CHAPTER 1

NATURE AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The practice of cleanliness has been around for

thousands of years and humans have mastered several methods

of disinfection or decontamination. In effect, we have

learned to avoid consequences of infection from bacteria and

viruses.

The advent of COVID-19 lead us to re-evaluate and

contrast the effectiveness of common methods of

disinfections. Due to the wide selection of these methods,

people tend to choose what is commonly used by everyone

without or just slightly considering their effectiveness.

The selection of materials used to disinfect is wide and

each of them has an advantage over the other.

Various innovative and user-friendly components have

been established over many years. Humans have developed a

1
lot of these that many people also settle on what the norm

is making use just because it is popular.

Some of the most popular ways to disinfect is through

the use of UV light, misting, foot baths and disinfection

tents. These are quite effective methods that are

specialized for specific uses. However, this study

enlightens people about some of their inconsistencies.

In this study, the researchers made a comparison of

the commonly used chemicals of disinfection in order to

identify an applicable disinfectant that may better the

hygiene of the residents of Rosario, Batangas. In the

comparison the researchers took effectiveness, cost-

efficiency and availability in consideration. These factors

are essential because the study aims to educate and help

people on their choices in order to avoid diseases

especially in times of outbreaks.

The researchers took into consideration the different

factors as to how and why each method is deemed honorably

acceptable and preferred to be used in Rosario, Batangas.

Considering the barangay count of Rosario to be 48, the

study peered into analysis of a method that would be

suitable for a mass usage and fast implementation. With the

help of different tools and criteria, the information would

2
suffice the intended goal of this study which is to

determine a disinfectant to be used in Rosario, Batangas.

This study also aims to give people knowledge of how

the discussed disinfectant work to evade common or uncommon

diseases. It also intends to explain how technologies such

as the equipment used in these methods work in order to

achieve its purpose. This study will enable people to

distinguish an ideal disinfectant that they prefer based on

the criteria of effectiveness, costs, and availability.

People will also learn the concepts behind disinfection; how

they work and their pros and cons.

Statement of the Problem

It is important for people to know the best tool to

achieve a better standard of living. Most importantly, we

must choose the best materials to preserve our health and

keep it in its optimal state. The following are questions

that were used as guides to fulfill the purpose of the

study:

1. Which of the disinfectants has the highest level of

efficacy (percent of bacteria or viruses that it can

exterminate)?

3
 2. What disinfectant is in the economical price range of

citizens of Rosario, Batangas?

3. Which of the disinfectants is widely available in

Rosario, Batangas?

4. Which of the disinfectants is to be used in the

locality of Rosario, Batangas?

Conceptual Framework

The paradigm of the study includes the input which is

the disinfectants gathered from recommendations of different

organizations all over the world. The process states the

evaluation and comparison of disinfectants based on their

effectiveness, cost-efficiency, and availability which are

the criteria set by the researchers. Finally, the output

states the expected outcome of this study which is the ideal

disinfection method.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

analysis and
suggested
disinfectants comparison of
disinfectants disinfectant

4
Figure 1. Paradigm of the Input, Process and Output in The
Determination of Disinfectant to be Used in the
Locality of Rosario, Batangas
Significance of the Study

The most significant point of this study is to

educate people on the differences of disinfectants used to

prevent illnesses. Furthermore, with the use of this

knowledge, people will be able to distinguish the better

option to go with when it comes to hygiene. With the fast

rise of technology, many people are left out due to its

speed. A lot of us have not yet discovered or understood

other options available for us when it comes to disinfection

or decontamination. Of course, our unawareness of

information does not only apply in this field but in others

too. But due to the unexpected dawn of COVID-19 all over the

world, disinfection became a big deal in what we call the

new normal.

Community. The information within this study is an

asset for the community of Rosario, Batangas. It makes the

members of the community have the knowledge required to

protect themselves as a whole against common or uncommon

health hazards. By obtaining this information they will be

5
able to set proper equipment, materials and methods for

precaution in their communities.

Households. Just like how the community will benefit

from this study, families will learn more information about

preventing health issues caused by pathogens. Aside from

this, the families will also be able to protect themselves

more effectively.

The Researchers. The researchers also benefit from

the experiences and knowledge that they have gathered during

the analysis of each method. They obtained more knowledge

about the chemistry and mechanics of how people in the

industry of medicine protect us against infectious disease.

The Future Researcher. The expected outcome of this

study may serve as an inspiration or basis for the future

researchers to expound and also use the methods in this

study to come up with better ideas.

This study also poses a minor benefit which is the

documentation of disinfection methods used during the

outbreak of COVID-19. This piece of information will then be

helpful for future researchers to develop better

technologies and techniques on disinfection or

decontamination.

6
Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study only focused on comparing different

disinfectants. The information that were used to compare and

contrast them are already purely proven and thoroughly

studied by scientist and doctors. The study does not intend

to test out each disinfectant, rather it intends to compare

and contrast them to one another.

The study is to compare and analyze the effectiveness

of the disinfectants and then evaluate them through the

criteria set by the researchers. It only entails knowledge

to avoid wastage of money and effort for disinfectants. This

is particularly for the community of Rosario, Batangas.

This study covered the explanation of concepts behind

each disinfectant, if there is. This information was used to

evaluate how a disinfectant fulfills its purpose.

7
Definition of Key Terms

Chemical Fogging. Applying chemical disinfectants to

production areas as fogs or mists is a method used routinely

in the food industry (Middleton, 2020). In this study, this

term has a similar meaning with misting which is a form of

disinfection which use chemical sprays.

COVID-19. COVID-19 (Corona Virus Disease-19) is a

disease caused by a new strain of coronavirus. 'CO' stands

for corona, 'VI' for virus, and 'D' for disease. Formerly,

this disease was referred to as '2019 novel coronavirus' or

'2019-nCoV.'(WHO, 2020). In this study, the term is referred

to as a highly infectious disease that causes respiratory

problems.

Disinfection. Disinfecting kills germs on surfaces or

objects. This process does not necessarily clean dirty

surfaces or remove germs, but by killing germs on a surface

8
after cleaning, it can further lower the risk of spreading

infection (CDC.gov, 2020). In this study, the meaning of

this term is the same as what (cdc.gov, 2020) states.

Misting. Misting with a chemical sprayer is an

effective way to disperse sanitizing chemicals (solo.global,

2020). In this study, misting is a method of disinfection

with the use of chemical sprays.

Pathogens. A pathogen is an organism that causes

disease. Pathogens are different and can cause disease upon

entering the body (Longhurst, 2019). In this study,

pathogens are microorganisms that, alongside with viruses,

cause sickness and disease.

Sterilization. describes a process that destroys or

eliminates all forms of microbial life and is carried out in

health-care facilities by physical or chemical methods

(Rutala et al., 2019). In this study, sterilization is

referred to as annihilation of all microorganisms.

Ultraviolet Light. Ultraviolet light is a type of

electromagnetic radiation that makes black-light posters

glow, and is responsible for summer tans — and sunburns.

However, too much exposure to UV radiation is damaging to

living tissue (Lucas, 2017). In this study, this term is

9
referred to as an electromagnetic radiation that is capable

of disinfection.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literature and

studies used as sources of information and data which are

the primary components of the study. This chapter starts

with the related literature followed by the related studies.

Related Literature

10
 According to S. Mohapatra, (2017), sterilization and

disinfection are the basic components of hospital infection

control activities. Every day, a number of hospitals are

performing various surgical procedures. Even more number of

invasive procedures are being performed in different health

care facilities. The medical device or the surgical

instrument that comes in contact with the sterile tissue or

the mucus membrane of the patient during the various

processes is associated with increased risk of introduction

of pathogens into the patient's body. Moreover, there is

chance of transmission of infection from patient to patient;

from patient or to health care personnel, and vice versa; or

from the environment to the patient through the improper

sterilized or disinfected devices. If not properly cared,

this could also bring new form of diseases or viruses that

could cause worldwide pandemic. Hence, medical personnel,

laboratory people and the health care providers should have

better knowledge regarding these techniques to prevent the

spread of these pathogens.

The main objective of this article was to give deep

or proper knowledge about the cause and effects of

contaminated materials if it is not properly cared or

cleaned. It also talked about the importance of proper

mitigation so that no cause of any sickness could occur.

11
This article is associated to the present study since one of

the goals of the researchers is to give knowledge or ideas

on how to disinfect different materials whether in

households or hospitals. This article is connected to the

present study, since the aim of the researchers are to find

what is the best among all the methods of disinfection. This

is also associated in the present study in such a way that

the goal of the researchers is to collect information and

share to other people.

12
 According to Richie (2016), Disinfection and

sterilization in health care facilities is very important

because there are thousands of cases that are infected in

our society, surgical procedure, dental extraction and many

invasive medical procedures. In USA, approximately 46.5

million surgical procedures which including 5 million

gastrointestinal endoscopies each year, and in addition to

USA, other countries also carry on many kinds of invasive

medical procedure. Therefore, preventing from any forms of

the infection is the goal of hospital to make sure all the

patients’ safety of life, and disinfection as well as

sterilization is the way to prevent the pathogen transmitted

by the surgical instruments or to minimize the possibility

of infections.

In this article, the importance of sterilization and

disinfection was stated. It can lead to minimizing the

infection rate of viruses and can ensure the safety of

patient’s life. This study is affiliated to the present

study in the way of showing the essence of disinfection to

our lives and in the way of giving enough information to the

society about the importance of disinfection.

13
 The propagation of antibiotic resistance increases

the chances of major infections for patients during

hospitalization and the spread of health-related diseases.

Therefore, finding new and effective solutions to prevent

the proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms is critical

to protect hospital environment, such as the surfaces of

biomedical devices. Modern nanotechnology has proven to be

an effective countermeasure to tackle the threat of

infections. Recent scientific breakthroughs have

demonstrated that antimicrobial nanomaterials are effective

in preventing pathogens from developing resistance. Aside

from the ability to destroy a great deal of bacteria and

control the outbreak of infections, nanomaterials present

many other advantages (Bruni et al., 2020).

This article focused on the effectiveness of

nanomaterials as a disinfection method. The purpose of this

article is to deepen the discussion on the threat of

infections related to surface disinfection and to assess the

state of the art and potential solutions, with specific

focus on disinfection procedures using nanomaterials. This

is highly affiliated to the recent study since one of the

objectives of the researchers is to identify or suggest the

best disinfection method in the present time.

14
Related Studies

In a study conducted by Lin et al. (2020), viral

epidemics were developed from the emergence of new variants

of infectious viruses. The lack of effective disinfection

for the new viral infections coupled with rapid community

spread of the infection often result in major human and

financial loss. Viral transmissions can occur via close

human‐to‐human contact or via contacting a contaminated

surface. Thus, careful disinfection or sanitization is

essential to curtail viral spread. A myriad of

disinfectants/sanitizing agents/biocidal agents are

available that can inactivate or invalidate viruses, but

their effectiveness is dependent upon many factors such as

concentration of agent, reaction time, temperature, and

organic load.

The main objective of this study was to review common

commercially available disinfectants agents available on the

market. The evaluation of the effectiveness under various

application conditions was also tackled on this study. This

study is highly relevant to the objective of the

researchers: to distinguish the most ideal method that they

prefer based on the criteria of effectiveness, costs and

availability.

15
 Choosing a decontamination method depends on the

specific risk from a product to cause infections. The

current adopted theoretical framework is the same that was

proposed in 1958, when minimum safety procedures were

determined to be adopted according to the various risk

degrees; that is, sterilization for critical materials - the

ones which get in contact with sterile human tissues; the

high-level disinfection; and, if possible, sterilization for

semi-critical materials - the ones which get in touch with

non-intact skin or mucous membranes; and cleaning that is

followed by intermediate or low-level disinfection as a

standard procedure for non-critical materials - the ones

which contact intact skin or which do not get in contact

with patients (Ribeiro et al., 2015).

This study talked about the dependency of

disinfection method on the virus or infections that they

will deal with. Through that, this study is highly

affiliated with the present study. One of the objectives of

the researchers is to give people enough ideas about the

different concepts behind disinfection methods.

16
 In a study conducted by Kampf et al. (2020), SARS-CoV

strain P9 could persist on metal, wood, paper, glass, and

plastic for approximately 5 days untreated. A different

SARS-CoV strain, GVU6109, could last on paper for up to 24

hours, and on disposable gowns for up to 2 days at room

temperature. HCoV strain could remain on steel, PVC,

ceramic, teflon, and glass for 5 days at specific

temperature and plastic for 2-6 days at room temperature.

MERS-CoV isolate HCoV-EMC/2012 could persist on steel and

plastic anywhere from 8-48 hours, but higher temperatures

(approximately 30°C) lowered this time to 8-24 hours.

After gathering information, they then collected the

data available about the ability of certain cleaners to

inactivate these coronaviruses, such as ethanol, 2-propanol,

glutardialdehyde, formaldehyde, and sodium hypochlorite

(bleach). The researchers found that in suspension tests,

ethanol (78-95% in water), 2-propanol (70-100% in water),

glutardialdehyde (0.5-2.5% in water), and formaldehyde (0.7-

1% in water) readily inactivated the coronavirus. Bleach was

effective at a concentration of at least 0.21%.

17
 In the more realistic concept, ethanol (62-71% in

water) and 0.1-0.5% bleach each could make the virus less

infectious within 1 minute of exposure. Glutardialdehyde (2%

in water) was also effective. The researchers recommended

that solution of 1-part bleach to 49 parts water is

appropriate to disinfect surfaces. 70% Ethanol is also

recommended by the World Health Organization for

disinfecting surfaces.

To summarize things up, this study focused on

gathering data about different disinfection method present

in the society. Therefore, the goal of this study was to

evaluate every possible disinfection method that can extract

viruses from certain things or places. This is highly

applicable in the present study in the way of re-evaluating

every disinfection method presents in the society and to

know the most effective and least effective methods through

data gathering.

18
 Human coronaviruses can remain active on surfaces

such as metal, glass, or plastic for up to 9 days after

exposure. The best way to deal with that problem is by

cleaning those surfaces with a solution that’s 62% to 72%

ethanol, .5% hydrogen peroxide, or 0.1% sodium hypochlorite

within 1 minute of contamination. Even though hand hygiene

compliance appears to be significantly higher during an

outbreak, there still seems to a lack of total buy-in among

physicians, the study states, adding that transmission can

be successfully prevented when appropriate measures are

consistently performed (Diamond,2020).

This study focused on assessing or analyzing the

effectiveness of disinfection methods. Since the objective

of the study was to assess the different ways of

disinfection, it is highly relevant to the present study. It

is significant to the present study’s one objective: to

evaluate and contrast the effectiveness of common methods of

disinfections to identify the most ideal option.

19
 According to a study conducted by Rutala et al.

(2013), The UV-C system and the systems that use HP have

their own advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage

of both units is their ability to achieve substantial

reductions in vegetative bacteria. Another advantage is

their ability to substantially reduce C difficile spores as

low-level disinfectants (such as quaternary ammonium

compounds) have only limited or no measurable activity

against spore-forming bacteria. Both systems are residual

free, and they decontaminate all exposed surfaces and

equipment in the room. The major disadvantages of both

decontamination systems are the substantial capital

equipment costs; the need to remove personnel and patients

from the room, thus limiting their use to terminal room

disinfection (must prevent/minimize exposure to UV and HP);

the staff time needed to transport the system to rooms to be

decontaminated and monitor its use; and the need to

physically clean the room of dust and debris.

This study was made to determine the pros and cons of

such disinfection methods. Through that, it is highly

relevant to the present study in the way of determining the

advantages and disadvantages of disinfection methods. This

will lead to determining the most effective disinfection

method present in the society.

20
 According to Rutala et al. (2020), When disinfection

and sterilization are properly used, it can ensure the safe

use of invasive and noninvasive medical devices. Cleaning

should always precede high-level disinfection and

sterilization. Strict adherence to current disinfection and

sterilization guidelines is essential to prevent patient

infections and exposures to infectious agents.

The main objective of this study was to assess the

effectiveness of disinfection and sterilization through

proper using and it what advantages proper cleaning or

sterilizing could give. This is affiliated with the present

study since one of the objectives of the researchers is to

determine the effectiveness and defectiveness of different

disinfectants present in the society through data analysis.

Another objective of the researches is to analyze the

advantages and disadvantages of each disinfection method the

society has as of now.

21
 In the study conducted by Quinn ScD, CIH et al.,

(2015), cleaning and disinfecting practices used on

noncritical patient care items and noncritical environmental

surfaces, which involve using cleaning products and low-

level and intermediate-level disinfectants, and the

occupational hazards associated with these processes. The

term cleaning and disinfecting is used because these

processes are often performed together, either sequentially

or simultaneously. This term refers to the physical

activities and tasks and the products used for cleaning and

disinfecting. Although sterilization and high-level

disinfection are extremely important processes to prepare

critical and semi critical instruments and devices for

patient use, a thorough discussion of the occupational

health issues associated with them is beyond the scope of

this article.

This study is affiliated to the present study in a

way that the aim of the present study is to compare the

different ways of disinfection and see what is the most

effective among all. This study focuses on how the personnel

of the hospitals disinfect the environment where they move,

which is very relevant to the present study. This study

contributed in the present study in such a way that the

processes or methods used in this study is what the

22
researchers need to know what is the most effective method

of disinfection.

In the study conducted by Meireles A. et al., (2016),

the use of chlorine as a disinfectant in the fresh-cut

produce industry has been identified as a concern mainly due

to public health issues. In fact, this chemical, commonly

used as hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite, has already been

prohibited in some countries, due to the potential

production of toxic by-products, such as chloroform and

other trihalomethanes, chloramines and haloacetic acids. The

search for alternative methods of disinfection is therefore

a current and on-going challenge in Industry. Some methods

are well described in the literature on the disinfection of

food-contact surfaces and process water and also on the

decontamination of the produce. These methods are commonly

classified as biological (bacteriocins, bacteriophages,

enzymes and phytochemicals), chemical (chlorine dioxide,

electrolyzed oxidizing water, hydrogen peroxide, ozone,

organic acids, etc.) and physical (irradiation, filtration,

ultrasounds, ultraviolet light, etc.).

This study provides information of the available

disinfection strategies alternative to chlorine that can be

used in the fresh-cut industry, which is one of the

23
objectives of the researchers. This study is related to the

present study since it focuses on having alternative way of

disinfection.

In the study conducted by Xu CH. et al., (2014),

Approximately 20%–40% of nosocomial infections are caused by

cross-transmission via the hands of medical workers, which

affect the quality of health care and patients' safety.

According to advanced research, hand hygiene is the most

effective and convenient precaution against nosocomial

infections. In most cases work overload leads to a reduction

in time available for proper hand hygiene compliance. The

clinical antiseptic hand rubbing method is easier and faster

than hand washing alone. The World Health Organization

(WHO), along with the Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (Atlanta, GA, USA), suggested antiseptic hand

rubbing as an appropriate method for hand hygiene. However,

the appropriate dosage of the alcohol-based hand rub was not

determined.

This study determines the most efficient antiseptic

hand rubbing method in an effort to promote hand hygiene

compliance among nurses without affecting work efficiency.

This study is affiliated to the present study since they

24
almost have the same goal. A goal to determine the different

ways on how to have an effective disinfection.

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research techniques, procedures, and statistical

treatment used in this study are indicated and elaborated in

this chapter. These are explained in this chapter in order

to clearly show the processes which were performed to

fulfill the objectives and achieve the goals of this study.

This chapter also includes figures to which the

processes are clarified. Furthermore, it describes the

importance of the research methods, data gathering

procedure, and statistical treatment in order to fulfill the

objectives of the study.

25
Research Design

This research has a quantitative research design

which utilizes content analysis data gathering method. In

this method, the information about the subjects are closely

examined to acquire answers for the research questions that

were provided. This is necessary to evaluate and identify

the most ideal out of them.

An interval scale, which is guided by a set of

criteria, is used in order for the recorded characteristics

and capabilities of each disinfectant to be quantified. The

criteria indicate the effectiveness, cost-efficiency, and

availability of the disinfectant which are scaled in an

interval of 0-100. Being that this is a non-experimental

design, none of the data obtained from content analysis of

studies and articles were manipulated, but rather, were used

to analyze the criteria percent which will determine the

results of the study. To extract the data from studies and

articles, the data gathering procedure used in this study is

content analysis, wherein researchers can quantify and

analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such

certain words, themes, or concepts. Researchers can then

make inferences about the messages within the texts, the

26
writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of

surrounding the text. (Columbia University, 2019)

27
Materials

All of the data that were input in the study are

obtained from non-published second-hand sources. The

information is obtained from previous studies and articles

published in the internet. The written materials are online

publications of researchers in fields of medicine.

These articles and studies indicates the advantages

and disadvantages of using a disinfectant, the details of

how it is effective and other factors that affect its

performance to its purpose. The contents of the materials

are vital for the success of the study and in order to

extract the data of the research, content analysis is used

as explained in the research design.

28
Procedures

The entire study was divided into three parts: the

data gathering, material analysis, and evaluation of

analysis results. The study was divided into three to

simplify the processes.

Data Gathering Stage. In this part of the study, the

researchers gathered online studies and articles which are

about the evaluation of effectiveness of disinfectants. The

researchers also gathered the information about the

disinfectants used in hospitals and health institutions in

Rosario, Batangas which will be the basis of the set of

criteria for comparison. With the set of all the information

gathered from hospitals and other health institutions in

Rosario, Batangas, the researchers formulated the set of

criteria which was used in the third stage of the study

which is the evaluation.

Online Disinfectants
formulation of
Material in Rosario,
criteria
Gathering Batangas

Figure 2. Flow Chart for the Data Gathering Stage

29
 Criteria and Their Respective Codes

Scores
Criteria
3 2 1

Very Effective Not

Effectiveness Effective (80% - 89.9%) Effective
(90% - 99.9%) (70% - 79.9%)

Within the Almost Not within

Cost-Efficiency price range within the the price
(Php1-199 price range range
starting (Php200-399 (Php400-599
point) starting starting
point) point)

Available Almost Available

Availability everywhere available in selected
(18 and more everywhere areas only
stores) (11-17 (4-10 stores)
stores)
Table 1. Formulated Criteria for the Disinfectant
Evaluation

30
 Material Analysis Stage. After the data have been

gathered, the important points and characteristics were

analyzed. In the analysis, the materials are carefully

dissected and examined to extract the important points

needed. This was the stage of the study wherein the

researchers discussed how each method works and how it

becomes an effective disinfectant. The technologies,

equipment, and materials used were also noted and further

explained in order to proceed to the next part of the

research. This was also the portion of the study wherein the

analyzed characteristics of the disinfectants were compared

and contrasted.

Explanation
Analysis of the Comparison of
about the
materials disinfectants
disinfectants
Gathered based on the
obtained from
Online explanation
the material

Figure 3. Flow Chart for the Material Analysis Stage

31
 Evaluation Stage. This is the final stage of the

study. This is the stage where the researchers used the

obtained data from the analysis to identify the values that

were appropriate to the criteria for each disinfectant. The

criteria formulated by the researchers was based on the

stated problems of the study and the information gathered

from the hospitals and health institutions in Rosario,

Batangas as indicated in the data gathering stage. The

scores obtained by the disinfectants made it possible for

the researchers to quantify their characteristics. With the

scores earned by each disinfectant, the researchers were

able to determine the disinfectant with the highest score

though the use of arithmetic mean. The average scores of

each disinfectant will then be used to determine the

suggested disinfectant.

Identification of Identification of
score values Computation of the disinfectant
based on the average scores with the highest
criteria average score

Figure 4. Flow Chart for the Evaluation Stage

32
33
Statistical Treatment

The statistical tool applied in this study was

arithmetic mean. The arithmetic mean is the simplest and

most widely used measure of a mean, or average. It simply

involves taking the sum of a group of numbers, then dividing

that sum by the count of the numbers used in the series.

(Chen, 2019)

The averages of the scores given by the researchers

for each disinfectant will determine the suggested

disinfectant for use in a community specifically in Rosario,

Batangas. These average was what determined the outcome

because the average summarize a large amount of data into a

single value and it indicate that there is some variability

around this single value within the original data.

(University of Leicester, 2019)

This statistical treatment made the comparison of

disinfectant possible as to it gives the average of the

scores which shows the summary of the scored values based on

the criteria. The formula for the computation of the

arithmetic mean is as follows:

d1 +d 2 +d 3
x́ d =
N

34
where x́ d stands for the average score for all the scores

obtained by each of the disinfectant; d 1 , d 2 ,∧d 3 correspond to

the disinfectant scores from the criteria which were the

basis of analyzation, comparison and scoring in the before-

mentioned stages of the study; N , pertains to the total

number of the items which, in this study, are the

disinfectants.

35
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results and discussions of this study are stated

in this chapter. The results of the study are

chronologically arranged according to the statement of the

problem in chapter one. This chapter contain the efficacy

levels of the subjected disinfectants followed by the price

range and availability of the materials used in each

disinfectant. In each part, discussion about the subjects

show how the data gathered form content analysis were

interpreted and evaluated in accordance to the evaluation

stage mentioned in the previous chapter.

For clarity and organization of the results, this

chapter contains tables showing the information in each

discussion. The last part of this chapter is the criteria

table showing the all of the results from the evaluation

stage of this study.

36
37
1. Efficacy Levels of the Disinfectants

In general, there are 4 main categories of physical

and chemical means of decontamination namely heat, liquid

disinfection, vapors and gases, and radiation. These methods

are not all suitable for use in households because some of

these are meant to be used for extreme application. Heat,

for example, is one method used for disinfection of hospital

wastes before disposal in landfills. This method is known as

autoclaving. The given data shows that liquid disinfection

methods are the most suitable for households. However, there

are a wide range of methods under liquid disinfection

methods to choose from. The data shown below are some of the

most effective liquid disinfection methods. These are

further evaluated to determine the ideal method for

household usage.

Bleach (sodium hypochlorite) Disinfectants

According to WHO guidelines, bleach is a strong and

effective disinfectant. Bleach is widely available at a low

cost and is recommended for surface disinfection in health

care facilities. Bleach disinfects surfaces within 10-60

minutes. Although mopping, scrubbing, and spraying bleach

solutions are very effective in disinfection, its use is

quite detrimental for it can only be used to disinfect

38
surfaces and not on the human body which is the most

important target of disinfection. Aside from this, one

disadvantage of using bleach is that misuse or incorrect

dilution of this can cause irritation. It also easily reacts

with other chemicals and cause corrosion which is why bleach

must be used with caution. Another disadvantage of bleach is

that it cannot be used for skin disinfection and can only be

used for surfaces. Due to the chemical’s activity, it can

kill wide variety of bacteria but it can also cause

discoloration of surfaces. It is advised to use a ratio of

1:10 dilution of commercially available bleach for cleaning

surfaces.

Hydrogen Peroxide Disinfectants

Hydrogen peroxide is another very sought for

disinfection chemical. They are also easily accessible in

pharmacies and groceries. Within a span of 2-3hrs, a 3%

hydrogen peroxide solution can disinfect contact lenses and

other hospital equipment. To make hydrogen peroxide

disinfectant solution, a mixture of 2.5 parts water and 0.5

parts 3% hydrogen peroxide can be made otherwise, it can be

used directly.

Unlike bleach, hydrogen peroxide is safe to apply on

skin because it is a mild antiseptic that prevents infection

39
that is why it is safe to be used in mopping, scrubbing,

spraying and even sanitizing body parts. One drawback of

hydrogen peroxide solutions is that some people may have a

chemical reaction if the hydrogen peroxide solution is not

rinsed properly after disinfection. Another is that it is

not advisable to mix it with other cleaning agents such as

vinegar or bleach.

Though it is not as strong as bleach, hydrogen

peroxide can also cause discoloration on surfaces. That is

why disinfecting cloth and even some plastic materials with

hydrogen peroxide must be avoided.

Quats (Quaternary Ammonium Compounds) Disinfectants

This is the least common in this list but also one of

the most effective when it comes to disinfection. Quaternary

ammonium compounds or Quats are used in chemical fogging and

foot baths. Quats can also be used as a hand sanitizer.

Using it in mopping, scrubbing, and spraying is also very

handy. Quats can be sprayed or wiped directly and even as a

“hand dip”. Though they are not commonly heard of, Quats

rival the effectiveness of bleach. Compared to bleach, Quats

are less harmful than bleach which is why they do not damage

clothing or cause discoloration. Even so, Quats must still

40
be handled carefully as it can still cause irritation to the

skin.

41
 The table below shows the percent of bacteria

exterminated and the time relative to the extermination of

the bacteria. It also includes the percentage of the

disadvantages that was subtracted to the percent of

bacteria. This was used to determine the effectiveness score

of hydrogen peroxide disinfection.

Percent Time Disadvantages EFFECTIVENESS

of (Subtract) SCORE
bacteria (d1)

(a) 99.9% 10-60 10.0% 89.9% = 2

BLEACH min

(b)
HYDROGEN 99.9% 2-3hrs 20.0% 79.9% = 1
PEROXIDE

(c) 99.9% 10 5.0% 94.9% = 3

QUATS minutes

Table 2. Efficacy Evaluation Stage of the Disinfectants

based on the Criteria

42
2. Price Range of Each Disinfectants

Bleach (sodium hypochlorite) Disinfectants

Bleach products are fairly cheap. They are available

in varying amounts. Depending on the amount of product. The

price of bleach products is ranging from Php145 and above.

This gives bleach disinfection a score of 3 in cost-

efficiency.

Hydrogen Peroxide Disinfectants

Similar to products used in bleach disinfection,

hydrogen peroxide products are also cheap. Depending on the

amount of the product, hydrogen peroxide products are

ranging from a price point of Php120 and above.

Quats (Quaternary Ammonium Compounds) Disinfectants

Even though Quats products are not quite popular and

common, they are quite affordable but not as affordable as

bleach and hydrogen peroxide products. Quats products are

available at a price of Php200 and above depending on the

amount of the product.

43
 Minimum Maximum COST-EFFICIENCY
Price Price SCORE
(d2)

(a) Php145 Php250 3

BLEACH

(b)
HYDROGEN Php120 Php300 3
PEROXIDE

(c)
QUATS
(QUATERNARY Php200 Php500 2
AMMONIUM
COMPOUNDS)

Table 3. Cost-efficiency Evaluation of Disinfectants

based on the Criteria

44
3. Availability of the Disinfectants in Rosario, Batangas

BLEACH DISINFECTANTS

Bleach products are available everywhere. They are

sold in Sari-sari stores, public market, grocery stores,

mini marts, convenience stores, and online shops. Within the

Municipality of Rosario, there are more than 50 sari-sari

stores, more than 4 large grocery stores not including small

ones, and a lot more stores where bleach is available

because bleach is a common household cleaning agent.

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE DISINFECTANTS

Hydrogen peroxide products are also widely available.

Compared to bleach products, hydrogen peroxide products are

also sold in pharmacies other than commercial stores in the

Municipality of Rosario, Batangas except for the sari-sari

stores. The number of stores that sell hydrogen peroxide

products are quite huge because it is used in hospitals as

an antiseptic and wound cleaning solution and also in

households.

45
QUATS DISINFECTANTS

Products used in Quats disinfectants are not widely

available compared to the previous disinfectants. Unlike the

previous products mentioned, quats disinfection products are

not widely available in Rosario, Batangas. It is only

available in stores dedicated to cleaning products and

disinfection chemicals.

Number of Stores AVAILABILITY

Where the SCORE
Disinfectant is Sold (d3)

(a) More than 3

BLEACH 18 stores

(b) More than

HYDROGEN 18 stores 3
PEROXIDE

(c)
QUATS
(QUATERNARY 11-13 stores 2
AMMONIUM
COMPOUNDS)

Table 4. Availability Evaluation of the Disinfectants

based on the Criteria

46
4. The Disinfectant to be Used in Rosario, Batangas

After the discussion of each criteria scores, the

results were gathered and tabulated into the final criteria

table shown below. As seen in the interpretation of the

results in the table, the total average scores of each

disinfectants shows promising ratings. The disinfectant that

scored the highest is bleach which scored 2.67. The other

two disinfectants both scored 2.33. Each of the disinfectant

showed different results in different criteria which verify

their variation and uniqueness. Bleach was the disinfectant

that scored the highest, thus it is the disinfectant to be

used in Rosario, Batangas

(a) (b) (c)

CRITERIA BLEACH HYDROGEN QUATS
PEROXIDE

EFFECTIVENESS 2 1 3
SCORE(d1)
COST-EFFICIENCY 3 3 2
SCORE(d2)

AVAILABILITY 3 3 2
SCORE(d3)

TOTAL
AVERAGE 2.67 2.33 2.33
SCORE

Table 5. Evaluation Results of the Disinfectants

based on the Criteria

47
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