analyze the assignment
to determine the nature of the paper and what needs to
be done. Next you should establish a goal for
completion, with a number of intermediate or subgoals
(e.g., locating necessary references and proofreading)
for completing different sections of the paper. Finally,
you should develop a strategy for completing each of
the intermediate goals. I discuss this process in more
detail in chapter 4.
The same procedure can be used in test preparation.
After analyzing previous tests as well as your present
knowledge of the content (using self-observation and
evaluation), you should determine what course material
will be examined, establish goals for preparing for the
exam, determine how you will study (i.e., what
strategies will be used), and finally, plan a time-
management program consistent with your goals.
After you better understand your current behavior
(through self-observation and evaluation), you will be
in a better position to determine what needs to be
accomplished (goals) and to develop a strategy to do it.
Much of the content in this book focuses on this step in
the cycle.
Strategy implementation and monitoring occurs when
students try to execute a strategy in structured contexts
and to monitor their accuracy in implementing it (p. 11).
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The third step in the cycle focuses on the effectiveness
of your learning strategy. Is the strategy working? Are
you attaining each of your goals in completing your
paper? Are you learning the necessary content for your
exam? If your strategy is working, keep going. If not,
you had better consider what needs to be done to
change your behavior.
When you learn anything new, there is a tendency to
revert back to familiar methods (even though they may
be less successful). This happens to athletes, dancers,
and students. Therefore, performers and learners need
to monitor their behaviors closely to determine whether
they are applying new strategies appropriately. The
result of this monitoring may indicate a need to adjust
the learning strategy to improve progress toward the
attainment of your goal. You may even decide that it is
time to seek help.
When an individual realizes that he or she does not
understand a portion of the text, he or she rereads the
difficult section, slows the reading pace through
difficult or unfamiliar material, reviews course material
that was not understood, or skips certain questions on
an examination, returning to them after easier questions
are answered. It is important that students learn how to
modify their study behavior to improve their
understanding.
All students need to learn ”fix-up” strategies to remedy
learning problems. That is, they need to learn what to
do after they find that they do not understand certain
content. Often, different methods or strategies for
learning must be undertaken (e.g., asking and
answering questions) instead of continuing with the
same ineffective strategy (e.g., underlining the content
in a textbook).
Strategic-outcome monitoring occurs when students
focus their attention on links between learning outcomes
and strategic processes to determine effectiveness (p.
11).
The final stage in the cycle involves expanding your
monitoring to include performance outcomes. The
following questions must be answered: “Did the
learning plan or strategy help me attain my goal?”;
“Did I have to make changes in my learning and study
methods?” For example, you may have developed a
strategy for studying for an objective test for the first
examination of the term. You used the same strategy for
a second examination, an essay test. Was the study
strategy effective for both tests?
The cycle keeps going as self-observation is used to
evaluate your exam performance by determining what
questions you missed and the location of the
information (i.e., notes or readings). A self-directed
learner is constantly monitoring learning outcomes to
determine whether different strategies are needed to
attain goals and maintain a high level of academic
success.
When researchers study expert performance in such
fields as music, sports, medicine, chess, and reading,
they find a common element in their learning. Initially,
experts depend on instruction from others, and with
time, they increasingly rely on their self-observation
and self-judgments about their behavior. The ability to
self-manage enables experts to profit a great deal from
practice and study by themselves without the need for
their coaches and teachers (Glaser, 1996).
Zimmerman et al. (1996) believe that one of the major
advantages of using the self-management process is
that it can improve not only one’s learning,
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but it can enhance one’s perception of self-confidence
and control over the learning process. By learning to
self-observe your current learning and study behavior,
and by determining for yourself what methods are
effective and ineffective, you can begin replacing
ineffective methods with better ones, and can become
more aware of the improved effectiveness of these new
strategies. This process helps you to become a more
self-directed or self-regulated learner.
The first exercise in the Follow-Up Activities section of
this book, beginning with chapter 3, identifies a topic
and questions related to each of the four processes just
discussed to change or modify your behavior. These
questions provide the structure for conducting your
own self-management study. Take a moment to look at
the self-management study at the end of chapter 5
focusing on reducing anxiety.
Appendix A provides detailed procedures for how to
conduct such a study. You will learn in Appendix A
how to identify a problem, observe your behavior, and
develop a plan to improve and evaluate your academic
learning. Read Appendix A as soon as possible.
Appendix B provides three examples of such studies.
You will find an evaluation of each self-study at the end
of each report. Your instructor will provide specific
directions about conducting such a study.
You may want to conduct a self-management study to
improve your time management, study environment,
test preparation, motivation, or any other topic. Read
ahead in the textbook if you wish to conduct a study on
a topic that will be discussed later in the term.
How Does Self-Management Occur in an Academic
Context?
Figure 1.2 is useful for understanding the organization
of the remaining chapters in this book. Although all the
components of self-management interact, it is easier in
a textbook to present content in a linear fashion.
Therefore, I have grouped the components into three
different units. The self-management cycle can help
you gain competence in each of the areas identified.
There are four key skills that must be mastered to
perform successfully in any academic setting: learning
from text, learning from lectures, preparing for exams,
and taking exams. Writing, another important skill, is
discussed under learning how to respond to essay
exams.
The main factor influencing the effectiveness of your
learning these skills is your ability to manage the
various elements of your behavior. I group goal setting
and control of mood and effort under motivational
strategies, and time management and control of
physical and social environment under behavioral
strategies. It is important to note that behavioral and
motivational self-control are interrelated. The academic
performance box in Fig. 1.2 represents the performance
dimension aspect of self-management.
The process I described here places a great deal of
responsibility on you, the learner. I wish there were an
easy way to become a more successful learner.
Unfortunately, I do not know any other way.
Educational research clearly indicates that students who
take charge of their own learning are more likely to
achieve at a higher level than students who fail to take
this responsibility (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994).
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Figure 1.2.
Academic self-management.
In each chapter, you will acquire important strategies to
assist in managing your learning behavior. For each
strategy discussed, you will learn why it is important,
when it can be used, and how it can be implemented.
The key to success in this course is practicing the
different strategies so they become automatic. As you
practice, you will be able to learn more material in less
time than you did prior to using these new strategies. In
other words, you will learn to study smarter, not harder!
You are not alone on your journey to become a more
successful student. Your instructor and peers will
provide support and encouragement. You will be asked
to complete various individual and group exercises and
assignments as you read this book. You will find that
working collaboratively with peers and giving and
receiving feedback will be a valuable experience
throughout the course.
Finally, you will only be taught strategies that
thousands of students have found useful in learning
academic material. After learning and practicing a
strategy, only you will decide whether it is worth the
effort and time to use it regularly in school. If the
strategy proves useful, you will use it. Likewise, if you
do not find the strategy helpful, you will modify it or
disregard it. Try each new strategy before you reach
any conclusions. Do not make the mistake of rejecting
something new before you have the opportunity to see
how it works.
Key Points
1. Successful learners use specific beliefs and processes
to motivate and control their own behavior.
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2. Some students fail to recognize the differences
between high school and college learning during the
first weeks in college.
3. Students can self-manage six key components of
academic learning that can influence their achievement
level: motivation, methods of learning (i.e., learning
strategies), use of time, physical environment, social
environment, and performance.
4. The self-management cycle involves four interrelated
processes: self-observation and evaluation, goal setting
and strategic planning, strategy implementation
monitoring, and strategic-outcome monitoring.
5. An important part of becoming a more successful
student is developing the ability to monitor knowledge,
recognize when something is not understood, and do
something about it.
Follow-up Activities
1
Analyze Your Beliefs About Learning and Motivation
Read each of the following statements and place the
corresponding letter or letters whether you agree (A),
disagree (D), or are not sure (NS) about the accuracy of
each statement. After identifying your beliefs, think
about how they influence your motivation and learning.
Discuss your ratings with other students in your class.
__1. “I can’t do well in a course if I’m not interested in
the content.”
__2. “I will not learn much if I am bored in class.”
__3. “Competition is a great motivator.”
__4. “Human intelligence is fixed by the time a student
begins school.”
__5. “Sometimes there is not enough time in the day to
do everything that needs to be done.”
__6. “If I simply listen in class and read my
assignments I should do well in college.”
__7. “The most important aspect of studying is finding
enough time.”
__8. “The key to success in college is having good
instructors.”
__9. “Procrastination is a personality trait that can’t be
changed.”
2
Analyze the Meaning of Two Statements
An educational researcher has stated that self-directed
individuals believe that “learning is not something that
happens to students; it is something that happens by
students” (Zimmerman, 1989, p. 22). What do you
think this statement means? What implications does it
have for improving one’s learning?
How does the following statement relate to your own
learning experiences?
Part of being a good student is learning to be aware of
the state of one’s own mind and the degree of one’s own
understanding. The good student may be one who often
says that he does not understand, simply because he
keeps a constant check on his understanding. The poor
student, who does not, so to speak, watch
Page 24
himself trying to understand, does not know most of the
time whether he understands or not. Thus, the problem is
not to get students to ask us what they don’t know; the
problem is to make them aware of the difference
between what they know and what they don’t. (Holt,
1982, p. 17)
3
Analyze Course Demands
You learned in this chapter that a successful student
takes charge of his or her own learning. Therefore, it is
important to understand the demands of each of the
courses you are taking this term. In this way, you can
set goals and develop a plan for achieving them. Use
the summary sheet provided to analyze the syllabus,
textbooks, and professor in each course. Write
comments in abbreviated form so you can discuss them
in class.
Review each syllabus and identify major assignments
and demands during the semester (e.g., papers, projects,
weekly papers, etc.).
Analyze each textbook to determine what learning
aides are included (i.e., glossary, questions, summaries,
objectives, or test questions), that help you comprehend
the material. Also, identify any other characteristics of
the books that make them easy or hard to read (e.g.,
bold headings, graphics, small type, etc.).
Analyze the instructor’s teaching style to determine
whether it will make it easy or hard to take good notes.
What do you like most and least about his or her style?
How does she or he let you know what is important?
What note-taking problems do you encounter? Identify
any of the following characteristics about your
instructor: speaks rapidly, speaks slowly, speaks loudly,
speaks softly, does or does not use board or overheads,
is well organized or is disorganized, and so forth.
What are your general impressions of the instructor and
course demands? Identify your interest level and
expectancy for success in each course. Identify any
concerns you may have about doing well in a course
and the steps you can take to deal with your concerns.
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2
Understanding Learning and Memory
You are reading this book because you want to become
a more successful learner. Before I explain how to use
effective learning strategies, it is important to
understand how humans learn. It is difficult to
understand why you should give up certain learning and
study skills and replace them with new skills without
the knowledge presented in this chapter. Also, once you
acquire important knowledge concerning human
learning, you can better evaluate your own learning
processes.
This chapter describes how information is received and
processed in the mind and how memory and forgetting
occur. After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
Identify how the information processing system (IPS)
operates.
Explain why it is important to use a variety of learning
strategies to learn different material.
Assess the effectiveness of your own learning and study
strategies.
Figure 2.1.
A model of the information processing system.
Psychologists provide many different theories and
explanations of human learning. One way to understand
how information may be acquired or lost is to understand
the information processing system (see Fig. 2.1). This
model is used to identify how humans store, encode, and
retrieve information. Storage is the process of placing
information into memory. Encoding is the process used
to change information in some way before it is stored,
because information is not stored exactly as it is
presented. For example, when an individual reads a
textbook, he or she derives meaning from the words read,
and stores the meaning rather than the specific words on
the page. Sometimes when a person reads, he or she
remembers the information by changing the words to an
image of the event. Retrieval refers to the process of
remembering or finding previously stored information.
Sometimes it is easy to recall information, other times, it
takes considerable thought and effort to remember.
Three important points are emphasized in this chapter:
Learning involves getting information into long-term
memory (LTM), a component of memory that holds
knowledge and skills for long periods of time.
Much of what we think we have learned is soon forgotten
or never really learned in the first place.
The specific strategies used to store information in LTM
affect the likelihood that the information will be
remembered. In other words, how we learn often
determines what we remember.
Short-Term Sensory Store
As shown in Fig. 2.1, the flow of information begins
with input from the environment, such as the visual
perception of words in a text. This information enters the
short-term sensory store (STSS). Information in the
STSS is stored briefly until it can be attended to by the
working memory (WM). Every-
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thing that can be seen, heard, or smelled is stored in the
STSS, but it only lasts for a matter of seconds before it
is forgotten.
Many of the stimuli humans experience never get into
our WM because we do not attend to them. We are
constantly barraged with stimuli from our environment.
For example, by the time an individual wakes up, gets
dressed, and walks or drives to class, he or she observes
hundreds, or perhaps thousands of objects that cannot
be recalled. If you drove to class today, do you
remember the color or make of the car next to which
you were parked? Do you remember the student who
sat next to you in your first class? What did he or she
wear? If you found the person attractive or interesting,
you may be able to answer these questions because you
may have been attentive to such details. However, the
fact is that we are not attentive to most of what we see
or hear in our daily lives.
If you have not attended to information, there is little
concern about retention or retrieval because no
information will have been acquired. When you attend
a lecture and your attention fades in and out, you will
fail to recall some of the important information
presented by the professor. This is why it may be
important for you to improve your attention.
Think about reading a textbook. As you read, you begin
thinking about the party you are planning to attend next
Saturday. When your mind goes back to the book you
realize that you “covered” two pages but don’t
remember a thing. You read but you do not remember
anything because you were not paying attention to the
words in the textbook.
When students say that they can attend to many things
at one time, they really mean that they can switch their
attention from one task to another. It is difficult to read
a textbook and watch a TV show simultaneously.
Information is missed from both sources.
In summary, unless special attempts are made to attend
to and record information, much of the material in
lectures and textbooks is never stored in memory.
Therefore, the information is never learned. A similar
situation occurs when you are introduced to someone
and 10 seconds later you cannot remember the person’s
name. The problem is not that you forgot the name, but
that you never learned it in the first place! When you
mention to friends that you forgot important
information during an exam, you need to consider
whether the real problem was learning or forgetting.
Working Memory
Working memory is the active part of the memory
system and has been described as the center of
consciousness in the IPS. Whenever we are consciously
thinking about something or actively trying to
remember a forgotten fact, we are using our WM.
Working memory screens and decides how to handle
different stimuli. Three events can happen when
material gets into the WM (Eggen & Kauchak, 1997):
It can be quickly lost or forgotten.
The content can be retained in WM for a short period of
time by repeating it over and over (i.e., rehearsing).
The content can be transferred into long-term memory
(LTM) by using specific learning strategies.
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The WM is limited in two wayscapacity and duration.
At any one time, the WM of an adult can hold only five
to nine chunks of information. This limitation is
referred to as the “7 ± 2 Magic Number” (Miller, 1956).
New information coming into WM will, if it catches the
attention of the student, tend to crowd out old
information already there. If information is believed to
be important, it should not be left in WM because it
will be soon forgotten.
A number of control processes operate at the WM level
and provide it with some flexibility in dealing with
information. Chunking, or grouping information, is one
way of keeping more than nine pieces (7 ± 2) of
information in WM. For example, it is usually easier to
remember a number such as “194781235” if the
numbers are grouped in threes (194 781 235), because
the original nine units are reduced to three chunks.
When we read a word, we think of it as a single unit
rather than as a collection of separate letters. For
example, a sentence can be thought of as a single unit,
or chunk, instead of a series of letters and words. By
organizing information into larger chunks, the WM can
handle more information because the organization
reduces memory load. Although our WM uses
chunking strategies automatically and unconsciously,
these strategies also can be learned.
Exercise 2.1
Demonstrating the Capacity of Working Memory
Directions: Try this short memory experiment (Goetz,
Alexander, & Ash, 1992, p. 323). Read the following
list of letters once. Cover the page and attempt to recall
them in order. Write your answers on a separate sheet
of paper:
FB
IMT
VU
SAHB
OC
IA
Check to see how many letters you recalled in the right
order.
Now, let’s look at another list. Again, read the list once,
and then cover the page and write all the letters you can
remember in order:
FBI
MTV
USA
HBO
CIA
How many letters did you get right this time? I bet you
did much better the second time. Notice that the same
letters are presented in the same order in both lists. The
only difference is that the second list is arranged in
familiar patterns. Because the letters are familiar and
meaningful, each set can serve
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as a single unit or chunk in WM. Instead of trying to
remember 15 separate letters, as in the first list, you
only have to recall five familiar chunks in the second
list. The first list exceeds the 7 ± 2 guideline; the
second list can be managed within your WM limits.
Because WM is characterized by a limited capacity,
only a very small amount of information in the sensory
store can ever be processed in WM. According to
information processing theory, information must be
processed in WM before it can move on to LTM. This
means the learner must do something active with the
information to move it into LTM. However, because
WM has a short duration (about 5 to 20 seconds) the
processing must be completed fairly quickly, or at least
rehearsed, until it can be processed.
Another common control process is maintenance
rehearsal. This strategy helps keep information
activated for more than 20 seconds in WM by
rehearsing the information mentally. For example, if an
individual gets out of the car to obtain directions to a
location, the information could easily be forgotten by
the time he or she gets back into the car. Therefore,
after receiving directions, individuals often rehearse or
repeat ”left-left-right-left” while driving away to
prevent forgetting.
Sometimes during a lecture, I will point out some
information about the upcoming exam or make changes
in reading assignments. Some students fail to enter the
information in their notes because they mistakenly
believe they will remember the information.
Unfortunately, they probably forget the information as
soon as they leave the lecture. Days or weeks later
some students will ask: “When did you tell us that?”
Gagné (1985) estimated that individuals are likely to
learn only about one to six new ideas from each minute
of a lecture, a small number of the ideas that are
typically presented during that time. Therefore, students
must constantly make important decisions about what
information to attend to and what information to
neglect. It is difficult enough to obtain important
information from a lecture while trying to be attentive.
Imagine how much information is lost in lectures when
students are not attentive!
One of my favorite I Love Lucy reruns is when Lucy
has a job where she must place chocolates into boxes
moving on a conveyor belt. Initially, the conveyor belt
moves slowly and she easily places each of the
chocolates in the appropriate box. Soon the belt moves
so rapidly that she cannot pick up the chocolates fast
enough. Many of the chocolates move past her; some
end up in her mouth, others in her blouse. It is really
funny to see how Lucy deals with her problem.
This episode reminds me of the WM in the IPS. The
conveyor belt represents information flowing into a
human’s mind. Consider a lecture at which the
professor speaks rapidly and covers a great deal of
information. As you listen to the presentation, you have
to make quick decisions as to what content to process.
When you decide something is important, you take
notes on the information even if you do not completely
understand it. Information that you do not write down is
gone forever unless you read it in your textbook or get
it from another student. In many ways, the limitation of
one’s WM is similar to the fast conveyor belt in the I
Love Lucy episode.
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One of the advantages of reading compared to note
taking is that you do not have to make quick decisions
about what is important because you can read the
material at your own pace and reread it as many times
as necessary. Strategies to help you remember more
information from lectures and textbooks are presented
later.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory stores all the information we
possess but are not immediately using. It is generally
assumed that storage of information in the LTM is
permanent. That is, the information does not fade from
LTM, nor is it ever lost except perhaps as a result of
senility or some other physical malfunction. Learning
experts view the problem of forgetting as the inability
to retrieve or locate information from memory rather
than the loss of information.
Information enters the LTM through the WM. Although
information must be repeated or rehearsed to stay in
working memory, it must be classified, organized,
connected, and stored with information already in LTM
if it is to be easily retrieved at a later time. It takes time
and effort to move information into long-term storage.
LTM can be compared to an office with filing cabinets.
Each cabinet is labeled, and there are dividers within
each drawer. Memories are placed in specific folders, in
specific sections, and in specific drawers. Unless the
material is carefully classified and placed in the correct
file, it can easily be misfiled. Once material is misfiled,
or poorly classified and filed, it is difficult to retrieve. It
is believed that the human mind stores information in a
similar manner. Therefore, the better we classify and
organize information when we learn it, the better able
we are to retrieve it when it is needed (Ormrod, 1998).
Here is how one student made the connection between
how information is stored in LTM and retrieval:
I view long-term memory like a well-organized closet
where there is a place for shirts, sweaters, jackets, pants,
and so on. When I need something, my categorization
and organization help me to find it quickly. If I just
threw clothes into my closet, I would spend more time
trying to recall what items I had and spend more time
locating them. When I fail to organize and make sense of
content in a course, I always have difficulty retrieving
the information on exams.
You now have some idea as to how information flows
in the IPS. Beginning with the environment,
information flows to the STSS. The information that is
attended to proceeds to the WM, where it may be
modified and stored permanently in the LTM.
Information then flows back from the LTM to the WM
to direct behavior.
In some courses, students bring a great deal of prior
knowledge to class because they may have already
taken a course in the subject or have done some reading
in the area. In other courses, students may have little or
no prior knowledge of the subject matter. As might be
expected, prior knowledge plays an important role in
learning. For example, compare the ease or difficulty of
taking lecture notes when you read prior to the lecture
with another time when you did not read the material
prior to the lecture. The more information you know
before you attend a lecture, the easier it is to take notes
and under-
Page 32
stand the material. This is why instructors ask you to
complete reading assignments before lectures!
I can read textbooks in education and psychology with
a great deal of understanding because I have a good
background in the content presented in these texts. Yet,
I know junior high students who can read an article in
Car Audio & Electronics more rapidly and with greater
understanding than me. I know the techniques and
strategies for how to read, but I don’t know much about
the topics discussed in Car Audio & Electronics.
What is the Difference Between Rote and Meaningful
Learning?
The process of acquiring knowledge can be viewed on
a continuum from basic to complex. Basic learning
involves such things as recalling names and dates,
associating a word in English to its equivalent in
Spanish, and chronologically listing the events leading
up to the Civil War. More complex learning involves
understanding the main ideas in a story, solving verbal
problems in algebra, or comparing and contrasting the
poems of two different authors.
Many students do not realize that some of the strategies
effective for learning basic knowledge may not be
useful for learning more complex knowledge. Learning
experts often make the distinction between rote and
meaningful learning. In rote learning, the student learns
through repetition without trying to make any sense of
the material. In meaningful learning, the student
attempts to make sense of the information so that it will
be stored in LTM and retrieved when it is needed. One
of the major problems in cramming for examinations is
that students do not learn the material in a way that
makes sense to them by relating the information to
what they already know. The end result is that 24 hours
after the exams, nothing, or very little information, is
retained.
Exercise 2.2
Understanding the Importance of prior Knowledge
Directions: Two learning experts (Bransford &
Johnson, 1972) presented college students with the
following passage to read. Read it for yourself and then
see how much you can remember:
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange
things into different groups depending on their makeup.
Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how
much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else
due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise
you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo any
particular endeavor. That is, it is better to do too few
things at once than too many. In the short run this may
not seem important, but complications from doing too
many can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as
well. The manipulation of the appropriate mechanisms
should be self-explanatory, and we need not dwell on it
here. At first the whole procedure will seem
complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another
facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the
necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then
one never can tell. (p. 722)
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I am sure you recognized all the words in the
paragraph. Yet, you probably still had difficulty
understanding what you were reading. Don’t be
disappointed if you did not understand the passage or
remember much of the content. I didn’t remember one
thing the first time I read it.
Now, read the passage again, but this time keep the title
“Washing Clothes” in mind. You should be able to
make more sense of the passage because the title
provides a meaningful context or framework for
understanding the text.
What does this simple experiment reveal? Any time
readers gain information about a reading passage or
section in a textbook and relate the information to
something they already know, they are better able to
understand the incoming information. This is why
certain authors provide outlines or questions before
chapters or questions imbedded in the text. These
components help readers think about the topics in the
chapter they are about to read. When readers read
outlines or think about the questions before they begin
reading, they take advantage of important aides to
facilitate comprehension and memory (Halpern, 1996).
The effect is the same when students read assigned
material before taking lecture notes. Note taking is
easier when students know something about the
material being presented.
Rehearsal Strategies
When we think of basic learning, we often imagine
having information drilled into us through endless
repetition. Whether memorizing a song or learning the
capitals of each state in the United States, we have been
told by our instructors that we must practice, practice,
practice. But does it matter how we practice? Learning
experts offer some advice as to how practice can be
made more effective. Research has shown that
distributed practice among frequent and short periods is
more effective than a smaller number of sessions of
massed practice (Underwood, 1961). If you want to
remember the presidents of the United States without
error, you should practice for many short sessions,
chunking the list and repeatedly saying the names. The
classic “all-nighter,” of which I must admit I
experienced a few during my undergraduate days, is the
best example of massed practice. Although this practice
method may be effective in learning a large amount of
basic information in a short time, it is a poor method of
learning and remembering complex information.
Think about the examinations on which you used
massed practice. How much of the content did you
remember a few days after the examination?
Rehearsal strategies can be very effective in some types
of learning. Copying material, taking verbatim notes,
reciting words or definitions, and underlining material
in handouts or textbooks are all examples of rehearsal
strategies. However, the limitation in the use of
rehearsal strategies is that they make few connections
between the new information and the knowledge we
already have in LTM. Therefore, if the information is
not connected to anything when it is stored in LTM, it
is difficult to retrieve. Your goal as a learner is to try to
make the information meaningful if you want to
increase the probability that you will remember it. For
the most part, underlining is one of the least effective
learning strategies used by college students.
Let’s now turn to the two major learning strategies that
will help you learn more informationelaboration and
organization.
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Elaboration Strategies
Elaboration strategies help retention by linking new
information to information already in your LTM. These
strategies can be very useful for improving the recall of
names, categories, sequences, or groups of items. For
basic learning, two popular mnemonics include
acronyms and the key-word method. Acronyms use the
first letter in each word to form a mnemonic. My earlier
example about the order of the planets is an acronym.
Here are some other popular acronyms:
Figure 2.2.
Example of a hierarchy (Bower et al., 1969).
Page 39
Categories can provide useful retrieval cues in many
situations. For example, if you go to the supermarket
with a shopping list, you can recall the items you need
by checking different categories such as dairy, meats,
vegetables, drinks, and so forth (Loftus, 1980). Think
about courses like biology, astronomy, or anthropology
where learning classification lists are essential to
success in the course. The research is clear: If you learn
ways to organize material, you will be able to learn and
retrieve the information more effectively.
Organizational strategies are as useful in remembering
prose passages as they are in recalling lists. Outlines
and representations (or maps) can be useful
organizational strategies. These techniques enable
better understanding of text material by helping the
learner analyze the text structure. Outlining is a strategy
where major and minor ideas are written in abbreviated
form using important words and phrases.
Representation is a process of drawing a diagram to
picture how ideas are connected (see Figs. 2.1 and 2.2).
Exercise 2.4
Identifying Learning Strategies
Directions: The following behaviors represent different
learning strategies used by students. Identify each type
of strategy by placing the letter (R) for rehearsal, (E)
for elaboration, and (O) for organizational in the space
provided.
__1. “In preparing for a chemistry test, I keep writing
down major formulae until I remember them.”
__2. “I write a summary of each chapter in my political
science book.”
__3. “I think of a computer when studying the
information processing system.”
__4. “I use a chart to compare different theories in my
philosophy class.”
__5. “I ask myself questions after reading my history
textbook.”
__6. “After taking notes in class, I write questions that
the notes answer.”
__7. “I underline my textbook while I read.”
__8. “I outline each chapter in my geology textbook.”
One of the main points in this chapter is that there are
different ways to learn and that some ways lead to
greater information retention and retrieval. In Unit 4
you will learn how to use more elaboration and
organization strategies in your learning and studying
behavior.
Key Points
1. The information processing system is a model that is
used to identify how individuals obtain, transform,
store, and apply information. It comprises the short-
term sensory store, working memory, and the long-term
memory.
2. Learning involves getting information into long-term
memory.
3. There can be no learning without attention.
4. Memory is enhanced when the content is meaningful.
When you learn something, try to relate it to something
you already know.
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5. Meaningful learning facilitates both organized
storage and retrieval of information.
6. Many students use only rehearsal strategies in
learning. As a result, they have difficulty understanding
and recalling complex information.
7. Elaboration increases learning by linking new
content to existing knowledge. It provides additional
ways of remembering information.
8. Elaboration strategies include mnemonic devices,
paraphrasing, summarizing, creating analogies and
examples, writing notes in one’s own words, explaining
and asking questions.
9. It is difficult to learn unorganized definitions, dates,
names, and ideas without organizing the information.
10. Organizational learning strategies promote learning
by imposing order on new content. Classifying,
outlining, and representations or mapping are examples
of such strategies.
11. How information is organized and elaborated
influences one’s ability to retrieve it when needed.
Follow-up Activities
1
Analyze a Student’s Behavior
Carla visited her biology professor to discuss her poor
performance on the midterm exam. She was
disappointed because she studied ”very hard” for the
exam. When the professor asked her to explain how she
studied, she opened her book bag and produced more
than 100 index cards with terms on one side and
definitions on the other. She explained how she spent
hours memorizing all the terms in the required textbook
chapters. She did well on the multiple-choice questions,
but poorly on the essay questions.
If you were the professor, what advice would you give
her to prepare for the next examination?
2
Analyze a Student’s Behavior
Read the following information concerning Ruben.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of his motivation
and learning strategies. What suggestions do you have
for helping him become more successful?
Ruben is studying a chapter in his biology textbook for a
quiz the next day. His experience taking biology in high
school was mostly negative because his instructors
focused on facts and definitions. As a result, he never
developed much interest in the subject. He has been told
that he will be asked to answer one essay question to test
his knowledge of the material. He is not sure exactly
what content will be tested, but decides to develop a
study plan to gain a general understanding of the main
ideas and to recall the most important facts. He
paraphrases each section of the chapter and underlines
the important information. He realizes that he has
difficulty comparing and contrasting some of the
concepts discussed in class. Therefore, he decides to
develop and write re-
Page 41
sponses to short-answer essay questions he thinks may be
on the test. He develops so many possible questions that
he quickly becomes frustrated and only answers two essay
questions. He then reads the chapter summary. Finally, he
reviews the underlining in his textbook and decides it is
time to move on to another subject.
3
Evaluate Your Learning Strategies
Think about the learning strategies you used in high
school or in your last educational environment. How did
you memorize basic material? How did you learn
concepts in history, chemistry, and mathematics? If you
had to do it over again, how would you improve your
learning strategies in high school? Are you using the
same strategies in college? What changes in your
learning and study strategies do you think you have to
make this year?
4
Prepare Study Materials
This chapter presented a number of strategies that
promote learning. Identify a student in your class to
review the content in this chapter and together develop a
plan for studying the material in the chapter. Identify
each study strategy you will use and discuss how you
will apply the strategy.
Answers to Exercise 2.4
1. R 2. E 3. E 4. O 5. E 6. E 7. R 8. O
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3
Understanding Motivation
As you consider the various components of academic
self-management, you may find that you have no
difficulty managing your motivation. You may exhibit a
great deal of effort on tasks, persist even under difficult
situations, and maintain positive beliefs about your
academic abilities. If this is the case, this chapter will
simply help you understand why you are motivated to
succeed. However, if you have some difficulty
managing your motivation, this chapter provides
important background information to help you change.
Motivational Problems
Many of my students frequently state in class or in
written assignments: “I have no motivation” or “I need
to get motivated.” Unfortunately, I find that many
students do not understand the meaning of these
statements. Actually, everyone is motivated.
Educational researchers have found that many different
patterns of beliefs and behaviors can limit academic
success. Therefore, many different types of
motivational problems can be identified in any group of
students. Let’s look at five students who have diverse
motivational problems (adapted from Stipek, 1998):
Defensive Dimitri, Safe Susan, Hopeless Henry,
Satisfied Sheila, and Anxious Alberto.
Defensive Dimitri
Dimitri is having difficulty in his first term in college
and is beginning to doubt his ability to compete with
other students in his classes. As a result, he puts his
Page 43
energy into preventing anyone from interpreting his
poor performance as evidence of lack of ability.
Basically, he appears to be more motivated to avoid
failure than to succeed. Dimitri uses a number of
failure-avoiding strategies such as asking instructors
several questions to give the impression that he is
interested in the material, telling friends that he does
not spend much time studying for exams when he really
does, and spending time trying to find out what
information appeared on tests in other sections of the
same course. Unfortunately, the strategies he uses to
avoid looking like a poor student prevent him from
developing his academic abilities.
Safe Susan
Susan is a bright student with high SAT scores.
However, she can be classified as an underachiever.
Her primary goal is to attain high grades and
recognition from her instructors. She is upset if she
obtains any grade less than an “A.” She takes courses
that offer little challenge and overstudies for every test.
Susan rarely reads anything that is not required in a
course and does not allow herself to be challenged. She
learns only what she is told to learn.
Hopeless Henry
Henry has a very negative opinion of his ability to do
college work. He realized early in the term that he was
having trouble understanding college textbooks and
taking lecture notes. In fact, he has no study skills of
which to speak. Henry does not attempt to seek help
because he believes it is useless to try because nothing
seems to work. When talking to friends, he constantly
puts himself down. He sleeps late, misses many classes,
and finds himself falling further and further behind in
his course work.
Satisfied Sheila
Sheila is a likable student who enjoys college life. She
joined a number of social organizations the first term in
college and is a “C” average student who could easily
attain “A” grades. Sheila does not want to push herself
and let course work get in the way of having a good
time. She is not worried about getting ”C” grades and is
especially satisfied with any grade that does not require
much effort. Sheila enjoys reading novels and writes
very well. In fact, she has submitted some of her poetry
to her college literary magazine. Unfortunately, she
does not apply her intellectual interests and abilities to
her school work.
Anxious Alberto
Alberto lacks self-confidence and is very anxious about
academic tasks. He constantly worries about his
performance on every test or assignment. His anxiety is
so great that he forgets material on tests even though he
prepares well. Alberto has trouble sleeping, constantly
has stomachaches, and does not enjoy college.
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Each of these students has a different set of beliefs and
perceptions that limit his or her present and possibly future
academic success. All of these students have motivational
problems! Defensive Dimitri doubts his ability and is
concerned that others will not see him as capable. Safe
Susan does not want to take any risks or challenge herself.
She just cares about doing well. Hopeless Henry does not
believe anything he does will make a difference in
succeeding in college. He has learned to be helpless!
Satisfied Sheila does not value her academic
accomplishments. As a result, she chooses to spend her
time and effort in nonacademic areas. Anxious Alberto
wants to be a successful student. However, his constant
worry causes considerable anxiety that interferes with his
academic success.
Do any of these students resemble anyone you know? As
you read this chapter, think about how the content can help
you better understand each of these students. After studying
this chapter, you will be able to:
Identify the factors that influence motivation.
Assess your beliefs and perceptions to account for your
own motivation.
Figure 3.1.
An integrated model of student motivation in the college classroom
(adapted from Pintrich, 1994).
Page 45
The model indicates that both sociocultural and
classroom experiences influence students’ motivational
beliefs. This does not mean that these factors cannot
have a direct influence on behavior, but that current
research on motivation indicates that students’ beliefs
and perceptions are key factors in understanding
behavior. Most of the attention in the chapter is given to
the internal factors of motivation (i.e., student beliefs,
feelings, and perceptions).
Motivated Behavior
If you want to understand your own motivation, you
might begin by evaluating your behavior in the
following three areas:
Choice of behavior.
Level of activity and involvement.
Persistence and management of effort.
Students make choices every day about activities and
tasks in which to engage. Many students choose to
learn more about a subject or topic outside of class,
whereas others limit their involvement to class
assignments. As an undergraduate, I had a roommate
who slept until noon each day. This behavior would not
have been problematic if his classes were in the
afternoon. Unfortunately, all his classes were in the
morning. Another student I knew could not say no
when someone asked if she wanted to go to a movie or
have pizza, even though she had to study for an exam
or write a paper. Students do not have to be productive
every moment. Having fun or wasting time is a part of
life! However, the choices they make play important
roles in determining the number of personal goals they
will attain throughout life.
A second aspect of motivated behavior is level of
activity or involvement in a task. Some students are
very involved in their courses. They spend considerable
effort after class refining notes, outlining readings, and
in general, using different learning strategies to make
sense of what they are learning. Other students are less
engaged in their courses and do the minimal amount
required to get by.
The third aspect of motivated behavior is persistence.
The willingness of students to persist when tasks are
difficult, boring, or unchallenging is an important factor
in motivation and academic success. In many cases,
students have to learn how to control their efforts and
persistence in the variety of academic tasks they
experience. Let’s now examine the factors that
influence motivated behavior.
Sociocultural Factors
The attitudes, beliefs, and experiences students bring to
college based on their sociocultural experiences
influence their motivation and behavior. For example,
first-generation and ethnic minority students have a
more difficult time adjusting to college than do second-
or third-generation college students (Ratcliff, 1995).
Transition to college can be difficult for any student,
but when an individual has family members who have
experienced this transition, he or she is less likely to
feel lost in a new or unfamiliar environment, or unsure
about what questions to ask.
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Sociocultural factors also can influence how students
approach academic work. For example, Reglin and
Adams (1990) reported that Asian-American students
are more influenced by their parents’ desire for success
than are their non-Asian-American peers. They pointed
out that the desire by Asian-American students to meet
their parents’ academic expectations creates the need to
spend more time on academic tasks and less time on
nonacademic activities.
Exercise 3.1
Self-Observation:
Analyzing Social and Cultural Background
Directions: What attitudes and beliefs have you brought
to college that could influence your motivations below
and then write a summary statement about how your
cultural and social experiences will help motivate you to
achieve.
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Classroom Environmental Factors
Many classroom environmental factors influence
student motivation. These include types of assignments
given, instructor behavior, and instructional methods.
Ratcliff (1995) reported that a successful transition to
college is related to the quality of classroom life. In
particular, student motivation and achievement is
greater when instructors communicate high
expectations for success, allow students to take greater
responsibility for their learning, and encourage various
forms of collaborative learning (i.e., peer learning or
group learning).
Exercise 3.2
Self-Observation:
Analyzing Classroom Experiences
Directions: Following are some questions to consider
about college courses. Select one of the courses you are
taking this term and check either Yes or No for each of
the Questions listed. Think about how your responses
could influence your academic motivation and
behavior. Compare your responses to other students in
your class who are taking the same or different courses.
Although it is important for students to understand that
the classroom environment can influence their
motivation, they need to take responsibility for their
own behavior. My daughter came home one day during
her freshman year and told me that she received a low
“C” on a midterm exam. In the same breath, she
reported that she did not like the instructor, implying a
relationship between the low grade and her dislike of
the instructor. I responded that my expectations for her
academic performance were not based on her like or
dislike of courses or professors, and told her she had to
learn to do well in all
Page 48
types of situations. Do all parents sound the same? How
would you respond to your own child or teenager in a
similar situation?
Internal Factors
Students’ goals, beliefs, feelings, and perceptions
determine their motivated behavior and, in turn,
academic performance. For example, if students value a
task and believe they can master it, they are more likely
to use different learning strategies, try hard, and persist
until completion of the task. If students believe that
intelligence changes over time, they are more likely to
exhibit effort in difficult courses than students who
believe intelligence is fixed.
In this section of the chapter, I’m going to explain why
the answers to the following questions can provide
insight to your own motivation:
How do I value different academic courses and tasks?
What are my goals?
Do I believe I can do well on different academic tasks?
What are the causes of my successes and failures?
How do I feel about my academic challenges?
Notice that all of the questions deal with beliefs and
perceptions. Students can learn a great deal about their
motivation by examining how their beliefs and
perceptions influence them.
How do I Value Different Academic Courses or Tasks?
Values and interests play an important role in academic
behavior. They affect students’ choices of activities as
well as the level of effort and persistence they put forth
on a task or assignment. For example, Satisfied Sheila
enjoys intellectual challenges, as demonstrated by her
interest in poetry. Unfortunately, she fails to incorporate
her interests in her school courses and assignments.
Students in a given course may have different reasons
for enrolling. Let’s consider three students in a
chemistry course. The first student decides to take the
course because it fulfills a general education
requirement. She has very little interest in the subject.
The second student is enrolled in the course because
she enjoys learning about science and would like to
pursue a career in the health sciences. The third student
wants to learn chemistry because doing well can help
her get on the Dean’s List and feeling competent is an
important value in her life.
All three of these students want to succeed, but may
behave differently during the term. At times, their
different value orientations may influence them to make
different decisions regarding their effort and persistence
in the course. For example, during final exams, students
often have to make decisions concerning where to place
their greatest effort. Students who are taking a course
just to complete an elective may decide to spend more
time during finals on a course where higher
achievement is more important.
Students who limit their involvement or effort in a
particular class are not necessarily lazy or unmotivated.
Instead, they are motivated to participate in different
things such as athletics, social organizations, family
activities, or relationships rather than academics
(Stipek, 1998). College students do not
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develop a personal interest in or high value for all their
courses. Some required or elective courses are more
interesting than others. The task, however, is to manage
motivation to successfully complete courses, even
when there is little interest in them.
What are My Goals?
I begin my “learning to learn” course by asking
students about their goals. Each year I find many
differences in the abilities of students to articulate their
goals. Some students have clear and well-defined goals.
They know why they are in college and what they are
attempting to attain. At the other end of the spectrum,
some students have not even defined their personal
goals and are not sure why they are in college. Some of
my students who are raising families or who have
returned to college after some absence appear to have
more specific goals than do some students who come
directly from high school. How would you explain this
difference?
Think about a musician, athlete, or businessperson who
wants to excel in his or her area of expertise, but has no
specific goals to direct his or her behavior. It is very
difficult to be motivated without personal goals. It is
important to set goals in different life areas because
such goals serve to motivate behavior.
Goals enhance performance in five major ways (Locke
& Latham, 1990):
Effort: The goals you set for yourself influence what
you attend to and how hard you try to maximize your
performance. The more difficult the goal, the harder
you are likely to work to attain it.
Duration or persistence: When you work on a task
without a goal you are likely to allow your attention to
drift, become more easily interrupted, and even stop
working without completing the task. When you have a
goal in mind, you have a more clearly defined point in
the performance that defines when it is time to quit or
withdraw from the task (i.e., when the goal is attained).
Direction of attention: Goals direct your performance
toward the task at hand and away from unrelated or
irrelevant tasks.
Strategic planning: To accomplish a goal, you need to
develop an action plan or strategy. Goal setting
encourages strategic planning because the presence of a
goal encourages you to decide how to proceed.
Reference point: When you identify where it is you are
headed (i.e., have a goal) and receive feedback on
where you are, you can evaluate your performance and
determine what further actions need to be taken (if
any). In fact, it is your satisfaction or dissatisfaction
with this evaluation that may have the greatest impact
on your motivation.
Have you identified some goals you would like to attain
this term or year? If so, do you have goals in any of the
following areas: academic, social, occupational, or
personal? How has your success or failure in attaining
previous goals influenced your motivation in different
areas of your life?
What is My Goal Orientation?
Educators have determined that students have different
reasons or purposes for achieving in different courses.
Dweck and Leggett (1988) believe that the achievement
goals students pursue “create the framework within
which they interpret and react to events” (p. 256).
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They have identified two types of achievement goals:
mastery and performance. A mastery goal is oriented
toward learning as much as possible in a course for the
purpose of self-improvement, irrespective of the
performance of others. A performance goal focuses on
social comparison and competition, with the main
purpose of outperforming others on the task.
Think about how you approach different classes. Are
you interested in learning as much as you can in a class
or is your major goal simply doing better than the
majority of students so you can attain a satisfactory
grade? Of course, in some classes you may value both
learning and getting good grades because you can have
multiple goals in school. It is not uncommon for
students to have a mastery goal orientation in one class
and a performance goal orientation in another.
An analysis of the distinction between mastery and
performance goals in Table 3.1 shows how students
define schooling and learning in different ways. The
goal orientation that students adopt in a course
influences the effort they exhibit in learning tasks and
the type of learning strategies they use. Thus, when
students adopt a mastery goal orientation, they are more
likely to have a positive attitude toward the task (even
outside the classroom), monitor their own
comprehension, use more complex learning strategies,
and relate newly learned material with previously
learned material. In contrast, students who adopt a
performance orientation tend to focus on memorization
and other rote learning strategies, and often do not
engage in problem solving and critical thinking. In
general, they do not think about what they learn, but
rather look for shortcuts and quick payoffs. Students
with performance goals want to look competent (e.g.,
Safe Susan) or avoid looking incompetent (e.g.,
Defensive Dimitri).
TABLE 3.1
Two Definitions of Schooling
Mastery Performance
Success Improvement, High grades, high
defined as . . . progress, performance
mastery, compared with
innovation, others, relative
creativity achievement on
standardized
measures
Value placed Effort, academic Demonstrating high
on . . . venturesomenessperformance relative
to effort
Basis for Progress, Doing better than
satisfaction . . . challenge, others, success
mastery relative to effort
Error viewed Part of the Failure, evidence of
as . . . learning process, lack of ability
informational
Ability viewed Developing Fixed
as . . . through effort
Adapted from Ames and Archer (1988)
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Exercise 3.3
Identifying Mastery and Performance goal Orientations
Based on the information in Table 3.1, classify the
following statements as either mastery (M) or
performance (P) goal oriented by writing an M or a P in
the space provided:
__1. “I enjoy finding extra material to read in this
course.”
__2. “It is important to me to do better than my
friends.”
__3. “If you don’t have the ability to do well, more
effort is a waste of time.”
__4. ”I’m not doing as well as I can, but I will
improve.”
__5. “My adviser thinks I should take another advanced
math course, but I don’t want to because it may lower
my average.”
In the following section, two students present different
views on goal orientation. The first student admits that
his primary goal orientation is to meet requirements,
not learn! The second student reports that his goal
orientation is influenced by the value he places on
different courses. What factors influence your goal
orientations?
Student Reflections
For years, my goal in all my classes
has been to achieve a certain grade.
The grade differed from class to class
depending on my confidence for
success in the course. This strategy
has been my plan of attack since
elementary school. Unfortunately, my
goals have never changed, and I
rarely participate in class just for the
simple pleasure of learning. I enjoy a
class once a discussion begins, but I
usually prefer to be somewhere else. I
am performance rather than mastery
driven. I do not care to learn anything
for the sake of learning. Schoolwork is
just a means to an end: graduation
and a degree.
<><><><><><><><><><><><>
3
Analyze Efficacy Scores
Students in a learning course are given 10-point quizzes
each week before the class lecture. They are asked to
rate how well they think they will do on the quiz on a
scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high) before they begin writing
their responses. The following scores represent the quiz
scores and efficacy ratings for four different students for
the first three quizzes of the term. Review these scores
and describe each of the students’ motivation and
behavior as best you can. In what ways could these
scores influence the students’ motivation and study
behaviors for future quizzes?
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4
Discuss the Motivation Behavior of Different Students
In the beginning of the chapter, you were introduced to
five types of students who had different motivational
problems. Suppose you were an adviser at the college or
university they attend. Each student has made an
appointment to see you. How would you explain their
own motivation and behavior to them?
Page 62
Page 63
UNIT II
MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES
Chapter 4: Goal Setting
Chapter 5: Management of Mood and Effort
4
Goal Setting
The pyramid in Fig. 4.1 identifies the steps that lead
from identifying values to accomplishing daily tasks
(Smith, 1994). Everything starts with values, which are
sometimes called principles or beliefs. Long-term goals
are developed by translating principles and beliefs into
long-term achievements. Long-term goals, in turn, are
attained through a series of intermediate goals. Finally,
the intermediate goals are attained through a series of
specific, goal-oriented daily tasks.
Figure 4.1.
The productivity pyramid (Smith, 1994).
Page 68
Suppose an individual values education and sets a goal
to earn a college degree. To accomplish this long-term
goal, the student needs to establish some intermediate
goals. These intermediate goals often involve year-long
goals (e.g., declaring a major and taking and passing a
minimum number of classes), semester goals (e.g.,
exploring career possibilities and attending class
regularly), monthly goals (e.g., meeting with an
academic adviser and long-range planning for the
completing of papers and other assignments), weekly
goals (e.g., short-term planning for the completion of
papers, assignments, and preparation for examinations,
and using effective learning and study strategies).
Smith (1994) stated that: “Values explain why you want
to accomplish certain things in life. Long-range goals
describe what you want to accomplish. Intermediate
goals and daily tasks show how to do it” (p. 83). For
example, a person may value health and fitness (the
why). For this reason, he or she establishes a long-
range goal of losing 20 pounds (the what), and an
intermediate goal of losing 5 pounds by the end of the
semester by developing a specific exercise program for
1 hour each day (the how). Each componentvalues,
long-range goals, intermediate goals, and daily
tasksneeds to be linked to one another.
If an individual’s goals are not aligned with his or her
values, the individual may never be satisfied with his or
her accomplishments because he or she will be
neglecting the things that matter most. Also, if the
individual completes daily tasks that do not reflect
long-range and intermediate goals, he or she will be
busy doing things, but will not be productive.
The keys to goal setting and time management are
governing values. Smith (1994) believes that one of the
reasons many people are frustrated or stressed in their
lives is because they ignore the first three levels of the
pyramid. They complete many tasks, but do not base
them on anything but urgency. As a result, they fail to
get around to doing the things that are really important
to them.
Have you thought about your own governing values?
What is important in your life? Following are some
values that people have identified as of greatest
importance in their lives (Smith, 1994):
financial security
personal health and fitness
family
religion
integrity
honesty
service
self-respect
education and learning
happiness
pleasure
friendship
courage
Circle the values that are most important to you and be
prepared to discuss your personal selection with other
students in your class.
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After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
Establish personal goals.
Develop and implement effective plans for attaining
goals.
Exercise 4.1
Self-Observation:
Identifying Your Values
Directions: The purpose of this exercise is to help
identify the activities you enjoy and determine whether
you are finding time to participate in them. This exercise
is part of a program called values clarification (Simon,
Howe, & Kirschenbaum, 1972), and is based on the
premise that many people do not know clarly what their
values are.
Make a list of 7 to 10 things that give you great pleasure
or joy.
After the name of each activity, write the date you last
experienced it.
Place a dollar sign after each activity that costs more
than $10.
Now go through the list again, and place a P after those
activities that usually require considerable planning.
Review your list, and place an S after activities that you
share with others.
Finally, place an A after those activities that you do
alone
What does this exercise tell you about yourself? What
are the activities valued by the students in your class?
Why is it that some people find time to do the things
they enjoy, whereas others do not? How do values
influence goals?
Exercise 4.2
Writing Personal Goals
Think about the things you would like to achieve, obtain,
or experience in life. Using the criteria and procedure for
writing SMART goals, write at least four goals (include at
least two major academic goals).
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Generating and Evaluating Alternative Plans
Now that you know how to write a goal, let’s move on
to the second procedure in the processdetermining how
you are going to attain your goal. The answers to the
following questions can be very helpful:
How would other people achieve this goal?
Who can help me achieve this goal?
How have I achieved similar goals in the past?
Let’s consider a student whose goal is to attain a “B” on
an English paper. Suppose the student has already
written a few papers and is aware of his or her strengths
and weaknesses. As part of developing an effective plan
for the next paper, the student might ask him or herself
the following questions: “Did I give myself enough
time to complete the last paper?” “Do I understand the
criteria for grading?” “Do I understand why my last
paper was graded lower than expected?” ”Do I
understand my strengths and weaknesses?” “Would I
benefit from having someone read the paper before I
turn it in?”
By asking these questions, the student begins to think
about alternative ways to attain the goal and the
advantages and disadvantages of each strategy. For
example, the student might initially include in the plan
time for two rewrites, but realizes he or she has an
exam in another subject the same week. As a result, no
matter how effective the plan might be for writing a
better paper, the student probably will not do as well on
the exam if he or she spends more time on the paper.
Thus, the student needs to decide how best to spend his
or her time. My point is that one constantly has to
weigh the advantages and disadvantages of one strategy
over another.
Making Implementation Plans
In Procedure 1 you learned why it is necessary to be
specific in writing a goal. It also is important for your
plan to be specific so you know exactly what needs to
be done to achieve your goal. One way to develop a
plan is to identify each of the necessary tasks that must
be completed and the date by which the tasks will be
accomplished. Setting deadlines for each task is helpful
in determining that you continue to make progress
toward your goal.
Table 4.1 presents an example of a checklist for
identifying intermediate goals and tasks for writing a
research paper. Research (Schunk, 1989) indicates that
as you attain each of the intermediate goals, you will
become more confident in your abilities to complete the
task. Thus, any time you can break a major goal into
several intermediate goals, you will be more motivated
to move toward your major goal. Remember this
finding whenever you get discouraged while thinking
about completing a major task.
Implementing the Plan
The first three procedures in the goal-setting process
are planning steps. Procedure 4 requires you to put the
plan into operation by completing each of the planned
activities. Check your progress as you implement each
task. Do not hesitate to make changes in your plan if
you find that you miscalculated the time needed to
complete a task. In some cases, you might find that you
omit-
Page 77
TABLE 4.1
Intermediate Goals for a Research Paper
Intermediate Goal Date
Completed
Phase 1: Prewriting
Identify topic
Find sources for topic
Use correct bibliographic notation for sources
Phase 2: Drafting
Organize paper around two subtopics
Write draft of subtopic 1
Write draft of subtopic 2
Write introduction to paper
Write conclusion
Phase 3: Revising and Editing
Review drafts for grammar and writing style
Check transitions among subtopics
Edit complete paper
Prepare title page, bibliography, and table of
contents
Key Points
1. One’s values, long-range and intermediate goals, and
daily tasks should be aligned.
2. Goals influence motivation and learning.
3. Setting and attaining intermediate goals can motivate
students to attain long-range goals.
Page 79
4. Three properties of goals influence motivation:
specificity, proximity, and difficulty.
5. Each goal you set should be SMART: specific,
measurable, action-oriented, realistic, and timely.
6. The following procedures should be used each time
you set a goal:
1. Identifying and defining the goal
2. Generating and evaluating plans
3. Making implementation plans
4. Implementing the plan
5. Evaluating your progress
Follow-up Activities
1
Establish a Goal and Action Plan
Identify a short-term goal you would like to attain in
the next few weeks. Develop a plan for attaining it and
write a brief two- to three-page report on the extent of
your goal attainment. Use the procedures identified in
the chapter as headings in your paper.
2
Analyze Student Behavior
Suppose you were working in your college counseling
center as a peer counselor. Two students, Alan and
Felicia, come to see you to discuss their problems.
Read the brief description of each student and identify
what you have learned to date that could be applied to
each situation. Consider how you would start your
discussion with Alan and Felicia. What issues would
you raise? What advice would you give? Why?
Alan is a freshman music major who is an accomplished
bass player. He has toured internationally with some of
the best groups and is recognized as someone with a
great deal of talent. His goal is to play professionally. He
practices many hours a day and believes this activity is
more worthwhile than taking general education courses.
Alan believes he does not need a college education to
attain his goal. Yet, his parents believe that the
attainment of a college degree will benefit him
throughout his life. He agrees to go to college to please
his parents, but is not very interested in some of his
courses. As a result, his attendance is poor and his
grades are low in freshman composition and psychology.
Felicia has always wanted to be a pediatrician. She is a
freshman majoring in pre-med and is having difficulty in
her first chemistry course. Although she did well in her
high school chemistry course, she finds her college
course more difficult because it is taught differently. The
exams require more problem solving and higher level
thinking than she experienced in high school. She begins
to worry about her ability to excel in the sciences and to
obtain admission to medical school.
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3
Evaluate the Productivity Pyramid
Figure 4.1 illustrates the fact that one’s values should
serve as the foundation for determining personal goals
and creating a daily task list that is related to attainment
of long-range and intermediate goals. Smith (1994)
stated: “If your daily activities are guided in this manner
by your fundamental values, you will feel the
satisfaction that comes from succeeding at those things
that mean the most to you” (p. 67). Identify one of your
values and determine the degree to which your long-
range and intermediate goals and daily tasks are aligned
with this value. If your goals and daily tasks are not well
aligned with what you value, develop a plan to better
align them.
Page 81
5
Management of Mood and Effort
In chapter 1 you learned the importance of managing
your own motivation and in chapter 3 you learned
about the factors that influence motivation to learn.
Thus far, you learned that values and goals are
important determinants of motivation, and that goal
setting can be an important motivational strategy. In
addition, you learned that the nature of your attributions
can have an important impact on your motivation to
learn because these attributions influence your
emotions and moods. More specifically, I suggested
that you analyze how you interpret the causes of your
successes and failures, especially ability versus effort
attributions. You also learned that self-efficacy is an
important belief that is related to academic
performance. Thus, as you gain more expertise in
“learning how to learn” and attain greater academic
success, your efficacy beliefs, or judgments about your
capabilities to learn, will be enhanced. In turn, these
beliefs will lead to greater effort, persistence, and self-
monitoring of your behavior. Finally, you learned that
arranging or imagining rewards or punishments for
success or failure at an academic task can be a useful
motivation strategy.
In this chapter, I focus on procedures to help you
manage your mood and effort, and reduce anxiety.
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
Develop positive beliefs about your ability to attain
goals.
Use self-talk to reduce anxiety.
Use relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety.
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Exercise 5.1
Self-Observation:
Assessing Anxiety
Directions: Assess your perceptions about anxiety by
checking the appropriate response to each of the
following question (adapted from Ottens, 1991, pp. 4-5).
Write a summary statement in the space provided to
describe the nature of your anxiety. If you answered
“always or sometimes” to any of these questions, you
should consider ways to manage the possible negative
effects of anxiety.
Page 83
<><><><><><><><><><><><>
Exercise 5.2
Classifying Negative Self-Talk
The following are examples of negative self-talk. After
studying Table 5.1, identify the type of self-talkthe
Worrier, the Critic, the Victim, or the
Perfectionistdepicted in each statement.
How can I Change My Self-Talk?
It is important to understand and to change your
unproductive self-talk. After identifying and
understanding the nature of your negative self-talk, you
can counter it with positive, supportive statements. This
requires writing down and actually rehearsing positive
statements that directly refute your negative self-talk
(Bourne, 1995).
Page 87
Bourne provided some examples of positive
counterstatements that can be used with each of the four
types of negative self-talk. She recommended avoiding
negative statements (e.g., “I’m not going to panic when I
start the test”) and focusing on positive statements (e.g.,
“I’m prepared for this test”). She also suggested keeping
counterstatements in the present tense and in the first
person (e.g., “I can . . .” “I will now . . .” “I am learning
to . . .”).
The Worrier
Instead of “What if . . .” say, “So what,” “I can handle this,”
“I can be anxious and still do this,” “I’ll get used to this
with practice.”
The Critic
Instead of self-criticism, say, “I’m okay the way I am,” “I
accept and believe in myself.”
The Victim
Instead of feeling hopeless, say, “I can continue to make
progress one step at a time,” “I acknowledge the progress
I’ve made and will continue to improve.”
The Perfectionist
Instead of demanding perfection, say, “It’s okay to make
mistakes,” “Setbacks are part of the process and an
important learning experience.”
The procedures shown here were developed by Butler
(1981) to help individuals understand and change any self-
talk that is preventing them from
Exercise 5.3
Self-Observation:
Using Self-Talk
Identify a situation or event in your life when you used
negative self-talk. Use the following five-step process to
change your talk. Briefly describe the situation or event
and fill in the blanks indicating a possible reply to your
self-talk.
Event:
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Key Points
1. What individuals say to themselves is an important
factor in determining their attitudes, feelings, emotions,
and behavior.
2. Individuals who exhibit inappropriate self-talk often
act in an inappropriate manner.
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3. People or events do not directly influence
individuals’ emotional reactions. Individuals’ self-talk
regarding events is the primary cause of their attitudes
and emotions.
4. Responding with positive counterstatements is an
effective way to change negative self-talk.
5. Relaxation techniques can be physical or mental.
6. Meditation can alter one’s mood and emotions.
Follow-up Activities
1
Use the Self-Management Process to Reduce Anxiety
Complete the following self-study during a period of 2
to 3 weeks. Your report should include each of the
following processes and should be approximately five
to eight typed pages in length. See Appendix A for
detailed information on how to conduct a self-
management study.
Self-Observation and Evaluation.
How does anxiety influence my academic and personal
life? Do I need to change the way I deal with anxiety?
If yes, what problem(s) do I encounter? What are the
symptoms of my problem(s) (i.e., when, where and how
often does my problem occur)? What factors (e.g.,
beliefs, perceptions, feelings, physiological responses,
or behaviors) contribute to this problem? What do I
need to change to reduce or eliminate my problem?
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning.
What are my goals? What strategies will I implement to
reduce my anxiety? When will I use these strategies?
How will I record my progress?
Strategy Implementation and Monitoring.
What strategies did I use to reduce my anxiety? When
did I use these strategies? What method(s) did I use to
record my progress (e.g., documents, charts, logs, tally
sheets, or checklists)? When did I use these methods?
How and when did I monitor my progress to determine
if my anxiety-reducing strategies were working? What
changes, if any, did I make along the way?
Strategic-Outcome Monitoring.
Did I attain the goal(s) I set for myself? Has the
reduction in my anxiety improved my academic
performance or personal life? What strategies were the
most and least effective? What changes, if any, do I
need to make in the future?
2
Assess Self-Talk
During the next week, monitor your self-talk and
evaluate how it affects your motivation and self-
confidence. Consider all the situations and tasks in
which you engageacademic, athletic and recreational,
social, occupational, and personal. Include in your
report the following information: date, situation (e.g.,
academic), setting (describe where you were and what
you were trying to accomplish), and report the self-talk
as specifically as possible. Finally, discuss what
strategies you used to deal with any negative self-talk.
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3
Explore Anxiety-Producing Situations in School
The following are common thoughts and worries
expressed by individuals who have test anxiety (Smith,
1982, p. 179). Check those with which you can identify
the most, and then add additional thoughts in the empty
spaces provided. Compare your thoughts and worries
with those of other students in your class. Finally, discuss
strategies you can use to deal with your negative
thoughts.
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a. Worry about performance
____ I should have reviewed more. I’ll never get
through.
____ My mind is blank, I’ll never get the answer. I must
really be stupid.
____ I knew this stuff yesterday. What is wrong with
me?
____ I can’t remember a thing. This always happens to
me.
____
____
b. Worry about bodily reactions
____ I’m sick. I’ll never get through.
____ I’m sweating all overit’s really hot in here.
____ My stomach is going crazy, churning and jumping
all over.
____ Here it comesI’m getting really tense again.
Normal people just don’t get like this.
____
____
c. Worry about how others are doing
____ I know everyone’s doing better than I am.
____ I must be the dumbest one in the group.
____ I am going to be the last one done again. I must
really be stupid.
____ No one else seems to be having trouble. Am I the
only one?
____
____
d. Worry about the possible negative consequences
____ If I fail this test, I’ll never get into the program.
____ I’ll never graduate.
____ I’ll think less of myself.
____ I’ll be embarrassed.
____
____
UNIT III
BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES
Chapter 6: Time Management
Chapter 7: Management of Physical and Social
Environment
6
Time Management
The goal in this chapter is to help you manage your
time more effectively. Problems in time management
can be related to one or more of the following:
uncertainty of what is to be accomplished (i.e., lack of
goals), failure to break down the goals into a series of
tasks, or lack of awareness about how to manage time
or how much time is needed to complete a given task
(Britton & Glynn, 1989).
One of the most important factors influencing the
attainment of goals is the efficient use of time. In high
school, most of your time was structured for you
because you were in school most of the day. For the
most part, your time management involved structuring
your study time after school. College life is more
demanding because there are more tasks to accomplish.
Your class schedule can vary greatly; for example, you
may only have classes three or four times a week and
might complete your classes by noon. In general, you
have to manage more hours of time and often do not
have your parents around to offer “suggestions” for
how you should do it.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
Analyze your use of time
Develop a time-management system
Use strategies to reduce procrastination
Exercise 6.2
Self-Observation:
Assessing Use of Time
Directions: Students who have difficulty with time
management often lack awareness about how they
spend their time. This exercise gives you an
opportunity to evaluate your actual use of time. Fill in
your activities last week in the following calendar.
Next, using the Time Analysis table, determine how
much time you spend in each activity listed for each
day of the week as well as the total for the entire week.
When you total your time, round to the nearest half
hour (e.g., 9 hours and 20 minutes sleeping = 9.5
hours).
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List the three activities on which you are spending the
most time (other than sleeping):
Weekly Schedule
The final form is the weekly schedule (see p. 110),
which identifies the time and order in which you will
complete the tasks and activities for the week. This
schedule is developed each week and reviewed each day
to determine whether any changes are needed for the
following day because of unforeseen circumstances
(e.g., changes in appointments or the need for additional
time to complete tasks).
The following is a summary of the procedures for
developing and implementing a time-management plan.
(Continues on p. 111)
Page 110
Page 111
(Continued from page 109)
Procedures (Continued)
Procedures Examples
3. Review your written goals to “I want to practice my
determine what tasks need to be started guitar four times a week
or completed to bring you closer to for 40 minutes.”
attaining your goals. “I want to achieve an
`A’ in English this
semester.”
4. Check your semester calendar to “I have a midterm in
determine whether there are any exams, Spanish coming up in 2
papers, or other major assignments due weeks. I had better start
in the next few weeks. developing a study plan
to review all the
material next week.”
5. Identify all the personal and “I need to buy computer
academic tasks you have to complete paper, complete my
for the week on the weekly prioritized math problems, do my
task list. Spanish translation each
day, write a short paper,
and finish the assigned
readings in sociology.”
6. Prioritize daily tasks list by giving a “I am having some
value (A, B, or C) to each item on the difficulty in Spanish so
list. Place an “A” next to items that I can’t afford to get
must be done. Place a “B” next to any behind (A). Therefore, I
task that is important and should be must spend extra time
done. That is, after all the “A” tasks are this week on my
completed, and you have time, you translations. My short
would work on the “B” items. Finally, English paper is due on
write a “C” next to any task that is less Friday so I better write
important and could be done. That is, the first draft on
after the “A” and “B” tasks have been Wednesday to give me
completed, you’ll do the “C” tasks. time for a rewrite on
Thursday (B).”
7. Give a numerical value to each item “I understood the
on the list. In other words, determine sociology lecture so I’ll
which “A” task is most important and do the reading after I
label it “A-1.” Then decide which “A” finish my math
item is next most important and label it assignments (C-1), and
“A-2,” and so on. Do the same for “B” the first draft on my
and “C” tasks. English paper. I’ll
practice my guitar
before dinner (C-2).”
8. Complete your weekly schedule by
transferring the items on your priority
tasks sheet to your weekly schedule
forms. Put the “A” items first, followed
by the “B” items, and finally as many of
the “C” items you think you can
accomplish.
9. Each evening check your weekly “I thought I could write
schedule for the next day and make the first draft of my
modifications as needed (e.g., changes English paper
in appointments, unexpected Wednesday but found I
assignments, or unusual demands on have to do more library
time). research. I need to
spend at least 1 hour in
the library tomorrow.”
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What is Procrastination?
It is time to deal with the most frequent time waster
identified earlier in the chapterprocrastination: the
behavior of postponing tasks (Burka & Yuen, 1983).
Procrastination appears to be a universal problem
negatively impacting the behavior of many individuals.
It is particularly relevant from a self-management
perspective because it is often discussed as a problem
in self-control. By definition, you cannot be a self-
directed learner if you fail to control your behavior.
Do I Procrastinate?
Everyone procrastinates from time to time. The issue is
the extent of one’s procrastination. You may have a
problem with procrastination if you answer, “yes,” to
any of the following questions: Do I delay starting
assignments? Am I late handing in assignments? Do I
tend to wait for the last minute to complete
assignments? Am I often late for appointments? Do I
often underestimate the amount of time needed to
complete a task?
What are the Causes of Procrastination?
Procrastination on academic tasks can lead to low
academic performance, including poor grades and
course withdrawal (Semb, Glick, & Spencer, 1979).
Although there are different reasons for procrastination,
Ferrari, Johnson, and McCown (1995) identified two
patterns that should be of concern to college students.
The first pattern is classified as a lack of
conscientiousness and is associated with such behaviors
as poor time management, work discipline, self-control,
and responsibility. The second pattern is classified as
avoidance and is associated with fear of failure and
anxiety.
Fear of failure was discussed in chapter 2 under
Covington’s (1992) self-worth theory. He believes that
academic procrastination serves the goal of preserving
feelings of self-worth by avoiding situations in which
students might fail. Closely related to fear of failure is
perfectionism. Several authors have suggested that
procrastination and perfectionism are related (e.g.,
Burka & Yuen, 1983). This relation is explained as
follows: an individual procrastinates to gain additional
time to produce the best product. Unfortunately, if the
procrastinator has unrealistic or too high standards, he
or she is rarely satisfied with the product and fails to
turn it in on time. Psychologists have traced
perfectionism back to experiences growing up in
families where parents tend to be very demanding and
critical of their children’s behavior (Flett, Hewitt, &
Martin, 1995). Another characteristic in the second
pattern of procrastination is anxiety. If students are
anxious, procrastination is seen as a way of avoiding
the anxiety associated with studying or completing the
assigned task.
It is beyond the scope of this book to determine specific
diagnoses of procrastination problems. If you believe
procrastination is a serious problem affecting your
behavior and none of the following strategies identified
in this chapter help you deal with your particular
problem, you may want to consider discussing it with a
counselor at your counseling center.
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Key Points
1. Individuals control their lives by controlling,
whenever possible, the timing of events in their lives.
2. Students with better time-management skills tend to
have higher GPAs.
3. The problem for most individuals is not lack of time
but poor time management.
4. Assessing present use and waste of time is essential
before changing or modifying a daily or weekly
schedule.
5. Individuals must always consider personal goals
before scheduling tasks in a time-management plan.
6. Three forms are needed for time planning and
management: a semester calendar, a weekly priority
tasks list, and a weekly schedule.
7. One of the major problems in time management is
failure to prioritize tasks.
8. Two major patterns of procrastination are lack of
conscientiousness and avoidance associated with
anxiety and fear of failure.
9. Strategies for dealing with procrastination include
improving time management, maintaining attention and
concentration, using specific behavioral changes such
as the 5-minute plan, reducing anxiety, and challenging
irrational beliefs.
Follow-up Activities
1
Use the Self-Management Process to Improve Your
Time Management
Complete the following self-study during a period of 2
to 3 weeks. Your report should include each of the
following processes and should be approximately
Page 116
five to eight typed pages in length. See Appendix A for
detailed information on how to conduct a self-
management study.
Self-Observation and Evaluation.
How do I manage my time? Do I need to change the
way I plan and manage my study schedule? If yes, what
problem(s) do I encounter? What are the symptoms of
my problem(s) (i.e., when, where and how often does
my problem(s) occur)? How much of an impact does
this problem(s) have on my academic performance?
What factors (e.g., beliefs, perceptions, feelings,
physiological responses, or behaviors) contribute to this
problem(s)? What do I need to change to reduce or
eliminate my problem(s)?
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning.
What are my goals? What strategies will I implement to
improve my time management? When will I use these
strategies? How will I record my progress?
Strategy Implementation and Monitoring.
What strategies did I use to improve my time
management? When did I use these strategies? What
method(s) did I use to record my progress (e.g.,
documents, charts, logs, tally sheets, or checklists)?
When did I use these methods? How and when did I
monitor my progress to determine if my new time-
management plan was working? What changes, if any,
did I make along the way?
Strategic-Outcome Monitoring.
Did I attain the goal(s) I set for myself? Have the
modifications in my time management improved my
academic performance or personal life? What strategies
were the most and least effective? What changes, if any,
do I need to make in the future?
2
Planning a Student’s Use of Time
Joe College is a freshman at State University enrolled
in five three-unit courses: English (8-8:50 a.m.: M, W,
F), calculus (9-9:50 a.m.: M, W, F), psychology (10-
10:50 a.m.: M, W, F), French (1- 1:50 p.m.: M, W, F)
and biology (9 - 10:30 a.m.: T, Th. and lab 1-3 p.m.).
He sits down to plan his week’s activities on Sunday
October 4 and begins by reviewing his semester
calendar.
Joe’s major goals for the semester are to (a) work out in
the campus gym (open 8 a.m. -9 p.m.) four times a
week for 40 minutes, (b) achieve at least a 3.0 GPA,
and (c) attain an “A” in calculus.
He is a good student who often has difficulty in math
classes. He likes to play tennis and watch movies in his
free time. This week he has to complete about 25
calculus problems by Friday, turn in his English essay,
read three chapters in psychology by Wednesday, and
keep up with his French translations. In addition, he
realizes that he has to get two books back to the library
by Thursday, do his laundry, and write a thank-you to
his aunt for her birthday gift.
Joe finds it difficult to study late in the evening and
likes to go to bed by 11:30 p.m. so he can get up early,
have breakfast, and look over notes before attending
classes.
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Directions:
1. Review Joe’s Semester Calendar for October (see p.
118) and consider the background information provided
(including his goals).
2. Use the Weekly Priority Task List (see p. 119) to
prioritize his tasks.
3. Use the Weekly Schedule Sheet (see p. 120) to plan
his schedule for the week.
4. Do not forget to plan some free time for him.
When you have completed the task discuss the following
questions with your classmates:
1. What were the major areas of disagreement in
planning Joe’s schedule?
2. What additional information about Joe would have
been helpful in completing this task?
3. How did his goals and values impact your group’s
discussion?
4. What did you learn most from this exercise?
3
Identify Your Escapist Techniques
On a separate sheet of paper, create a chart using the
following headings and jot down all of the methods you
use in a 1-week period to avoid doing your work. What
can you do to keep from repeating these avoidance
patterns (taken from Van Blerkom, 1994, p. 52)?
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4
Identify Your Favorite Procrastination Beliefs
The following is a list of common beliefs and
misperceptions of procrastinators (Bliss, 1983). Identify
your top three cop-outs and write a challenge for each
of them.
1. It’s unpleasant.
2. It’s not due yet.
3. I work better under pressure.
4. Maybe it will take care of itself if I just don’t do
anything.
5. It’s too early in the day.
6. It’s too late in the day.
7. I don’t have any papers with me.
8. It’s difficult.
9. I don’t feel like doing it now.
10. I have a headache.
11. Delay won’t make much difference.
12. It may be important, but it isn’t urgent.
13. It might hurt.
14. I really mean to do it, but I keep forgetting.
15. Somebody else may do it if I wait.
16. It might be embarrassing.
17. I don’t know where to begin.
18. I need a good stiff drink first.
19. I’m too tired.
20. I’m too busy right now.
21. It’s a boring job.
22. It might not work.
23. I’ve got to tidy up first.
24. I need to sleep on it.
25. We can get by a little longer as is.
26. I don’t really know how to do it.
27. There’s a good TV program on.
28. As soon as I start, somebody will probably
interrupt.
29. It needs further study.
30. My horoscope indicates this is the wrong time.
31. Nobody is nagging me about it yet.
32. If I do it now, they’ll just give me something else to
do.
33. The weather’s lousy.
34. It’s too nice a day to spend doing that.
35. Before I start, I think I’ll take a break.
36. I’ll do it as soon as I finish some preliminary tasks.
37. My biorhythms are out of sync.
38. The sooner I fall behind, the more time I’ll have to
get caught up.
39. I’ll wait until the first of the year and make a New
Year’s resolution.
40. It’s too late now, anyway.
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7
Management of Physical and Social
Environment
An important aspect of self-management is the ability
to restructure or modify, when necessary, one’s physical
and social environments in order to learn more
effectively. Therefore, it is important to understand how
environmental and social factors influence learning,
and how you can become more resourceful in making
the necessary changes in your environments.
You can take actions to adapt to your environment as
well as change your environment to fit your needs. For
example, although you cannot control the room
assignment for a course, you often can determine where
you sit as well as your level of concentration during the
period. If you sit near students who are carrying on a
conversation during a lecture, you can move your seat.
If you are in a discussion and there is considerable
noise outside, you can ask to shut the window or close
the door. In other words, even when you cannot select
the optimal learning, you can take steps to adapt or
modify the physical environment. Even when you do
select the environment for learning, modifications to
the environment can be made by disconnecting the
phone, allowing the answering machine to pick up
messages, or placing a ”do not disturb” sign on the
door.
Some of the students in my classes are athletes and
fraternity or sorority members who are required to
attend a “study table” for a number of hours per week
to study under supervision in a specific location.
Because of their many time pressures, the requirement
of a specific place for study is not a bad one. However,
many students report that their mandated study environ-
Page 124
ment often is not conducive for effective study. Some
complaints include too many individuals in the room,
high noise levels, and friends more interested in talking
or listening to music (i.e., headphones) than studying.
This is a situation where management over one’s
physical environment is not an easy task, but can be
achieved with some ingenuity. The following strategies
have been used by students in this environment: setting
specific study goals for each evening, selecting a
location in the room that is most conducive for study,
reducing visual contact with certain individuals, and
limiting socializing to breaks outside the room.
Self-management of social environment relates to the
ability to determine when you need to work alone or
with others, or when it is time to seek help from
instructors, tutors, peers, and nonsocial sources such as
a reference book, additional textbooks or the internet
(Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997).
A recent experience provides a good example of the
need for self-management in this area. A student
mentioned in class that she did not do well on her
biology exam because she did not prepare for the type
of questions it contained. I suggested she meet with her
instructor to discuss her present performance and learn
more about future exams. She agreed. When she
returned to class the following week, I asked her about
the meeting. She stated that she went to the instructor’s
office, but because other students were waiting to see
him, she left and did not return. In chapter 1, I
mentioned that when certain learners confront obstacles
they find ways to succeed; they don’t give up! If a
meeting with an instructor can lead to higher academic
performance, you must develop strategies to obtain the
information. This may mean making an appointment,
waiting outside the office, finding out when the
instructor arrives in the morning, or walking with the
instructor to his or her next class. In other words, your
job is to obtain the information. It is easy to convince
yourself that you sufficiently tried to complete a task or
that the task was too difficult. Unfortunately, these
attributions do not help you attain the information you
need.
Motivational beliefs and perceptions often play an
important role in explaining individual differences in
the willingness and ability to manage physical and
social environments. For example, as reported in
chapter 3, students who perceive themselves as
academically competent, feel in control of their
academic success, and have a mastery orientation view
help-seeking as an effective learning strategy and are
more likely to seek help (Newman & Schwager, 1992).
In a study of the characteristics of students who attend
voluntary review sessions, Ames and Lau (1982) found
that students’ participation was related to their
attributional patterns and past performances. Students
who did poorly on earlier exams, but attributed their
poor performance to low effort and a lack of knowledge
rather than to low intelligence were much more likely
to seek help than students who attributed their poor
performance to lack of interest, difficulty of the exam,
or the instructor.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
Improve your attention and concentration.
Select or modify study environments.
Work more effectively in groups.
Prepare for and benefit from meetings with tutors and
instructors.
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Exercise 7.3
Dealing With Distracters
For each of the following situations, identify the type of
distracter by placing an I (for internal) or an E (for
external) in the space provided. Next, refer to the
suggestions in the previous section on ways to improve
concentration, and recommend how each student could
improve his or her concentration.
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Page 131
The following summarizes the procedures for
monitoring and dealing with attention and
concentration problems.
Key Points
1. Successful learners restructure their physical and
social environments to improve their learning.
2. Self-management of one’s social environment relates
to the ability to determine when one needs to work
alone or with others, to seek help when needed from
instructors, tutors, or peers, or to seek help from
nonsocial sources (e.g., textbooks and reference
materials).
3. Students may lack the self-discipline or self-
management to overcome environmental distractions,
anxiety, or competing emotional or physical needs.
4. Motivational beliefs and perceptions account for
individual differences in the willingness and ability to
control one’s physical and social environment.
5. Students have difficulty concentrating on a task
because of external and internal distracters.
6. Interpersonal skills for group learning and study can
be categorized into four levels: forming, functioning,
formulating, and fermenting.
Follow-up Activities
1
Use the Self-Management Process to Improve Attention
and Concentration
Complete the following self-study during a period of 2
to 3 weeks. Your report should include each of the
following processes and should be approximately five
to eight typed pages in length. See Appendix A for
detailed information on how to conduct a self-
management study.
Page 137
Self-Observation and Evaluation.
What problem(s) do I have regarding attention and
concentration? What are the symptoms of my
problem(s) (i.e., when, where, and how often does my
problem(s) occur)? How much of an impact does this
problem(s) have on my academic performance? What
factors (e.g., beliefs, perceptions, feelings,
physiological responses, or behaviors) contribute to this
problem(s)? What do I need to change to reduce or
eliminate my problem(s)?
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning.
What are my goals? What strategies can I use to reduce
distracters and maintain concentration? When will I use
these strategies? How will I record my progress?
Strategy Implementation and Monitoring.
What strategies did I use to improve my attention and
concentration? When did I use these strategies? What
method(s) did I use to record my progress (e.g.,
documents, charts, logs, tally sheets, or checklists)?
When did I use these methods? How and when did I
monitor my progress to determine if my new plan was
working? What changes, if any, did I make along the
way?
Strategic-Outcome Monitoring.
Did I attain the goal(s) I set for myself? Have the
modifications in my attention and concentration
improved my academic performance or personal life?
What strategies were the most and least effective? What
changes, if any, do I need to make in the future?
2
Assess Group Dynamics
Use the procedures for forming and studying in groups
discussed in this chapter and evaluate the effectiveness
of one of your study groups according to each of the
necessary group skills: forming, functioning,
formulating, and fermenting. In other words, report on
how well your study group effectively performed in
each skill area and make recommendations on how
your group could function more effectively
3
Visit With an Instructor
Newman (1991) identified a sequence of decisions and
actions that play an important role in both help seeking
and self-management of learning. Use Newman’s
suggestions discussed in this chapter to meet with one
of your instructors. Write a summary of how you used
his recommendations and evaluate the effectiveness of
the meeting.
Answers to Exercise 7.3
1. E 2. I 3. E 4. I 5. I 6. E 7. I
Page 139
UNIT IV
LEARNING AND STUDY STRATEGIES
Chapter 8: Learning From Textbooks
Chapter 9: Learning From Lectures
Chapter 10: Preparing For Exams
Chapter 11: Taking Exams
8
Learning from Textbooks
Individuals spend a good deal of time reading
throughout their lives. They read for enjoyment,
relaxation, or knowledge. As a result, they often read
differently depending on the purpose(s) for reading. For
example, students do not read a college textbook the
same way they read popular magazines or best sellers.
Have you ever watched people read a magazine? How
often do you see them underlining or taking notes on
what they read? For the most part, these individuals do
not care about how much they remember because they
do not expect to be tested on the material. Yet, because
of their interest in the material, they often remember a
great deal of what they read.
College students are expected to read and remember
material in courses whether or not they are interested in
the content or believe it has any relevance to their
future occupational goals. Success in different courses
depends on learning to use effective reading strategies
for a variety of college textbooks.
Do you enjoy making checks on “To Do” lists after
completing reading assignments? The checks tell you
that you completed the assignment, but do not tell you
how much you learned or remembered. You may have
completed your readings but cannot recall much of the
information you read a short time ago. In fact, you may
have forgotten much of what you read by the time you
finished reading the assignment.
What else do you do beyond simply reading a
textbook? Do you ask yourself questions about what
you have read? Do you attempt to summarize the
author’s main points? How do you know that you have
identified the main ideas in a chapter? What strategies
do you use to remember what you read?
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Many students underline passages in their textbooks as
they read. Unfortunately, underlining is a rehearsal
strategy that does not require much thinking about the
content, and as a result, does not help move material
into long-term memory. Another problem is that
irrelevant information is often underlined along with
relevant information. When it comes time to review the
understanding of the text, the underlining may be
confusing. Thus, it is possible to spend considerable
time underlining a textbook and still not remember
most of the important ideas in a chapter. Underlining
must be used in concert with other reading strategies.
In this chapter, I ask you to assess your present reading
strategies and determine how successful they are in
helping you achieve your academic objectives. After
studying this chapter, you will be able to use effective
learning strategies to improve your reading
comprehension and retention.
<><><><><><><><><><><><>
<><><><><><><><><><><><>
Headings Questions
Improving What methods can students use to
Listening improve their listening skills?
Skills
Interest How do interest groups influence
Groups political elections?
Gender What is gender identity? What are
Identification the different theories of gender
identification?
Figure 8.1
Types of annotations.
that identify key ideas in the text such as “causes of the
illness” or “3 characteristics of.” Finally, you can write
critical comments in the margin to help prepare for
discussion of essays, short stories, or poems. Do not
annotate a book that you do not own, especially library
books.
Comprehension Monitoring.
The following is a question you should ask yourself each
time you read: “How well am I understanding what I am
reading?” If you do not understand what you are reading,
stop. Ask yourself: “Why?” The following are some
common reading problems and possible strategies to
solve them (adapted from Cortina et al., 1992, p. 34):
Problem Strategy
There are words Try to use the rest of the sentence or
that I don’t know.paragraph to figure out the meaning of
those words
Check a glossary or a dictionary
Ask someone
I am having Identify what is bothering you and take
difficulty some action (read chapter 7)
concentrating.
The topic is Reread the passage
difficult because
I know nothing Read ahead to see if it becomes clearer
about it.
Read supplemental material on the
same topic (perhaps an encyclopedia,
another textbook, or a book from the
library)
Ask someone to explain the material
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After Reading
Many students make the mistake of assuming that they
are done once they read the last paragraph in their
assignment. This is the critical time to take the
necessary steps to ensure that you remember what you
have just read. Because forgetting occurs very rapidly,
it is important to get the information you read into long-
term memory immediately. Here is what you can do:
1
Answer out loud the questions that you generated from
the headings, were printed in your textbook, or were
given to you by your instructor.
If you cannot answer a question, you do not understand
part of the content. Go back and reread the section of
the textbook where the answer should be found. Once
you find the answer, check your underlining or
annotations to ensure that the answer is identified. In
some cases, you will need to make modifications in
your original underlining and/or annotations to identify
an answer to a question.
2
Consider summarizing, outlining, or representing the
material.
A summary is a brief statement that identifies the major
ideas in a section of a textbook, play, newspaper article
or story. It is particularly useful in preparing for essay
exams or when reading literature. For example, writing
a summary of the plot in a novel incorporating
information describing who did what, when, and where,
can be useful in determining that you understood the
reading.
The following are some suggestions for writing
summaries (McWhorter, 1995, p. 238):
Start by identifying the author’s main point; write a
statement that expresses it.
Next, identify the most important information the writer
includes to support or explain his or her main point.
Include these main supporting ideas in your summary.
Include any definitions of key terms or important new
principles, theories, or procedures that are introduced.
Try to keep your summary objective and factual. Think
of it as a brief report that should reflect the writer’s
ideas, not your evaluation of them.
At times, answering questions is sufficient to confirm
that you remembered what you read. However,
sometimes due to the complexity of the material, you
may decide to outline or graphically represent (i.e.,
map) the information. Both strategies organize the
material by identifying the relation between main ideas
and supporting details.
The easiest way to show the relationship between ideas
and details in an outline is to use the following format:
I. Major topic
A. First main idea
1. First important detail
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2. Second important detail
3. Third important detail
B. Second main idea
1. First important detail
a. Minor point or example
2. Second important detail
II. Second major topic
A. First main idea
Notice that the most important ideas are closer to the
margins, with less important ideas or examples
indented toward the middle of the page. The purpose of
this format is to be able to look at the outline and
quickly determine what is most important.
McWhorter (1995, p. 235) made the following
suggestions for developing an effective outline:
Don’t get caught up in the numbering and lettering
system. Instead, concentrate on showing the relative
importance of ideas. How you number or letter an idea
is not as important as showing what other ideas it
supports or explains. Don’t be concerned if some items
do not fit exactly into outline format.
Be brief; use words and phrases, never complete
sentences. Abbreviate words and phrases where
possible.
Use you own words rather than lifting most of the
material from the text. You can use the author’s key
words and specialized terminology.
Be sure that all information underneath a heading
supports or explains it.
All headings that are aligned vertically should be of
equal importance.
Here’s a brief outline of the information processing
system discussed in chapter 2:
I. Information Processing System
A. STSS
1. memory lasts few seconds
2. capacity is large
B. WM
1. memory limited in capacity and duration
a. 7 ± 2
b. memory lasts 5 to 20 seconds
C. LTM
1. Storage of info. is permanent
2. organization is like filing cabinet
3. Flow of info. in 2 directions
Consider representing or mapping the material. I’m
sure you have heard the expression: “A picture is worth
a thousand words.” In learning, students often find it
helpful to represent knowledge in terms of maps or
diagrams to show how a topic and its corresponding
information are related. Sometimes academic content is
more easily learned by using a visual display of its
orga-
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nization rather than reviewing an entire chapter or
section of a textbook. Consider, for example, how much
discussion it would take to describe the functioning of a
human heart. A good graphic representation in the form
of a diagram can quickly illustrate the key components
of a heart and the flow of blood through it.
Information in texts and lectures is often presented
linearly, one idea at a time. Many students view
academic subjects in terms of a large number of
isolated facts. No wonder little information is
remembered. Learning involves constructing meaning
by combining ideas so that relations and patterns are
apparent. When students view information solely in a
linear format, they miss important relations among
ideas.
One of the advantages of recognizing different
organizational patterns used by authors and lecturers is
that it allows the reader or listener to anticipate the type
of information likely to be presented. A second
advantage is that understanding how ideas and
information are organized makes it easier to remember
the information. If the author’s or lecturer’s
organization patterns are understood, more of the
material will be understood and remembered (Cortina
et al., 1992).
The discussion in this section is based on the work of
Kiewra and DuBois (1998), who have developed a
useful approach to the representation of knowledge.
They identified four different
representationshierarchies, sequences, matrices, and
diagramsand provided suggestions for constructing
them. This information is appropriate both for learning
from reading and lectures. Kiewra and DuBois favor
representations over outlines. They believe that
representations provide better comparison of content
and a more precise overview of the structure of the
content than outlines. Each of the four representations
is reviewed here.
Hierarchies.
Hierarchies organize ideas into levels and groups.
Higher levels are more general than lower levels.
Hierarchies are organized around class-inclusion rules.
These rules are based on the notion that something is a
part of or a type of something else. Examples of class-
inclusion rules are the classification of reptiles as part
of animals, and neutrons as part of atoms.
Take another look at the hierarchy of minerals that was
first introduced in chapter 2 (Fig. 2.1). Level 1
represents the class (minerals), level 2 includes two
types of minerals (metals and stones), level 3 includes
three types of metals and two types of stones, and level
4 includes specific examples of each of the type of
metals and stones. The number of levels in a hierarchy
can vary from one or more. It is important to reflect all
the important levels and groups in any hierarchy that is
developed.
The following is an excerpt from a child psychology
textbook (Vasts, Haith, & Miller, 1992, p. 31) that will
be used later in the chapter to illustrate how sequences
and matrices can be used to organize information. Read
the excerpt before moving to the next section of this
chapter:
Stages of Development. Piaget was a stage theorist. In
his view, all children move through the same stages of
cognitive development in the same order. Each stage is a
qualitatively distinct form of functioning, and the
structures that characterize each stage determine the
child’s performance in a wide range of situations. There
are four such general stages, or periods, in Piaget’s
theory.
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The sensorimotor period represents the first 2 years of
life. The infant’s initial schemes are simple reflexes.
Gradually these reflexes are combined into larger, more
flexible units of action. Knowledge of the world is
limited to physical interactions with people and objects.
Most of the examples of schemes given earliergrasping,
sucking, and so onoccur during infancy.
During the preoperational period, from roughly 2 to 6
years, the child begins to use symbols to represent the
world cognitively. Words and numbers can take the place
of objects and events, and actions that formerly had to be
carried out overtly can now be performed mentally
through the use of internal symbols. The preoperational
child is not yet skilled at symbolic problem solving,
however, and various gaps and confusions are evident in
the child’s attempts to understand the world.
Many of these limitations are overcome when the child
reaches the period of concrete operations, which lasts
approximately from ages 6 to 11. Concrete operational
children are able to perform mental operations on the bits
of knowledge that they possess. They can add them,
subtract them, put them in order, reverse them, and so on.
These mental operations permit a kind of logical problem
solving that was not possible during the preoperational
period.
The final stage is the period of formal operations, which
extends from about age 11 through adulthood. This
period includes all of the higher-level abstract operations
that do not require concrete objects or materials. The
clearest example of such operations is the ability to deal
with events or relationships that are only possible, as
opposed to those that actually exist. Mentally considering
all of the ways certain objects could be combined, or
attempting to solve a problem by cognitively examining
all of the ways it could be approached, are two operations
that typically cannot be performed until this final stage.
Sequences.
Sequences order ideas chronologically by illustrating
the ordering of steps, events, stages, or phases.
Sequences usually appear in a left to right pattern with
arrows between steps. Figure 8.2 provides an example
of the stages of cognitive development described in the
preceding excerpt. Timelines in history also can be used
to visualize the sequence of events by drawing a
horizontal line and marking it off in intervals. The times
when different events in history occurred can be
illustrated by adjusting the intervals at which the dates
are placed on the line.
Matrices.
Matrices display comparative relations. They are
developed from a hierarchy or sequence and have three
parts: topics, repeatable categories, and details located
inside the matrix cells. These parts are shown in
Figure 8.2.
Stages of cognitive development.
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Figure 8.3.
Components of a matrix.
Fig. 8.3. The topics appear across the matrix (e.g.,
amphetamines, depressants, and hallucinogenics). The
repeatable categories appear down the left margin. They
are the characteristics by which the topics are compared
(e.g., function, street terms, and example). They are
called repeatable categories because each category is
repeated for each topic. The author often identifies
repeatable categories. However, sometimes categories
will have to be identified from the information provided
by the author. The details are the facts that pertain to the
intersection of topics and repeatable categories. They
appear inside the matrix in the cells at the intersection of
topics and repeatable categories.
Any hierarchy or sequence can be extended downward to
form a matrix. Fig. 8.4 illustrates a hierarchy extended
into a matrix framework and Fig. 8.5 illustrates a
sequence extended into a matrix framework from the
reading on cognitive development. In Fig. 8.5, the
repeatable categories (i.e., age and characteristics) are
provided for you. Fill in the details for each of the four
stages of cognitive development and compare your
representation with a classmate.
Diagrams.
Diagrams display or illustrate the parts or components of
different objects and are useful in almost every subject
area. Diagrams can be drawn in biology to recall the
location of different organs in the body or to identify
different parts of organs such as the brain. In geography,
a map of the European countries can be sketched to help
assist recall of the location and approximate size of each
country. In mathematics, diagrams of different geo-
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Figure 8.4.
Road tests for different automobiles.
Figure 8.5.
Stages of cognitive development.
metric shapes are useful in solving problems when
measurements are placed in the proper locations.
Key Points
1. Good readers use specific learning strategies to
manage their understanding.
2. Simply underlining textbooks as one reads is not an
effective learning strategy unless it is used with the
generation and answering of questions.
3. Reading or taking notes and remembering are two
separate activities. Just because you read or take notes
does not mean you will remember what you read or
wrote down.
4. Learning from textbooks and lectures involve
activities undertaken before, during, and after each
activity.
5. Good readers monitor their understanding as they
read.
6. Summarizing, outlining, and representing textbook
content are useful strategies for learning and
remembering material.
7. Information in textbooks and lectures is often
presented in a linear fashion, one idea at a time. This
form of presentation obscures the relation among ideas.
8. In order to construct meaning, it is unusually
necessary to organize information.
9. The four types of representations that can help
learners understand relationships include hierarchies,
sequences, matrices, and diagrams.
Follow-up Activities
1
Use the Self-Management Process to Become a More
Successful Reader
Complete the following self-study during a period of 2
to 3 weeks. Your report should include each of the
following processes and should be approximately five
to eight typed pages in length. See Appendix A for
detailed information on how to conduct a self-
management study.
Self-observation and evaluation.
How effective are my reading strategies? Do I need to
change the way I read and study? If yes, what
problem(s) do I encounter? What are the symptoms of
my problem(s) (i.e., when, where, and how often does
my problem(s) occur)? How much of an impact does
this problem(s) have on my academic performance?
What factors (e.g., beliefs, perceptions, feelings,
physiological responses, or behaviors) contribute to this
problem(s)? What do I need to change to reduce or
eliminate my problem(s)?
Goal setting and strategic planning.
What are my goals? What strategies will I implement to
improve my reading comprehension? When will I use
these strategies? How will I record my progress?
Strategy implementation and monitoring.
What strategies did I use to improve my reading
comprehension? When did I use these strategies?
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What method(s) did I use to record my progress (e.g.,
documents, charts, logs, tally sheets, or checklists)?
When did I use these methods? How and when did I
monitor my progress to determine if my new reading
comprehension plan was working? What changes, if
any, did I make along the way?
Strategic-outcome monitoring.
Did I attain the goal(s) I set for myself? Have the
modifications in my reading comprehension strategies
improved my academic performance? What strategies
were the most and least effective? What changes, if any,
do I need to make in the future?
2
Assess Reading Behavior
The self-management model at the beginning of the
chapter indicates that the use of motivational strategies
(i.e., goal setting and mood and effort) and behavioral
strategies (i.e., time management and physical and
social environmental control) influence learning and
study strategies. Explain how motivational and
behavioral strategies impact your reading behavior. In
addition, explain what steps you could take to deal with
your reading concerns.
3
Analyze Use of Reading Strategies
In the beginning of this chapter you learned about the
strategies that good readers use: determining
importance, summarizing information, drawing
inferences, generating questions, and monitoring
comprehension. Select a chapter in a textbook in
another course and explain how you used these
strategies in comprehending the material. If you did not
use one or more of the strategies, explain the reason for
your decision.
4
Improve Reading Comprehension and Retention
Directions: The following passages are taken from
college textbooks in different academic areas. Only the
first two passages have headings. Read each passage
and (a) generate a question, (b) underline relevant parts
of the passage that answer the question, (c) identify the
type of representation you could use to comprehend the
material including the topics and repeatable categories,
and (d) circle the signal words in the passage. You will
not be able to complete the representation because the
paragraphs do not include all the details you would
need.
Passage 1
Types of Organisms
Although there is a great diversity of marine life, it is
commonly separated into only three major categories:
plankton, nekton, and benthos. These subdivisions are
based solely on the general habit of the organisms, and
have nothing to do with their scientific classification,
their size or complexity, or whether they are plant or
animal.
The plankton are organisms that live within the pelagic
zone and float, drift, or swim feebly, that is, they cannot
control their position against currents. The plankton
include plants, which are called phytoplankton, and
animals, which
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are called zooplankton. Nekton are those organisms that
swim. Only animals are included in this group. The
benthos are those organisms that live on or within the
bottom, the benthic environment.
The plankton are the most diverse and numerous, with
the benthos not too far behind. Many groups of
organisms spend a portion of their life cycle in more
than one of these modes of life. It is common for a
particular group to be planktonic in the larval or juvenile
stage and then nektonic or benthonic as adults.5
Type of representation:
Passage 2
Federation Versus Confederation
In a federation, the national government is fully
sovereign; the states may not withdraw without the
consent of the national authorities; and the people create
both the national government and the state governments,
delegate powers to both, and may restrict both through
the written constitution. The national government may
act directly on the people; it can tax and draft them. In
contrast, in a confederation, the states are sovereign;
they may join the nation or withdraw from it at will.
They delegate specified powers to national institutions
and reserve all others to themselves. The national
”government” is a creature of the states and can deal
only with the states, not directly with their citizens.
Confederation is an ancient form of government; it has
bound people together throughout history, from the time
of the alliances of the Israelite tribes to the Renaissance
and the confederacies which flourished in what is today
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.
Federalism is more modern; it was developed first in the
United States and later was adopted by one-third of the
countries of the world, including the Soviet Union,
Brazil, India, Nigeria, Mexico, Switzerland, Yugoslavia,
West Germany, Canada, and Australia.
Type of representation:
Passage 3
Three different accounts have been proposed to explain
why stereotypes develop. The first, the shared
distinctiveness account, is a purely cognitive ac-
5 From Davis, R.A. (1986). Oceanography: An
introduction to the marine environment. Dubuque, IA:
Wm. C. Brown, p. 129.
6 From Pious, R.M. (1986). American politics and
government. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 64, 66.
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count; it proposes that the tendency to form stereotypes
of people is a natural consequence of the way we
process information. In particular, David Hamilton has
proposed that a phenomenon well-known in general
psychology, the illusory correlation, can explain the
development and maintenance of stereotypes without
needing to posit that we have any motivational biases at
all with regard to our thinking about groups of people.
The second account also sees stereotypes as a
consequence of the way we think about people, but it
suggests that stereotyping depends on our having
categorized people into ingroups and outgroups. The
essence of this account, the outgroup homogeneity
account, is that once we divide people into ingroups and
outgroups, we are likely to form stereotypes of the
outgroups. The third account, the cultural account,
argues that we cannot understand the stereotypes we
have of various groups in cognitive terms alone; it
suggests that the stereotypes we have are a consequence
of the specific way our culture has structured
interactions between ingroups and outgroups. According
to this view, the history of a culture determines the
particular content that various stereotypes have. Let us
consider these explanations one at a time.7
Type of representation:
5. Construct a Representation
Construct a representation for a textbook you are
currently reading. Copy the pages in the textbook
where the information came from. Identify the type of
representation you used and include the repeatable
categories and details.
Answer to Exercise 8.2
1. M 2. S 3. H 4. M 5. S 6. D 7. M
7 From Sabini, U. (1995). Social psychology (2nd ed.).
New York: Norton, p. 125.
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9
Learning from Lectures
Suppose immediately after the completion of a lecture,
you were asked to explain the major ideas presented by
the instructor. How often could you adequately respond
to the request? Could you provide the information for
all classes or some of your classes? Would you have to
refer to your notes? If so, would your notes provide all
the information you need?
Much of the information learned about a subject in
college is presented in lecture form. Remember the
discussion of the information processing system in
chapter 2. Because human memory fades quickly, it is
important that you learn how to record major ideas and
supporting details. Also, unless your notes are
organized, it will be difficult to understand what you
recorded weeks after you first took the notes. The most
frustrating experience is to look at your notes and ask
yourself: “What does this mean?”
One of the major differences between learning from
texts and lectures is that in reading you can control the
flow of information. If you do not understand
something, you can reread it, take notes, or put down
the text and return to it at another time. However, in
lectures, the pace is controlled by the instructor. As a
result, you need to use strategies to capture the main
ideas more rapidly.
In this chapter you will learn that what you do with
your notes is just as important as how you record them.
Educational research indicates that students who take
notes and review them shortly after class learn more
than students who take notes but do not review them
(Kiewra, 1989). Part of the benefit of reviewing notes is
that it allows further elaboration and integration of the
material. Therefore, you should not simply skim your
notes, but think
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actively about the ideas in the notes and relate them to
other information you already know.
I notice that the amount of notes students take in my
class is related to my instructional methods. When I am
standing in front of the podium presenting information,
students take many notes. However, if I move away
from the podium and lead a discussion, note taking is
reduced. What many students fail to realize is that a
great deal of information is presented during
discussions. It is the students’ responsibility to capture
the main ideas presented or discussed in all classes.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
Evaluate your present note-taking practices.
Use an effective method for taking and reviewing notes.
Exercise 9.1
Self-Observation:
Analyzing Note-Taking Strategies
Directions: Assess you current note-taking strategies by
checking the appropriate responses to each of the
following questions. Be prepared to discuss in class your
perception of the effectiveness of your current strategy.
Think about why each of the following questions below
is relevant to taking effective notes.
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<><><><><><><><><><><><>
<><><><><><><><><><><><>
Figure 9.1.
An example of the note-taking method in biology.
identifies the procedure and the left-hand side lists the
question: How do you find the reciprocal of different
numbers?
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Figure 9.2.
An example of a note-taking strategy in political science.
4
Once a Question Has Been Identified, Return to the
Lecture-Note Text and Underline a Key Term or Phrase
That Triggers an Answer to the Question.
Different students given the same notes may underline
different words or phrases because the information that
triggers an answer for one person may do nothing for
another. As in reading textbooks, do not underline too
much. Focus on only enough information to help answer
the mirror question you wrote. The following are
additional procedures to help you learn the content in
your notes:
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5
Read the Key Terms or Phrases to Verify That They
Help You Recall the Information in the Notes.
If the key terms or phrases trigger only partial answers
to the questions, underline more information.
6
Cover the Notes With a Blank Sheet of Paper and
Attempt to Answer Questions.
7
If Appropriate, Construct Representations to Depict the
Organization of the Material in the Lecture.
8
Write a Summary Question for the Total Lecture at the
End of Your Lecture Notes for the Day.
Place a circle or box around this question so it will be
easily recognized when you review your notes.
Here you want to ask: “What is the one major question
that reflects the purpose of today’s lecture?” or “What
is the relationship between my mirror questions?” If
you can answer these questions, you would understand
the theme or main idea of the total lecture. Think about
the usefulness of summary questions in studying for
essay examinations. In some classes, you may be able
to predict 75% or more of the essay questions on your
examinations.
Exercise 9.2
Practicing the note taking Strategy
Directions: The following is a lecture excerpt on the
psychology of learning. Take notes on this passage in
the space provided. Be sure to use the indenting format.
After taking notes, write one or more mirror questions
in the left-hand margin, and finally, underline parts of
your lecture notes that answer your mirror question(s).
If possible, have a friend play the role of the instructor
and read the lecture to you as you take notes.
I would like to begin my presentation this morning by
comparing three major perspectives on human learning.
Each of these perspectives has generated a great deal of
research on human learning. Contemporary behaviorists
view environmental factors in terms of stimuli and
resultant behavior in terms of responses. They attempt to
demonstrate that behavior is controlled by
environmental contingencies of external reward or
reinforcement, which are links between behavioral
responses and their effects (or stimuli). Teachers who
accept the behavioral perspective assume that the
behavior of students is a response to their past and
present environment and that all behavior is learned. For
example, classroom troublemakers “learn” to be
disruptive because of the attention (reinforcement) they
get from peers; withdrawn students “learn” that their
environment does not reinforce gregariousness, and they
become reserved and silent. As a result, any behavior
can be analyzed in terms of its reinforcement history.
The logical extension of the behavioral principle of
learning is a method to change or modify behavior. The
teacher’s responsibility, therefore, is to construct an
environment in which the probability of reinforcing
students for correct or proper behavior is maximized.
This goal is best attained by carefully organizing and
presenting information in a designed sequence.
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In contrast to the behavioral perspective, cognitive
psychologists focus more on the learner as an active
participant in the teachinglearning process. Those who
adhere to this perspective believe that teachers can be
more effective if they know what knowledge the learner
already has acquired and what the learner is thinking
about during instruction. More specifically, the cognitive
approach tries to understand how information is
processed and structured in an individual’s memory.
Many cognitive psychologists believe that teachers
should instruct students in ways to use techniques or
strategies to learn more effectively. Weinstein and Mayer
(1985) state that effective instruction “includes teaching
students how to learn, how to remember, how to think,
and how to motivate themselves” (p. 315).
Humanistic psychologists believe that how a person
“feels” is as important as how the person behaves or
thinks. They describe behavior from the standpoint of the
believer rather than of the observer, and they are
especially concerned with “self-actualization”the growth
of persons in whatever area they choose. The humanistic
teacher is interested in creating an educational
environment that fosters self-development, cooperation,
and positive communication, because of the belief that
these conditions will foster greater learning.
(adapted from Dembo, 1994).
How can I Ask Good Mirror Questions?
When students first begin writing mirror questions, most
of the questions tend to be factual. As you write and
answer mirror questions, it is important that the level of
your questions reflect the same level of the instructor’s
focus. For example, if the main purpose of a lecture is to
compare and contrast differences in major wars during
the last century, the instructor is likely to focus
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on content that will be answered by such questions as:
“What is the difference between . . .?” “What were the
causes of . . .” “What might have happened if . . .?”
However, if most of your questions focus on factual
information like: “What is . . .?” or “Who are . . .?,” you
are going to miss the major focus of the lecture and may
not be properly prepared for the examination.
There are two broad levels of questions: lower level and
higher level. Lower-level questions tend to focus on
factual information and ask you to retrieve information
that was previously presented. They involve responses
regarding facts, dates, terms, or lists. Higher-level
questions require you to apply the information that you
learned in a new situation, solve problems, analyze
information, develop a novel plan or solution, or make
judgments about the value of the information.
Exercise 9.3
Identifying different levels of Questions in lectures
Directions: For each of the questions identified below,
write an L for lower-level question or a H for higher level
question in the space provided.
____1. Should Timothy McVeigh have been given the
death sentence for the bombing in Oklahoma City?
____2. How many individuals died in the bombing?
____3. What materials were used to make the explosives?
____4. What are the differences in trial procedures in
federal and state courts?
____5. What arguments would you use if you had to
defend Timothy McVeigh in court?
Key Points
1. Taking good notes and remembering what was
written also involves activities in three important
stagesbefore, during, and after the lecture.
2. Use an indenting form for writing notes. Start main
points at the margin and indent secondary ideas and
supporting details.
3. Be alert for signals that indicate the importance of
information.
4. Think about notes as answers to questions.
5. Write mirror questions (in complete sentences) that
the notes answer in the left-hand column of the note
paper.
6. Use lower and higher level questions.
7. Once a question has been identified, return to the
lecture-note text and underline a key term or phrase that
triggers an answer to the question.
8. Write a summary question(s) that reflects the theme
or main ideas of the total lecture.
9. Use mirror and summary questions to prepare for
exams.
Follow-up Activities
1
Use the Self-Management Process to Become a Better
Note Taker
Complete the following self-study during a period of 2
to 3 weeks. Your report should include each of the
following processes and should be approximately five
to eight typed pages in length. See Appendix A for
detailed information on how to conduct a self-
management study.
Self-Observation and Evaluation.
How effective is my note-taking strategy? Do I need to
change the way I take notes? If yes, what problem(s) do
I encounter? What are the symptoms of my problem(s)
(i.e., when, where and how often does my problem(s)
occur)? How much of an impact does this problem(s)
have on my academic performance? What factors (e.g.,
beliefs, perceptions, feelings, physiological responses,
or behaviors) contribute to this problem(s)? What do I
need to change to reduce or eliminate my problem(s)?
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning.
What are my goals? What strategies will I implement to
improve my note taking? When will I use these
strategies? How will I record my progress?
Strategy Implementation and Monitoring.
What strategies did I use to improve my note taking?
When did I use these strategies? What method(s) did I
use to record my progress (e.g., documents, charts,
logs, tally sheets, or checklists)? When did I use these
methods? How and when did I monitor my progress to
determine if my new note-taking strategy was working?
What changes, if any, did I make along the way?
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Strategic-Outcome Monitoring.
Did I attain the goal(s) I set for myself? Have the
modifications in my note taking improved my academic
performance? What strategies were the most and least
effective? What changes, if any, do I need to make in the
future?
2
Analyze Note-Taking Experiences
Identify your easiest and most difficult class in which
you take notes. Explain why you selected these classes
and what steps you have taken (or will take) to deal with
the problems in the “most difficult” class.
Comments:
3
Edit and Review Your Notes
Select lecture notes from a class you took recently.
Rewrite the notes to fit the format discussed in this
chapter. Submit both sets of notes and write an analysis
of the difference in the two sets of notes.
4
Analyze Your Instructors’ Clues for Signaling Important
Information
Instructors differ in the way they signal important
information. Identify each of your instructors and list the
verbal or nonverbal clues that he or she uses to signal
main ideas or other important information presented in
lectures.
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5
Compare Notes With Another Student
Select a lecture at which another student in your class
was in attendance and took notes. Compare the number
of main ideas identified by each of you and the mirror
questions written after the lecture. Discuss how the two
sets of notes differ.
Model answer to Exercise 9.2
Psychology
101LearningSept.
25
What are the differences between Behaviorist
the beh., cog, and humanistic S and R
theories of learning? beh. controlled
by environ.
all beh. is learned
reinforcement
Cognitive
learner as active
partic.
information
processing
teach sts. how to
learn
Humanistic
self-actualization
develop
education.
environ.
feeling is
important
10
Preparing for Exams
Although I titled this chapter “Preparing for Exams,” an
alternative title could be “Studying.” All of the self-
management processes discussed thus far are factors
that can be used to plan and implement more effective
study sessions (Zimmerman, 1998a). For example, to
self-manage academic studying, students must
determine whether they will study and deal with the
potential distractions and anxiety interfering with
studying (motivation), plan how much time to spend
studying (time management), determine how to study
(methods of learning), select or create effective
environments for study (physical environment), and ask
instructors and other students to assist in learning
(social environment).
Early in a term, most instructors remind students of a
scheduled exam. It is not uncommon for many students
to think: “Already . . . the class just started!” If you
were to listen in on a conversation about exam
preparation, you might hear the following: One student
mentions she will set aside next Sunday to study, the
day before the exam; a second student mentions that he
began studying last week; a third student asks about
organizing a study group. When the students begin
talking about what material to study, one student
remarks he only plans to study his notes because he
heard that the instructor stresses lecture notes over
textbook readings; a second student states she hopes
much of the test comes from the textbook because she
did not take many notes and has difficulty
understanding the notes she took; a third student
mentions she plans to review the summary section of
each chapter of the book and read through her notes a
few times.
Students use a variety of study strategies for exam
preparation. These strategies lead to different levels of
success. In general, it is difficult to become
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a successful student by selectively studying course
material. Yes, at times, some students will correctly
predict the questions on an exam, but at other times,
they will have wished they took a different approach.
My advice is to approach exam preparation with the
notion that all relevant content will be reviewed. In this
way, you will be prepared no matter what the instructor
asks on an exam.
Sometimes a student can acquire some valuable tips
from friends about exam preparation. However,
students’ comments also can negatively impact self-
confidence if a student assumes that other students
better understand the content or know more about exam
preparation. Although it is helpful to discuss the
content or even study with classmates, be sure to
develop your own plan for success on an exam.
Each year I hear the following comment (although in
different forms): “I can’t believe this grade, I studied so
hard!” or “I thought I really knew this stuff, I can’t
believe I didn’t do well on the exam!” Remember the
termthe illusion of knowingintroduced in chapter 2. The
term describes the fact that some students think they
know something when they really do not. Such an
illusion occurs when students do not accurately test
their knowledge to determine whether or not they
understand and can recall the necessary content.
Unfortunately, they wait for feedback from the
instructor, who grades the exam, to find out whether or
not they learned the material. An important aspect of
exam preparation is to learn how to self-assess one’s
understanding of the course content. The primary
method of self-assessment is predicting and answering
questions. Simply stated: If a student does not generate
and answer questions during study sessions, he or she
is not adequately preparing for an exam!
Remember the discussion in chapter 2 of the
information-processing system. The goal of learning is
to move material into long-term memory where it can
be stored for retrieval. This goal can best be reached by
using elaboration and organizational strategies rather
than rehearsal strategies. Therefore, students who only
use reciting, recopying, or rereading (i.e., rehearsal
strategies) may have difficulty recalling information or
answering higher level questions during an exam. An
important goal of this chapter is to encourage students
to use a variety of study strategies appropriate for the
different types of questions asked on exams.
Finally, the material in chapters 10 and 11 is
interrelated. You will learn that after you take an exam,
you should evaluate the effectiveness of your
preparation. As you learn more about taking exams,
you should apply this knowledge to improving your
preparation.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to develop
and implement effective study plans for examinations.
Exercise 10.1
Self-Observation:
Assessing Exam Preparation
Directions: Assess your current exam preparation
strategies by checking the appropriate responses to each
of the following questions. Think about why each of the
questions is relevant to effective preparation and
summarize your exam preparation strategies in the
following space.
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Figure 10.1.
Examples of different types of study cards.
higher level questions. A study card can focus on one
major point or can combine a great deal of information
about a topic. In this way, you can reduce the number of
cards you need to produce.
When you approach the last evening before an exam,
you should not be re-reading the textbook or class notes,
but instead using the representations you developed
along with questions, note cards, and summaries as your
primary review material.
4
Estimate the Amount of Time Needed for Each Strategy
Different study strategies involve different amounts of
time. For example, making study cards to review
definitions of terms often requires less time than
developing a representation of content in a chapter, or
summarizing a short story. Therefore, after you
determine how you will study for an exam, it is
important to estimate the amount of time needed. No one
can accurately predict the exact time needed for
projected study sessions. Base your projections on
previous experience and modify them as you acquire
greater skill in using a strategy.
5
Allocate Time for Each Study Strategy in a Weekly
Schedule
Remember the discussion of massed versus distributed
practice in chapter 2. Although mass practice may be
effective in learning a large amount of information in a
short time, it is a poor method of learning if retention of
informa-
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tion is the goal. Think about the examinations on which
you used massed practice. How much of the content did
you remember a few days after the examination?
For each exam you take, consider how much time each
of the study strategies you plan to use will take and
then identify time in your weekly schedule for each of
the strategies. For example, in some cases you may
need one or two days to prepare for short quizzes or
exams; whereas for more detailed exams, you may need
a week or more to prepare.
6
Modify the Plan as Necessary
The fact that you developed a study plan does not mean
you always will follow it as planned. Students
constantly make changes in their initial plans due to an
underestimation or overestimation of time needed to
study different content. Many different factors
influence the need for change, such as: the
unavailability of certain study material, the inability to
study because of interruptions and distractions, or the
realization that you need to review certain material that
you do not understand or cannot recall.
The following student reaction illustrates that learning
any new strategy takes time. How would you respond
to the question asked in the last sentence?
Student Reflections
I have read the chapter on test
preparation and I am trying to
implement the strategy of generating
and answering questions for my next
exam in anthropology. I am outlining
the required chapters, studying the
vocabulary words, and generating
some questions that I think will be on
the exam. I think I am doing
everything possible to prepare for the
exam. Why don’t I feel confident?
There are so many possible questions
that could be on the exam. I don’t
know if I am generating enough
questions. My instructor makes it
sound like test preparation is easy
when it is not. I am never sure what an
instructor will ask on an exam.
Everything seems important to me!
How do I deal with this situation?
Figure 10.2.
Janis’ study plan.
Content Coverage and Question Format
Janis prepared for an examination in Human
Development, which included 30 multiple-choice and
four short-essay questions. Her instructor announced
that the exam would include two chapters on
adolescence development and related lecture notes. Janis
read one of the chapters thoroughly and skimmed the
second chapter. She realized from her dated notes that
she needed to obtain a copy of one day’s notes from her
friend.
Organize the Content for Study
The two chapters and lecture notes were on the physical,
intellectual, personality, and social development in
adolescence. Janis reviewed the textbook
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and lecture notes and decided that the best organizing
topics or themes for her review should be based on the
four topics. The textbook was already organized around
these topics and the lecture notes needed to be
reorganized to fit the organization. Because she used a
three-ring binder for all her class notes, it was easy for
her to place the notes in a different order from which
they were originally presented.
Based on meeting with her instructor and her review of
the course syllabus, Janis decided that she needed to
learn the (a) key terms found in the readings and lecture
notes, (b) important research findings, (c) theories of
development, and (d) typical behavior of adolescents in
each of the four areas.
Identify Specific Study Strategies
Janis decided to make study cards for all the major terms
in the two chapters as well as the terms introduced by
her instructor. The definitions were written in her own
words rather than verbatim from the text so she was sure
that she understood each term. She also added examples,
when appropriate, to enhance her recall of specific
course content. For example, one key term was personal
fable which is defined as a belief in adolescence that one
is special, unique, and not subject to the rules that
govern the rest of the world. Janis wrote on the back of
the study card: belief that one is special such that bad
things affect others, not oneself (e.g., other people have
sex and get pregnant, but not you).
One of the topics discussed in the readings and lecture
notes was eating disorders. She decided it would be
important to compare the three types of eating
disordersobesity, anorexia, and bulimiain a matrix form.
Figure 10.3 includes the matrix she developed.
Figure 10.3.
A matrix depicting different eating disorders.
Page 193
From the matrix she identified both multiple-choice and essay
questions that could be asked about the material. The following are
examples of some of the questions she generated and answered in
her study notes from the representation:
Multiple-Choice
Which one of the following eating disorders is difficult to treat
without hospitalization?
a. obesity
b. anorexia
c. bulimia
d. all of the above.
Self-starvation is a major problem in adolescents with
a. gonorrhea
b. anorexia
c. bulimia
d. herpes
If you are studying in a group and your assignment is to write a few
multiple-choice questions, you would want to include the incorrect
responses. However, if you are attempting to generate many
multiple-choice questions on your own, you may not want to spend
the time writing the incorrect responses.
Essay
1. Compare and contrast the three different types of eating disorders
experienced by adolescents. 2. Discuss the causes for different
eating disorders identified in adolescence.
Key Points
1. The primary activity during study is to predict and
answer potential exam questions.
2. A student needs to prepare for different levels of
questions on an exam.
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Procedures Examples
1. “I never miss the class before an
Determine exam because the instructor usually
the content reviews the content coverage. I also
coverage take the time to check that I have all the
and questionneeded resources (i.e., books, notes, and
format of handouts) before I begin studying.”
the exam
2. Organize “I have identified six different types of
and separate problems I need to learn how to solve in
the content chemistry. I’ll work on the problems in
into parts three different study sessions.”
3. Identify “I decide which study strategy is most
specific helpful for the different content I must
study learn. For example, I prefer to use
strategies representations for more complex
material and note cards for factual
content.”
4. Estimate “During my first term in college I
the amount underestimated how much time I
of time needed to review course content. I now
needed for begin to study for exams much earlier
each because I can’t review a large amount of
strategy content in a day or two.”
5. Allocate “I try to schedule time during the day
time for and evening when I have an exam so I
each study have time to complete my other
strategy in a assignments.”
weekly
schedule
6. Modify “I never realized how many unexpected
the plan as events occur that interfere with my
needed study time. I review my study plan each
night and make needed changes.”
Follow-up Activities
1
Use the Self-Management Process to Improve Exam
Preparation
Complete the following self-study during a period of 2
to 3 weeks. Your report should include each of the
following processes and should be approximately five
to eight typed pages in length. See Appendix A for
detailed information on how to conduct a self-
management study.
Self-Evaluation and Monitoring.
How effective are my current exam preparation (i.e.,
study) strategies? Do I need to change the way I plan
and study for exams? If yes, what problem(s) do I
encounter? What are the symptoms of my problem(s)
(i.e., when, where and how often does my problem(s)
occur)? How much of an impact does this problem(s)
have on my academic performance? What factors (e.g.,
beliefs, perceptions, feelings, physiological responses,
and/or behaviors) contribute to this problem(s)? What
do I need to change to reduce or eliminate my
problem(s)?
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning.
What are my goals? What strategies will I implement to
improve my exam preparation? When will I use these
strategies? How will I record my progress?
Strategy Implementation and Monitoring.
What strategies did I use to improve my exam
preparation? When did I use these strategies? What
method(s) did I use to record my progress (e.g.,
documents, charts, logs, tally sheets, or checklists)?
When did I use these methods? How and when did I
monitor my progress to determine if my new exam
preparation plan was working? What changes, if any,
did I make along the way?
Strategic-Outcome Monitoring.
Did I attain the goal(s) I set for myself? Have the
modifications in my exam preparation improved my
academic performance? What strategies were the most
and least effective? What changes, if any, do I need to
make in the future?
2
Develop a Study Plan
Select a study partner and develop a study plan for an
examination on one chapter in this book. Identify the
different strategies you used in your plan and compare
it with the plan of another pair of students.
3
Develop Questions From a Representation
A student developed the following representation in a
physics course. Generate two multiple-choice and two
essay questions that an instructor could ask from this
representation.
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4
Compare Study Plans
Develop a study plan for a science or math course and
compare it with a study plan for a course in the
humanities or the social sciences. Discuss how the
study plans differ.
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11
Taking Exams
Now that you have learned how to prepare for exams,
you are ready to improve your test-taking strategies.
Although you will learn a number of strategies to help
you succeed on exams, it is important to remember that
these strategies are most effective when you prepare
properly for an exam. Simply stated: Test-taking
strategies cannot substitute for ineffective exam
preparation!
I will focus on two different types of test
questionsobjective and essay. Objective tests include
true-false, completion, matching, and multiple-choice
questions. These questions require students to select
correct answers from given choices, or to supply an
answer limited to a word or phrase. On the other hand,
essay questions require students to construct their own
response to questions. Most instructors use
combinations of these two major categories of
questions.
How many times have you heard the following
statements: ”I really know the material, but I am a poor
test taker,” “The test was tricky,” “I really knew that
question, but I misread it,” or “I knew the answer but I
did not organize my response adequately.” Although
many instructors often will empathize with your
predicaments, they grade exams on what was checked,
circled, underlined, or written. It is your performance
that is evaluated, not your intentions, beliefs, or test-
taking strategies.
Think about the tests you have taken during your
school experience. What type of tests gives you some
difficulty? Make a list of some of the characteristics of
tests that have irritated you at some time during your
academic career. What strategies could you use to
improve your performance?
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It is important to learn from exams. The best way to
accomplish this goal is to review past exams. Although
many instructors will not allow students to keep their
exams, they will review them individually with
students. Many students do not take the opportunity to
review exams because they incorrectly conclude that
they should focus on future rather than past exams.
However, by understanding why errors were made in
past exams, students can improve strategies for taking
future exams.
Finally, all the information in this chapter concerning
taking exams also is helpful when writing and
answering test questions in preparing for examinations.
For example, the more you practice writing good essay
responses before an exam, the more likely you will be
able to demonstrate the same good responses on actual
exams.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to use test-
taking strategies to improve performance on objective
and essay questions.
Exercise 11.1
Self-Observation:
Assessing Test-Taking Strategies
Directions: Assess your current test-taking strategies by
checking the appropriate responses to each of the
following questions. Think about why each of the
questions is relevant to successful performance on
exams and write a summary statement about your test-
taking strategies in the space provided:
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1. self-actualization a) Binet
2. mastery learning b) Bloom
3. operant conditioning c) Gagné
4. assimilation d) Maslow
5. learning hierarchy e) Piaget
f) Skinner
Exercise 11.4
Evaluating Responses to an Essay Question
Directions: Review the strategies for writing a response
to an essay question and then read the responses to the
following two essay questions. Take notes as your read
and determine the strengths and weaknesses of each
response.
Discuss the proposed flat tax and describe what effects
it might have on the U.S. economy.
Response 1
In light of the public’s dissatisfaction
with the size and scope of the tax code
and the government’s reach into the
purses of individuals, families, and
businesses, a growing number of
economists and politicians are calling
for the elimination of the present tax
system and the institution of a flat tax.
Such a tax would apply a single rate
(15%, for example) to all taxpayers
and would eliminate most or all
deductions, exemptions, and the like. A
state sales tax would be an example.
Proponents believe that most people
would save money because the
effective tax rate would be lower than
what it presently is, citizens would
appreciate the ease of the new system
(the tax form would be no larger than
a postcard), and it would be fairer as
everyone would pay the same rate and
the rich would be prevented from
circumventing their responsibility of
paying their fair share by taking
advantage of loopholes in the present
tax code.
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Opponents claim that a single rate
would be an undue burden on lower-
income citizens as they are ill-
prepared to pay a percentage of their
income that could go to food or rent.
Additionally, they argue that if
allowances are made for poverty
status, medical and home mortgage
interest deductions, and other kinds of
exceptions, it will not take very long
for the new system to resemble the old
one.
The proposed flat tax would
immediately change the nature and
operation of tax accounting in this
country. With deductions and
exemptions eliminated, there would be
no need for tax specialists looking for
ways to save people and business
money. On a larger scale, people may
or may not become more honest in
reporting their income. If they stand to
pay less in taxes with a flat tax than
they had in years past, then citizens
probably will report their income. If,
however, they stand to lose money
because of the elimination of
loopholes, then much of the nation’s
business transactions and economy
may go underground.
In conclusion, the flat tax, although
clearly simpler, is not considered by
all to be fairer or In improvement on
the present system. Although it may
solve some problems (greatly
simplifying the code, for example),
other problems may arise and might
even make things worse (loss of
needed deductions; regressive effect
on the poor). Ultimately, a flat tax will
only succeed if people believe that
they are keeping more of their income,
that governmental services are not
being curtailed, and that everyone is
paying their fair share. Defining ”fair
share” is at the heart of the issue.
Response 2
The flat tax means that people will no
longer have to spend long hours and
lots of money trying to figure out how
much they owe (or how much they
should get back from) the government
each year. Instead of some people
paying nothing, others paying 28%,
and still others paying 39% of their
income, the flat tax would have
everyone pay the same rate. Many
people feel this is the best way of
dealing with the problem of paying for
the government. Because all citizens,
rich and poor, receives the benefit of
paved streets, the protection of the
armed forces, and public schooling, it
seems logical that everyone should
have to pay, no matter how little they
might be able to afford. Perhaps for
some people any amount of taxation
would prove to be a severe burden; in
these rare instances it would be wise
to exempt such individuals from
paying taxes until such time as they
are financially better off. Still, what
drives this whole issue is the
population’s perception that things are
not fair as they are. People feel
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that they are paying too much money
and are receiving too little in return.
The rich seem to have ways to hide or
shelter their income and the poor see
what little they earn shrink under an
ever increasing tax burden. The flat
tax will not solve the whole tax
problem in one step, but it will help to
create more fairness for everyone who
has to pay taxes. An example of a flat
tax is state sales taxes; rich and poor
pay the same percentage, but not the
same amount. The rich pay more in
total dollars because the items they
buy cost more.
It is not possible to totally eliminate
problems associated with taxes,
money, fairness, and poverty, but the
flat tax can help bring the country one
step closer to the realization of an
equitable society.
Evaluating the Two Essay Responses
Read this section only after you have evaluated the two
essay responses. The response to the essay on the
proposed flat tax requires the student to discuss and
describe. If you refer to the list of key terms presented
earlier, you will see that “discuss” requires the student
to consider the various points of view by presenting all
sides of the issue; whereas “describe” requires the
students to state the particulars in detail.
The following guidelines were presented for writing an
essay: Begin with an introductory paragraph to define
terms or describe your approach to answering the
question; state each main idea and back it up with
supporting details or examples; add transitional words
such as first, second, third, moreover, in addition, in
conclusion, and therefore; add a summary or
conclusion; and proofread and revise your answer.
In Response 1, the student’s introduction describes why
some individuals are interested in the flat tax and
defines what it would accomplish. In the next two
paragraphs, the student presents the pros and cons of
the flat tax (i.e., satisfying the “discuss” aspect of the
question). In the third paragraph, the student
“describes” the effects it may have on the U.S.
economy, the second part of the question. In the fifth
paragraph, the student uses the information presented in
the earlier paragraphs to reach some important
conclusions regarding the flat tax. The response is well
organized with each paragraph serving an important
function in answering all parts of the question. The
essay is well written and does not include any serious
grammatical or spelling errors.
In Response 2, the student fails to organize his or her
response to the question. The response is essentially
one paragraph without attention to the two parts of the
question. The single paragraph includes many ideas that
could have been subdivided. The discussion aspect only
includes the writer’s point of view, omitting any
reference to the oppositional arguments. The example
of the flat tax is placed at the end of the first paragraph
instead of the beginning. In addition, the preachy or
narrow point of view does little to support a balanced
response to the question. This point is clearly seen in
the conclusion in the final paragraph. Finally, the
student should have changed “receives” to “receive” in
the seventh line of the essay.
Did you have any other comments regarding the two
essays? If the essay was worth 10 points, how would
you score each essay?
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The following is a review of the procedures for
answering multiple-choice questions, the most common
objective question format, followed by procedures for
answering essay questions.
Procedures for Answering Multiple-Choice and Essay
Exam Questions
Procedures
for
Answering
Multiple-
Choice
Questions Examples
1. Carefully Directions: Answer all questions.
read the There is no partial reduction for
directions to incorrect answers.
determine if
there is any
special
information
for
answering
the
questions.
2. Determine “Let’s see, I have 50 multiple-
how much choice and 2 essays to answer in
time you 120 minutes. The multiple-choice
will allot for questions are worth one point
answering each and the essays are each
the questions worth 10 pointsthat’s 70 points.
by following The multiple-choice questions
the rule: are worth 50/70 or .71 of the
Percentage exam. I better allot about (120 ×
of total 71) 85 minutes for the multiple-
points = choice and about 17 minutes each
Percentage for the two short essays.”
of total time.
3. Read the “I was about to choose `careful
stem and all learners’ until I read the better
the choices choice `active learners’.”
first before
determining
the best
answer.
4. Skip
difficult
questions.
5. Review “I’m going to read the stem and
choices that each alternative before I make a
are very choice. I will cross out each
similar. alternative that I know is
incorrect and focus only on the
alternatives that are left. If
necessary, I will redefine terms in
my own words to help me make
my final choice.”
6. Go back
over difficult
questions.
7. When in “I know the meaning of decoding
doubt, guess. and encoding, but I am not sure
If there is a of the other two terms. What is
penalty for
guessing, my best choice of the remaining
still guess if terms?”
you can omit
at least two
of the
alternatives.
8. If given “Most of the questions I missed
an were higher level questions and
opportunity, came from the lecture notes.”
review your
exam results
(error
analysis).
(Continues)
Page 214
Procedures (Continued)
Procedures
for Answering
Multiple-
Choice
Questions Examples
1. Read the Directions: Answer questions 1
directions and 2 and either 3 or 4.
carefully and
do exactly
what is asked.
If given a
choice,
determine
what
questions you
will answer.
2. Read each the functions of the
question Speaker of the House of
carefully to Representatives and his
determine performance. Be sure to provide
what is support for your comments.
expected in
the response.
Circle key
words in
each question.
Make notes as
you
read.
3. Determine “I have 90 minutes to answer
how you will three essays each worth 10
use your time. points. This means that I should
spend about 30 minutes per
essay. If I finished a question in
less time, I will have more time
for the other two essays. I will
also leave some time for
outlining and editing each
question.”
4. Determine “I like to begin with the easiest
the order you question. It builds my
will respond confidence.”
to the
questions.
5. Organize “I want to present three main
your response ideas.”
by making an
outline or
representation
(map).
6. Write your
answer in the
following
manner:
Begin with
an
introductory
paragraph.
State your
first main
idea and
back it up
with
supporting
details or
examples.
Go to the
next main
idea and do
the same.
Add
transitional
words.
Add a
summary.
Proofread
and revise
your answer.
7. If given an “My major problem was that I
opportunity, failed to provide supporting
review you evidence for the ideas I
exam results. discussed.”
Key Points
1. Test-taking strategies cannot substitute for poor exam
preparation.
2. Carefully read the directions before beginning an
exam.
3. Plan how you will use your time before beginning an
exam.
4. Look for key terms to determine how you will
answer the question.
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5. Be aware that some essay questions may include
more than one question.
6. Carefully organize responses to essay exam
questions.
7. Conduct an error analysis after each exam to
determine how you can improve your performance on
future exams.
Follow-up Activities
1
Use the Self-Management Process to Improve Test-
Taking Strategies
Complete the following self-study during a period of 2
to 3 weeks. Your report should include each of the
following processes and should be approximately five
to eight typed pages in length. See Appendix A for
detailed information on how to conduct a self-
management study.
Self-Evaluation and Monitoring.
How effective are my current test-taking strategies? Do
I need to change the way I take tests? If yes, what
problem(s) do I encounter? What are the symptoms of
my problem(s) (i.e., when, where and how often does
my problem(s) occur)? How much of an impact does
this problem(s) have on my academic performance?
What factors (e.g., beliefs, perceptions, feelings,
physiological responses, or behaviors) contribute to this
problem(s)? What do I need to change to reduce or
eliminate my problem?
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning.
What are my goals? What strategies will I implement to
improve my test-taking strategies? When will I use
these strategies? How will I record my progress?
Strategy Implementation and Monitoring.
What strategies did I use to improve my test taking?
When did I use these strategies? What method(s) did I
use to record my progress (e.g., documents, charts,
logs, tally sheets, or checklists)? When did I use these
methods? How and when did I monitor my progress to
determine if my new test-taking strategies were
working? What changes, if any, did I make along the
way?
Strategic-Outcome Monitoring.
Did I attain the goal(s) I set for myself? Have the
modifications in my test-taking strategies improved my
academic performance? What strategies were the most
and least effective? What changes, if any, do I need to
make in the future?
2
Analyze a Response to an Essay Question
Directions: Using the criteria for writing an essay
exam, review the following question and evaluate the
quality of the student’s response.
Question: Identify and explain the factors that
distinguish successful from less successful learners.
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Successful learners can be distinguished from
unsuccessful learners in three ways. The first difference
is goal setting. The second difference is how they plan
and organize their studying. The third difference is how
they prepare for and take exams.
Successful learners establish long-term and short-term
goals that direct their behavior. This helps them maintain
their motivation as they attempt to reach their goals.
Successful learners realize that learning is best
accomplished by planning and using different study
skills. Rather than leaving things to the last minute,
successful learners allocate sufficient time each day to
read chapters, answer questions, and work on large
projects. For example, if the assignment is to write a
history term paper, successful learners dedicate time to
obtaining the materials, allowing enough time to read
and understand them, and writing the report early
enough to allow enough time to edit the report.
Successful learners also plan for and take tests in a
systematic manner. They allocate time for study. They
realize that tests that are very important or difficult
require more time and effort than easier exams.
Therefore, they use different study methods to learn the
material. Also, before they begin answering exam
questions, they carefully determine what specific
information is asked for in each question.
In summary, successful learners take charge of their own
learning. They set goals, plan and organize their daily
tasks, and prepare for and take exams in an orderly
manner. Successful learners are not born, they learn to
be successful!
3
Conduct an Error Analysis on an Exam
Select an exam you recently took and use the criteria
presented in this chapter for conducting an error analysis
for objective and essay questions. Use the format in the
following chart to categorize your errors, write a brief
analysis of the data you collected, explain what you
learned from the analysis, and describe what steps you
can take to improve your exam performance. The actual
number of rows in your chart will depend on the number
of questions missed on your exam.
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4
Practice Writing Responses to Essay Questions
Use the information presented in this chapter to generate
and answer essay
GLOSSARY
A
Academic self-management:
The strategies students use to control the factors
influencing their learning.
Acronyms:
Mnemonics that use the first letter in each word of a list
to form a word (e.g., SMART goals).
Attention:
A selective process that controls awareness of events in
the environment.
Attribution:
An individual’s perception of the causes of his or her
own success or failure.
C
Chunking:
Grouping of data so that a greater amount of
information may be retained in working memory.
Cognitive:
Explanations of learning and motivation that focus on
the role of the learner’s mental processes.
Concentration:
The process of continual refocusing on a perceived
stimulus or message.
D
Diagrams:
A visual description of the parts of something.
Distributed practice:
Learning trials divided among short and frequent
periods.
E
Elaboration strategies:
Integration of meaningful knowledge into long-term
memory through adding detail, summarizing, creating
examples, and analogies.
Encoding:
The process of transferring information from short-term
memory to long-term memory.
F
Fermenting skills:
Group skills used to stimulate academic controversy so
that group members will challenge each other’s
positions, ideas, and reasoning.
Forming skills:
Group skills needed for organizing the group and
establishing norms of appropriate behavior.
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Formulating skills:
Group skills directed at helping members understand
and remember the material being studied.
Functioning skills:
Group skills that involve managing and implementing
the group’s efforts to achieve tasks and maintain
effective working relationships.
H
Hierarchies:
An organization of ideas into levels and groups.
I
Information processing system:
The cognitive structure through which information
flows, is controlled, and is transformed during the
process of learning.
K
Key word method:
A method of associating new words to ideas with
similar-sounding cue words through the use of visual
imagery.
L
Learning strategies:
Techniques or methods that students use to acquire
information.
Long-term memory (LTM):
The part of the information processing system that
holds information for long periods.
M
Maintenance rehearsal:
A strategy to keep information activated in the working
memory by repeating the information mentally.
Massed practice:
Practice that is grouped into extended periods.
Mastery goal:
Learning as much as possible for the purpose of self-
improvement, irrespective of the performance of others.
Matrices:
An organization that displays the comparative relations
existing within topics and across topics.
Meaningful learning:
A process of learning whereby the student attempts to
make sense of the material so it will be stored in the
long-term memory and retrieved when needed.
Mirror question:
A question that reflects the information in notes.
Mnemonic:
A memory technique that makes the task of
remembering easier.
O
Organizational strategies:
Learning strategies that impose structure on material
via hierarchical or other relationships among the
material’s parts.
P
Performance goal:
An orientation toward learning in which outperforming
others is a major concern.
R
Rehearsal strategies:
The process of repeating information over and over in
working memory to retain it.
Retrieval:
The process of remembering or finding previously
stored information in the long-term memory.
Rote learning:
A process of learning whereby the student learns
through repetition without trying to make any sense of
the material.
S
Self-efficacy:
The belief that one can successfully complete a specific
task.
Self-talk:
The inner speech we use to make evaluative statements
about our behavior.
Self-worth:
The need for students to maintain a positive image of
their ability.
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Sequences:
An organization that shows the order of steps, events,
stages, or phases.
Short-term memory (STM):
The part of the information processing system that
briefly stores information from the senses.
SMART goals:
An acronym identifying the criteria for setting
goalsspecific, measurable, action-oriented, realistic, and
timely.
Summary question:
A question that reflects the major theme or main ideas
of the total lecture.
T
Transcendental meditation:
A form of mental relaxation whereby an individual
assumes a comfortable position and repeats a “mantra”
or key word.
W
Working memory (WM):
The part of the information processing system in which
the active processing of information takes place.
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APPENDICES
The following appendices are designed to help you
plan, develop, and implement a self-management study
so you can become a more successful learner. Appendix
A provides you with the tools and assistance needed to
apply the steps of the self-management process
introduced in chapter 1. Appendix B includes 3 self-
management studies completed over a 2- to 3-week
period by students in an educational psychology course
on study strategies. Some of the material provided by
students was slightly edited to reduce the length of the
report. Therefore, as you read these studies, you will be
told when additional information was provided by the
students, but not reported here. The topics of the self-
management studies are listed below:
Appendix A
A Guide for Completing a Self-
Management Study
By
Amy Gimino
You have been asked throughout this book to reflect on
your academic behavior and determine what action you
need to take to become a more successful learner. The
four-step self-management process was introduced in
chapter 1 to help address academic problems. The
process includes self-observation and evaluation, goal
setting and strategic planning, strategy implementation
and monitoring, and strategic-outcome monitoring. The
first Follow-Up Activities in chapters 5 through 11
provide a series of questions for each of the steps to
guide you in your self-study.
The purpose of this appendix is to provide tools and
assistance to help you either (a) complete a follow-up
study focused on the content in one of the chapters you
have read or (b) design a study in an area of interest or
concern. You will need to answer a series of questions
to complete the four steps in the self-management
process. The information under the next four headings
will help you answer these questions so you will be
able to reduce or eliminate a problem to improve your
academic performance. You can refer to Appendix B at
any time to view examples of self-management studies
that were completed by students in a similar class over
a 2- to 3-week period.
Page 224
Charts
Charts are tools you can use to diagnose the internal
beliefs, perceptions, physiological responses, feelings,
or behaviors that contribute to your academic problem.
Charts include topics that are placed across the top row
and details that are placed underneath each topic. For
example, if your problem is that you never or only
sometimes remember the information you study, you
may wish to use a chart like the one on the next page to
record the strategies you use as you study.
The advantage of using this type of chart is that it will
help you see the relationship between: (a)
environmental factors (i.e., where you studied, when
you studied, and with whom you studied), (b)
motivation (i.e., your interest level, confidence level,
and goals), (c) learning strategies (e.g., rehearsal,
elaboration, and organization), and (d) your
performance outcomes. As a result, it should become
easier for you to identify beliefs, perceptions,
physiological responses, feelings, and behaviors you
need to change.
There are several examples of charts that you may wish
to use or model including:
Page 228
Appendix B
Examples of Self-Management Studies
Self-Management Study 1
Motivation (I.E., Persistence and Management of
Effort)
Self-Observation and Evaluation
Problem Identification
I identified my problem as laziness and procrastination
of tasks. As I looked back at my work in this course, I
realized that I wrote about this problem in my first
journal entry (see attachment 1). My scores on the
Learning and Study Strategies Inventory also reflect
this problem. For example, my scores were below
average on the Motivation scale that assesses
“motivation, diligence, self-discipline, and willingness
to work hard,” and on the concentration scale that
assesses “concentration and attention to academic
tasks.” Furthermore, my grades in this course reflect a
lack of motivation. (Student attached homework and
quiz scores indicating a low performance). So far, I
have turned in three of the five homework assignments
late and have received partial or no credit for my work.
My quiz scores, which range from 2 to 10 on a scale of
10, also reflect an inconsistent pattern of motivation.
History of My Problem
When I was in junior high, I achieved good grades
because I was motivated by my mom’s constant
supervision. She would sit me down every night at the
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kitchen table and make sure I did not get up until my
homework was finished. By the time I reached high
school, however, my grades reflected the fact that I
monitored my own schoolwork. My grades, especially
in courses that required daily assignments, dropped
significantly. For example, I earned a “C” in my 9th-
grade geometry class and an “F” during the first
semester of my 11th-grade trigonometry class. Thus my
grade point average, which was excellent in junior high,
was only mediocre in high school.
Current Symptoms of My Problem
Unfortunately, as demonstrated by my past semester’s
grades (2.9 out of 4), my problem still exists in college.
I have earned mediocre grades because I am not
disciplined and I procrastinate on important tasks. I
believe that my lack of discipline is a direct result of
my motivation. It is difficult for me to stay motivated
no matter where I study. I get bored and often fall
asleep studying at the library or at home. The classes
that I seem to have the most difficulty in are those that
require daily attention. For example, because math
classes have such requirements, my grades reflect my
disinterest.
Although motivation tends to be a constant problem,
there are times when I am focused on my assignments.
Unlike “A” students, I cannot keep myself highly
motivated throughout the semester. Instead, I tend to be
more motivated at the beginning and end of each
semester than I am during the middle of the semester.
When I am motivated, I notice that I am more persistent
and less inclined to wait until the night before an
assignment is due to begin working. As a result, I tend
to earn higher grades. This is evident in my quiz scores
for this class. However, during the middle of the
semester when I am less motivated, I tend to
procrastinate on my assignments. This behavior is not
good because my lack of motivation stops me from
achieving the grades I am capable of earning in school.
Diagnosis of My Problem
The internal beliefs that contribute to my problem are
irrationality and pride. I believe that because I’ve done
well in the past with little effort, I can do the same
thing in college. A key difference is that in college I
can’t simply memorize and regurgitate information.
Professors expect me to think and analyze the
information they give me. My stubborn and irrational
pride, however, tells me that I can put in the same
amount of time and effort and do well. The problem is
that I’ve been telling myself the same thing since junior
high. Thus, I believe that if I can reduce my irrational
thinking and pride, I will start my assignments earlier
and I will be more motivated to see my assignments
through to completion. This should help me reach my
long-term goal of earning all As in my courses.
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning
Because I have an important research paper due in my
international relations class, my short-term goal is to
finish this paper in 5 days. I will accomplish this goal
by breaking this paper into manageable parts according
to the following schedule:
Page 239
Day Task
ThursdayI want to gather all the information I need for
my paper.
from the library and Internet.
Friday I want to write five pages.
Saturday I want to write five pages.
Sunday I want to write the last two pages.
I want to complete the bibliography section.
I want to revise my paper.
Monday I want to read my paper and make final
revisions.
I want to print out my paper.
Use
positive
self-talk.
Attachment 3
Journal Entries
Thursday
I delayed going to the library. Right after class I went
home, ate, and listened to music in my room. When I
was in my room I started cleaning it and made some
phone calls. Two and a half hours after my class let out,
I went to the library and photocopied some materials
from three different sources. After that, I jumped on a
computer and looked through this cool web site my
teacher suggested. In conclusion, I finished my goal,
but need to be better disciplined.
Friday
Today I got started right after my class let out at noon.
(I don’t want a repeat of yesterday.) Although it was
difficult starting the paper, I encouraged myself through
positive self-talk to get started and I did. I did not finish
my goal tonight. I had an engagement at 7:30 p.m. and
decided to leave the library at 6 p.m. to ensure that I
would make it on time. After the engagement, I decided
to go to sleep early. Tomorrow I will get an early start.
Saturday
Although I was lazy, my roommate woke me up around
8 a.m. I ate breakfast, did my household chores, and
watched some football with one of my housemates. I
finally got to the library at 12:15 p.m. Where did all the
time go? Anyhow, once I got started, I got into a pretty
good rhythm. I cranked until 4:30 p.m., when I decided
to reward myself by playing basketball on the outside
courts on campus. Although I only played an hour and
fifteen minutes, by the time I got back to the library, it
was 7:25 p.m. By the end of the evening I
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was up to nine pages. A good accomplishment,
considering I wrote six pages today. I still feel short,
however. What I will do is plan out how long it should
take me to complete each task and use that as a
deadline. I have to be more focused tomorrow.
Sunday
After church I did other homework as well as other
stuff including eating, relaxing, going to a meeting, and
talking to my mom on the phone. I estimated that it
would take me 5 hours to write 3 pages, complete my
bibliography section and make slight revisions. In the
evening, I allotted 5 hours to complete these tasks. The
time frame and deadline helped tremendously. In fact, it
only took me 4 hours to finish everything because I
wrote the conclusion pages quicker than I thought. This
is great because I cannot afford to miss another
deadline and I have class tomorrow.
Monday
Today’s goal: although I delayed getting started, my
homework only took an hour and a half. This was
within my estimated time frame. This is good because I
have other assignments to do.
Analysis of Self-Management Study 1
Self-Observation and Evaluation
Strengths.
The student did an excellent job organizing this section
of his paper. The headings he provides makes it easy to
follow how he identified and ultimately diagnosed his
problem. Furthermore, the evidence he provided
support his claim that he has difficulty persisting at
tasks and managing his effort. Finally, unlike the other
case studies printed in this appendix, this student
provides a historical analysis of how his problem
developed, starting in junior high.
Areas for Improvement.
The student discusses the fact that he identified his
problem through his procrastination of tasks.
Unfortunately, we do not know the extent of his
procrastination. Here he could have improved his study
by adding an analysis of his use of time that includes
when he starts and completes assignments in relation to
when assignments are due.
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning
Strengths.
The student sets a SMART goal to complete a term
paper in 5 days and effectively breaks this goal down
into a series of manageable daily tasks. Both the
strategies he plans to implement and the methods he
plans to use to record his progress are logical.
Areas for Improvement.
The student originally discussed the fact that he tends
to procrastinate on tasks. Although he did a good job
selecting strate-
Page 243
gies that will help him combat this problem, he did not
include a method for monitoring his procrastination
throughout the course of his study. In addition, he could
have improved his study by specifying a date and time
when he would check his progress to see if his
strategies and data collection methods were working.
Strategy Implementation and Monitoring
Strengths.
Through his journals, the student monitors his progress
toward his daily goals. When the student fails to meet
his goal on Saturday, he decides to modify both his plan
(i.e., to estimate the amount of time it will take him to
accomplish a task and use this as a deadline) and his
daily goal for the next day (i.e., to complete three pages
of the paper in a 5-hour block of time the next day).
This enabled him to make up for lost time and
successfully accomplish his goalcompleting his paper
in 5 days.
Areas for Improvement.
The student mentions that he needed to find ways to
manage distractions (e.g., being tired, taking long study
breaks, and working on assignments from other
courses) that contributed to his procrastinating.
Although his journal entries discuss some of the
distractions he encountered, they do not provide the
reader with a clear understanding of how and when he
put off working on his paper. He could have improved
his study by providing the reader with a detailed
account of how he spent his time by using the form
provided in chapter 6. In addition, on Saturday the
student decided that in order to avoid procrastinating,
he would plan out how long he would give himself to
complete each assignment. Therefore, on Sunday he
allotted himself 5 hours in the evening to write three
pages, complete his bibliography, and make slight
revisions. Most likely the student would have benefited
from using the strategies described in chapter 6 to
schedule these tasks throughout the course of his day
rather than in one large block at the end of the day.
Strategic-Outcome Monitoring
Strengths.
The student’s strategic planning checklist provides a
good analysis of the goals he did and did not
accomplish throughout his study.
Areas for Improvement.
The student mentions that on Sunday evening he was
able to complete his daily tasks with an hour to spare,
but fails to provide the reader with evidence of this fact.
He could have strengthened his study by including a
chart of when he hoped to complete his tasks and the
time when he actually finished these tasks. In addition,
at the end of the study the student mentions that he met
his goal by successfully completing his paper in 5 days.
He could have presented a copy of this paper with his
self-management study.
Page 244
Self-Management Study 2
Methods of Learning (Improving Quiz Scores)
Introduction
This semester I decided to take the initiative to set a
goal that I am determined to accomplishto earn a 3.0
grade point average. This goal should motivate me to
do all of my work for my classes. At times, I believe
that the motivation I had at the start of the semester
diminished. I have found this to be especially true in
my Policy Planning and Development class.
Self-Observation and Evaluation
I have elected to do my case study for my Policy
Planning and Development class. In this class, I want to
improve my quiz scores because they will heavily
determine my grade at the end of the course. These
quizzes are pop quizzes, and the element of surprise is
what I find most disturbing because the quizzes consist
of both material from the readings and the lectures.
Thus, I must make sure I really learn the information so
that I can recall it at any time.
So far I have taken four quizzes and all of my scores
have been relatively low. I have earned one “F”, one
“D”, and two ”C”s. (Note: the student also provided
documentation of these quiz scores.) The reason these
scores are so low is because I have not kept up with the
reading material and my attendance in class has been
poor (see Attachment 1). (Note: the student also
provided a copy of his syllabus, which indicated the
readings he did and did not complete).
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning
My goal for this self-management study is to improve
my scores on the next two quizzes (i.e., quiz 5 and 6) in
my Policy Planning and Development Course. I will
start by attaining at least a “C” on the next quiz. The
strategies I plan to use to accomplish this goal are listed
in the chart on the next page.
In order for me to earn better quiz scores, I must start
with the basics. I will catch up on all of my readings
and ask myself questions on what I read. All of these
assignments are marked on my syllabus. As I read each
assignment, I will use the reading comprehension
strategies in chapter 8. Then when I finish each
assignment, I will highlight it on my syllabus so that I
will know I have read it. I also plan to attend all of my
lectures and discussion sessions because my professor
often gives hints about the material that will be on our
quizzes. At each class I will take good notes during
these lectures using the note-making strategy in chapter
9. These notes should help me predict which questions
will show up on the quizzes. Finally, I plan to set
several appointments with my professor and teaching
assistant. In these meetings, I will ask questions about
the content I do not understand.
Strategy Implementation and Monitoring
So far I have used all of the strategies listed in my plan
and my strategies seem to be working. On my fifth quiz
(11/5/98) I earned a “B,” which exceeded my goal
(note: the student also provided documentation of this
score). I feel I was able to earn a decent grade on this
quiz because I followed the strategies set
Page 245
9/3 9/8 9/10 9/15 9/17 9/22 9/24 9/29 10/1 10/6
X X X X X
10/8 10/13 10/15 10/20 10/22 10/27 10/29
X X X X
Attachment 2
Class Attendance After
Attachment 3
Weekly Schedule
EDPT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Quiz 10 9 8 7 10 8 9 10 9
Score
Efficacy 8 6 5.5 6 6.5 7 8 8 6
Score
Math 1 2 3 4
Quiz 6 6 6 7
Score
Page 253
Attachment 3
Weekly Schedule
Week of 11/1611/20
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri.
Nov. 16 Nov. 17 Nov. 18 Nov. 19 Nov. 20
1. Revise ArtMath QuizWriting Exam 2 Math Test (5
of Asia 5.3-5.5 Assign. #4 educ. Psych & 6)
rough draft Due
Finished at
5:30 p.m.
2. Review Finished at
education 11:30 p.m.
Psych.
Finished at
10:30 p.m.
Page 254
Attachment 4
Chart of My Anxiety-Reducing Techniques
Relaxation and
Date Meditation Result
Techniques
Nov.7:45 Before I feel that I had rhythm to perform
17 Math Quiz I better. It allowed me to open my
used the feelings and calm down.
Diaphragmatic
Breathing
Technique for 7
minutes.
(Math Quiz at
8:00 a.m.)
Nov.9:30 a.m. I I feel it eased my tension for my math
18 meditated with quiz. I was able to calm down and felt
soft, slow music less uptight and nervous.
to relax from my
studies and work
for 15 minutes.
Nov.7:45 a.m. I I relaxed and felt prepared for my
19 relaxed with test. It reduced my stress and
soft, slow music nervousness. Beforehand I was afraid
for 15 minutes. that I might forget the information I
(EDPT Exam at had learned. It made me less uptight
9 a.m.) and more energized to take the test.
Nov.8:45 a.m. I It reduced the anxiety I had because
20 meditated to soft of the overwhelming work I did in the
music. past 2 weeks. I feel that it relaxed me
(math exam) for my math test.
Attachment 5
Self-Talk Reflection Journal
Mon. Nov 16th
Today is the first day I implemented my plan. Today I had
nothing due, but this week I have a load of assignments to
turn in. Furthermore, I have two papers due, a quiz, and two
tests. I’ve got to believe I can do all of this. I’ve done it
before. It is 9:30 p.m. right now. I guess I can start studying. I
can achieve . . . I can achieve . . . I’m trying to think positive.
This is hard. I’m saying the words, but do I mean it? I’ve
always been able to keep my head up before. Don’t worry,
this week will be fine! I know I can do it.
Tues. Nov 17th
Well, I’m about to head to class. It’s 7:45. I’ve got a quiz in
this class. It’s only two sectionsI can handle it. I didn’t study
that hard though, but I kind of know the material. I was
worrying about my other assignments. Well, I know it will be
easy and just right. Oh, it’s 7:50 a.m. Got to go. I’ll pass!
Page 255
Well I’m back now and it’s 3:30. I’m
about to go to work. The quiz was
okayI think I did well. I was speaking
to myself, trying to think positive. I
guess I’ll find out Thursday how I did
and I’ll record it in here. I won’t be
able to write in here tonight so I guess
this is it.
Wed. Nov 18th
Well, today is my mom’s and cousin’s birthday. This
should be a good day. I’ve got to think positive today.
It’s about 8:35 a.m. and I’m about to go to my 9 a.m.
class right now. Today I will turn in my fourth writing
assignment for my writing class. I worked hard on it all
last week. I think I did pretty well. I always get good
grades on my papers. It had better be good! Well, I’ll be
back later.
Hello, I’m back from the library and
it’s 11:30 p.m. I just finished
reviewing for my educ. psych. 110
test. I feel pretty confident, but I’m
worried that I’ll forget some
information. Do you think I’ll forget? I
studied pretty well. Well, I’m going to
call my mom right now, and then sleep
or maybe watch television?
Thurs. Nov 19th
Gosh, I hate waking up early for this 8 a.m. class.
Today I have my EDPT 110 test at 9 a.m. Aaah! I
studied, but I don’t know. I’m afraid I’ll fail. I know I
can do it. I did well on exam 1. Anyhow, I’m getting
my math quiz back from Tuesday. That should be cool!
Well, it’s 7:15 a.m. right now and I’m hungry. I think
I’ll get some food downstairsI might get a stomachache
before the test. I hope I pass!
Well, I’m back from work. It’s 3:30
p.m. I’m about to watch televison right
now. Then I’m going to study for my
math test tomorrow. It’s pretty easy, so
I think I can do it. Well, I can’t wait
until this weekend when I can relax.
My friend is having a party that should
be fun and I’m going home Friday
afternoonYes! Gotta study, Bye.
Fri. Nov 20th
It’s 7:30 a.m. I woke up early to review for my math
test. I’m really scared right now. I’m not very
confident. I reviewed a little here and there. I know the
material though. I also have a paper due for my Art of
Asia class at 2 p.m. today. I finished it a while ago, so
at least that stress is gone. I can’t wait to go home this
weekend. I will soon be able to see my friends again. I
guess I’ll leave for class now.
I’m back from my math test. It wasn’t as hard as I
thought it would be. I don’t want to be too confident
because it might turn out negative. I hope I did well.
Well, I’m going to turn in my Art of Asia paper. Then I
am going to go home . . . Yeah!
Page 256
Attachment 6
Grades After Using My Strategies
Future educ. psych. quizzes
Quiz 7 8
Efficacy 7 8
score
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Page 264
AUTHOR INDEX
A
Adams, D.R., 46
Alberto, P.A., 230
Alexander, P.A., 29
Ames, C., 50, 124
Archer, J., 50
Ash, M.J., 29
B
Baker, L., 18
Bandura, A., 52
Beckman, J., 10
Benson, H., 90
Bliss, E., 121
Bonner, S., 13, 17, 20, 52
Bourne, E.J., 85, 86, 90
Bower, G.H., 38
Bransford, J.D., 32, 36
Britton, B.K., 12, 97
Burka, J.B., 112
Butler, P.E., 11, 87
C
Cartwright, C.A., 229
Cartwright, G.P., 229
Chaney, L.H., 99
Clark, M.C., 38
Cortina, J., 8, 140, 145, 150, 153
Covington, M.V., 55, 56, 57, 112
D
Deese, E.K., 202
Deese, J., 202
Dembo, M.H., 175
Dole, J., 142
Dubois, N.F., 153, 157
Duffy, G., 142
Dweck, C.S., 49
E
Eggen, P., 28
Elder, J., 8, 140, 145, 150, 153
Elliot, T., 37
Ellis, A., 84, 113
Encinias, P., 72, 77
F
Ferrari, J.R., 112, 113, 114
Flett, G.L., 112
Frender, G., 133
G
Gagné, E.D., 30, 36
Gallwey, W.T., 83
Garfield, H.Z., 15
Gaskins, I., 37
Glaser, R., 19, 20
Glick, D., 112
Glynn, S.M., 97
Goetz, E.T., 29
Page 265
Goldin, L., 14
Gonnet, K., 8, 140, 145, 150, 153
H
Haith, M.M., 153
Halpern, D.F., 33, 37
Hardy, L., 89
Heinman, M., 171, 176
Hembree, R., 56
Hewitt, P., 112
Holt, J., 24
Holubec, E., 135
Howe, L.W., 69
J
Johnson, D.W., 133, 135
Johnson, J.L., 112, 113, 114
Johnson, M.K., 32
Johnson, R.T., 133, 135
Jones, G., 89
K
Kauchak, D, 28
Kiewra, K.A., 153, 157, 165
Kirschenbaum, H., 69
Knaus, W.J., 113
Kovich, R., 13, 17, 20, 52
Kuhl, J., 10
Kukla, A., 57
L
Larson, R., 55
Latham, G.P., 49
Lau, S., 124
Leggett, E.L., 49
Lesgold, A., 38
Levin, J.R., 12
Locke, E.A., 49, 69
Loftus, E.F., 39
M
Marsnik, N.C., 125
Martin, G., 225
Martin, T.R., 112
Martinez-Pons, M., 10, 11, 13, 15
Mayer, R.E., 175
McCombs, B., 72, 77
McCown, W.G., 112, 113, 114
McWhorter, K.T., 151, 152, 171, 176, 187
Meichenbaum, D., 83
Miller, G.A., 153
Miller, S.A., 29
N
Newby, T.J., 36
Newman, R.S., 13, 124, 131, 137
O
Omelich, C., 57
Ormrod, J.E., 31, 36, 37, 168
Ottens, A.J., 11, 55, 82, 86, 127
P
Palmer, D.R., 224
Paris, S.G., 12
Pauk, W., 140
Pear, J., 225
Person, P.D., 142
Peurifoy, R.Z., 90
Pintrich, P.R., 44
R
Ratcliff, J.L., 45, 47
Reeve, J., 66, 71
Reglin, G.L., 46
Richard, M., 55
Risemberg, R., 2, 9, 124
Roehler, L., 142
S
Scharf, D., 104
Schulte, A.C., 224
Schunk, D.H., 21, 52, 72, 76
Schwager, M.T., 13, 14, 124
Semb, G., 112
Simon, S.B., 69
Slomianko, J., 171, 176
Smith, H., 67, 68, 73, 80, 97, 98, 105
Smith, R.M., 92
Spencer, R.E., 112
Stepich, D.A., 36
Stipek, D., 42, 48
T
Tesser, A., 12
Tharp, R.G., 225
Troutman, A.C., 230
Page 266
U
Underwood, B.J., 34
Urman, H.N., 200
V
Van Blerkom, D.L., 188
Vasts, R., 153
W
Watson, D.L., 227
Weiner, B., 53, 57
Weinstein, C.E., 175, 224
Winzenz, D., 38
Wolff, F.I., 125
Y
Yekovich, C.W., 36
Yekovich, F.R., 36
Youngs, B.B., 89
Yuen, L.M., 112
Z
Zimmerman, B.J., 2, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21,
23, 52, 54, 124, 182
Page 267
SUBJECT INDEX
A
Abbreviations, 170
Academic problems, 8, 225-226
strategies for solving, 232-233
Academic self-management, 1,
see also Self-management
Achievement
causes of low, 7-9
Acronyms, 35
Analogies, 36-37
Annotation, 149-150
Anxiety,
dimensions of, 55, 58
effects of, 55-56
and relaxation, 88-89
reporting of, 251-252, 254-255
self-observation of, 82
and self-talk, 11
and transcendental mediation, 90
Attention, 125-131
and concentration, 125
and distracters, 127
factors influencing, 127
in information processing system, 28
procedures for improving, 127-129, 131
self-observation of, 127
Attributions, 53-54, 56-57, 63, 124
B
Behavior change, 8-23
methods of, 17-21
Beliefs, 7, 22-23, 124, 136
challenging, 113-114
Bits and pieces approach, 113
Boredom, 54-55, 128
C
Charts, 177-228
Checklists, 230-231
Chunking, 29
Classroom environment, 47-48
Cognitive perspective of learning and motivation, 2
Concentration (also see Attention)
control of, 13-14
monitoring of, 129
Course demands, 24-25
D
Diagrams, 155-156
Diaphragmatic breathing, 89
Distracters, 10
Distributive practice, 34
E
Elaboration strategies, 35-37, 40
Encoding, 27
Exams
assessment of, 183-184
essay, 193, 206-209
key words in, 207-208
procedures for answering, 214
reviewing results of, 209, 216-217
time management for, 208
fill-in-the-blank, 203-204
learning from, 199
Page 268
matching, 203
multiple-choice, 204-205, 207
procedures for answering, 204, 213-215
preparation for, 139-140, 182-183
study plan for, 185-190
study strategies for, 188
problems taking, 193, 198
test strategies for, 201
time management for, 189-190, 194, 200
true-false, 201-202
External distracters, 127-128
F
Failure-avoiding strategies, 57-58
Fermenting skills, 136
Five-minute plan, 113
Forming skills, 135
Formulating skills, 135
Functioning skills, 135
G
Goal orientation, 49-51
Goals, 234,
See also SMART goals
advantages of, 49, 58
evaluation of, 78
intermediate, 77
properties of, 72
types of, 69-70
unattainable, 56
and values, 71
writing, 75
Goal setting
and achievement, 10
importance of, 69-71
and motivation, 72
procedures for, 72-78
and strategic planning, 19, 231-232
examples of, 238-239, 244, 249
and values, 67-69
Group Work, 133-136
improving, 135-136
procedures for, 133
H
Help-seeking, 13-14
methods for 131-132
Hierarchies, 38, 153-154
signal words for, 157
High school and college
difference between, 6-7
I
Illusion of knowing, 18
Information processing system
and attention, 28
components of, 27, 32, 152
definition of, 27
model of, 27, 39
and prior knowledge, 31-33
Intelligence, 4, 7-8
Internal distracters, 127-128
J
Journals, 229
K
Key-word method, 35
L
Learning
components of, 22
explanation of, 27
goals, 183
help-seeking in, 13-14
in lectures, 30
meaningful, 32
methods of, 11-12, 165
and motivation, 9
and physical environment, 13-14
principles of, 39-40
prior knowledge in, 32-33
rote, 32
strategies to promote, 33-39
and use of time, 12-13
sociocultural factors in, 45-46
Learning strategies
definition of, 11
examples of, 34
and motivation, 140
types of, 33-39
Long-term memory, 31-32
M
Maintenance rehearsal, 30
Mapping (see representation)
Massed practice, 34
Mastery goals, 50
Page 269
Matrices, 154-155
example of, 38, 192, 197
signal words for, 155
Meaningful learning, 32-33
Memory
(see also Information processing system)
long-term, 31
working, 28-30
Methods of learning (see learning strategies)
Mirror questions, 175-176, 179
Mnemonic, 33
Motivation, 9-11
and attributions, 53-54
behavior, 45, 58
and beliefs, 48-58
and classroom environment, 47-48
and goals, 10, 49-52, 71-72, 78-79
model of, 44, 55
and persistence, 10
problems, 42-44, 56-57
and self-efficacy, 52-53
and self-talk, 11
and sociocultural factors, 45-46
and use of learning strategies, 12, 140
and values, 48-49
N
Note taking, 35
problems and solutions, 176-177
procedures, 178
procedures after lecture, 171-172
procedures before lectures, 168-169
procedures during lectures, 169-171
and reading, 165
self-observation of, 166
signals for, 169-170
O
Organizational strategies, 37-40
Outlining, 151-152
P
Performance goals, 50, 58
Performance
control of, 14-15
Persistence, 10
Physical environment
control of, 13, 113
Priority tasks list, 106, 108-109
Procrastination, 55-56
causes of, 112
elimination of, 113-115
and use of self-talk, 113-114
Procrastination, 56
Q
Questions, 146-149
generating, 142
from headings, 146-149
high level, 147, 176, 188
low level, 147, 176, 188
in lecture notes, 171-174
mirror questions, 175-176
multiple-choice, 193
predicting exam, 187-188
summary, 174
R
Reading strategies, 28, 142, 160-161
after reading, 151-158
before reading, 145-146
for comprehension monitoring, 150
during reading, 146-150
ineffective, 8
and remembering, 140
self-observation of, 143, 162
and use of questions, 146-148
Rehearsal strategies, 34, 40
Relaxation, 89-91
Repeatable categories, 154-155, 158
Representations, 152- 160
constructing, 156-160
use of signal words in, 156-159
types of, 153
Retrieval, 27
Rote learning, 32
S
Self-directed learning (see Self-management)
Self-efficacy, 52-53, 58, 160-161
Self-management
advantages of, 20-21
analysis of, 242-243, 246-247, 256-258
competencies of, 15-16, 136
components of, 9-16, 23