Structural Theory |1

Module 3: Deflection and

Rotation of Determinate Structures

3.1 Deflection and Rotation of Structures

Deflection and Rotation
The deformation of a structure is usually expressed in
terms of its deflection and rotation from its original unloaded
position. The deflection and rotation are measured from the (Unit Load)
original neutral surface of the structure to the neutral surface of
the deformed structure. The configuration assumed by the
deformed neutral surface is known as the elastic curve of the δ - Linear Deflection (vertical or horizontal)
structure. δ’ - Rotation or Angular Deflection, Slope

(Real Load)
(Unit Couple)

∆ - Linear Deflection (vertical or horizontal) α - Linear Deflection (vertical or horizontal)

Ꝋ - Rotation or Angular Deflection, Slope α’ - Rotation or Angular Deflection, Slope
 Structural Theory |2

Slope and Deflection at Different Types of Supports Solutions for Deflection and Rotation
Supports act as restraints preventing deformations to The following are the methods in solving deformations:
occur, below are the deformations prevented by specific A. Deflections of Determinate Structures
supports. A.1 Geometric Methods
A.1.1 Double Integration Method
Vertical Horizontal Rotation
Support A.1.2 Moment – Area Method
Deflection Deflection or Slope
A.1.3 Conjugate Beam Method
Roller (Vertical Solve Solve
0 A.2 Energy Method
restraint) value value
A.2.1 Virtual Work Method
Hinge (Vertical and Solve
0 0 A.2.2 Real Work Method (Castigliano’s 2nd
horizontal restraint) value
Theorem)
Fixed (Vertical,
B. Deflections for Indeterminate Structures
horizontal, and 0 0 0
B.1 Conjugate Beam Method
rotational restraint)

3.2 Deformation of Beams

Example 3.1 Identify all zero deformations in the given
frame below. 3.2.1 Double Integration Method

Double Integration Method

The double integration method is a powerful tool in
C ∆𝐴𝑉 = 0 solving deflection and rotation of a beam at any point because
A B ∆𝐷𝑉 = 0 we will be able to get the equation of the elastic curve.
∆𝐷𝐻 = 0
∆𝐸𝑉 = 0
∆𝐸𝐻 = 0

E 𝜃𝐸 = 0

D
 Structural Theory |3

The figure below represents an element of a deflected 1 𝑀

=
beam, which 𝜌 is the radius of curvature, 𝜃 is the rotation of the 𝜌 𝐸𝐼
element from the horizontal, 𝑑𝑠 is the differential arc, 𝑑𝑥 is the Therefore,
differential horizontal distance, 𝑑𝜃 is the differential angle 1 𝑑2y 𝑀
subtended by the element, 𝑦 is the deflection at point of = =
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼
horizontal distance 𝑥. Finally,
𝑑2y 𝑀
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑀
𝑦" =
𝐸𝐼
If EI is constant, the equation may be written as:
𝑬𝑰 𝒚" = 𝑴

The simplified equation above represents the solution of

deflection by double integration. That is to solve for the
deflection, the moment 𝑀 at any section of the beam is
integrated twice, where EI is the flexural rigidity.
A. Slope or Rotation, y’ (Integrate once)
𝟏
An equation of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 can be generated from triangular 𝒚′ = ∫(𝑴) + 𝑪𝟏
𝑬𝑰
shape below. But for small angles, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃, where we can say B. Deflection, y (Integrate twice)
that 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥. Taking the first derivative of the equation yields 𝟏
𝑑θ 𝑑2 y 𝒚= ∫ ∫(𝑴) +𝑪𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑪𝟐
= 𝑬𝑰
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 where
M = moment equation at the specific section of
Also, the arc element generates the relationship of the the beam (M=Ʃ𝑀𝐶𝑢𝑡 ↻ +)
differential arc with the radius and the differential angle,
𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑θ The first integration y’ yields the slope of the elastic curve and
where the second integration y gives the deflection of the beam at any
1 𝑑θ 𝑑θ distance x.
= =
𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑2y Since the deflection is a function of the moment and the flexural
=
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 2 rigidity 𝐸𝐼, which is the product of the modulus of elasticity 𝐸
 Structural Theory |4

and moment of inertia 𝐼, the number of segments is a requisite Cut Sections and Deformations Considered
in the formulation of the equations. The number of segments Cutting the beam at specific sections dictates the
then, is dependent to the following: deflection and rotation considered in the equation made. Below
1. The change of load (concentrated load, moment or is an overview of the deformation considered depending on the
couple, start and end of distributed load) cut section. Again, left FBD of the cut is always considered so
2. The change of modulus of elasticity that the distance x is always referred to the left most of the beam.
3. The change in moment of inertia

Integration Review
A. Power Formula
𝒖𝒏+𝟏
∫ 𝒖𝒏 𝒅𝒖 = + 𝑪 , where n ≠ -1
𝒏+𝟏 C
𝑥2+1 A B D E
e.g. ∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 6 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 6 2+1 + 𝐶
∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝐶
Note: A constant can just be moved outside the integral.
Procedures for Analysis Cut is made between Deformations under consideration
1. Determinacy (r ? 3 + c) discontinuities: with respect to distance x
2. Reactions A–B 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2𝑚
3. Equation for Bending Moment (Left FBD should B–C 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 4𝑚
always be chosen as to the consideration that x will C–D 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 6𝑚
start from the leftmost part of the beam) D–E 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8𝑚
4. Equation for M/EI (y”)
5. Equation for Slope (y’) and Deflection (y) Sign Convention
6. Boundary Conditions (use location of supports) Positive deflection is upward, and as a result, the
7. Solve for the required deformations positive slope angle will be measured counterclockwise from
the x-axis.
Discontinuities
1. Concentrated Load / Moment
2. Start and end of Distributed loads
3. External Supports
4. Change in Geometry or EI
Note: A cut is made between these discontinuities.
 Structural Theory |5

Example 3.2 Determine the deflection and rotation

point D of the given beam shown by double
integration method. Assume E = 7 GPa and
I = 315x104 mm4

A C D

A C D B E

𝑀 = Ʃ𝑀𝐶𝑢𝑡 ↻ +
𝑥−4
= 300𝑥 − 1800(𝑥 − 2)0 − 200(𝑥 − 4)( )
Determinacy 2
𝑟 ?3+ 𝑐 𝑀 = 300𝑥 − 1800(𝑥 − 2)0 − 100(𝑥 − 4)2
3 ?3 + 0
3=3 Curvature Equations
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝐼 𝑦′′ = 300𝑥 − 1800 < 𝑥 − 2 >0 − 100 < 𝑥 − 4 >2
Reactions Note: If value inside < > is negative, value is taken as zero.
Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
Deformation Equations
200(4)(6) − 1800 −200(4)(6) + 500 + 𝐴𝑉 = 0 𝐸𝐼 𝑦′′ = 300𝑥 − 1800 < 𝑥 − 2 >0 − 100 < 𝑥 − 4 >2
−𝑅𝐵 (6) = 0 𝐴𝑉 = 300 𝑁 ↑ 𝑥2 < 𝑥 − 4 >3
𝑅𝐵 = 500 𝑁 ↑ 𝐸𝐼 𝑦 ′ = 300 − 1800 < 𝑥 − 2 >1 − 100 + 𝐶1
2 3
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0 100
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 ′ = 150𝑥 2 − 1800 < 𝑥 − 2 > − < 𝑥 − 4 >3 + 𝐶1
𝐴𝐻 = 0 3
𝑥3 < 𝑥 − 2 >2 100 < 𝑥 − 4 >4
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 = 150 − 1800 −
Moment Equation 3 2 3 4
A cut is made between D – B to accommodate the +𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
25
deflection at D. Thus, deformations within 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 6𝑚 𝐸𝐼 𝑦 = 50𝑥 3 − 900 < 𝑥 − 2 >2 − < 𝑥 − 4 >4 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
are considered. 3
 Structural Theory |6

Boundary Conditions 5600

At support A (x = 0 and y = 0), +
9
25 5200
𝐸𝐼(0) = 50(0)3 − 900 < 0 − 2 >2 − 3 < 0 − 4 >4 𝐸𝐼 𝑦′𝐷 = − 𝑁 − 𝑚2
+𝐶1 (0) + 𝐶2 9
5.2
𝐶2 = 0 𝑦′𝐷 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2 ↻
9𝐸𝐼
At support B (x = 6, y = 0, and C2 = 0),
25 Substitute values of E = 200 GPa and I = 315x106 mm4,
𝐸𝐼(0) = 50(6)3 − 900 < 6 − 2 >2 − < 6 − 4 >4
3 5.2 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2
+𝐶1 (6) + 0 𝑦′𝐷 =
KN (1𝑚)4
5600 9 (7𝑥106 3 ) [315𝑥104 𝑚𝑚4 𝑥 ]
𝐶1 = 𝑁 − 𝑚2 𝑚 (1000𝑚𝑚)4
9 𝑦′𝐷 = 0.0262 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ↻

Deformations Required
For deflection at D, 𝑦𝐷 (x = 4) Example 3.3 Determine the maximum deflection
25 between the two supports and rotation at the right
𝐸𝐼 𝑦𝐷 = 50(4)3 − 900 < 4 − 2 >2 − < 4 − 4 >4
3 support of the given beam by double integration.
5600
+ (4) + 0
9
18800
𝐸𝐼 𝑦𝐷 = 𝑁 − 𝑚3
9
18.8 A C B D
𝑦𝐷 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚3 ↑
9𝐸𝐼

Substitute values of E = 200 GPa and I = 315x106 mm4,

18.8 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚3 Determinacy
𝑦𝐷 =
KN (1𝑚)4 𝑟 ?3+ 𝑐
9 (7𝑥106 3 ) [315𝑥104 𝑚𝑚4 𝑥 ]
𝑚 (1000𝑚𝑚)4 3 ?3 + 0
𝑦𝐷 = 0.09473 𝑚 = 94.73 𝑚𝑚 ↑ 3=3
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
For rotation at D, 𝑦′𝐷 (x = 4) Reactions
′ 2
100
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 𝐷
= 150(4) − 1800 < 4 − 2 > − < 4 − 4 >3 Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
3
𝐴𝐻 = 0
 Structural Theory |7

Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0 Deformation Equations

100(4)(2) + 240(10) −100(4) − 250 + 𝐴𝑉 = 0 𝐸𝐼 𝑦′′ = 240𝑥 + 400 < 𝑥 − 8 > −50𝑥 2 + 50 < 𝑥 − 4 >2
−𝑅𝐵 (6) = 0 𝐴𝑉 = 240 𝑙𝑏 ↑ 𝑥2 < 𝑥 − 8 >2 𝑥3
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 ′ = 240 + 400 − 50
𝑅𝐵 = 400 𝑙𝑏 ↑ 2 2 3
< 𝑥 − 4 >3
+50 + 𝐶1
Moment Equation 3
A cut is made between B – D to accommodate the 50 3
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 ′ = 120𝑥 2 + 200 < 𝑥 − 8 >2 − 𝑥
deflection at right support. Thus, deformations within 3
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10𝑓𝑡 are considered. 50
+ < 𝑥 − 4 >3 + 𝐶1
3
𝑥3 < 𝑥 − 8 >3 50 𝑥 4
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 = 120 + 200 −
3 3 3 4
50 < 𝑥 − 4 >4
+ + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
3 4
200 25 25
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 = 40𝑥 3 + < 𝑥 − 8 >3 − 𝑥 4 + < 𝑥 − 4 >4
C 3 6 6
A +𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
B
Boundary Conditions
At support A (x = 0 and y = 0),
200 25
𝐸𝐼(0) = 40(0)3 + < 0 − 8 >3 − (8)4
3 6
𝑀 = Ʃ𝑀𝐶𝑢𝑡 ↻ + 25
𝑥 𝑥−4 + < 0 − 4 >4 + 𝐶1 (0) + 𝐶2
= 240𝑥 + 400(𝑥 − 8) − 100(x) ( ) + 100(𝑥 − 4)( ) 6
2 2 𝐶2 = 0
𝑀 = 240𝑥 + 400(𝑥 − 8) − 50𝑥 2 + 50(𝑥 − 4)2 At support B (x = 8, y = 0, and C2 = 0),
200 25
Curvature Equations 𝐸𝐼(0) = 40(8)3 + < 8 − 8 >3 − (8)4
3 6
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 ′′ = 240𝑥 + 400 < 𝑥 − 8 > −50𝑥 2 + 50 < 𝑥 − 4 >2 25
Note: If value inside < > is negative, value is taken as zero. + < 8 − 4 >4 + 𝐶1 (8) + 0
6
𝐶1 = −560 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 2
 Structural Theory |8

Deformations Required 50
+ < 8 − 4 >3 − 560
For max deflection between supports, 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 (x at y’ = 0) 3
The maximum deflection will occur at a slope equal to 1040
zero. A zero slope means that the line tangent to that point is a 𝐸𝐼 𝑦′𝐵 = − 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 2
3
horizontal line signifying that it is the tip of the elastic curve or 1040
the deflected shape. 𝑦′𝐵 = 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 2 ↻
3𝐸𝐼

Note: Take < 𝑥 − 8 > equal to zero because a negative value is

unacceptable considering 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs between supports. 3.2.2 Area-Moment Method
50
𝐸𝐼 (0) = 120𝑥 2 + 200 < 0 >2 − 𝑥 3
3 Area-Moment Method
50 Another method of determining the slopes and
+ < 𝑥 − 4 >3 − 560
3 deflections in beams is the area-moment method, which involves
𝑥 = 2.8398 𝑚 (redo because < 𝑥 − 4 > should be zero) the area of the moment diagram.
50
𝐸𝐼 (0) = 120𝑥 2 + 200 < 0 >2 − 𝑥 3
3
50
+ < 0 >3 − 560
3
𝑥 = 2.7469 𝑚

200
𝐸𝐼 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 40(2.7469)3 + < 2.7469 − 8 >3
3
25 25
− (2.7469)4 + < 2.7469 − 4 >4
6 6
− 560(2.7469) + 0
𝐸𝐼 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −946.4239 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 3
946.4239
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 3 ↓
𝐸𝐼

For rotation at B, 𝑦′𝐵 (x = 8)

50
𝐸𝐼 𝑦′𝐵 = 120(8)2 + 200 < 8 − 8 >2 − (8)3
3
 Structural Theory |9

To derive the moment-area theorems, consider a beam Theorems of Area-Moment Method

subjected to an arbitrary loading as shown in the figure below. Theorem I
The elastic curve and the M=EI diagram for the beam are also The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the
shown in the figure. elastic curve at any two points A and B is equal to the product of
1/EI multiplied by the area of the moment diagram between
these two points.
𝟏
𝜽𝑨𝑩 = 𝜽𝑩𝑨 = (𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂𝑨𝑩 )
𝑬𝑰

Theorem II
The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent
drawn to the elastic curve at any other point A, in a direction
perpendicular to the original position of the beam, is equal to the
product of 1/EI multiplied by the moment of an area about B of
that part of the moment diagram between points A and B.
𝟏
𝒕𝑨/𝑩 = (𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂𝑨𝑩 ) · 𝑿̅𝑨
𝑬𝑰
𝟏
𝒕𝑩/𝑨 = (𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂𝑨𝑩 ) · 𝑿̅𝑩
𝑬𝑰
𝑡𝐵/𝐴
Sign Convention

1. The deviation at any point is positive if the point lies above

the tangent, negative if the point is below the tangent.
2. Measured from left tangent, if θ is counterclockwise, the
change of slope is positive, negative if θ is clockwise.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 10

Moment Diagram by Parts

The moment-area method of finding the deflection of a 3. Solve deflections ∆ by ratio and proportion (draw
beam will demand the accurate computation of the area of a geometry of the deformations)
moment diagram, as well as the moment of such area about any
axis. To pave its way, this section will deal on how to draw
moment diagram by parts and to calculate the moment of such
diagrams about a specified axis.

Basic Principles
1. The bending moment caused by all forces to the left or
to the right of any section is equal to the respective
algebraic sum of the bending moments at that section
caused by each load acting separately.
𝑴 = (Ʃ𝑴)𝑳 = (Ʃ𝑴)𝑹

2. The moment of a load about a specified axis is always

defined by the equation of a spandrel.
𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙𝒏
where n is the degree of curve ∆𝑩 + 𝒕𝑩/𝑨 𝒕𝑪/𝑨
=
𝒙 𝑳
The graph of eh above equation is as shown below and
the area and location of centroid are defined as
follows.

Area, A
1
A= 𝑏ℎ
𝑛+1

Center of Gravity, xG
1
𝑥𝐺 = 𝑏
𝑛+2
∆𝑩 = 𝒕𝑩/𝑨
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 11

Cantilever Loadings of Moment Diagram by Parts

𝐴 = area of moment diagram Uniformly Varying Load
𝑀𝑥 = moment about a section of distance x 1
̅
𝑋 = location of centroid 𝐴 = − 𝑤0 𝐿3
24
𝑛 = degree of curve of the moment diagram 1
𝑀𝑥 = − 𝑤0 𝐿2
6
Couple or Moment Load 1
𝐴 = −𝐶𝐿 𝑋̅ = 𝐿
5
𝑀𝑥 = −𝐶 𝑛 = 3°
1
𝑋̅ = 𝐿
2
𝑛 = 0°
Procedures for Analysis
1. Determinacy ( r ? 3 + c )
Concentrated Load 2. Reactions
1 3. Moment diagram, Curvature (M/EI) Diagram
𝐴 = − 𝑃𝐿2 and Elastic Curve (if EI is constant along the length of
2
𝑀𝑥 = −𝑃𝐿 the beam, the shape of M/EI diagram is the same as
1 that of the moment diagram)
𝑋̅ = 𝐿 4. Elastic Curve Analysis
3
𝑛 = 1° 5. Solve (Use theorems 1 and 2, ratio and proportion,
and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)

Example 3.4 Use the moment-area method to

Uniformly Distributed determine the slope at ends A and D of the beam.
Load Assume E = 12.5 GPa and I = 1.92x1010 mm4.
1
𝐴 = − 𝑤0 𝐿3
6
1
𝑀𝑥 = − 𝑤0 𝐿2
2
1
𝑋̅ = 𝐿
4
𝑛 = 2°
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 12

Reactions
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 0
Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
270(6) + 180(9) − 𝑅𝐷 (12) = 0 270 − 270 − 180 + 𝐴𝑉 = 0
𝑅𝐷 = 270 𝐾𝑁 ↑ 𝐴𝑉 = 180 𝐾𝑁 ↑
M/EI Diagram
Because EI is constant along the length of the beam, the shape
of the M/EI diagram is the same as that of the bending moment
diagram.

The slope of the elastic curve is not known at any point on the
beam, so we will use the tangent at support A as the reference
tangent and determine its slope, 𝜃𝐴 , from the conditions that the
deflections at the support points A and D are zero. From figure
c, we can see that
𝑡𝐷/𝐴
𝜃𝐴 =
𝐿
in which 𝜃𝐴 is assumed to be so small that tan 𝜃𝐴 = 𝜃𝐴 . To
evaluate the tangential deviation 𝑡𝐷/𝐴 , we apply the second
𝑡𝐷/𝐴
moment-area theorem:
1
𝑡𝐷/𝐴 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐷 ) · 𝑋̅𝐷
𝐸𝐼
1 1 6 1 6
= [ (1080)(6) ( + 6) + (270)(3) ( + 3)
𝐸𝐼 2 3 2 3
1 6
+810(3)(4.5) + (810)(3) ( )]
Determinacy 2 3
𝑟 ?3+ 𝑐 41310 3
𝑡𝐷/𝐴 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚 ↑
3 ?3 + 0 𝐸𝐼
Therefore, the slope at A is
3=3 𝑡𝐷/𝐴 41310/EI 3442.5
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝜃𝐴 = = = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2
𝐿𝐴𝐷 12 𝐸𝐼
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 13

Substituting the numerical values of E and I, we obtain

3442.5
𝜃𝐴 = = 0.014 𝑟𝑎𝑑
(12.5𝑥106 )(1.92𝑥10−2 )
𝜃𝐴 = 0.014 𝑟𝑎𝑑

For slope at D, from figure c, we can see that

𝜃𝐴 = 𝜃𝐷𝐴 − 𝜃𝐴
in which, according to the first moment-area theorem,
1
𝜃𝐷𝐴 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐷 )
𝐸𝐼
1 1 1
= [ (1080)(6) + (270)(3) + 810(3)(4.5)
𝐸𝐼 2 2
1
+ (810)(3)]
2
7290
𝜃𝐷𝐴 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2 ↺
𝐸𝐼

Therefore,
7290 3442.5 3847.5
𝜃𝐷 = − = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
3847.5
𝜃𝐷 = = 0.016 𝑟𝑎𝑑
(12.5𝑥106 )(1.92𝑥10−2 )

Example 3.5 Determine the deflection midway

between the supports of the beam using area-
moment method.

CB C
B
A
A D D
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 14

Determinacy For 𝑡𝐶/𝐴

𝑟 ?3+ 𝑐 1
𝑡𝐶/𝐴 =(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐶 ) · 𝑋̅𝐶
3 ?3 + 0 𝐸𝐼
3=3 1 1 3 1
= [ (2160)(6) ( ) + (4320)(12)(4)
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝐼 3 2 2
Reactions 1
− (8640)(12)(3)]
3
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0 6480
𝐴𝐻 = 0 𝑡𝐶/𝐴 = 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 3
𝐸𝐼
Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 Ʃ𝑀𝐶 = 0
120(6)(3) + 120(6)(15) 120(6)(3) − 120(6)(9) Substituting or the value of yB2
𝑦𝐵2 8640
−𝑅𝐶 (12) = 0 +𝐴𝑉 (12) = 0 =
𝑅𝐷 = 1080 𝐾𝑁 ↑ 𝑅𝐷 = 360 𝐾𝑁 ↑ 6 12
3240
𝑦𝐵2 = 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 3
𝐸𝐼
For a, by ratio and proportion
𝑎 4320 For 𝑡𝐵/𝐴
= 1
6 12
𝑎 = 2160 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝐵/𝐴 =(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐵 ) · 𝑋̅𝐵
𝐸𝐼
1 1 1 2
For b, by squared property of parabola = [ (6)(2160)(2) + (6)(−2160) ( )
𝐸𝐼 2 3 3
𝑏 −8640 6840 3
= 𝑡𝐵/𝐴 = 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
62 122 𝐸𝐼
𝑏 = −2160 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
Since tB/A is greater than yB2, the elastic curve is above point B
Elastic Curve Analysis as predicted in the figure. From the geometry of the elastic curve,
First and foremost, we must determine if the deflection we see that
at B is above or below the beam by comparing the values of tB/A ∆𝑩 = 𝑡𝐵/𝐴 − 𝑦𝐵2
and yB2. = 6480 − 3240
∆𝑩 = 3240 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 3 ↑
For yB2, by ratio and proportion
𝑦𝐵2 𝑡𝐶/𝐴
=
6 12
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 15

Example 3.6 Determine the value of moment of

Inertia (I) that will limit the maximum deflection
to 0.50 inches using area-moment. Assume Determinacy
E = 1.5x106 psi. 𝑟 ?3+ 𝑐
3 ?3 + 0
3=3
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
Reactions
C D B
A Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 0
Ʃ𝑀𝐵 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
1 5 1
𝑀𝐵 − (60)(5) (2 + ) = 0 𝐵𝑉 − (5)(60) = 0
2 3 2
𝑀𝐵 = 550 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 ↻ 𝐵𝑉 = 150 𝑙𝑏 ↑

By inspection, we can say that tA/B = ∆𝐴 = ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 , thus

C D
1
𝑡𝐴/𝐵 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐵 ) · 𝑋̅𝐴
𝐸𝐼
1 1 26
0.5 = [ (300)(2) ( ) − 550(2)(9)
𝐸𝐼 2 3
1 (12𝑖𝑛)3
− (250)(5)(7)] [ ]
4 1𝑓𝑡 3
1
0.5 = (−16394400)
(1.5𝑥 106 )𝐼
𝐼 = 21.8592 𝑖𝑛4
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 16

3.2.3 Conjugate Beam Method Properties of Conjugate Beam

1. The length of a conjugate beam is always equal to the
Conjugate Beam Method length of the actual beam.
The conjugate-beam method was developed by H. 2. The load on the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram
Müller-Breslau in 1865. Essentially, it requires the same amount of the loads on the actual beam.
of computation as the moment-area theorems to determine a 3. A simple support for the real beam remains simple
beam’s slope or deflection; however, this method relies only on support for the conjugate beam.
the principles of statics, and hence its application will be more 4. A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for
familiar. the conjugate beam.
5. The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam
corresponds to a point of zero slope for the real beam.
6. The point of maximum moment for the conjugate
beam corresponds to a point of maximum deflection
for the real beam.

Supports of Conjugate Beam

Knowing that the slope on the real beam is equal to the
shear on conjugate beam and the deflection on real beam is equal
to the moment on conjugate beam, the shear and bending
moment at any point on the conjugate beam must be consistent
with the slope and deflection at that point of the real beam. Take
for example a real beam with fixed support; at the point of fixed
Theorem 1
support there is neither slope nor deflection, thus, the shear and
The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal
moment of the corresponding conjugate beam at that point must
to the shear at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
be zero. Therefore, the conjugate of fixed support is free end.
Slope 𝜽 on real beam = Shear 𝑽 on conjugate beam

Theorem 2
The displacement of a point in the real beam is
numerically equal to the moment at the corresponding point in ∆= 0 𝑀=0
the conjugate beam. 𝜃 𝑉
Deflection ∆ on real beam = Moment 𝑴 on conjugate beam
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 17

∆= 0 𝑀=0
𝜃 𝑉

∆= 0 𝑀=0
𝜃=0 𝑉=0

∆= 0 𝑀=0
𝜃=0 𝑉=0

∆= 0 𝑀=0
𝜃 𝑉

∆ 𝑀
𝜃 𝑉
Procedures for Analysis
1. Determinacy ( r ? 3 + c )
Examples of Beam and its Conjugate Beam
2. Reactions
The following are some examples of beams and its
3. Moment Diagram (Use moment diagram by parts)
conjugate. Loadings are omitted.
4. Curvature Diagram (M/EI)
5. Convert Real Beam to Conjugate Beam
6. Apply Curvature Diagram as Conjugate Loading
7. Solve
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 18

Sign Convention
M/EI Diagram Load Application
A B
Positive Upward
Negative Downward

Deformation Real Beam Conjugate Beam

Slope or Rotation CCW Positive Shear
Deflection Upward Positive Moment

Example 3.7 Determine the maximum deflection for

the beam shown below. (Hint: Draw the M Determinacy
diagram by parts, starting from midspan toward 𝑟 ?3+ 𝑐
the ends. Also take advantage of the symmetry) 3 ?3 + 0
3=3
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
Reactions
A B Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 0
Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
600(2)(1) + 600(2)(4) 𝐴𝑉 − 600(2)(2) + 1200 = 0
−𝑅𝐵 (5) = 0 𝐴𝑉 = 1200 𝑁 ↑
𝑅𝐵 = 1200 𝑁 ↑
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 19

Because EI is constant along the length of the beam, the shape 1 1 1 1

𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = (2.5)(3000) [ (2.5)] + (0.5)(75) [ (0.5)]
of the M/EI diagram is the same as that of the bending moment 2 3 3 4
diagram. 1 1
− (2.5)(1875) [ (2.5)] − 2200(2.5)
3 4
Conjugate Beam Loaded with M/EI Diagram 3350
𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑁 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼

Therefore, the maximum deflection is

3350
∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∆𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑁 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼
3350
∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁 − 𝑚3 ↓
B′ 𝐸𝐼
A′

Example 3.8 Determine the deflection at midspan for

the beam shown below using conjugate beam
method.
The loads of conjugate beam are symmetrical, thus,
1 1 1 1
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = [ (5)(3000) + (1)(75) − (5)(1875)]
2 2 3 3
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 2200 𝑁 − 𝑚3 ↓ A B

For this beam,

the maximum
deflection will Determinacy
occur at the 𝑟 ?3 + 𝑐
midspan. 3 ?3 + 0
3=3
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 20

Reactions Because EI is constant along the length of the beam, the shape
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0 of the M/EI diagram is the same as that of the bending moment
𝐴𝐻 = 0 diagram.
Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
600(2)(1) + 600(2)(4) 𝐴𝑉 − 600(2)(2) + 1200 = 0 Conjugate Beam Loaded with M/EI Diagram
−𝑅𝐵 (5) = 0 𝐴𝑉 = 1200 𝑁 ↑
𝑅𝐵 = 1200 𝑁 ↑

𝑦 600
=
1 4
𝑦 = 150 𝑁/𝑚 A′ B′
A B

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐹2
B′ Ʃ𝑀𝐵′ = 0
1 1
6𝐹2 + (4)(1600) [ (4)]
4 5
1 1
− (6)(1600) [ (6)] = 0
2 3
𝐹2 = 1386.67 𝑁 − 𝑚2

1 1
𝑎 1600 𝑏 = − (1)(𝑦)[ (1)] 1 1 1 1
= 2 3 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = (3)(800) [ (3)] − (1)(25) [ (1)] − 3(13.86.67)
3 6 1 1 2 3 4 5
𝑎 = 800 𝑁 − 𝑚 𝑏 = − (1)(150)[ (1)] 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = −2961.25 𝑁 − 𝑚3
2 3
𝑏 = −25 𝑁 − 𝑚
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 21

Thus, the deflection at the midspan is Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0

2961.25 6(12) + 8(18) + 6(24) 𝐴𝑉 − 6 − 8 − 6 + 10 = 0
∆𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑁 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼 −𝑅𝐵 (36) = 0 𝐴𝑉 = 10 𝑘 ↑
2961.25 𝑅𝐵 = 10 𝑘 ↑
∆𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 𝑁 − 𝑚3 ↓
𝐸𝐼

Example 3.9 The girder shown is made from a

continuous beam and reinforced at its center with
cover plates where its moment of inertia is larger.
The 12-ft end segments have a moment of inertia
of I = 450 in4 and the center portion has a moment
of inertia of I’ = 900 in4. Determine the deflection
at the center C. Take E = 29x103 ksi Moment diagram

M/EI diagram
Determinacy Because EI is NOT constant along the length of the beam, the
𝑟 ?3 + 𝑐 shape of the M/EI diagram is different as that of the bending
3 ?3 + 0 moment diagram.
3=3
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 The moment diagram for the beam is determined first. Since
Reactions I’=2I, for simplicity, we can express the load on the conjugate
Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0 beam in terms of the constant EI, as shown below.
𝐴𝐻 = 0
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 22

Conjugate Beam Loaded with M/EI Diagram Since the deflection at C is to be determined, we must compute
the internal moment at C’. Using the method of sections,
segment A’C’ is isolated and the resultants of the distributed
loads and their locations are determined.

The reactions on the conjugate beam can be calculated by the

symmetry of the loading or using the equations of equilibrium.

1 1116
𝑅𝐴′ = 𝑅𝐵′ = [3(720) + 72] = 𝑘 − 𝑓𝑡 2 ↓ 𝑀𝐶′ = Ʃ𝑀𝐶′
2 𝐸𝐼
= −1116(18) + 720(10) + 360(3) + 36(2)
11736
𝑀𝐶′ = − 𝑘 − 𝑓𝑡 3
𝐸𝐼
Substituting the numerical data for EI and converting units, we
have
11736
∆𝐶 = 𝑀𝐶′ = − 𝑘 − 𝑓𝑡 3
1𝑓𝑡
(29𝑥103 )(450)(12 𝑖𝑛)2
∆𝐶 = −0.1295 𝑓𝑡 = −1.55 𝑖𝑛

The negative sign indicates that the deflection is downward.

∆𝐶 = 1.55 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 ↓
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 23

Reactions
Example 3.10 Determine the slope and deflection at Ʃ𝐹𝐻 = 0
point C of the beam shown by the conjugate beam 𝐴𝐻 = 0
method. Assume E=200 GPa and I=830x106
mm4. Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0 Ʃ𝐹𝑉 = 0
9 208.33 − 30(9) − 55
30(9) ( ) + 55(12) − 𝑅𝐵 (9) = 0
2 +𝐴𝑉 = 0
𝑅𝐵 = 208.33 𝐾𝑁 ↑ 𝐴𝑉 = 116.67 𝐾𝑁 ↑

Because EI is constant along the length of the beam, the shape

of the M/EI diagram is the same as that of the bending moment
diagram.

Conjugate Beam Loaded with M/EI Diagram

Determinacy
𝑟 ?3 + 𝑐 Cut the beam at B and use the left FBD,
3 ?3 + 0 Ʃ𝑀𝐴 = 0
3=3 1 9 1 9
𝐴𝑌 (9) + (1215)(9) ( ) − (1050)(9) ( ) = 0
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 3 4 2 3
663.75
𝐴𝑌 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2 ↓
𝐸𝐼
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 24

The slope and deflection at C on the real beam is equal to the 3.2.4 Virtual Work Method
shear and bending moment at C in the conjugate beam,
respectively. Considering the free body of the conjugate beam to Virtual Work Method
the left of C, we obtain To develop an expression for the virtual work method for
𝑉𝐶′ = Ʃ𝐹𝑉 determining the deflections of beams, consider a beam subjected
1 1 1 to an arbitrary loading, as shown in figure (a). To determine a
= −663.75 − (1215)(9) + (1050)(9) − (165)(3) deflection, we select a virtual system consisting of a unit load
3 2 2
168.75 acting at the point and in the direction of the desired deflection,
𝑉𝐶′ = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2 as shown in figure (b). On the other hand, to determine a
𝐸𝐼
rotation, we select a virtual system consisting of a unit couple
𝑀𝐶′ = Ʃ𝑀𝐶 acting at the point and in the direction of the desired rotation, as
1 9 1 shown in figure (d).
= −663.75(12) − (1215)(9) ( + 3) + (1050)(9)(6)
3 4 2
1 6
− (165)(3)( )
2 3
753.75
𝑀𝐶′ = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼

Therefore, the slope and deflection at C on the real beam is

168.75
𝜃𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶′ = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2
𝐸𝐼
168.75
=
(200𝑥106 )(830𝑥10−6 )
𝜃𝐶 = 0.00102 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ↺

753.75
∆𝐶 = 𝑀𝐶′ = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼
753.75
=
(200𝑥106 )(830𝑥10−6 )
∆𝐶 = 0.00454 𝑚 = 4.54 𝑚𝑚 ↑
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 25

By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal Discontinuities

work, we obtain the following expression for the method of 1. Concentrated Load / Moment
virtual work for beam deflections: 2. Start and end of Distributed loads
𝑳𝟐
𝑴𝒗 𝑴 3. External Supports
𝟏(∆) = Ʃ ∫ 𝒅𝒙 4. Change in Geometry or EI
𝑳𝟏 𝑬𝑰
Note: A cut is made between these discontinuities.
If we want the slope at a point C of the beam, then we use a
Sign Convention
virtual system consisting of a unit couple acting at the point. we
1. If final answer is positive, assumed direction of
obtain the following expression for the method of virtual work
for beam slopes: deflection/ rotation is correct.
𝑳𝟐
𝑴𝒗 𝑴 2. If final answer is negative, assumed direction of
𝟏(𝜽) = Ʃ ∫ 𝒅𝒙 deflection/ rotation is incorrect thus reverse direction.
𝑳𝟏 𝑬𝑰
where
𝑀 = Bending moment due to real loading
𝑀𝑣 = Bending moment due to the virtual loading,
specifically:
𝑀𝑉 = Due to the virtual vertical unit load
𝑀𝛼 = Due to the virtual unit couple

Procedures for Analysis

1. Determinacy ( 3m+r ? 3j+c ) Example 3.11 Determine the deflection at point D of
2. Assumption of the required deformation the beam shown by the virtual work method.
3. Real System Diagram (Real loadings) Assume E = 200 GPa.
4. Virtual System Diagram (Unit load for deflection and
unit couple for rotation). Assume direction of unit load
or couple, this coincides with the deformation.
5. Divide Frame Members into segments then cut for
continuity
6. Moment Equations for both Real and Virtual
7. Complete Table (Establish Sign Conventions
depending on the chosen FBD’s)
8. Solve required using respective formula
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 26

Determinacy Assumption The x coordinates selected for determining the bending

𝑟 ?3 + 𝑐 Assume vertical deflection moment equations are shown previously.
at D downward (Represent Note: In any particular segment of the beam, the same x
3 ?3+ 0
with a downward unit load coordinate must be used to write both equations—that is, the
3=3
at D) equation for the real bending moment M and the equation for the
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
virtual bending moment Mv.

Real System (Values of M) Member x=0 Limits I M Mv

𝑥
AB A 0–3 I 75x
4
𝑥
BC A 3–6 2I 75x
4
𝑥
CD A 6–9 2I 75x – 150(x – 6)
4
3
DE E 0–3 I 75x x
4

𝐿2
𝑀𝑉 𝑀
1( ∆𝐷𝑣 ) = Ʃ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐿1 𝐸𝐼
3
Virtual System (Values of Mv) 1 𝑥 1 6 𝑥
= [∫ ( ) (75𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( ) (75𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0 4 2 3 4
9 3
1 𝑥 3
+ ∫ ( ) (−75𝑥 + 900)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( 𝑥) (75𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2 6 4 0 4
2193.75
1𝐾𝑁( ∆𝐷𝑣 ) = 𝐾𝑁 2 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼
2193.75
∆𝐷𝑣 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼
Therefore,
2193.75
∆𝐷𝑣 = = 0.0366 𝑚 = 36.6 𝑚𝑚
200(300)
∆𝐷𝑣 = 36.6 𝑚𝑚 ↓
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 27

3.3 Deformation of Frames 𝑀𝑣 = Bending moment due to the virtual loading, specifically:
𝑀𝑉 = Due to the virtual vertical unit load
𝑀𝐻 = Due to the virtual horizontal unit load
3.3.1 Virtual Work Method
𝑀𝛼 = Due to the virtual unit couple
Virtual Work Method
Application of the virtual work method to determine the Procedures for Analysis
slopes and deflections of frames is similar to that for beams. To 1. Determinacy ( 3m+r ? 3j+c )
determine the deflection, D, or rotation, y, at a point of a frame, 2. Assumption of the required deformation
a virtual unit load or unit couple is applied at that point. 3. Real System Diagram (Real loadings)
4. Virtual System Diagram (Unit load for deflection and
By equating the virtual external work to the virtual unit couple for rotation). Assume direction of unit load
internal work, we obtain the expressions for the method of or couple, this coincides with the deformation.
virtual work for deflections and rotations of frames, 5. Analyze Frames Completely (N, V, and M)
respectively, as 6. Divide Frame Members into segments then cut for
𝐹𝐿 𝑀𝑣 𝑀 continuity
1(∆) = Ʃ𝐹𝑉 ( ) + Ʃ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 7. Moment Equations for both Real and Virtual
𝐴𝐸 𝐸𝐼
and 8. Complete Table (Establish Sign Conventions
𝐹𝐿 𝑀𝑣 𝑀 depending on the chosen FBD’s)
1(𝜃) = Ʃ𝐹𝑉 ( ) + Ʃ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 9. Solve required using respective formula
𝐴𝐸 𝐸𝐼
The axial deformations in the members of frames Discontinuities
composed of common engineering materials are generally much 1. Concentrated Load / Moment
smaller than the bending deformations and are, therefore, 2. Start and end of Distributed loads
usually neglected in the analysis. 3. External Supports
𝑳𝟐 4. Change in Geometry or EI
𝑴𝒗 𝑴
𝟏(∆) = Ʃ ∫ 𝒅𝒙 Note: A cut is made between these discontinuities.
𝑳𝟏 𝑬𝑰
and Sign Convention
𝑳𝟐
𝑴𝒗 𝑴 1. If final answer is positive, assumed direction of
𝟏(𝜽) = Ʃ ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝑳𝟏 𝑬𝑰 deflection/ rotation is correct.
where 2. If final answer is negative, assumed direction of
𝑀 = Bending moment due to real loading deflection/ rotation is incorrect thus reverse direction.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 28

Real System Virtual System

Example 3.12 Use the virtual work method to

determine the vertical deflection at joint C of the
frame shown. Assume E = 70 GPa and I =
554x106 mm4.

FBD Analysis
Real System (Values of M)

Determinacy

3𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 3𝑗 + 𝑐 Assumption
3(2) + 3 ? 3(3) + 0 Assume vertical deflection
9=9 at C downward (Represent
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 with a downward unit load
at C)
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 29

Virtual System (Values of Mv) Therefore,

4150
∆𝐶𝑣 = = 0.107 𝑚 = 107 𝑚𝑚
70(5.54)
∆𝐶𝑣 = 107 𝑚𝑚 ↓

Example 3.13 Determine the rotation of joint C of the

frame shown by the virtual work method.
Assume E = 200 GPa and I = 1000x106 mm4.

Member x=0 Limits I M Mv

AB A 0–5 2I 76x – 530 –4
𝑥2 4
BC C 0–5 I – 12 –5 x
2

𝐿2
𝑀𝑉 𝑀
1( ∆𝐶𝑣 ) = Ʃ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐿1 𝐸𝐼
5 5
Determinacy Assumption
1 1 4 Assume rotation at C
= [ ∫ (−4)(76𝑥 − 530)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (− 𝑥) (−6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥]
𝐸𝐼 2 0 0 5 3𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 3𝑗 + 𝑐 clockwise (Represent with a
4150 3(2) + 3 ? 3(3) + 0 clockwise unit couple at C)
1𝐾𝑁( ∆𝐶𝑣 ) = 𝐾𝑁 2 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼 9=9
4150 ∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
∆𝐶𝑣 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 30

Real System Virtual System Virtual System (Values of Mα)

FBD Analysis
Real System (Values of M)

Member x=0 Limits I M Mα

AB A 0–4 I 180x 0
BC C 0–4 I 720 0
𝑥2 𝑥
CD D 0 – 12 I 180x – 20
2 12

𝐿2
𝑀α 𝑀
1( 𝜃𝐶 ) = Ʃ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐿1 𝐸𝐼
12
1 𝑥2 x
= [0 + 0 + ∫ (180𝑥 − ) ( ) 𝑑𝑥]
𝐸𝐼 0 2 2
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 31

4320 Real System Virtual System

1𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚( 𝜃𝐶 ) = 𝐾𝑁 2 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼
4320
𝜃𝐶 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚2
𝐸𝐼
Therefore,
4320
𝜃𝐶 = = 0.0216 𝑟𝑎𝑑
(200𝑥106 )(1000𝑥10−6 )
𝜃𝐶 = 0.0216 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ↻

Example 3.14 Determine the horizontal deflection at

joint C of the frame shown by the virtual work
method. Assume E = 200 GPa and I =400x106
FBD Analysis
mm4.
Real System (Values of M)

Determinacy Assumption
Assume horizontal deflection
3𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 3𝑗 + 𝑐 at C to the right (Represent
3(3) + 4 ? 3(4) + 1 with a horizontal unit load to
13 = 13 the right at C)
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 32

6
Virtual System (Values of MH) 3
+ ∫ (7.5 − 𝑥)(−22.5 + 52.5𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥]
0 4
3246.75
1𝐾𝑁( ∆𝐶𝐻 ) = 𝐾𝑁 2 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼
3246.75
∆𝐶𝐻 = 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚3
𝐸𝐼
Therefore,
3246.75
∆𝐶𝑣 = = 0.0406 𝑚 = 40.6 𝑚𝑚 ↓
(200𝑥106 )(225𝑥10−4 )

3.4 Deformation of Trusses

3.4.1 Virtual Work Method

Virtual Work Method

To develop the expression of the virtual work method
that can be used to determine the deflections of trusses, consider
Member x=0 Limits I M MH
an arbitrary statically determinate truss. Let us assume that we
𝑥
AB A 0 – 4.5 I – 5x want to determine the vertical deflection, D, at joint B of the
2
truss due to the given external loads P1 and P2. To determine the
– 22.5 + 52.5x 3
BC B 0–6 I 7.5 – x vertical deflection, D, at joint B of the truss, we select a virtual
– x2 4
system consisting of a unit load acting at the joint and in the
𝑥
CD D 0 – 4.5 I 55x direction of the desired deflection.
2

𝐿2
𝑀H 𝑀
1( ∆𝐶𝐻 ) = Ʃ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐿1 𝐸𝐼 𝑆𝐿
4.5 4.5 𝛿=
1 𝑥 𝑥 𝐴𝐸
= [∫ (−5𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (55𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0 5 0 2
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 33

By equating the virtual external work to the virtual

internal work in accordance with the principle of virtual forces
for deformable bodies, we obtain the following expression for
the method of virtual work for truss deflections and rotations:
1(∆) = Ʃ(𝑈)(𝛿)
𝑺𝑼𝑳
𝟏(∆) = Ʃ
𝑨𝑬
and
∆𝑚𝑏𝑟
𝜽𝑚𝑏𝑟 =
𝑳𝑚𝑏𝑟
where
𝑈 = Bar forces due to the virtual loading, specifically:
𝑈𝑉 = Bar forces due to the virtual vertical unit
load
𝑈𝐻 = Bar forces due to the virtual horizontal unit
load
𝑈𝑚𝑏𝑟 = Bar forces due to the virtual unit couple
Transformation of unit couple in a truss member 𝑆 = Bar forces due to real loading
Since loadings in trusses must be applied on the joints,
the unit couple is transformed into two unit loads in the opposite Procedures for Analysis
direction load unto the member in question. Also, the direction 1. Determinacy ( m + r = 2j )
of the unit couple should be adopted. Refer to the figures below. 2. Assumption of required deformations
3. Real System Diagram (Real loadings)
4. Virtual System Diagram (Unit load for deflection and
𝐵 𝐵 unit couple for slope or rotation) Assume direction of
unit load or couple, this coincides with the
deformation.
5. Analyze Trusses Completely (Bar Forces, T or C,
Zero Truss Members)
6. Complete Table (Consider Sign Conventions
𝐴 𝐴
depending on the orientation of the bar force)
7. Solve required using respective formula.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 34

Sign Convention Determinacy Assumptions

1. A member in tension is positive. 1. Assume vertical deflection at B
2. A member in compression is negative. 𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 2𝑗 downward (Represent with a vertical
3. If final answer is positive, assumed direction of 5 + 3 ? 2(4) unit load downward at B)
deflection/ rotation is correct. 8=8 2. Assume horizontal deflection at B
4. If final answer is negative, assumed direction of ∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 to the right (Represent with a
deflection/ rotation is incorrect thus reverse direction. horizontal unit load to the right at B)

Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors Real System (Values of S)

The expression of the virtual work method can be used
to determine truss deflections due to temperature changes,
fabrication errors, and any other effect for which the member
axial deformations, 𝛿, are either known or can be evaluated
beforehand. The axial deformation of a truss member j of length
L due to a change in temperature ∆𝑇 is given by
𝛿 = αL(∆𝑇)
in which α denotes the coefficient of thermal expansion of
member j. Substituting, we obtain the following expression:
1(∆) = Ʃ(𝑈)(𝛿)
𝟏(∆) = Ʃ𝑼𝛂𝐋(∆𝑻)
Virtual System
Example 3.15 Determine the deflection at joint B
of the truss by the virtual work method. Assume
E=200 GPa and A=1,200 mm2.

Values of UV Values of UH
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 35

L A S UV UH SUVL/A SUHL/A
MBR
(m) (m ) (KN) (KN) (KN) (KN2/m) (KN2/m)
2 Example 3.16 For the deck bridge truss shown,
AD 5.66 0.0012 -79.2 -0.61 0 227871.6 0 determine the rotation of member BC. The area
CD 5 0.0012 -35 -0.71 0 103541.7 0 of the top, bottom chords, and members CF and
BD 4 0.0012 84 1 0 280000 0 CH is 8000𝑚𝑚2; members BF and DH is
AB 4 0.0012 21 0.43 1 30100 70000 6000𝑚𝑚2; and members CG is 4000𝑚𝑚2.
BC 3 0.0012 21 0.43 0 22575 0 Assume E=200 GPa.
Ʃ 664088.3 70000

𝑆𝑈𝐻 𝐿 𝑆𝑈𝐻 𝐿 1
1( ∆𝐵𝐻 ) = Ʃ =Ʃ ( )
𝐴𝐸 𝐴 𝐸
1
= 70000( )
200𝑥106
1𝐾𝑁( ∆𝐵𝐻 ) = 0.00035 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚
∆𝐵𝐻 = 0.00035 𝑚
∆𝐵𝐻 = 0.35 𝑚𝑚 →
Determinacy Assumption
𝑆𝑈𝑉 𝐿 𝑆𝑈𝑉 𝐿 1 𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 2𝑗 Assume rotation at BC
1( ∆𝐵𝑉 ) = Ʃ =Ʃ ( )
𝐴𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 13 + 3 ? 2(8) clockwise (Represent with a
1 vertical unit load upward at B
= 664088.3( ) 16 = 16
200𝑥106 ∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 and a vertical unit load
1𝐾𝑁( ∆𝐵𝑉 ) = 0.00332 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚 downward at C)
∆𝐵𝑉 = 0.00332 𝑚
∆𝐵𝑉 = 3.32 𝑚𝑚 ↓ Real System (Values of S)

For the deflection at B, use Pythagorean theorem

122.67 122.67 133.33 133.33
2 2 (𝐶) (𝐶) (𝐶) (𝐶)
∆𝐵 = √ ∆𝐵𝑉 + ∆𝐵𝐻
48 73.33 60(𝐶) 64
= √3.322 + 0.352 (𝐶) (𝐶)
153.33 (𝐶) 166.67
∆𝐵 = 3.3384 𝑚𝑚 ↘ 0
(𝑇) (𝑇)
181.33 181.33
(𝑇) (𝑇)
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 36

Virtual System (Values of UBC) 1𝐾𝑁( ∆𝐵𝐶 ) = 0.000888 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚

∆𝐵𝐶 = 0.000888 𝑚
∆𝐵𝐶 = 0.888 𝑚𝑚
0.33(𝑇) 0.33(𝑇) 0.33(𝐶) 0.33(𝐶)
For the rotation of member BC,
1 1.25 0.42 0 ∆𝐵𝐶 0.888 mm
(𝑇) 0.42(𝑇)
𝜃𝐵𝐶 = =
0.42(𝐶) (𝐶) 0 (𝐶) 𝐿𝐵𝐶 4000 mm
𝜃𝐵𝐶 = 0.000222 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ↻
0.67(𝑇) 0.67(𝑇)

Example 3.17 Determine the vertical deflection at joint

L A S UBC SUBCL/A C of the truss shown due to a temperature drop of
MBR
(m) (m2) (KN) (KN) (KN2/m) 8°C in members AB and BC and a temperature
AB 4 0.008 -122.67 0.33 -202040.55 increase of 30°C in members AF, FG, GH, and
BC 4 0.008 -122.67 0.33 -202040.55 EH. Use the virtual work method. Assume
CD 4 0.008 -133.33 -0.33 21999.45 α = 1.2x10-5/°C.
DE 4 0.008 -133.33 -0.33 21999.45
BF 3 0.006 -48 1 -24000
CF 5 0.008 -73.33 -1.25 57289.063
CG 3 0.004 0 0 0
CH 5 0.008 -60 -0.42 15750
DH 3 0.006 -64 0 0
AF 5 0.008 153.33 -0.42 -40249.125
FG 4 0.008 181.33 0.67 60745.55
GH 4 0.008 181.33 0.67 60745.55
EH 5 0.008 166.67 0.42 43759.875
Ʃ 177549.713
Determinacy Assumption
𝑆𝑈𝐵𝐶 𝐿 𝑆𝑈𝐵𝐶 𝐿 1 Assume vertical deflection at
1( ∆𝐵𝐶 ) = Ʃ =Ʃ ( ) 𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 2𝑗
𝐴𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 C downward (Represent with a
1 13 + 3 ? 2(8)
= 177549.713( ) 16 = 16 vertical unit load downward at
200𝑥106 C)
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 37

Real System (Values of ΔT) 1( ∆𝐶𝑉 ) = Ʃ𝑈αL(∆𝑇) = Ʃ𝑈𝐿(∆𝑇) · α

= −406.8(1.2𝑥10−5 )
1𝐾𝑁( ∆𝐶𝑉 ) = −0.00488 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚
∆𝐶𝑉 = −0.00488 𝑚
∆𝐶𝑉 = 4.88 𝑚𝑚 ↑

Example 3.18 Determine the vertical deflection at joint

D of the truss shown if member CF is 15 mm too
Virtual System (Values of U) long and member EF is 10 mm too short. Use the
method of virtual work.

L ΔT U UL(ΔT)
MBR Determinacy
(m) (°C) (KN) (KN-°C-m)
AF 3.75 30 -0.833 -93.7 𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 2𝑗
FG 3.75 30 -0.833 -93.7 9 + 3 ? 2(6)
GH 3.75 30 -0.833 -93.7 12 = 12
EH 3.75 30 -0.833 -93.7
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
AB 3 -8 0.667 -16
BC 3 -8 0.667 -16 Assumption
Ʃ -406.8 Assume vertical deflection at D downward
(Represent with a vertical unit load downward
at D)
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 38

Real System (Values of 𝛿) 3.4.2 Castigliano’s Method

Castigliano’s Method
In this section, we consider another energy method for
determining deflections of structures. This method, which can
be applied only to linearly elastic structures, was initially
presented by Alberto Castigliano in 1873 and is commonly
known as Castigliano’s second theorem.

Castigliano’s second theorem can be stated as follows:

Virtual System (Values of U) “For linearly elastic structures, the partial derivative of
the strain energy with respect to an applied force (or
couple) is equal to the displacement (or rotation) of the
force (or couple) along its line of action.”

To develop the expression of Castigliano’s second

theorem, which can be used to determine the deflections of
trusses, we substitute for the strain energy (U) of trusses into the
general expression of Castigliano’s second theorem for
deflections as given to obtain
∂ 𝑆 2𝐿
∆= Ʃ
𝜹 U U𝜹 ∂𝑃 2𝐴𝐸
MBR ∂𝑆 2 ∂𝑆
(m) (KN) (KN-m) As the partial derivative = 2𝐹( ), the expression
EF -0.010 1 -0.010 ∂𝑃 ∂𝑃
of Castigliano’s second theorem for trusses can be written as
CF 0.015 -1 -0.015
𝛛𝑺 𝑺𝑳
Ʃ -0.025 ∆= Ʃ( )
𝛛𝑷 𝑨𝑬
1( ∆𝐷𝑉 ) = Ʃ𝑈𝛿 = −0.025 where
1𝐾𝑁( ∆𝐷𝑉 ) = −0.025 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚 𝑃 = Fictitious load applied to the truss, specifically:
∆𝐷𝑉 = −0.025 𝑚 𝑃2 = Fictitious load applied vertically
∆𝐷𝑉 = 25 𝑚𝑚 ↑ 𝑃1 = Fictitious load applied horizontally
𝑆 = Bar force in terms of the fictitious load P
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 39

∂𝑆 Differentiation Review
= derivative of the bar force S with respect to the
∂𝑃 A. Power Rule
fictitious load P. 𝒅
𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏
The foregoing expression is similar in form to the 𝒅𝒙
𝑑
expression of the method of virtual work for trusses. the e.g. 6𝑥 3 = (3)6𝑥 3−1
𝑑𝑥
procedure for computing deflections by Castigliano’s second 𝑑
6𝑥 3 = 18𝑥 2
theorem is also similar to that of the virtual work method. 𝑑𝑥

Procedures for Analysis

1. Determinacy ( m + r = 2j ) Example 3.19 Use Castigliano’s second theorem to
determine the horizontal and vertical components
2. Apply fictitious load P (If an external load with the
of the deflection at joint B of the truss. Assume
same orientation as the deflection is present replace it E=200 GPa and A = 1200 mm2.
with the fictitious load)
3. Determine the axial force S in terms of the fictitious
load P. (Always assume bar forces to be in tension)
4. Construct Table
5. Differentiate the member axial forces S with respect
∂𝑆
to the variable P to compute .
∂𝑃
6. Substitute the numerical value of P into the
expressions of S. (P will only have a value if it
represents an external load, else it is equal to zero)
7. Solve required using respective formula.

Sign Convention
Determinacy Assumptions
1. Tension forces are considered positive and
1. Assume vertical deflection at B
compression forces are negative. 𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 2𝑗
downward (Represent with a
2. If final answer is positive, assumed direction of 5 + 3 ? 2(4)
fictitious load P2 downward at B)
deflection is correct. If negative, assumed direction 8=8
2. Assume horizontal deflection at B
of deflection is incorrect thus reverse direction. ∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
to the right (Represent with a
3. For fictitious load P; positive if orientation is the
fictitious load P1 to the right at B)
same with the external load, negative if opposite.
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 40

∂𝑆 𝑆𝐿 1 1
∆𝐵𝐻 = Ʃ ( ) · = 70400( )
∂𝑃1 𝐴 𝐸 200𝑥106
∆𝐵𝐻 = 0.00035 𝑚
∆𝐵𝐻 = 0.35 𝑚𝑚 →

∂𝑆 𝑆𝐿 1 1
∆𝐵𝑉 = Ʃ ( ) · = 664244.96( )
∂𝑃2 𝐴 𝐸 200𝑥106
∆𝐵𝑉 = 0.00332 𝑚
∆𝐵𝑉 = 3.32 𝑚𝑚 ↓

Example 3.20 Determine the vertical and horizontal

deflection at joint B and the horizontal deflection
at C of the truss shown by Castigliano’s theorem.
Assume A= 10 mm2 and E = 200 GPa.
L A S 𝛛𝑺 𝛛𝑺
MBR
(m) (m2) (KN) 𝛛𝑷𝟏 𝛛𝑷𝟐
AD 5.66 0.0012 –28.28 – 0.61P2 0 -0.61
CD 5 0.0012 25 – 0.71P2 0 -0.71 Determinacy
BD 4 0.0012 P2 0 1 𝑚 + 𝑟 ? 2𝑗
AB 4 0.0012 –15 +P1 + 0.43P2 1 0.43 3 + 3 ? 2(3)
BC 3 0.0012 –15 + 0.43P2 0 0.43 6=6
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑃1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 = 84
MBR 𝛛𝑺 𝑺𝑳 𝛛𝑺 𝑺𝑳
( ), KN/m ( ), KN/m
𝛛𝑷𝟏 𝑨 𝛛𝑷𝟐 𝑨
Assumptions
AD 0 228792.29 1. Assume horizontal deflection at C to the right (Represent
CD 0 102476.67
a with fictitious load P1 to the right at C)
BD 0 280000
2. Assume vertical deflection at B downward (Represent with
AB 70400 30272
a fictitious load P2 downward at B)
BC 0 22704
3. Assume horizontal deflection at B to the right (Represent
Ʃ 70400 664244.96
with a fictitious load P3 to the right at B)
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 41

A. Horizontal deflection of joint C B. Vertical deflection of joint B

Using Castigliano’s Theorem, assume a horizontal load Using Castigliano’s Theorem, assume a vertical load P2
P1 at joint C, and solve bar forces in terms of this P1. See FBD at joint B, and solve bar forces in terms of this P2. See FBD of
of the truss with load P1 below. the truss with load P2 below.

−22.63 −28.84 −0.57 𝑃2 −0.72 𝑃2

16 + 𝑃1 0.40 𝑃2

Tabulate bar forces S in terms of P1, partial derivative of S, Tabulate bar forces S in terms of P2, partial derivative of S,
length L, cross-sectional area of a member A, modulus of length L, cross-sectional area of a member A, modulus of
elasticity E, and the actual bar forces as follows. elasticity E, and the actual bar forces as follows.

𝑃1 = 0 𝑃2 = 40 𝐾𝑁
L A S 𝛛𝑺 𝛛𝑺 𝑺𝑳 L A S 𝛛𝑺 𝛛𝑺 𝑺𝑳
MBR
(m) (m2) (KN) 𝛛𝑷𝟏
( ) MBR
(m) (m2) (KN) 𝛛𝑷𝟐
( )
𝛛𝑷𝟏 𝑨 𝛛𝑷𝟐 𝑨
(KN/m) (KN/m)
AB 4.24 0.00001 –22.63 0 0 AB 4.24 0.00001 –0.57P2 -0.57 5510304
BC 3.61 0.00001 –28.84 0 0 BC 3.61 0.00001 –0.72P2 -0.72 7485696
AC 5 0.00001 16 + P1 1 8x106 AC 5 0.00001 0.40P2 0.40 3.2x106
Ʃ 8x106 Ʃ 16196000

∂𝑆 𝑆𝐿 1 1 ∂𝑆 𝑆𝐿 1 1
∆𝐶𝐻 = Ʃ ( ) · = 8𝑥106 ( ) ∆𝐵𝑉 = Ʃ ( ) · = 16196000( )
∂𝑃1 𝐴 𝐸 200𝑥106 ∂𝑃2 𝐴 𝐸 200𝑥106
∆𝐶𝐻 = 0.04 𝑚 ∆𝐵𝑉 = 0.08099 𝑚
∆𝐶𝐻 = 40 𝑚𝑚 → ∆𝐵𝑉 = 80.99 𝑚𝑚 ↓
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 42

C. Horizontal deflection of joint B Summarizing, shown below is the deflected shape of

Using Castigliano’s Theorem, assume a horizontal load the given truss.
P3 at joint B, and solve bar forces in terms of this P3. See FBD
of the truss with load P3 below.

16 + 0.40 𝑃2

Tabulate bar forces S in terms of P3, partial derivative of S,

length L, cross-sectional area of a member A, modulus of
elasticity E, and the actual bar forces as follows.

𝑃3 = 0
L A S 𝛛𝑺 𝛛𝑺 𝑺𝑳
MBR
(m) (m2) (KN) 𝛛𝑷𝟑
( )
𝛛𝑷𝟑 𝑨
(KN/m)
AB 4.24 0.00001 –22.63 + 0.85P3 0.85 -8155852
BC 3.61 0.00001 –28.84 – 0.72 P3 -0.72 7496092.8
AC 5 0.00001 16 + 0.40P3 0.40 3.2x106
Ʃ 2540240.8

∂𝑆 𝑆𝐿 1 1
∆𝐵𝐻 = Ʃ ( ) · = 2540240.8( )
∂𝑃3 𝐴 𝐸 200𝑥106
∆𝐵𝐻 = 0.01270 𝑚
∆𝐵𝐻 = 12.70 𝑚𝑚 →
 S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 43

REFERENCES

a. Kassimali, A. (2011). Understanding

structural analysis.
b. Wang, C. and Eckel, C. (1983).
Indeterminate structural analysis. New
York, USA: McGraw Hill Inc.
c. Tuma, J. (1969). Theory and problems of
structural analysis. New York, USA:
McGraw Hill Inc.
d. Kinney, J. (1987). Indeterminate
structural analysis. New Delhi, India:
Narosa Publishing House and
Applications.
e. Engr. Crisostomo’s CE 3111 Modules
f. www.mathalino.com by Romel Verterra

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S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y | 44