Truth (Part 1)

DR. DANNY LEUNG

What is truth (真理) ?
• Clarifying the concept:
• “Truth”(n) vs “Falsity”(n)
• “true”(adj) vs “false” (adj)
• “true” (adj) vs “genuine” (adj) “false” vs “fake”
• Compare these examples:
• 1. The news report tells the truth. 新闻报道说的是事实。

• 2. The Bible tells you the truth. 圣经告诉你真相

• 3. The relativity theory (相對論) is true.

• 4. My love is true.
• 5. 這粒鑽石是真的.
• Candidates for the application of “true” or “false”:
• Beliefs (信念)
• Statements (語句) describing the world
• Theories (理論) 那么道德教义呢，比如“不可杀⼈人”?

• What about moral doctrine, such as “Thou shalt not kill”?

• Normative statements, such as moral rules and advices
are neither true nor false. 规范性陈述，如道德准则和建议，既不正确也不错误
• Questions and imperatives (命令) are neither true nor
false too. 问题和规则(命令)既不真实也不假。
The correspondence theory of truth 真理理的对应理理论

• Can be dated back to Plato and Aristotle.可以追溯到柏拉图和亚⾥里里⼠士多德

• P is true if and only if P corresponds to a fact.
当且仅当P符合⼀一个事实时，P为真
• “correspond”= “parallel to” 对应”=“平⾏行行于”
“事实”=在特定时间发⽣生在世界上的事情
• “fact”= what happens in the world at a particular time
• “if and only if” = necessary and sufficient condition
“当且仅当”=充要条件
• Necessary condition (必需條件):
• Water is the necessary condition for cooking rice. ⽔水是煮饭的必要条件

• Sufficient condition (充份條件):

• Raining is the sufficient condition for the (uncovered)
ground to be wet. 下雨是(未覆盖的)地⾯面潮湿的充分条件
• Necessary and sufficient condition:
• Water is H2O. ⽔水是H2O。
• To define P as Q means that:
• 1. P is the necessary and sufficient condition for Q.
• 2. If P then Q; and if Q then P.
• 3. P is equivalent to Q.
• 4. P if and only if (iff) Q.
Alfred Tarski (1902-1983) revised the correspondence
theory of truth as follows: 阿尔佛雷德·塔斯基(1902-1983)
将真理理的对应理理论修正如下:

• “Snow is white” is true if and only if snow is white.

“雪是⽩白⾊色的”是正确的，当且仅当雪是⽩白⾊色的。
• “A cat is on the mat” is true if and only if a cat is on the
mat.
• Tarski’s version is called “the Semantic Theory of Truth”
(語意論).
Questions
• How do we know that “HK Disneyland is on Lantau
Island” is true? 我们如何知道“香港迪⼠士尼乐园在⼤大屿⼭山”是真的?
• Ans: we can go to Lantau Island and find out. (by direct
experience) 我们可以去⼤大屿⼭山看看。(通过直接经验)
• But how do we know that “Napoleon died in 1821.” is
但是我们怎么知道拿破仑死于1821年年呢?“是真的吗?
true?
当今世界没有⼈人⻅见过拿破仑。
• No one living in today’s world has seen Napoleon.
Coherences theory of truth (融貫說)
• There are several versions of coherence theory of truth.
The most common one is: 关于真理理的连贯性理理论有⼏几个版本
• “Confucius lived in the Spring and Autumn period of
Chinese History” is true if and only if it is coherent with
existing knowledge. “孔⼦子⽣生活在中国历史的春秋时期”是正确
的，前提是它与现有的知识相⼀一致

• “coherent” means “can be both true; does not create

contradictions” and “what it says is causally connected
“连贯”的意思是“可能是正确的;“不会产⽣生⽭矛
with what other statements say”.盾”和“它所说的与其他陈述所说的有因果关系”。
 然⽽而，微⼩小的灵魂理理论，即在这个建筑⾥里里有⼀一些微⼩小的灵魂假装成电流，
这就是为什什么我们在这个教室⾥里里有光和空调，是与现有的知识相⼀一致的。
• However, the tiny spirit theory, i.e. there are some tiny
spirits in this building pretending to be electric current
and that’s why we have light and air conditioning in this
classroom, is coherent with exist knowledge.
• Science has not ruled out the possibility that spirit exists.
科学没有排除精神存在的可能性。
• Rashomon (羅生門)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BP2MhghDal4
 你可以有⼀一个连贯的故事，但它是错误的。
• You can have a coherent story but it is false.
• Therefore, coherence is not the sufficient condition for
truth. 因此，连贯性不是真理理的充分条件。
• Therefore, coherence is not the sufficient and necessary
condition for truth. 因此，连贯性不是真理理的充分必要条件。
• Therefore, coherence cannot define truth. 因此，⼀一致性不能定义真理理

• Despite this, coherence is a useful means for justifying

truth claims.
尽管如此，⼀一致性是证明真理理的有效⽅方法。
实⽤用主义真理理论 由哲学家查尔斯·桑德斯·⽪皮尔斯(Charles
Sanders Peirce)、约翰·杜威(John Dewey)和威
Pragmatic theory of truth 廉·詹姆斯(William James)提出。他们是实⽤用主
义哲学的奠基⼈人
• Proposed by philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce,
John Dewey and William James. They are the
founders of pragmatism in philosophy.
• “Water boils at 100 degrees” is true if and only if it
is useful to believe it (or it benefits you).
“⽔水在100度沸腾”是正确的，当且仅当相信它(或它对你有益)是有⽤用的。
• Please note that the pragmatic theory of truth does not
encourage people to fool themselves. 请注意，实⽤用主义的真理理理理论
并不⿎鼓励⼈人们愚弄弄⾃自⼰己。

• Suppose Mr. Chan has been diagnosed to have cancer.

He heard of the pragmatic theory of truth and think that
it is beneficial for him to deny this fact. So he fools
假设陈先⽣生被诊断患有癌症。他听说了了实
himself that he has no cancer. ⽤用主义的真理理理理论，认为否认这⼀一事实是
有益的。所以他骗⾃自⼰己说他没有癌症。
• People usually apply the pragmatic theory of truth when
evidence for and against the statement concerned is half-
and-half.
当⽀支持和反对相关陈述的证据是⼀一半对⼀一半时，⼈人们通常会应⽤用实⽤用主义的真理理理理论
 •想想看:“弗洛洛伊德说过，很多⼈人为了了避免绝望，需要相信有⼀一个上帝会密切注视着每⼀一个⼈人。根
据实⽤用主义理理论的⼀一个版本，这种说法是正确的。但是，对其他⼈人来说，相信同样的主张可能是
⽆无益的。如果他们相信有⼀一个上帝在注视着每⼀一个⼈人，他们就会被压垮。
因此，根据论点的对称性，这种说法是错误的。”(道登,2018)
• Consider: “Freud said that many people, in order to
avoid despair, need to believe there is a god who keeps a
watchful eye on everyone. According to one version of
the Pragmatic Theory, that statement is true. However, it
may not be useful for other persons to believe that same
proposition. They would be crushed if they believed that
there is a god who keeps a watchful eye on everyone.
Thus, by symmetry of argument, that statement is false.”
(Dowden, 2018)
这要么产⽣生⽭矛盾，要么导致相对主义
• This either creates a contradiction or results in relativism.
• It is reasonable to say that a true statement/theory will
bring you benefits. But it is not the case that whatever
beneficial is true. 有理理由说⼀一个真实的陈述/理理论会给你带来好处。但并不是所有有益的都是正确的
• Therefore, usefulness is not the sufficient condition for
truth. 因此，有⽤用性不是真理理的充分条件。
• Therefore, usefulness is not the sufficient and necessary
condition for truth. 因此，有⽤用性不是真理理的充分必要条件。
• Therefore, usefulness cannot define truth. 因此，有⽤用性不能定义真理理

• Despite this, usefulness is a useful means for justifying

truth claims. 尽管如此，有⽤用性是证明真理理的有⽤用⼿手段。
References
• Dowden, B. (2018) Truth, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Assessed through
https://iep.utm.edu/truth/
Truth (Part 2)
DR. DANNY LEUNG
Analytic and synthetic statements
• Philosophers have distinguished between two kinds of
statements: Analytic statements (分析句) and synthetic
statements (綜合句).
分析性语句句是指其真伪取决于语句句中词语的意义的语句句。
• An analytic statement is one whose truth or falsity
depends on the meaning of the words in the statement.
• E. g. 1+1=2; bachelors (單身漢) are unmarried men.
 综合陈述是⼀一种真实与否取决于世界的⽅方式的陈述

• A synthetic statement is one whose truth or falsity

depends on the way the world is.
• E.g. Donald Trump is American; philosophers are poor.
唐纳德·特朗普(Donald Trump)是美国⼈人;哲学家很穷
 Necessary truth
• If an analytic andiscontingent
statement true, then it istruth
necessarily true. (We
also call it “necessary truth”) 如果⼀一个分析命题为真，那么它必然
为真。(我们也称它为“必要真理理”) 必要真理理-定义上的真理理;
不可能是另外的情况。
• Necessary truth – true by definition; it cannot be otherwise.
• E.g. 1+3=4 is necessarily true and you can’t imagine how it will
become false. 1+3=4必然是真的，你⽆无法想象它会变成假的。
• E.g. A bachelor is an unmarried man. 单⾝身汉是未婚的⼈人
1+1=2 "是⼀一个解析式;这是必然的
• . “1+1=2” is an analytic statement; and it is necessarily true.
• “1+1=12” is an analytic statement; and it is necessarily false.
•
“1+1=12”是⼀一个分析命题;这必然是错误的
Necessary truth and contingent truth 必然真理理和偶然真理理

• If a synthetic statement is true, it is contingently true.

(We can call it “contingent truth”) 如果⼀一个综合命题是正确的，它就是偶然
正确的。(我们可以称之为"偶然真理理")

• Contingent truth – happens to be true; it could have

been otherwise. 偶然的真理理——碰巧是真的;本来是可以的。
• E.g. Bruce Lee’s Kungfu master is Yip Man. 李⼩小龙的功夫⼤大师是叶问

• E.g. Bruno Mars had a concert in Hong Kong in 2018.

例例如，2018年年布鲁诺·⻢马尔斯(Bruno Mars)在香港举办了了⼀一场演唱会。
 "李⼩小龙⽣生于旧⾦金金⼭山"是⼀一个综合命题，它是偶然正确的。

• E.g. “Bruce Lee was born in San Francisco ” is a

synthetic statement and it is contingently true.
• E.g. “AKB48 is a British pop singer group” is a
synthetic statement and it is contingently false.
例例如:“AKB48是⼀一个英国流⾏行行歌⼿手组合”是⼀一个合成的声明，它是偶然错误的。
 能够区分分析语句句和综合语句句是很重要的。因为辨别真假的⽅方法是不同的。

• Being able to distinguish between analytic statements and

synthetic statements is important. Because the way to
find out whether they are true or false are different.
• If you encounter a statement and you are able to tell it is
an analytic statement, then you know that the way to
determine whether it is true is by checking the dictionary
如果你遇到了了⼀一个命题，你能够分辨出它是⼀一
or analyzing the concepts of key terms. 个分析命题，那么你就知道判断它是否正确的
⽅方法是通过查字典或者分析关键术语的概念念。
• If you encounter a statement and you are able to
tell it is a synthetic statement, then you know that
the way to determine whether it is true is by
empirical research.
如果你遇到了了⼀一个命题，你能分辨出它是⼀一个综合命题，那么你就知道判断它是否正确的⽅方法是通过实证研究。
Honesty (誠實)

• Corresponding to truth,
honesty is an important
virtue. 与真理理相对应，诚实是⼀一种重要的美德。
• The meaning of honesty: tell
the truth (do not lie); do not
deceive people and yourself;
do not deliberately hide the
诚实的含义:讲真话(不说谎);不要欺骗
truth. 别⼈人和⾃自⼰己;不要刻意隐瞒真相
• In the West, there is a saying that
“Honesty is the best policy.”
在⻄西⽅方，有句句话说“诚实为上策”。
• Honesty is an important (instrumental) value because it
can secure truth. 诚实是⼀一个重要的(⼯工具)价值，因为它可以确保真理理。
真理理是⼈人类⼀一种非常深刻的⼼心理理需求。
• Truth is a very deep psychological need of mankind.
• If you are honest, you won’t feel that you own people the
truth; or you disrespect people. You think that you
comply with justice.
如果你是诚实的，你就不会觉得⾃自⼰己掌握了了别⼈人的真相;或者你不尊重别⼈人。你认为你遵守了了正义。
 我们认为正常的成年年⼈人有⾃自主权。

• We think that normal human adults have autonomy.

• If we are autonomous agents, then we should be able
如果我们是⾃自主的个体，那么我们应该能够
to make genuine free choice. 做出真正⾃自由的选择。

• There are 5 conditions for a choice to be genuinely

free: 有5个条件可以让你选择真正的⾃自由:
1。选择的⼈人应该是有能⼒力力的，即有常识，智商正常，⼼心理理健康，情绪稳定
• 1. The choice maker should be competent, i.e.
having common sense, having normal IQ,
mentally healthy and emotionally stable.
• Minors, very old people and mentally retarded
未成年年⼈人、老⼈人、弱智者不合格。
people are incompetent.
• 2. The choice makers should have background
knowledge about the issue. 决策者应该对这个问题有背景知识
• 3. There should be real options.
应该有真正的选择
 做选择的⼈人应该能够在做出选择之前评估利利弊
• 4. The choice maker should be able to assess the
pros and cons before making the choice.
不应该有不正当影响:威 • 5. There should be no undue influence: threat,
胁,欺骗、胁迫、虚假或有
偏⻅见(偏頗的)信息,暗⽰示语 deception, coercion, false or biased (偏頗的)
⾔言或肢体语⾔言,建议(暗⽰示
的),这可能意味着负⾯面影
响主题不同意时,技能,使
information, suggestive language or body
得信息不是真正可以实现
的。 language, suggestions (暗示的) that might imply
negative consequences when the subject disagrees,
skills that makes information not truly obtainable.
• P1: To deceive or fool someone (with or without
justification) might make that person unable to make
a genuine free choice. 欺骗或愚弄弄某⼈人(⽆无论是否正当)可能使那
个⼈人⽆无法做出真正的⾃自由选择

• P2: Making someone unable to make a genuine free

choice without justification is to disrespect someone’s
autonomy. 让⼀一个⼈人没有正当理理由就⽆无法做出真正的⾃自由选择，这是对他⼈人⾃自主权的不尊重。
• P3: To disrespect someone’s autonomy, without
justification, is morally wrong. 没有正当理理由⽽而不尊重他⼈人的
⾃自主权，在道德上是错误的。

• C: Therefore, to deceive or fool someone without

justification is morally wrong.
因此，在没有正当理理由的情况下欺骗或愚弄弄某⼈人在道德上是错误的。
On the other hand,

• P1: To be honest to people is to facilitate them to

make genuine free choices. 对⼈人诚实就是帮助他们做出真正的⾃自由选择。
• P2: To facilitate people to make genuine free choices
is to respect people’s autonomy. 促进⼈人们做出真正的⾃自由选择，就
是尊重⼈人们的⾃自主权。

• P3: To respect people’s autonomy, when no harm will

be generated, is morally good. 尊重⼈人的⾃自主性，在不会产⽣生伤害
的情况下，是道德上的善

• C: To be honest to people, when no harm will be

generated, is morally good. 诚实对⼈人，在不会产⽣生伤害的情况下，是件好事。
• What is it to be honest?
• Tell the truth as much as you can. Do not make lying
as a habit. 尽可能多地说实话。不要说谎當成⼀一種習慣
不要逃避你的责任
• Do not escape from your responsibility.
• If you want to convince people of something, make
如果你想说服别⼈人相信某事，确保你真的相信那件事
sure that you really believe in that thing.
你说的和你做的是⼀一致的。
• What you say is consistent with what you do.
 • How to be honest?
• Make true-telling your habit. 养成说实话的习惯

• Identify situations in which you might be dishonest,

remind yourself to be honest in those situations. 找出你可能不诚实的情况，提
醒⾃自⼰己在这些情况下要诚实

• White lies are allowed if necessary.

必要时，善意的谎⾔言是允许的
Relativism (相對主義)

• “If you believe that X exists, then it exists. If you don’t,

then it doesn’t.” (信則有，不信則無。 )
• “The earth is flat” is true for people in ancient times
and “the earth is round “is true for people in modern
times. “地是平的”这句句话在古代适⽤用，“地是圆的”这句句话在现代适⽤用
• With regard to Rashomon, you might say the bandit’s
account is true for the bandit; the wife’s account is
true for the wife. 关于《罗⽣生⻔门》，你可能会说《罗⽣生⻔门》中
强盗的描述是真实的;妻⼦子的帐⽬目是
妻⼦子也是如此。
 相对主义的对立⾯面是绝对主义
Relativism vs absolutism
• The opposite of relativism is absolutism
• Absolutism claims there is one single criterion for
绝对主义认为真理理、⽂文化价值观、道德价值观和品味只有⼀一个标准
truth, cultural values, moral values and taste.
• E.g. “The Earth is always round. Those who believed
例例如:“地球总是圆的。那
that the Earth was flat were mistaken.” 些认为地球是平的⼈人错
了了。
• E.g. Homosexuality is morally wrong at all times and
places. ⽆无论何时何地，同性恋在道德上都是错误的
• E.g. Durian tastes bad absolutely. 榴莲的味道绝对不好
3 kinds of relativism
相对主义有关知识
• Relativism concerning knowledge
关于⽂文化和道德价值观的相对主义

• Relativism concerning cultural and moral values

• E.g. Homosexual marriage is acceptable in USA but not in HK.
(cultural value) 同性婚姻在美国是可以接受的，但在香港不⾏行行。
(⽂文化价值)

• Relativism concerning personal taste 相对主义关于个⼈人品味

• E.g. 許廷鏗 is a good singer for you but not for me.
例例如許廷鏗是个好歌⼿手为你⽽而不是我
Relativism (相對主義)concerning knowledge
• Highly controversial 极具争议

• Is the claim that “all truth claims are relative”

itself relative? “所有的真理理都是相对的”这句句话本⾝身是相对的吗?
• If truth is relative, it is meaningless to have
如果真理理是相对的，那么考试和
examinations and to criticize others. 批评别⼈人都是没有意义的
• Truth is a very fundamental value for humans. 真理理是⼈人类最基本的价值观

• Is it advantageous to take a relativistic view

concerning knowledge or not? 对知识采取相对主义观点是否有利利?
Relativism concerning
• There are cultural values
different kinds
of values. Some are
more entrenched (根深
蒂固的) than others.
• e.g. life (survival), safety,
freedom, justice.
• e.g. family, politeness,
decent behaviour.
 评价⽅方法:评价对整个社会或⼈人类的利利弊。

• Assessment method: Evaluate the advantages and

disadvantages to the whole society or mankind.
• Absolutists (絕對主義者) should respect cultural
differences.
可以⽆无限制(絕對主義者)应尊重⽂文化差异。
 Relativism concerning personal taste
因为没有造成严重伤害，所以争议较少
Less controversial as no
seriously harm is done.
e.g. likes or dislikes in
喜欢或不喜欢时尚、⾳音
乐、服装、审美等。 fashion, music, dressing,
aesthetic judgment etc.
Toleration applies.
宽容适⽤用
When you decide whether you want to be a
relativist or an absolutist, consider...
• Suggested criteria:
• Consistency (一致性)
• Explanatory power (解釋能力)(can it explain
phenomena?)
• Pragmatics (實效，會否帶來益處)(If you adopt it, does it
bring you good outcomes?)
• When an absolutist argues with an relativist, 如果相对主义者能够做出⼀一致的回应并提供⼀一致的解释，
然后，绝对主义者会发现很难说服相对主义者。
• 1. if the relativist can respond consistently and provide consistent explanations,
then the absolutist will find it hard to convince the relativist.
• 2. if the relativist gives inconsistent responses, or there are inconsistencies in the
如果相对主义者给出不⼀一致的回答，或者
relativist’s account, then the absolutist can beat the relativist.相对主义者的叙述有不⼀一致之处，那么绝
对主义者就能打败相对主义者。
• 3. if the relativist is consistent throughout the discussion, but the absolutist gives
inconsistent responses/explanation, then the relativist can beat the absolutist.
如果相对主义者在整个讨论中是⼀一致的，但是绝对主义者给出
不⼀一致的回答/解释，那么相对主义者可以击败绝对主义者。
References
• Chalmers, A.F., (1992) What is this thing called Science? (2nd ed.) Milton Keynes:
Open University Press.
• Russell, B., (1912) The Problem of Philosophy, London: Prometheus Books.
• Hume, D., (1772) An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding: A Critical Edition.
Thom L. Beauchamp (Ed.)(2000). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Religious concerns (Part
1)
DR. DANNY LEUNG
 Religious concerns

• Some major religious concerns: Life after death, the

existence of the universe, meaning of life, maintainence
of justice.
• In this topic, we discuss what we can learn from some
recognized religions.

Islam (n) = name of the religion. Muslims (n) = believers of Islam.

believe in the existence of certain superior spirit

Christianity 基督教 邪恶的问题:如果上帝是全善的、全能的、⽆无
所不知的，为什什么世界上会有那么多的⾃自然
灾害和罪恶呢?

• The problem of Evil: if God is all-good, all-powerful

and all-knowing, how come there will natural
disasters and so many crimes in this world?
• One common defence of man-made evil is the free-will defence.
• What about natural disasters and accidents? 对⼈人为罪恶的⼀一种常⻅见辩护是⾃自由意志辩护
The Book of Job in the Bible
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GswSg2ohqmA

• “According to Soren Kierkegaard’s philosophy, believing

in God gives life meaning even if we can’t make sense of
apparent unfairness in life; meaning must be found in a
profound and passionate faith, not in a mere factual belief
in the existence of some superior being.” (Solomon & Higgins,
2014, p. 68) 根据索伦·克尔凯郭尔的哲学，相信上帝赋予⽣生命意义，即使我们⽆无法理理解⽣生活中明
显的不公平;意义必须在⼀一种深刻⽽而热烈的信仰中找到，⽽而不是仅仅在⼀一个事实的信
仰中
存在着某种更更优越的存在。(索罗⻔门和希⾦金金斯，2014年年，第68⻚页)
 • Good and bad are a pair of concept. We know one through
contrast with another. 好与坏是⼀一对概念念。我们通过对比了了解⼀一个。
• To know the meaning of “bad” is one thing. To having bad
experience is another. The latter give you deeper
understanding of “bad”. Also, it gives better understanding of
“good”. (Walsch, 1998, p. 32) 知道“坏”的意思是⼀一回事。有不好的经验是另⼀一个。后
者让你对“坏”有更更深的理理解。同时，它也让⼈人们更更好地
理理解“好”。(沃尔什什，1998，第32⻚页)
• E.g. To have experience death, you will value life differently.
要体验死亡，你会以不同的⽅方式珍惜⽣生命。
 经历过失败，你会对成功有不同的评价

• E.g. To have experience failure, you will value success

differently. 你⼀一定能从⽣生活经验中学到⼀一些东⻄西，好或坏，成
功或失败，快乐或悲伤，富有或贫穷。

• There must be something you can learn from life experience,

good or bad, successful or failure, happy or sad, rich or poor.
• You can also learn something from your interaction with the
poor, the sick, the vice, the disabled, from every corner of the
society. 你还可以从你与穷⼈人、病⼈人、坏
⼈人、残疾⼈人的交往中学到⼀一些东
⻄西，这些⼈人来⾃自社会的各个⾓角落落。
 这就是“上帝⽆无处不在”的意思。
• This is what “God is everywhere (omnipresence) means”.
• “it is not apart from the course of mundane life, but in it and
through it, that the ordinary religious believer claims to
experience, however, imperfectly and fragmentarily, the
divine presence and activity.” (Hick, 1957)
• It is when you are under hardship and you still trust God,
“普通的宗教信徒并不是在脱离世俗⽣生活的过程，⽽而是在其中
then you understand what faith is. 并通过它来体验神圣的存在和活动，然⽽而，这种体验是不完美
的、⽀支离破碎的。””(反应迟钝的⼈人,1957年年)
当你在困境中仍然相信上帝，你就会明⽩白什什么是信仰。
• “God is love.” What does this mean?
• When you are compassionately loving others, you are with
God. When you love someone altruistically, you are closer to
God. 当你富有同情⼼心地爱别⼈人，你就是与神同在。当
你⽆无私地爱⼀一个⼈人，你就更更接近上帝。
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2-1hz1juBI
• Hacksaw Ridge is a movie about Desmond Doss. Is he a
coward?
 如果你能爱你的敌⼈人，你就更更接近神
• If you can love your enemy, you are closer to God.
• How? Ans: To love is to forgive. 如何?爱就是原谅

• Trust that love is solution of all conflicts.

相信爱是所有冲突的解决之道。
Christmas
• Ethiopian famine 1984
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkLPx8mQ-t0
• Do they know it’s Christmas:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lt-dqTQ4oT8
• Live Aid:
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCUAVzSGkkTa-
IoMx_x1XK4Q
• Live 8 2004
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17Q4ej5K3KA

• Do they know it’s Christmas 2014

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-w7jyVHocTk
 Buddhism – Karma (業力)
佛教 根据佛教,每个事件是由⼀一个原因引起的(s)(因)和条件(緣)

• According to Buddhism, every event is caused by a

cause(s) (因) and conditions (緣).
• A cause is like the seed of a plant.
事业就像植物的种⼦子

• Conditions facilitate the growth of the plant, such

as sunlight, water and air. 条件促进了了植物的⽣生⻓长，诸如此类
如阳光、⽔水和空⽓气

• For a human action, Karma is the seed.

对于⼀一个⼈人类⾏行行为来说，业⼒力力就是种⼦子
• Karma refers to volitional (意志) actions which can be
wholesome (正) or unwholesome (邪).(Jing Yin, 2006, p.
95) 业⼒力力指意志(意志)操作,可以健康的(正)或不健康的(邪)
• Karma - thought, speech, and action.
因果报应——思想、⾔言语和⾏行行为
• “Once an action is performed, it will leave behind
potentialities in the form of karma force (seed)” for
certain consequences to realize in the future. (Ibid.,
⼀一旦⼀一个⾏行行为被执⾏行行，它将以业⼒力力⼒力力量量(种⼦子)的形式留留
p. 96) 下潜能，以在未来实现某些结果。(出处同上,第96⻚页)
• When the karma force meets the right conditions, it
will manifest itself and be realized. 当业⼒力力⼒力力量量符合适当的条件时，它将显现并被实现
• 3 kinds of ripening of Karma: Karma ripening in
this life; Karma ripening in the next birth; Karma
三种因果报应:今⽣生因果报应;业⼒力力在下⼀一胎中成熟;
ripening in later births. (Ibid.) 业⼒力力在以后的出⽣生中成熟。(出处同上)
 因果报应就像种⼦子

• Karma (volitional action) is like a seed.

种⼦子只有在适当的条件下才能成熟

• Seeds ripen only if they meet the right conditions.

• But if they do not meet the right conditions in this life,
they remain as seeds until the right conditions come. (i.e.,
karma ripening in the next birth and karma ripening in
later births) (Ibid.)
但如果它们在今⽣生没有达到合适的条件，它们仍将是种⼦子，直到合适的条件出现
• “Good deeds will lead to good consequences. Bad deeds
will lead to bad consequences. If the consequences do not
occur, it is just a matter of time”.(善有善報，惡有惡報，
若然不報，時晨未到。)
• “Those who hurt others will be hurt themselves. If one
helps others, that person will be helped.” (Ibid., p. 97)
 转世后你将成为什什么(輪輪迴)是由业⼒力力的⼒力力量量在你的头脑你死亡的时刻字

• What you will become after reincarnation (輪迴) is

determined by the karma force in your mind at the
moment of your death. (Ibid., p. 97)
• Therefore, one’s dying thoughts are very important in
Buddhism.
因此，⼀一个⼈人的临终思想在佛教中是非常重要的
3 situations
• Weighty karma – We do a lot of good and bad things in
our lifes. Some of them are particularly good or
particularly bad. When we are dying, these strongest
good or evil memories/thoughts will arise, which will
determine our future births. (Ibid., p. 98)
沉重的因果报应——我们⼀一⽣生中做了了很多好事和坏事。有些特别好，有些特
别坏。当我们要死的时候，这些最强烈的或好或坏的记忆/想法会出现，这将
决定我们未来的出⽣生
 习惯性的因果报应——许多⼈人的因果报应既
不是特别好，也不是特别坏。在这种情况
下，习惯将成为影响他们命运的主要因素

• Habitual karma – Many people have karma that is neither

extremely good nor extremely bad. In this case, habits
will become the major influence of their fate. (Ibid.)
• Therefore, it is important for people to understand the
need to develop good habits in their lifes. (Ibid.)
因此，⼈人们理理解在⽣生活中养成良好习惯的必要性是很重要的
• Death-proximate karma – “Some people have neither
weighty karma nor habitual karma.” When they are
dying, they may suddenly think of something. “This
last thought, whether good or evil, will influence their
next birth.” (Ibid.) “有些⼈人既没有沉重的业，也没有习惯性的业。“当他们快要死的时候，他们可能会
突然想到⼀一些事情。这最后的想法，⽆无论是好是坏，都会影响他们的下⼀一次出⽣生。
• Hence, Buddhists encourage people to recall their past
good behavior, forgive others and put down hatred and
remorse. (Ibid.) 因此，佛教徒⿎鼓励⼈人们回忆过去的好⾏行行为，原谅他⼈人，放下仇恨和悔悔恨
• Death-bed chanting – reciting Amitabha Buddha (阿彌陀
佛) with the intention of being reborn in a Pure Land
(淨土). 临终念念佛,念念阿弥陀佛(阿彌陀佛)的意图重⽣生在⼀一个净⼟土(淨⼟土)
 The non-existence of self (無我)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mSYbCFtzOcI

• The self is a construct. There is no rigid boundary of

the reference of this concept. We can expand it or
diminish it. If it covers everything, then there is no
self. (Lee, 1992) ⾃自我是⼀一个构念念。这个概念念没有严格的界限。我们可以
扩⼤大或缩⼩小它。如果它覆盖了了⼀一切，那么就没有⾃自我 在我们看来(表象)是⼀一个构念念。它是结合我
们的⽂文化思想,性格,情感,知识和外部世界
• What appears to us (appearance) is a construct. It is
a combination of our cultural thoughts, character,
emotion, knowledge and the external world.
• If one can eliminate our subjective cultural thoughts,
character, emotion etc. when looking at nature, one will have
the ability to see nature (如實觀) as “as such” (如是).
如果我们可以消除⼀一个主观的⽂文化思想,性格,情感等当观察⾃自
然,你将有能⼒力力看到性质(如實觀)作为“这样”(如是)

• “When not a thing ever really mattered,

Where could dust have gathered and lain?” (本來無一物，何
處惹塵埃？) (Tsang, 2011.)
“当⼀一件事都不重要的时候，
尘⼟土会聚集并落落在哪⾥里里呢?”(本來來無⼀一物,何處惹塵埃?)(Tsang 2011。)
 What we can learn from the theory of karma
在⾃自然中有正义，由业⼒力力⽀支配

• There is justice in nature, governed by karma.

• Here is an inspiring story told by Master Jing Yin: “Two 这⾥里里有⼀一个令⼈人⿎鼓舞的故事，由
boys building their own sandcastles on a beach. The 景吟⼤大师讲述:“两个男孩在沙滩上
建造他们⾃自⼰己的沙堡。城堡是如
castles are so beautiful that the boys become jealous and 此的美丽，以⾄至于男孩们嫉妒起
end up fighting with each other. While they are fighting, 来，最后互相打架。当他们在战
⽃斗时，⼀一个巨浪冲毁了了他们的城
a wave washes away their castles. When they realize 堡。当他们意识到他们为之奋⽃斗
的⽬目标不复存在时，这两个男孩
that the objects over which they are fighting no longer ⼜又成为了了好朋友，并愉快地回到
了了家，⼿手拉着⼿手。(景银，2006,p
exist, the boys become good friends once again, and
happily return home, hand-in-hand.” (Jing Yin, 2006, p.
103)
 ⽣生活是不确定的。死亡是肯定的
• Life is uncertain. Death is certain.
世俗的东⻄西不重要。充分利利⽤用你的⽣生命去做善事，创造善业
• Worldly things are unimportant. Make the best use of
your life to do good deeds and create good karma. (Ibid.)
• Be less egoistic. Be nice and fair to everything. (眾生皆平
等).
少⼀一些⾃自我中⼼心。对每件事都要友善、公平。(眾⽣生皆平等)
References
• Hick J. Faith and Knowledge: A Modern Introduction to the Problem of Religious Knowledge. Cambridge
University Press. 1957.
• Jing Yin. “Death from the Buddhist view: knowing the unknown” in Death, Dying and Bereavement: A Hong Kong
Chinese Experience. Chan C. & Chow A (eds.) Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong. 2006.
• Lai CT. “Making peace with the unknown: a reflection on Daoist funerary liturgy in Death, Dying and Bereavement:
A Hong Kong Chinese Experience. Chan C. & Chow A (eds.) Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong. 2006.
• Solomon R. & Higgins K (eds.) The Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy. Wadsworth, 2014.
• Tsang B. Shenxiu and Huineng – Bodhi and a Clear Reflecting Plane.
https://28utscprojects.wordpress.com/2011/03/01/英譯-神秀與惠能-%EF%BC%8D-菩提與明鏡/. 2011.
• Walsch ND. Communion with God: an Uncommon Dialogue. Hodder & Stoughton. 1998.
Religious concerns (Part 2)
DR. DANNY LEUNG
 Indigenous 本土的

Daoism
• There are two main schools in Daoism: the School of the
Orthodox Unity (Zhengyi) and the School of Total
Perfection (Quanzhen). (Lai, 2006, p. 87) 道教有两个主要流派:正统统⼀一派(正⼀一)和全真派(全真)
• The School of the Orthodox Unity looks after “local
communities and temple organizations and provide
them with liturgical(禮拜儀式) framework and ritual
specialists.” (Ibid.) 正统的学校统⼀一照看“当地社区和寺庙组织和为他们
提供礼仪(禮拜儀式)框架和仪式专家。”(同前)

• The School of Total Perfection “practice inner alchemy,

look for ways to nourish and prolong life, and pursue
xian-transcendency.” (Ibid.) 总完美”的学校实践内在炼⾦金金术,寻找滋养和延⻓长寿
命的⽅方法,和追求xian-transcendency。
 • Daoism directs people towards life and protect the
lives of all beings and all things in their natural
course of development. 道学引导⼈人走向⽣生命，保护万物在⾃自然发展过程中的⽣生命
• Longevity is an important value in Chinese culture. ⻓长寿是中国⽂文化的⼀一个重要价值
• It is a treasure to have an old person in a family.
家⾥里里有老⼈人是⼀一件很珍贵的事
• Daoism has the concept of chengfu (inheritance of sin)
and baoying (repayment of sin). 道教有成佛(继承罪孽)和宝应(偿还罪孽)的概念念
• Cheng means “to bear the consequences of the 成的意思是“为祖先的⾏行行为承担后果”，
福的意思是“为⼦子孙后代的财富负责”。
ancestors’ deeds” and fu means “being responsible for(Hui & Leung, 2012, p. 151)
descendants’ fortune.” (Hui & Leung, 2012, p. 151)
• “One is supposed to be responsible for one’s ancestors’
good deeds/sins, and one is also the creator of later
“⼀一个⼈人应该为他的祖先的善⾏行行/罪恶负
generations’ good/bad fortune.” (Ibid.) 责，他也是后代的好/坏运⽓气的创造者。”
 家庭观念念很强
• The concept of family is strong.
整个家庭是⼀一个整体。家庭成员在道德上是紧密
• The whole family is one unit. Family 相连的。如果⼀一个⼈人犯罪，其他家庭成员也会受
到影响。家庭成员共同对家庭的命运负责
members are morally tied together. If one
commits a sin, other family members will
be affected. Member in a family are
collectively responsible for the family fate.
(Yuan, 2002, p. 172-173) 宝应(赎罪)可以发⽣生在⾃自⼰己⾝身上，
也可以发⽣生在⾃自⼰己的后代⾝身上
• baoying (repayment of sin) can happen to
oneself, or to one’s descendants.
这是维护正义的⽅方式
• This is the way that justice is maintained.
• Deep-rooted in Chinese culture.
根植于中国⽂文化
What can we learn from Daoism?
尊重老⼈人，照顾老⼈人
• Respect the elderly and take care of them.
• Be prudent when you act. 谨慎⾏行行事
• Do good deeds to accumulate merits
⾏行行善积德
Shinto
• Shinto is an animistic religion (living and non-
神道教是⼀一种万物有灵的宗教(有⽣生命
living things have souls that are worshipped.) 的和⽆无⽣生命的事物都有被崇拜的灵魂)

• Kami is the various deities of Heaven and Earth.

(Shunzo, 1968, p. 25) Kami是天上和⼈人间的诸神

• Mountains, rivers, places, thunder, fox, sword,

ancestors, Emperor etc. can be deities.
⼭山、河、地、雷、狐、剑、祖先、皇帝等都可以是神
• The more important deities stay at the Plain of High
更更重要的神停留留在天上的平
Heaven, including Izanagi and Izanami. (Ibid.) 原，包括伊扎那吉和伊扎那米
• “Izanagi is the sky father, begot the Sun Goddess and the
Moon God” and the Storm God. (Ibid.) “Izanagi是天空之⽗父，⽣生了了太阳女神和⽉月亮神”和⻛风暴暴神
 “太阳女神派遣了了他的孙⼦子，尼尼吉-诺-米古
托，去⽇日本占领和统治这些岛屿”和⼈人⺠民。”

• “The Sun Goddess dispatched a grandson,

Ninigi-no-Mikoto, to Japan to possess and rule
the islands” and the people.” (Ibid.)
• “A great grandson of Ninigi-no-Mikoto, called
Jinmu, was eventually enthroned as the first
emperor of Japan.” (Ibid.)
“Ninigi-no-Mikoto的曾孙，名叫⾦金金⽊木，最终登上了了⽇日本第⼀一位天皇的宝座。”

Detail of Emperor Jinmu - Stories from "Nihonki"

(Chronicles of Japan), by Ginko Adachi.
• Since Japanese people regard everything has a soul,
they pay respect to everything. 因为⽇日本⼈人认为⼀一切都有灵魂，所以他们尊重⼀一切
• This is deep-rooted in their culture and in the core
of psyche. 这是深深植根于他们的⽂文化和⼼心灵的核⼼心
• This is not just courtesy or politeness. This is a
这不仅仅是礼貌或礼貌。这是⼀一种基本的态度，⼀一
fundamental attitude, a world view. 种世界观。

• That’s why Japanese people are so polite, tidy and

professional. 这就是为什什么⽇日本⼈人非常有礼貌,整洁和专业
What can we learn from Shinto?
• Develop respect to people and the world. Preserve them
and protect them. 培养对⼈人和世界的尊重。保护它们
• If you have such a respectful attitude, you will become
truly humble.
如果你有这样⼀一种尊重的态度，你会变得真正的谦卑卑
 Islam
• Islam also emphasizes compassion,
brotherhood, helpfulness, self-discipline,
gratitude and peace etc. 伊斯兰教还强调同情、兄弟情谊、乐于
助⼈人、⾃自律律、感恩和和平等
• What can we learn from Islam?
• 1. Brotherhood: attending the funerals of
other muslims, even those unknown to you.
Offer substantial help during the burial.
兄弟情谊:参加其他穆斯林林的葬礼，即使是那些
你不认识的⼈人。在葬礼期间提供⼤大量量帮助
• 2. Ramadan, a month during which muslims would fast
from sunrise to sunset. 斋⽉月，穆斯林林从⽇日出到⽇日落落斋戒的⼀一个⽉月
让穆斯林林知道，如果他们愿意，他们可以抵制诱惑和欲望
• Let the muslims know that they can resist their
temptations and desires if they wish. (Gilbert, 2009, p. 390.)
• To feel what it is like to be hungry and so become more
compassionate to those who are poor and suffering. (Ibid.)
感受饥饿的感觉，从⽽而对那些贫穷和痛苦的⼈人更更有同情⼼心
References
• Chan C. & Chow A (eds.) Death, Dying and Bereavement: A Hong Kong Chinese Experience.
Hong Kong University Press. 2006.
• Hui E. & Leung D. Chinese Religion and Hospice Care. In Coward H. & Stajduhar K.I. (eds).
Religious Understandings of a Good Death in Hospice Care. SUNY Press. 2012.
• Gilbert M. The Halal Food. Wiley, NY, 2009.
• Lee TM. Existence and Reflection (Talk). 1992.
• Yuan G. A Research for the Theory of Chengfu of Tai Ping Classic. Journal of Religion and
Culture (2) 167-209. Taiwan: National Cheng Kung University.
• Shunzo S. Shinto: Japanese Ethnocentrism, in The Japanese Mind: Essentials of Japanese
Philosophy and Culture. (Moore CA ed.) University of Hawaii Press. 1969.
Good (Part 1)
DR. DANNY LEUNG
 Eudaimonia = intellectual virtue + character virtue men are rational animals
Vicious 惡性 - Intellectual virtue
- virtue of character
What is a good life? Phronesis 實踐智慧

• Aristotle’s (384-322BC) happiness (Eudaimonia) meant the good life as a

whole, an integrated life with virtues, knowledge, wisdom, a sense of
justice and friendship. (Solomon & Higgins, 2014, p. 260) 亚⾥里里⼠士多德(公元前384-322年年)的幸
福(Eudaimonia)意味着美好的⽣生活
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VFPBf1AZOQg 作为⼀一个整体，⼀一个完整的⽣生活与美
德，知识，智慧，正义和友谊的感觉
• Virtue is the balanced point between excess and deficit (the Doctrine of
the Golden Mean) 美德是过剩与不⾜足之间的平衡点(中庸之道)
• E.g. cowardice -----courage------recklessness 例例如:懦弱——勇⽓气——鲁莽

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ

intellectual virtue = scientific

The doctrine of the Golden Mean knowledge + wisdom of how to
apply
• “What is a good life?” and “What is the meaning of life?” are
similar questions. The former focus on a state of well-being.
The latter focus on things you want to achieve in your life.
什什么是美好的⽣生活?和“⽣生命的意义是什什么?”类似的问题。前者
侧重于⼀一种幸福的状态。后者专注于你想在⽣生活中实现的事情

• A good life should be meaningful. Your answer to “What is a

good life?” should cover the answer to “What is the meaning
of life?”; but not necessarily the other way round.
好的⽣生活应该是有意义的。你对“什什么是美好⽣生活?”应涵
盖“⽣生命的意义是什什么?”的答案;但反过来未必如此
What is the meaning of life?
• What does the question “What is the meaning of life?” mean?
两种解释:集体意义与个⼈人意义
• Two interpretations: collective meaning vs individualistic meaning
• If you are Christian, you might think that the meaning of life is to get
ready to have a re-union with God. (collective meaning)
如果你是基督徒，你可能会认为⽣生命的意义是准备好与上帝重新结合。(集体意义)

• If you are an atheist, you might think that the meaning of your life is
determined by yourself; and everyone can be different. (individualistic
meaning) 如果你是⼀一个⽆无神论者，你可能认为你⽣生命的意义是由你⾃自
⼰己决定的;每个⼈人都可以是不同的。(个⼈人主义的含义)
 • For the individualistic meaning of life, you can interpret “what is the meaning of
life?” like this: 对于⽣生活的个⼈人主义意义，你可以理理解为“什什么是⽣生活的意义?”“是这样的:
• X is the meaning of your life if and only if when you do/own X, you feel you are
achieving something important, and/or very satisfied, and/or contributive to
当且仅当当你做/拥有某件事时，你感到你正在完成
others. (You can add more items to this list.)某件重要的事，并且/或非常满意，并且/或对他⼈人有
当你经常做某事/拥有很多某事时，你会觉得你的⽣生活很有意义
所贡献时，X才是你⽣生命的意义
• You feel your life is very meaningful when you can do X often/own a lot of X.
• X should be a very important value to you. It can be a thing or an activity.
• X should be about your long-term goal. It’s effect on you should be long lasting.
X对你来说应该是⼀一个非常重要的
X应该是关于你的⻓长期⽬目标。它对你的影响应该是持久的。 值。它可以是⼀一件事或⼀一项活动
 例例如，⼀一些⼈人认为“挣钱”是⽣生活的意义。这意味着对他们来说，当他们赚钱时，他们会感
到他们正在完成⼀一些重要的事情，并且/或者非常满意，并且/或者对其他⼈人有贡献
• For example, some people regard “earning money” is the meaning of life. That
means for them, they will feel that they are achieving something important,
and/or very satisfied, and/or contributive to others when they earn money.
• They will feel that their life is very meaningful when they are earning money all
the time.
当他们⼀一直在赚钱的时候，他们会觉得他们的⽣生活很有意义。

One’s meaning of life can consist of more than one thing/activity. It can be X + Y + Z
etc.
⼀一个⼈人的⽣生命意义可以由不⽌止⼀一件事/⼀一项活动组成。可以是X + Y + Z等等
Video watching and discussion
• Video 1
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zO--hYecQKo

• Video 2
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=36m1o-tM05g
Questions to discuss
• 1. The speakers in the videos form a contrast. But do they have something in common? Explain
your answer.
• 2. To what extent do you agree with the two speakers? Explain your answer.
• 3. In the individualistic meaning of life, is there anything objective? Why or why not?
• 4. Imagine that your group is one person. Characterize the meaning of life of this person.
• 5. If a junior schoolmate comes to you and say that his/her life is meaningless. What would you
say to encourage this schoolmate?
• --- Changing our attitude when faced with a situation or circumstance that we cannot change.
 What is a meaningful life? Here are some common
answers.
• 1. To live a honorable and graceful life, with nothing to regret.
• 2. To live an altruistic life; to give and expecting no returns.
• 3. To learn, continuously throughout life, not just for
qualifications.
• 4. To have more experience, good or bad; to meet more
people; to go to more places.
• 5. To fall in love with the best person.
• 6. To do well in one’s interest or hobby, e.g. art and/or sports.
How to live a meaningful life?
• 1. Identify what is/are (persistently) meaningful to you.
• 2. Make a life plan such that you can do these things.
• 3. Make sure that your meaningful life will not cause harm
to others.
• 4. If your meaningful life can be a burden for others, or you
need to fulfill other duties in your life, make a balance.
Good 善 (Part II)
DR. DANNY LEUNG
 香港是⼀一个资本主义商业城市，市场价值是
Can money buy everything? 香港⼈人的主要价值。最近，越来越多的东⻄西
可以⽤用钱买到。这是合理理的吗?
• Hong Kong is a capitalist commercial city, market value is a major value
for Hong Kong people. Recently, more and more things can be bought by
using money. Is this justified?
• Case 1: Concert ticket scalping 案例例1:演唱会⻔门票倒卖

• Nowadays, in Hong Kong, it is legal to sell second-hand concert tickets at

a higher price. The agencies, such as Viagogo and Stubhub, hire scalpers to
queue and buy as many tickets as they can, and then sell the tickets
through the internet. The tickets sold are at a (much) higher price. Do you
think this is morally ok. Why or why not? (Sandel, 2012, p. 21)
如今，在香港，以更更⾼高的价格出售⼆二⼿手⾳音乐会⻔门票是合法的。像Viagogo和Stubhub这样的
代理理机构，雇佣黄⽜牛排队购买尽可能多的⻔门票，然后通过互联⽹网出售⻔门票。售出的票价格要
⾼高得多。你认为这在道德上是正确的吗?为什什么或为什什么不?(桑德尔，2012，第21⻚页)
• Case 2: Paying students for good grades.
• Nowadays, in the U.S., some schools try to enhance academic
performance by paying money to pupils who get good grades or
high scores in tests and exams. This is to use money as an
incentive to encourage students to study hard. What do you think?
给成绩好的学⽣生发⼯工资。
(Ibid., p. 51) •如今，在美国在美国，⼀一些学校试图通过给在考试中取得好成绩
或⾼高分的学⽣生发奖⾦金金来提⾼高学⽣生的学习成绩。这是⽤用⾦金金钱作为激
励来⿎鼓励学⽣生努⼒力力学习。你觉得怎么样?

• Case 3: Bought Honor

• Suppose you really need a Nobel Prize but you fail to get one in
the usual way. Someone proposes to you that you can buy one.
The Nobel Prize sold to you is genuine, not a fake one. This deal
will be kept secret. What do you think? (Ibid., p. 94)
买了了荣誉
•假设你真的需要⼀一个诺⻉贝尔奖，但你通常得不到。有⼈人建议你买⼀一台。
卖给你的诺⻉贝尔奖是真的，不是假的。这笔交易易将保密。你觉得怎么样?
 案例例4:利利⽤用礼物赚钱
•你的⼀一个朋友告诉你她从来不收礼物。相反，她会要求其他⼈人，⽆无论是
她的丈夫、朋友、⽗父⺟母和亲戚，直接给她现⾦金金，这样她就可以⽤用这些钱买
• Case 4: Monetizing Gifts 她真正想要的东⻄西。你觉得怎么样？

• A friend of you told you that she never accepts gifts.

Instead, she would ask others, no matter it’s her husband,
friends, parents and relatives, to give her cash directly, so
that she can use the money to buy what she really wants.
What do you think? (Ibid., p. 104)
 反对倒票的⼀一个理理由是，购买⾳音乐会⻔门票的机会有
Can money buy everything? 限。黄⽜牛拿到票后，就失去了了以原价买票的机会。那
些买不起⾼高价票的⼈人将失去看演唱会的机会，如果所
Case analysis 有票都以原价出售，他们本来应该有机会看演唱会
的。因此，倒卖对那些买不起⾼高价的⼈人是不公平的。
• Case 1: One argument against ticket scalping is that since
opportunity for buying tickets of a concert is limited. When a
scalper gets a ticket, an opportunity for buying a ticket at the
original price will be gone. Those who cannot afford a high
price ticket will lose an opportunity to watch the concert,
which they are supposed to have if all tickets are sold at
original price. Therefore, scalping is unfair to those who
cannot afford the high price. (Ibid., p. 31)
 • However, concert organizers might reply that they want to give the
tickets to those value them most; and these people are those willing
to buy expensive tickets from scalpers.
然⽽而，⾳音乐会的组织者可能会回答说，他们想把票给那些最珍视它们
的⼈人;这些⼈人是那些愿意从黄⽜牛那⾥里里买⾼高价票的⼈人

• We need to ask: What is the best way to value concert tickets?

Paying a higher price for second-hand tickets or queuing to buy
original-price tickets? Which one is a better measure? (Ibid., p. 32)
我们需要问:评估⾳音乐会⻔门票价值的最佳⽅方式是什什么?花⾼高价买⼆二⼿手票还是排队买原价票?哪⼀一个是更更好的衡量量标准?
Corruption 腐敗

Another problem is corruption: To degrade a good or a social

practice is also corruption. 另⼀一个问题是腐败:贬低⼀一种商品或社会⾏行行为也是腐败
What is it to degrade something?
Ans: To treat the thing according to a lower mode of valuation
than is appropriate to it. For example, having babies in order
to sell them for earning money is to corrupt parenthood. (Ibid.,
p. 34) 以低于适当的估价⽅方式来对待事物。例例如，为了了赚钱⽽而
⽣生孩⼦子是败坏⽗父⺟母的⾏行行为。
 ⾳音乐会仅仅是⼀一种商品吗?
Is a concert simply a commodity? 答:⾳音乐会的功能是歌⼿手与歌迷⻅见⾯面的场合。这就像
⼀一个聚会，歌⼿手送的礼物。它不仅仅是⼀一种商品
Ans: The function of a concert is an occasion for a singer to meet his/her fans. It’s
like a gathering, a gift offered by the singer. It is more than a commodity. (Ibid.)
To treat it as a mere commodity will ignore the gift relation between the singer and
his/her fans. (Ibid., p. 38) 把它当作⼀一种商品会忽视歌⼿手和
他/她的歌迷之间的礼物关系
• To decide how to value a good, we need to consider the nature and original
purpose of the good. Treating it like a commodity is not always suitable.
在决定如何评价⼀一件商品时，我们需要考虑该商品的性质和最初的⽤用途。把它当作商品来对待并不不总是合适的
 • Case 2: Paying students for good grades
Supporters might argue that research has shown that using
money as incentive can effectively make students studying
harder for tests and exams (factual). Therefore, this strategy
should be adopted. (Ibid. p.54)
⽀支持者可能会认为，研究表明，使⽤用⾦金金钱作为激励可以有效地使学⽣生
更更努⼒力力地学习考试和考试(事实)。因此，应采取这⼀一战略略

However, should we encourage students like this (normative)?

然⽽而，我们应该⿎鼓励这样的学⽣生吗?
 科学研究的是事实问题，⽽而不是规范性问题。
• Science deals with factual issues, but not normative issues.
• Ethics deals with normative issues.
伦理理处理理规范问题

• Ethicists ask: What is the meaning/value of an A grade? 伦理理学家会问:A级的意义/价值是什什么?

• We need to consider whether paying money for A grades will degrade the A
grades to a lower norm than is appropriate to it.
我们需要考虑的是，为A级考试⽀支付费⽤用是否会将A级考试成绩降低到⼀一个低于正常⽔水平的⽔水平

•
 此外，努⼒力力学习是⼀一个学⽣生的责任，⼀一个学⽣生应该做什什么。勤勤奋是⼀一
Corruption 种美德。为它买单会使学⽣生们忘记这⼀一责任，并使美德蒙上阴影

• Moreover, studying hard is a student’s duty, what a student

should do. Diligence is a virtue. Paying for it will make students
forget this duty and cloud the virtue.
• An A grade signifies your hard work and preparation, time
management and intelligence. It is an intrinsic value (good in its
own). (Ibid. p. 46) A级意味着你的努⼒力力⼯工作和准备，时间管理理和智⼒力力。它
是⼀一种内在的价值(其本⾝身是好的)
• Paying for an A grade might make it an instrumental value, an
(students studying hard in order to get the money, overlooking
the satisfaction and successful feeling earned from hard work.)
⽀支付A级可能会使它成为⼀一种⼯工具价值，an(学⽣生为了了赚钱
(Ibid.) ⽽而努⼒力力学习，忽视了了通过努⼒力力⼯工作获得的满⾜足感和成功感)
• Case 3: Bought Honor
• Nobel Prize is honor. What is the good in this prize?
• Ans: hard work, intelligence, perseverance.
If Nobel Prize can be bought, the good will be
勤勤奋、智慧、坚持不懈。
undermined. 如果能买到诺⻉贝尔奖，那么好的⼀一⾯面就会被破坏
• The prize will no longer convey or express the
honor and recognition that the awardees used to
receive. (Ibid., p. 94)
该奖项将不再传达或表达获奖者过去所获得的荣誉和认可
• Case 4: Monetizing Gifts
• What is the meaning of a gifting?
• When you buy a gift for someone, it means that you want to please that
person. 当你给某⼈人买礼物时，意思是你想要取悦那个⼈人
• It also means that you are attentive to this person. 这也意味着你对这个⼈人很关⼼心
这也意味着你想要满⾜足这个⼈人的喜好
• It also means that you want to satisfy this person’s preference.
• You are making effort to engage, connect with, and develop intimacy
with that person. (Ibid., p. 101)
你正在努⼒力力与那个⼈人接触、联系并发展亲密关系
 ⽤用⾦金金钱来代替礼物可能表明你的粗⼼心⼤大意。这就像⽤用钱来代替注意⼒力力
• Using money to substitute gifting might indicates
thoughtless indifference. It’s like using money to replace
attentiveness. (Ibid., p. 102)
To monetize all forms of giving among friends is to corrupt
friendship. (Ibid.)
把朋友之间各种形式的给予货币化，就是破坏友谊
 Confucianism (儒家) 除了了关⼼心我们⾃自⼰己的幸福，我们是社会动物，我们需
要为他⼈人着想。在这⽅方⾯面，我们可以借鉴中国哲学
• Apart from caring our own well-being, we are social animals
and we need to be good for others. In this aspect, we can
learning from Chinese philosophy. 任”(仁)是儒家的最⾼高美德
在⻄西⽅方⽂文化中，精神与⾝身体是分
• “ren” (仁) is the highest virtue in Confucianism. 离的，⽽而儒家思想则是⼼心⾝身合⼀一
(即精神与⾝身体相辅相成)

• While the mind and the body is separated in Western

Culture, a Confucian person is a psychosomatic unity (i.e. the
spirit and the body depend on each other). 中国⼈人相信⼈人是⼀一个统⼀一的沈沈(⾝身体)(⾝身)和兴
(⼼心理理)(⼼心),他们都是滋养
• The Chinese believe that a human person is a unity of shen
(body) (身) and xing (psyche) (心), both of them are nourished
 ⽓气位于五个⼼心理理能⼒力力:精神——⼼心(⼼心藏神),将——肾(腎藏志),灵魂——
肝脏(肝藏魂),动物精神——肺(肺藏魄)和想法——脾(脾藏意)
• Qi is located in five psychological faculties: spirit – heart
(心藏神), will – kidney (腎藏志), soul – liver (肝藏魂),
animal spirit – lung (肺藏魄)and ideas – spleen (脾藏意).
• If the five organs are in good states, then qi will circulate
smoothly and mental health is maintained. 五脏状态良好，则⽓气运畅
通，精神健康得以维持

• On the other hand, if the flow of the qi is excessively

affected by the environment, such as bereavement, the
organs in charge will be affected too and result in
maladies (病). This notion is also manifested in the
Chinese saying ‘anger hurts the liver’ (怒傷肝).
另⼀一⽅方⾯面,如果⽓气的流动过度受到环境的影响,如丧亲之痛,主管机关也会受到影响,
导致疾病(病)。这个概念念还体现在中国说“怒⽓气伤肝”(怒傷肝
这是儒家⼈人的⼼心⾝身合⼀一的⼀一种意义

• This is one sense in which a Confucian person is a psychosomatic

unity. (Hui & Leung 2012, p.147)
依赖的概念念在中国⽂文化中很重要
• The concept of dependency is important in Chinese culture.
• The cosmos, the society (environment) and the individual are inter-
related. The Confucians hold that “man is a member of the triad of
“Heaven, Earth, and Man” (天地人) and describe Tian (Heaven) as
“a strong supernatural force that…determines human Destiny and
is beyond human control and manipulation” (Hui 1999, p138).
宇宙、社会(环境)和个⼈人是相互关联的。儒家认为“⼈人是三合会成员的“天堂,地球和⼈人类”(天地
⼈人)和⽥田(天堂)描述为“⼀一个强⼤大的超⾃自然的⼒力力量量……决定⼈人类命运和超出⼈人类控制和操纵”
• To have success, you need “right timing, right
venues and the harmonious people” (天時，地利，人
和).

• The concept of ‘relationality’ (關係) is essential in the

constitution of human personhood.
• Personhood in Confucianism: relational-self. (Ibid.)
儒学中的⼈人格:关系-⾃自我。(出处同上)
 天的本性是善良的，不知何故，⼈人类从⽥田那⾥里里继承了了⼀一些善良的品质

• “The nature of Tian is good and somehow humans inherit

some of this good character from Tian.” (Hui & Leung, 2012,
p.146) ⼈人类要亲近⽥田，就要学习圣贤的教导，履⾏行行社会责任，做⼀一个有道德的⼈人。的
理理想是成为⼀一个道德圣⼈人和最终实现“天堂和成为⼀一个⼈人”(天⼈人合⼀一)”
• For humans to get closer to Tian, we need to study the
teaching of the sages, fulfill social responsibilities and be a
virtuous person. The ideal is to become a moral sage and
finally achieve ‘Heaven and Man become One’ (天人合一)”.
(Ibid.)
• Only adults over fifty years of age can understand the intention
of Tian (五十而知天命) 缺乏理理解年年轻⼈人应服从或顺从(服從)到适当的⾏行行为准则
• Younger people who lack the understanding should comply or
be submissive (服從) to the appropriate code of conduct.
顺从的⾏行行为最终会使⼈人受益
• Obedient behavior will finally benefit one’s personhood.” (Ibid.)
• That’s why in Chinese culture paternalism (家長式管治) is
preferred.
这就是为什什么在中国⽂文化中家⻓长制(家長式管治)者优先
 天的本质是任正非,所有社会和道德实践的核⼼心价值
是实现任,这是必不可少的的⼀一个圣⼈人(聖⼈人)
• “The nature of Tian is ren, the central value of all social and
moral practice is to live out ren and this is essential for the
making of a sage (聖人).” (Ibid.) 在儒家的时间,有五个关键在⼈人类社会⼈人际关系:国王,
统治者和主题,⽗父⼦子、夫妻,老和年年轻朋友和朋友(君⾂臣
⽗父⼦子夫婦兄弟朋友)。
• In Confucians’ time, there were five key human relationships
in human society: the King/ruler-subject, father-son,
husband-wife, elder-younger and friend-friend (君臣 父子 夫
婦 兄弟 朋友).
这些关系层次的顺序是:低等级应该是尊重,听话(服從)
• These relationships are in a hierarchical order: the lower
ranks are supposed to be respectful, obedient (服從) and
 对于每⼀一种关系，都有相应的⾏行行为规则，这也是⼀一种社会责
任。例例如,忠诚(忠)ruler-subject关系的正确态度;孝顺(孝)是⽗父
⼦子关系的正确态度;和感情(愛)正确的态度在丈夫,妻⼦子的关系。
• For each relationship, there is a corresponding behavioral rule which is
also a social responsibility. For example, loyalty (忠) is the correct attitude
in a ruler-subject relationship; filial piety (孝) is the correct attitude in a
father-son relationship; and affection (愛) the right attitude in a husband-
wife relationship. (Hui & Leung, 2012, p.146)

• All these rules, collectively known as li (禮), would lead one to achieve
ren. Hence, fulfilling social responsibility is a way to become closer to
Tian and to perfect one’s personhood. (Ibid.)
所有这些规则,统称为李(禮),就能实现任。因此，
履⾏行行社会责任是亲近⽥田、完善⼈人格的⼀一种⽅方式
在儒家思想中，“⼈人始终是‘亲’”

• “In Confucianism, “a person is always a ‘person-in-

relations’” (Hui 1999, 130).
• Our social structure is modeled on Tian and proper social
behavior is a way to acquire the virtues of Tian.” (Ibid.)
我们的社会结构是模仿⽥田的，适当的社会⾏行行为是获得⽥田的美德的⼀一种⽅方式
Characteristics of Chinese culture
在儒家思想中，服从和礼是达到仁的关键
• In Confucianism, obedience and li are key to achieve ren.
• Chinese ethics is duty-based ethics. To be a good person, one is
expected to fulfil one’s familial and social duties.中国伦理理是以责任为基础的伦理理。⼀一个⼈人要
成为⼀一个好⼈人，就必须履⾏行行家庭和社会责任
• Relational-self: a person is defined by his/her relation with others,
such as family members and members of the same village. A
关系⾃自我:⼀一个⼈人的定义是他/她与他⼈人的关
person’s identity is given by such relations. 系，如家庭成员和同⼀一村庄的成员。⼀一个⼈人
的⾝身份是由这种关系决定的
• Hence, the country, the village and the family are more important
than the individual self.
因此，国家、村庄和家庭比个⼈人更更重要
• Hence, an individual should be ready to sacrifice (犧牲) for the family,
the village or the country. Family decision can override individual
decision. 因此,⼀一个⼈人应该准备好牺牲(犧牲)的家庭、村庄或
国家。家庭决策可以凌驾于个⼈人决策之上。
• Altruism (捨己為人 sacrifice your own interest and act for the interest of
others) is expected if individual interest is in conflict with collective
利利他主义(捨⼰己為⼈人牺牲⾃自⼰己的利利益和
interest (that of family, village and country). ⾏行行动为他⼈人的利利益)预计如果个⼈人利利益
与集体利利益相冲突(家庭、村庄和国家)
• Paternalism (one can be forced to do something or not to do something
for the sake of one’s own good) is commonly practised in Chinese
society. 中国社会普遍存在家⻓长式作⻛风(为了了⾃自⼰己的利利益，⼀一个
⼈人可能被迫做某事，也可能被迫不做某事)
• Chinese culture also demands the ruler and those in ruling positions to
be persons with integrity, li and other virtues, just like a sage.
中国⽂文化也要求统治者和执政者像圣⼈人⼀一样具有正直、礼等美德
• Pleasure is not important. Pain and endurance of difficulties
is actually good for oneself.快乐并不重要。痛苦和忍受困难其实对⾃自⼰己是有好处的。
• “When Heaven is about to place a great responsibility on a
great man, it always first frustrates his spirit and will,
exhausts his muscles and bones, exposes him to starvation
and poverty, harasses him by troubles and setbacks so as to
stimulate his spirit, toughen his nature and enhance his
abilities.” said Mencius.
• 天將降大任於斯人也，必先苦其心志，勞其筋骨，餓其體膚，
空乏其身，行拂亂其所為，所以動心忍性，增益其所不能。」
• We have the Chinese saying “If you want to be the highest
What about Western culture?
• Western culture emphasizes individualism, rationality and
democracy. ⻄西⽅方⽂文化强调个⼈人主义、理理性和⺠民主
约翰•洛洛克(John Locke):让你成为你⾃自⼰己的是你的记忆
• John Locke: what makes you you is your memory.
• Locke thinks that the criterion of personal identity is one’s
memory. 洛洛克认为个⼈人⾝身份的标准是⼀一个⼈人的记忆
• René Descartes: I think therefore I am.
• Descartes argues that he can doubt about everything; but
whenever he doubts, there must be a doubter.
笛卡尔认为他可以怀疑⼀一切;但当他怀疑的时候，⼀一定会有⼀一个怀疑的⼈人
 ⻢马丁路路德:每个⼈人都有平等的机会与神沟通
• Martin Luther: everyone has equality opportunity to
communicate with God.
• Protestantism is a movement against Catholicism, in which
the Catholic clergymen are supposed to be God’s
spokesmen on the Earth.
新教是⼀一场反对天主教的运动，天主教神职⼈人员被认为是上帝在地球上的代⾔言⼈人。
 社会契约:统治者与公⺠民之间的关系是⼀一种契约关系。没有⼀一⽅方是默认的上级。这条规
则是⽤用来照顾所有公⺠民的。统治者更更有权⼒力力，但同时也肩负着沉重的责任。如果他/她
做得好，他/她可以继续统治。如果没有，⼈人⺠民可以代替他/她。
• Social contract: the relationship between a ruler and citizens is a
contractual relationship. No party is by default superior. The
rule is chosen to take care of all citizens. The ruler is more
powerful but at the same time has a heavy duty. If he/she does it
well, he/she can continue to rule. If not, the people can replace
him/her.
• Democracy: “demos”+”kratos” originated from Athens in
Ancient time.
⺠民主:“demos”+“kratos”起源于古代雅典。
 因此，⻄西⽅方⽂文化强调个⼈人的权利利、⾃自治和政治平等。这
些特点可能与中国⽂文化的特点相冲突
• Western culture therefore emphasizes one’s own rights, autonomy and
political equality. These characteristics might conflict with those of
Chinese culture. 香港⽂文化是中⻄西⽂文化的融合。当他们的价值观发⽣生冲突
时，我们应该尊重双⽅方，平衡双⽅方的价值观。(中庸之道)
• Hong Kong culture is a mixture of both Chinese and Western culture.
When their values clash, we should respect both and balance the values
of both sides. (the Doctrine of the Golden Mean)
• There are several areas that we can learn from both Chinese and
Western culture:
• (1) Integrity – Be honest and a trustful person. •(1)正直-诚实和值得信任的⼈人

• Both Chinese and Western culture emphasizes integrity. “Honesty is

the best policy”. 中⻄西⽅方⽂文化都强调诚信。“诚实为上策”
• You need to earn people’s trust. It is not easy to earn, but it is difficult to
destroy. 你需要赢得⼈人们的信任。挣钱不易易，消灭难
• Handle things in a fair and just manner.以公平公正的⽅方式处理理事情

利利他主义——牺牲⾃自⼰己的利利益，为他⼈人的利利益⽽而⾏行行动
• (2) Altruism – sacrifice one’s own interest to act for the interest of others.
中国⽂文化崇尚为家庭或国家做出牺牲。这样的牺牲可以加强⾃自⼰己和他⼈人之间的联系
• Chinese culture glorifies sacrifices for the family or country. Such
sacrifices can strengthen the bonding between oneself and others.
• “Not to pass on to others what one is called upon to do”. 「当仁不让。」
• https://youtu.be/MMxtUsMA-K4 “不要把别⼈人要求你做的事情传递给别⼈人”。“当仁不让。”

• Understand your ability and limit when helping people. Do not hurt
yourself. 帮助别⼈人的时候要了了解⾃自⼰己的能⼒力力和限度。不要伤害⾃自⼰己。
• (3) Filial piety – respect, care, protect your parents and be
obedient to parent’s commands. 孝道——尊重⽗父⺟母，关⼼心⽗父⺟母，保护⽗父⺟母，听从⽗父⺟母的命令
• Parents bring you up, take care of you and give you supports.
All this is unconditional. ⽗父⺟母抚养你，照顾你，给你⽀支持。所有这些都是⽆无条件的。
• There is an asymmetry between caring babies and caring the
elderly. 照顾婴⼉儿和照顾老⼈人之间存在不对称
• (4) Relational self – emphasizes interpersonal relationship and
universal brotherhood. 关系⾃自我强调⼈人际关系和⼿手⾜足情义。
• One’s self is constituted by a social network. (在家靠父母，出
⼀一个⼈人的⾃自我是由社交⽹网络构成的。(在家靠⽗父
外靠朋友。) (凡事留一線，日後好相見。) ⺟母,出外靠朋友。)(凡事留留⼀一線,⽇日後好相⾒見見)。
• Don’t just focus on yourself. 不要只关注⾃自⼰己

• Develop trust with people. 与⼈人建立信任

别⼈人可以依靠你，你也可以依靠别⼈人。
• People can count on you and you can count on people.
• Do not abuse freedom and rights. Respect others.
不要滥⽤用⾃自由和权利利。尊重他⼈人
• (5) Fairness and rights 公平和权利利
每个⼈人都是平等的。平等应该被平等对待

• Everyone is equal. Equals should be treated equally.

• Respect the human rights of others. 尊重他⼈人的⼈人权

• The harm principle – we should not interfere with

one’s behavior unless he/she is going to harm others.
伤害原则——我们不应该⼲干涉⼀一个⼈人的⾏行行为，除非他/她打算伤害别⼈人
To summarize: Chinese-Western culture
⻄西⽅方⽂文化强调个⼈人主义、理理性和⺠民主
• Western culture emphasizes individualism, rationality and democracy.
• Chinese culture emphasizes interpersonal relationship, family value and
loyalty to ruler. 中国⽂文化强调⼈人际关系、家庭价值和对统治者的忠诚
• Don’t just focus on yourself (individual rights). 不要只关注⾃自⼰己(个⼈人权利利)。
• Paternalism requires trust. Government should develop trust with
people. 家⻓长式作⻛风需要信任。政府应该與⼈人建立信任

• Respect family value. Law, reason, and sentiment should be considered

before making decisions.
尊重家庭价值。在做决定之前，应该考虑法律律、理理性和感情。
References
• Ho S & Brotherson SE. 2007. Cultural Influences on Parental Bereavement in Chinese
Families. Omega, 55(1): 1-25.
• Hui EC & Leung DC. 2012. Chinese Religions and Hospice Care. In Religious
Understanding of a Good Death in Hospice Palliative Care, ed. Coward H & Stajduhar K I.
New York, SUNY Press.
• Hui E. 1999. Chinese health care ethics. In A cross-cultural dialogue on health care
ethics, ed. H.Coward and Ratamakul, Waterloo. ON: Wilfrid laurier University Press.
• Sandel MJ. 2012. What money can’t buy: the moral limits of markets. New York,
Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Humaneness (Part 1)
Compassion
• Modern society: competitive, seek efficiency, profit
maximization. (Gilbert, 2009, xiv) 现代社会:竞争，追求效率，利利润最⼤大化
我们已经进化到对⽣生活环境很敏感
• We have evolved to be sensitive to life contexts.
• In some contexts, we can be compassionate, kind and
selfless. In others, we can be ruthless, cruel and self-
absorbed. (Ibid.) 在某些情况下，我们可以富有同情⼼心、善良和⽆无私。在
另⼀一些⼈人⾝身上，我们可以是⽆无情的，残酷的和⾃自私的
 Why be compassionate?
• Research has shown that:
• When people are in close friendship and
affectionate relationship, they have a lower level of
stress hormone and a higher level of ‘happy’
hormone. (Ibid.) 当⼈人们处于亲密的友谊和深情的关系中时，他们的压
⼒力力荷尔蒙⽔水平较低，⽽而“快乐”荷尔蒙⽔水平较⾼高

• Compassion can help us to link to a caring and

soothing aspect of our mind. (Ibid.) 同情可以帮助我们连接到⼀一个关⼼心和抚慰我们⼼心灵的⽅方⾯面
爱⼼心可以帮助我们从复仇的恐惧和积极的解决问题
• Compassion can help us to step back from vengeful
fearful and aggressive solutions to problems. (Ibid.)
 • Modern technological society cultivates people’s desire to
seek material comfort. But more secure source of well-
being and happiness come from relating our minds to
others. (Ibid. p. 77)
现代科技社会培养了了⼈人们追求物质享受的欲望。但是更更可靠
的幸福和快乐的源泉来⾃自于我们与他⼈人的思想的联系
The old brain (both humans and animals share)
Driven, excited,
vitality (wanting,
pursuing)

Content, safe, Anger, anxiety,

connected (Non- disgust (threat-
wanting, kind, focused,
soothing) protective)

Ibid., p. 22
• Modern society over-stimulate our threat-focused system
and pursuing system. (Ibid., p. 26) 现代社会过度刺刺激了了我们以威胁为中⼼心的系统和追求系统
• Health is a balance of all the three systems. 健康是三个系统的平衡

• The soothing system responds to kindness and can be

stimulated by learning to focus on kindness to self and
others. (Ibid.)
舒缓系统会对善意做出反应，并通过学习专注于对⾃自⼰己和他⼈人的善意⽽而受到刺刺激
The new brain (only humans have it)
• A new born chimpanzee has a brain size of about 350 cubic
centimetres (cc). When it becomes mature, the brain will have
around 450cc in maturity. (Ibid. p. 29) ⼀一只新出⽣生的⿊黑猩猩的⼤大脑⼤大约有350立⽅方厘米
(cc)。当它成熟时，⼤大脑会有⼤大约450cc的成熟
• A new born human starts with 350cc and expand to around 1500cc
in maturity. (Ibid.) ⼀一个出⽣生的⼈人从350cc开始，成熟后扩展到1500cc左右
• Humans - use of language, ability to conceptualize, creativity,
logical reasoning, imagination, integrate several competencies etc.
⼈人类-语⾔言运⽤用，概念念化能⼒力力，创造⼒力力，逻辑推理理，想象⼒力力，综合能⼒力力等
• When the old brain and the new brain are combined, we
can use our new brain competencies to tame the desires
of the old brain systems, to keep them in balance. (Ibid. p.
334)
当旧的⼤大脑和新的⼤大脑结合在⼀一起时，我们
我们可以利利⽤用新的⼤大脑能⼒力力来抑制欲望吗
旧的⼤大脑系统，以保持它们的平衡。(334年年Ibid. p。)
 ⽣生理理学研究——消极的思想和形象显然会对⽣生理理产⽣生影响

• Physiological research - negative thoughts and images

can clearly have a physiological impact.
• Anger at others and self-criticism deprive many people
of happiness. 对他⼈人的愤怒和⾃自我批评剥夺了了许多⼈人的快乐
• Self-criticism and shame also maintain our sense of
threat. (Ibid., p. 217)
⾃自我批评和羞耻也会维持我们的威胁感
• However, one can be trained to become
compassionate and kind. Our behaviour can change
our brain structure (nerve pattern). (Ibid. p. 77)
然⽽而，⼀一个⼈人可以被训练成富有同情⼼心和善良的⼈人。我
们的⾏行行为可以改变我们的⼤大脑结构(神经模式)
 What exactly compassion is?
• Compassion is an attitude which make someone
look after, guide, soothe, protect, and accept others.
(Ibid.) 同情是⼀一种态度，使⼈人照顾、引
导、抚慰、保护和接受他⼈人

• Compassion as a desire can generate compassionate

behaviour; and compassionate behaviour can
activate compassion. 作为⼀一种欲望的同情可以产⽣生同情⾏行行为;⽽而
富有同情⼼心的⾏行行为可以激发同情⼼心

• When activated, the whole mind will be patterned.

This is called a compassionate mind. (Ibid.) 当激活时，整个⼼心灵将被模式化。这叫做慈悲⼼心
Attributes of compassion
关⼼心他⼈人:关⼼心他⼈人，促进他⼈人福祉
• 1. Sense of caring: take a genuine interest in caring for
and promote others’ well-being. (Ibid. p. 194)
• 2. Sensitivity: being sensitive to other’s distress;
acknowledge and attend to it. (Ibid., p. 195)
敏感:对他⼈人的痛苦很敏感;承认并关注它
 • 3. Sympathy: the capacity of being emotionally moved by
others’ suffering. (Ibid., p. 197)
同情:被他⼈人的痛苦所感动的能⼒力力
 遇险容忍:容忍是在情绪发⽣生时保持冷静的能⼒力力。(同上)不要忽视你的感受

• 4. Distress tolerance: tolerance is the ability to stay with

emotions as they happen. (Ibid.) Do not bypass your feelings.
• 5. Self-focused sympathy: being able to recognize your own
pain without distorting or denying it. The society teaches us
to “keeping our heads down and keep going!” But in doing so
we will gradually lose our ability to feel. (Ibid., p. 200)
⾃自我同情:能够认识到⾃自⼰己的痛苦⽽而不扭曲或否认它。这个协会教导我们要“低
着头，继续前进!”“但是这样做的话，我们会逐渐失去感知的能⼒力力。
 同理理⼼心:“理理解某⼈人为什什么以某种⽅方式感受和做事的能⼒力力
• 6. Empathy: “the ability to understand why someone feels
and does things in a certain way. (Ibid., p. 202)
• To have empathy, you need to have an open-minded curiosity.
(Ibid.) 要有同理理⼼心，你需要有⼀一个开放的好奇⼼心

• Empathy require the ability and willingness to imagine. (Ibid., p.

204) 同理理⼼心需要想象的能⼒力力和意愿
 • 7. Non-judgment: temporarily don’t judge or condemn
the care-taker. ⽆无判断⼒力力:暂时不要评判或谴责照顾你的⼈人
• Understand that people can be trapped by their emotions.
理理解⼈人们可能会被他们的情绪所困
 恢复性正义vs报应性正义

Restorative justice vs retributive justice

• To be compassion is not to neglect or bypass one’s wrong
deeds. It is to exercise restorative justice rather than
retributive justice. (Ibid., p. 213) 慈悲不是忽视或绕过⼀一个⼈人的错误⾏行行为。
它是⾏行行使恢复性正义⽽而不是报应性正义
• Retributive justice, “an eye for an eye”, focuses on
condemning, blaming and punishing.报应主义正义，“以眼还眼”，侧重于谴责、指责和惩罚
• The focus is on making the wrong-doer suffer in order to
balance the harm being created.(Ibid.)
重点是让做错事的⼈人受苦，以平衡正在造成的伤害
• Restorative justice aims less on making the wrong-
doer suffer. It focus more on creating healing and
恢复性司法的⽬目的不是让做错事的
change in both the wrong-doer and victim. ⼈人受苦。它更更侧重于在犯错者和受
害者⾝身上创造治愈和改变
• In the perpetrator, develop a sense of remorse,
sadness and guilt; in the victim, develop a sense of
forgiveness and acceptance. (Ibid.)
在犯罪者⾝身上，培养⼀一种懊悔悔、悲伤和内疚的感
觉;在受害者⾝身上，培养⼀一种宽恕和接受的意识
How to be compassionate?
有⼏几种练习可以训练我们变得富有同情⼼心。第⼀一个是正念念

• There are several exercises which can train us to become

compassionate. The first one is mindfulness.
• Mindfulness is to “pay attention in the present moment
without evaluation and judgment”. It is to use your
“attention to observe, and only observe”. (Ibid., p. 221)
正念念是“关注当下，不做评估和判断”。就是⽤用你的“注意⼒力力去观察，⽽而且只观察”
•
 Exercise One: Eating exercise
• Let’s eat a piece of chocolate mindfully.
• 1. observe it. Feel its weight and size.
• 2. Eat it slowly, taste it, feel its texture. Notice the
feeling of your teeth, tongue and month.
• 3. Do not judge. Just focus on the eating experience.
• 4. If you have some thoughts coming, notice it and
bring your attention back to the eating.
• 5. Swallow it slowly, notice how it gets through your
float; and how the taste stays in your mouth and float.
(Ibid., p.223)
 正念念意味着“在你的经历中变得更更有意识、更更专注，关
注你现在所处世界的细节”和你的内⼼心感受
• Mindfulness means “becoming more aware and more in your
experience, paying attention to the details of the world you
exist in the now” and to your inner feelings. (Ibid., p. 223)

• In our everyday life, we are “lost in our hopes or fears about

tomorrow or our regrets of yesterday that we miss the
moment now – we live in a remembered or imagined world,
not in the world of right now.” (Ibid.)
在我们的⽇日常⽣生活中，我们“迷失在对明天的希望或恐惧中，或对昨
天的遗憾中，我们错过了了现在的时刻——我们⽣生活在⼀一个记忆或想
象的世界，⽽而不是现在的世界。
• Mindfulness can help us to create brain nerve patterns
that are conductive to calming the mind and developing
soothing compassion.
正念念可以帮助我们创建脑神经模式，这些模式有助于使我们的思想平静下
来，并发展出令⼈人宽⼼心的同情⼼心
 Exercise Two: Mindful breathing
• 1. Sit comfortably. No disturbance.
• 2. Keep your back straight. Place both feet flat on
the floor about shoulder width and rest your hands
on your knees.
• 3. Breath slowly. Breathe through your nose, let the
air reach down to your diaphragm. Put a hand at
your lower chest to feel the movement.
• 4. Rough guide: 3 sec on the in-breath, a slight
pause, then 3 sec on the out-breath. You can find
the rhythm that you feel most comfortable. (Ibid.,
p. 225)
• 5. When thoughts come to you, smile to yourself
compassionately, then bring your attention back to
the breathing. Just notice distraction and do not
judge it. (Ibid., p. 227)
Exercise three: appreciating things around you
• Things always have two sides. We can move our attention to the
good side of a thing.This will create pleasure and nice feelings in
us. (Ibid., p. 236)
• We can appreciate the sky, clouds, a breakfast, people we meet,
people working around us (cleaner, firemen).
• This exercise can help you practising overruling your threat/self
protection system, to feel content, safe and connected. (Ibid.)
Exercise three: compassionate thinking
• When you are in trouble, attending and monitoring your thought.
• You might find that your thoughts can easily head off in all
directions. You are like in a whirlpool. (Ibid., p. 286)
• Stand back mentally, pay attention to the flow of thoughts and
feelings in our minds. (Ibid.)
• Do not judge them. Take note of them. (Ibid.)
• Step 1. Monitor your thoughts and feelings with gentleness,
warmth and kindness, just like a compassionate friend.
• Step 2. Imagine you are describing your thoughts and feelings
with a compassionate friend. (Ibid.)
• No need to explain why you think or feel this way. No need to
justify.
• You might find that there are different parts of you.
Accept them. There must be causes of these parts. No
need to deny them.
• Step 3. Imagine your compassionate friend invite you to
generate alternatives. (Ibid., p. 294)
• Think about possibilities: e.g. what other reasons for
your boy/girl-friend not calling you? Which is more
probable? (Ibid., p. 295)
• Step 4. Think about your background rules. Are they
too harsh? E.g. “People should never let me down.”
“People should never ignore me.” (Ibid., p. 296)
• Step 5. Think about your strengths: I have come across
much more serious troubles in the past. (Ibid.)
• When you are doing these steps, you are being
compassionate with yourself.
• You are taking care of your thoughts and feelings.
• You are being attentive and sensitive.
• You are being non-judgmental.
• You try to look for alternatives.
• You are being more friendly to yourself.
• You are triggering the caring system of your brain. (Ibid.,
p. 290)
 Being compassionate towards others

• Now imagine that you are the compassionate friend

and you are facing a person in trouble.
• Apply the five steps to this person.
• Think this way: All of us want to be happy and stay
away from suffering. There are lots of things we
cannot control and we just live in the flow of life.
Then you will find that you and this person are in
the same boat (empathy). (Ibid., p. 306)
• If this person has done things wrong, point it out in
a nice and gentle manner. (Ibid.)
• If this person is angry with others, see whether you
can encourage him/her to forgive the others by
thinking empathetically. (e.g. Everyone’s action has
its own cause. There is a story behind everyone’s
behaviour.)
Things to note (1)
• Sometimes people hesitate to help because they worry too
much, worrying that they might get themselves troubles.
• If you handle things in the right way, there won’t be
troubles.
• It takes some courage. (Ibid., p. 392)
• But don’t risk your safety.
Things to note (2)
• Sometimes when we are compassionate to others, they might just
request more and more and this might require you to break your
own rules.
• At this time, you need to have the courage to set boundaries and
say “no” in order to maintain justice. (Ibid., p. 392)
• Compassion is not simply giving in to what other people want. We
need to balance between being nice and being moral. (Ibid.)
Things to note (3)
• Compassion does not mean that you let someone free-ride in
a group project and you just keep quiet; or when you are a
boss you just tolerate your subordinate’s error without
pointing it out.
• Compassion is about being sensitive to other’s feelings and
delivering your message in non-aggressive ways. It is also
about “delivering clear messages and guidance and offering
clear feedback”. (Ibid., p. 394)
References
• Gilbert P. The Compassionate Mind. Constable, London, 2009.
• Gilbert P & Choden K. Mindful Compassion. Little, Brown Book Group, London.
2015.
• Ciaramicoli A & Ketacham K. The Power of Empathy: A Practical Guide to
Creating Intimacy, Self-understanding, and Lasting Love in Your Life. Piatkus
Books, London, 2016.
Humaneness (Part 2)
DR. DANNY LEUNG
Group discussion
• Students are divided into groups. In each group, one
member has either one of the following happening to
him/her: (1) failing in a course, (2) punishing by teaching
due to copying assignment, (3) parents not allowing
doing part-time job. Other members of the group apply
the compassionate skills to counsel this groupmate.
 Martin Buber (1878-1965)

• An Austrian born Jewish philosopher

• Existentialist philosopher
• Famous work: I and Thou
• “Being” is a state of existence (存有).
Humanity is a group of Beings that pertain
to human.
• Open up more Beings of humanity and you
will become more human.
• Buber is interested human relationships.
• There are two main kinds of relationship: “I – Thou” and “I – It”
relationship.
• “I” and “Thou” are subjects. “It” is an object.
• Everyone and everything can have a “Thou” side and “It” side.
• If you treat a person as an object or instrument, then this is “I – it”
relationship.
• If you treat an object, e.g. a photo album, as a valuable
source of memory, feelings and meaning, and you often
clean it and keep it well, then this is a “I – Thou”
relationship.
• Towards one thing, you can have “I – Thou” relationship
at one time and “I – It” relationship at another time.
• “I” cannot exist alone. “I” must exist in “I –Thou” or “I – It”
relationship. Without these relationships, “I” cannot exist.
(Lee, 1972, p. 178)
• 仁 (Ren) in Chinese culture.
• To understand something from a scientific point of view is a
“I – It’ relationship. To understand something from feeling
and meaning is a “I – Thou” relationship. (Ibid.)
• In an “I – It” relationship, there is only one subject “I” and the
“It” is an object. The subject knows about the object through
perception. The knowing is objective, empirical and
analytical. (Ibid.)
• In an “I – Thou” relationship. There are two subjects. The
knowing is sentimental, about meaning and feelings. (Ibid.)
• One example is music. You can learn music by studying
notes, major scale, minor scale, chords etc. This is to
study music objectively and music is an “It” to you.
• But if you close your eyes and listen to some music, to
feel it and feel touched, then the music is a “Thou” to
you. (Lee, 1972, p. 179)
• When a doctor sees a patient and diagnoses a cancer, the
doctor sees the cancer as abnormal cell growth and the
treatment should be chemotherapy or surgery. The doctor
and the patient are in an “I – It” relationship.
• But the patient is the doctor’s wife, the relationship will
be an “I – Thou” relationship.
• In co-operation and team work, people’s relationships are “I –
Thou” relationship.
• When someone is commanding and controlling others, the
relationship is “I – It”. (Ibid.)
• In an “I – Thou” relationship, “I” and “You” are reciprocal. They
depend on each other and become complete in this relationship.
Through “You”, a person becomes an “I”. This is real existence.
(Ibid., p. 180)
• In an “I – Thou” relationship, a person will express his/her
real self. Real existence occurs between man and man. Human
nature is social (仁).
• Mass culture erodes this human nature. Technology makes
people less able to establish “I – Thou” relationship.
• Preservation of tradition is good. Tradition brings people
together and bring people and God (nature) together.
• When a person sees another as a “Thou” and care
about this “Thou”. This is a kind of love and an
actualization of oneself. (Ibid., p. 182)
• Buber opposes “I – It” relationship in society. A
healthy society should be based on “I – Thou”
relationships. (Ibid.)
• Capitalism and individualism only enable you to
understand part of you. Collectivism sees you as a
part. Collectivism only sees the society, but not
human individuals.
• A society should cultivate more “I – Thou” relationships.
In doing so, people can really use the word “We” to
express themselves. This is what “human existence”
means.
Group Discussion
• Each group identify one I-it relationship in your
everyday life that you think is problematic, and
suggest some ways to change it to an I-Thou
relationship. Explain why this change is required
and why your method would work.
References
• Bubber M. I and Thou, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1923.
• Lee Tian-Ming, Introduction to Existentialism, The College Life, Hong Kong , 1972.
• Gilbert P. The Compassionate Mind. Constable, London, 2009.
• Olson RG. An Introduction to Existentialism, Dover, London, 2017.