Designing the Highway provide more lanes in the direction of heavier traffic flow.

Consistency - most important single rule in highway design

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with: Collector Street – form smaller mesh grid pattern where
1. Clear information & guidance through a variety of road signs passengers are pick up from service streets and carried to the
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road arterials.
standards Local Road – street or road primarily for access to residence,
AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and business or other adjoining properties.
Transportation Officials, 1973. AASHTO publications includes: Highway Capacity – maximum number of vehicles that are
1. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests reasonably expected to pass at given point over a given period
2. Specifications for highway bridges of time usually expressed as vehicles per hour.
3. Geometric design standards Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) - the total volume of
4. Numerous policy statements and guides traffic passing a point or segment of a highway facility in both
AASHO - American Association of State Highway Officials, directions for one year divided by the number of days in the
1914 year. Normally, periodic daily traffic volumes are adjusted for
Roads and Highways - strips of land that have been improved hours of the day counted, days of the week, and seasons of the
for the movement of people and goods year to arrive at average annual daily traffic.
Road - a public thoroughfare, can also refer to railways
Highway - higher state of development than road Design Speed
Expressway - a divided arterial highway for through traffic AASHTO
with full or partial control or access and generally provided “The speed determined for design and correlation of the
with grade separation at major intersections physical feature of a highway that influence vehicles operation.
Freeway - expressway with full control of access It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified
Control of Access - a condition where the right of owners or section of the highway when weather and traffic condition are
occupants of adjoining land or other persons access to light, air so favorable that the design features of the highway govern.”
or view in connection with a highway is fully or partially Basic Design Features - the tightness and super elevation of
controlled by public authority curves, the sight distance and grade
Full Control of Access - providing access connections to “The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to
selected public roads only. Crossing at grade or direct private satisfy the needs of nearly all drivers both today and throughout
driveway connections is not permitted. the road anticipated life.”
Partial Control Access – in addition to access connections with Selection of the proper road design speed - one of the most
selected public roads, there may be some crossings at grade and important decisions to make
some private driveways connections allowed.
Through Street or Through Highway - every highway or Cross Section of Typical Highway
portion thereof at the entrance to which vehicular traffic from The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of
intersecting highways is required to stop or yield before variables to consider such as:
entering or crossing and where appropriate signs are erected as 1. The volume of traffic
provided by law, unless entry or crossing is made on the proper 2. Character of the traffic
indication of a traffic-control signal. 3. Speed of the traffic
Parkway – is an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, 4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver.
with full or partial control access usually located within a park
or ribbon park-like development.
Arterial Street – an arterial route that carries traffic to the Road Shoulder
nearest access point or through traffic. Road shoulder or verge - portion of the roadway between the
Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial Roadways edge of the traffic lane and the edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or
1. Studies of the traffic volume side slope. AASHTO requires that its usable pavement width
2. Accident experienced shall be strong enough to support vehicles.
3. Width should not be less than 15 meters Importance of Road Shoulder
4. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each direction 1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when
5. Should be at least 1 kilometer in length disabled or for some purposes. Road shoulder considerably
6. Arterials are spaced at about 600 to 900 meters apart. reduces road accidents.
7. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum volume 2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity
to justify arterial road is 300 vehicles per average hour during increases if the shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the design.
the day, and 450 vehicles hourly during peak periods. 3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of the
To increase arterial capacity: roadway. It also add structural strength to the road pavement.
1. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both 4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It
sides of the street. reduces accident potential when vehicle stop during
2. Parking is prohibited several meters away from each side of emergencies.
the road intersections or corners Shoulder Functions
3. Right turn is allowed on red signals any time with care 1. Lateral Support
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested intersections 2. Avoidance Space
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the center lane to 3. Emergency Stop
4. Bike Use
5. Mail Delivery, Buses, etc.
Cross Slope
Cross slope - provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. Grade Line
Slope usually falls in both directions from the center line of the Grade line - the longitudinal profile of the highway as a
two lane highway except where super elevation of curves measure of how the center line of the highway rises and fall.
directs all water towards the inside. For high type pavement, the Appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a
crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. series of straight lines connected by parabolic vertical curves to
which straight grades are tangent.
Things to consider in laying the grade line:
1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting sight
distances in relation to grade line, economy is one main
consideration.
2. In mountainous areas, the grade line must be considered
balanced excavation against embankments to get the minimum
overall cost.
3. In flat area, the grade line is set almost parallel to the ground
surface but sufficiently above the ground for drainage purposes.
Cut or Fill Slope 4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with sufficient
Cut and Fill - process of constructing a railway, road or canal covering.
whereby the amount of material from cuts roughly matches the 5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed
amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments, so by the expected level of water flood.
minimizing the amount of construction labor. Safe on slope
ratio 1:2. Vertical Curve Over Crest
All vertical curves should not be shorter than the established
Number of Lanes minimum over crests.
Number of lanes in a segment of the highway - determined The minimum curve length varies with the design speed in
from the estimated traffic volume for the design year (AADT) meters distance equals to 8 times the velocity in kilometers per
and highway lane capacity at expected level of service. hour.
Maximum correction - the vertical distance from the
intersection of the straight grade line to the curve is equal to one
Highway Median eight of the product of the algebraic difference in grade and the
Highway median became an absolute requirement because it length of the curve in stations
offers these following advantages: The correction at any intermediate point is obtained by:
1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, conflicts 1. Multiplying the maximum correction by the square of the
and accident between opposing stream of traffic. horizontal distance between the near end of the curve and the
2. The median offers refuge between opposing traffic stream of point.
cross traffic, and pedestrian could traverse each stream at 2. Divide this product by the square of one half of the length of
separate maneuvers. the curve.
3. Median provides available space for left turn lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.
Four means of reducing cross median accidents: Right of Way
1. Provide deterring devices. A successful freeway and expressway operations, closes the
2. Provide non-traversable energy absorbing barriers. roadway from direct access to adjoining property and some
3. Provide non- traversable rigid barriers. local roads or streets.
4. Provide GM barriers. Frontage road shall be permitted to enter connecting cross
streets only a distance of at least 100 meters for rural areas and
Deterring Devices – two sets of double strip painted on the 50 meters for urban conditions.
existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low curbing and
shallow ditches. Stopping Sight Distance
Non- Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices – the line chain Stopping sight distance - longest distance that a driver could
link fence 1 meter high supported by steel post augmented by see the top of the object 15 centimeters (6”) above the road
cables at the bottom and midpoint. Non traversable rigid surface where the design height of the driver’s eye above the
barriers are metal guard rail. pavement is 105 cm.
G.M. Barriers – a high non-mountain sloped face concrete
barrier called New Jersey or jersey barriers. It is cast or
extruded in place or pre cast in section and set in position by
crane.
 between them, they are acceptable.
2. Compound curves of different radii is considered as poor
design.
AASHTO recommends that the radius of the flatter curve for:
 Rural highways - never be more than 50% greater than
that of the sharper one.
 Urban highways - super elevation changes along this
transition section.

Passing Sight Distance Island

Passing sight distance - is the longest distance that a driver can Island - defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle
see the top of an oncoming vehicle where the driver's eye level movement and for pedestrian refuge, is no single physical type.
is 1.05 meters above the pavement surface. Within an intersection, median is considered an island.
Purposes:
1. Separation of vehicular flows.
Road Alignment 2. Separation of conflicts.
In designing the highway:
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas.
1. Should be consistent. 4. Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of
2. Alignment should be provided with tangents.
intersection.
3. A long flat curve is acceptable at all times. 5. Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement.
Things that should be avoided:
6. Location of traffic control devices.
1. An abrupt changes to road alignment. Channelization - the alteration of course or flow of vehicles
2. Designing circular curves of diff. radius from end to end.
typically to improve traffic. By channelization, the angle or
3. Compounded curve unless there is suitable transitions route between intersecting streams of traffic can be smooth and
between them.
favorable.
4. To have short tangents between two curves Importance Of Proper Channelization:
1. Prohibited turns are prevented.
Circular Curves 2. Refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and
Circular curves - A vehicle travelling in curved road is pedestrian
subjected to centrifugal force. This centrifugal force is 3. By channelization, refuge may be provided for turning or
balanced by equal and opposite super elevation and side crossing vehicles and pedestrian.
frictions. However, these 2 factors can't overcome nor exceed 4. The drivers has to face only one decision at a time, hence,
the maximum control on the sharpness of the curve with a conflicts are avoided.
prescribed design speed. 5. It provides location for the traffic control devices like signs,
signals and refuge for pedestrian.
Super Elevation - Runoff Types of Traffic Islands
Super Elevation - Runoff - length of highway needed to 1. Channelizing Island - guides the traffic into proper channel
accomplish the change in cross slope from a section with through the intersection area.
adverse crown removed to a fully super elevated section. 2. Divisional Island - islands that divides the highway into two
 AASHTO recommended the run off length to vary both with one-way roadways so that head on collision are eliminated and
super elevation rate and the design speed, but with the accidents are reduced.
minimum set for appearance and comfort to riders. 3. Pedestrian loading/Refuge Island - are provided at regular
 It is advisable to make the super elevation by raising the outer bus stops and similar places for protection of passengers.
edge elevated twice the usual distance. 4. Rotary Islands - is the largest central island of a rotary
 It is therefore recommended that about 60% to 80% of the intersection.
runoff be on the tangent.
Types of Interchange
Widening of Curves Interchange - is an area where two or more highways meet
Widening roadways on sharp curve for two lanes pavement is Interchange - requires selection of the conformation that is best
necessary because of the following reasons: suited to a particular situation and demand
1. To force the drivers to shy away from the pavement edge. Difference between a highway and a freeway:
2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non- A highway is a major public road, usually connecting multiple
tracking of front and rear wheels. cities, while a freeway is a part of a highway with 2 or more
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the lanes on each side, no tolls, no intersections or cross streets
front wheel to the roadway center line. Functions of Freeway Interchanges:
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway. an additional width of 30  to provide separation between two or more traffic arteries
centimeters is necessary on an-open curve highway.  to facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles
Some designs that are not acceptable in highway designs:  to provide high levels of safety and efficiency in the
1. Reverse circular curves are seldom used on modern movement of large volumes of traffic at high speeds
highways, but if provided with proper length easements Types of Freeway Interchanges:
1. Trumpet Interchange - one of the legs of the interchange
meets a highway at some angle but does not cross it
2. Diamond Interchange - simplest and low cost form of
interchange, it is recommended where the freeway crosses non-
freeway arterial; it can be designed even if the major road is
relatively narrow
3. Cloverleaf Interchange - recommended for freeway and
arterial intersections; used when two highways of high volume
and speed intersect each other with considerable turning
movements
Objections to the Cloverleaf Interchange Design:
1. It requires large area of land.
2. At higher design speed, more time is consumed just to
traverse the longer loops.
3. Vehicles that left turn execute 270 deg right turn and travel Bicycle Lane
greater distance Bicycle lane - popular due to energy crises and traffic problems;
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant weave those requires separate road for the riders that is entirely separate
entering the adjacent loop from the through roadway from vehicular traffic
Advantages of the Cloverleaf Interchange Design:
1. It provides complete separation of traffic Traffic sign - passive control
2. High speed at intersections can be achieved Channelization - semi control
Traffic signals - active control
Channelized Intersection Give-way Control - passive control
Channelization - is a method of control
Channelized Intersection - provides more safety and
efficiency; serves as a refuge for pedestrians and makes
pedestrian crossing safer.

Highway Intersection at Grade

 All highways except freeways have intersections at grade
 Intersection area is considered part of every connecting
roads. In this area, all crossing and turning movement occur
 A careful traffic count and projected future improvement is a
must
1. For right angle intersections with little traffic, the use of
street sign is more than sufficient.
2. For Y intersection or other related conformation where
vehicles meet at unfavorable angles may require channelization.
3. Intersections must accommodate large trucks, and the radius
of all curves must be sufficient enough to accomodate them.

Freeway Entrance and Exit

 The overall effectiveness of the individual freeway systems is
governed by the flow characteristics of vehicles, and the
driver’s behavior near on and off the channel
 Sufficient length is required to allow the vehicles to
accelerate and merge into the ongoing vehicle stream at a
speed near that of the freeway
 Vehicles leaving the freeway need distance to accelerate and
clear of the flow of ongoing traffic
 If one lane could not meet the traffic demand, two lane exits
is necessary
 With one lane exit, an auxiliary lane is necessary for it
reduces confusion and congestion
Design of Freeway Entrances/Exit:
1. Parallel Entrance/Exit
2. Taper Entrance/Exit