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Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define the projects
 Identify the features of different types of projects
 Describe the process of implementing a project
 Define the practical
 Describe the process of conducting practical sessions
 Explain how laboratory tasks are designed
 Justify how to good beyond the „cookbook‟ practical

Module Outline
5.1 What is a project?
5.2 Types of projects
5.3 Approaches in implementing
the project
5.4 Characteristics of the project
5.5 The „6As‟ checklist for
designing projects
5.6 The phases of the project
method
5.7 The role of the instructor
5.8 What is the practical?
5.9 Skills of laboratory teaching
5.10 Designing laboratory tasks
5.11 Beyond the „cookbook‟
Practical
5.12 Student evaluation of practicals
Summary
Key Terms
References

This module discusses the project method and the use of practicals in teaching.
The project has been widely used but there are elements of the method common to
several disciplines. The inductive and deductive approach of projects is discussed and
listed are some of the characteristics of projects. The adoption of the project method
may be summarised as consisting of six phases in which are identified the role of
students and the instructor.
The practical is widely used in science, geography, engineering, computer
science programmes and its implementation has to be well planned with students
knowing what to do. Designing laboratory tasks should focus on both the product and
process, with students being aware as to why and what they are doing in the lab.
5.1 WHAT IS A PROJECT?

Tell me, I forget

Show me, I remember
Involve me, I understand

The Chinese proverb above provides justification for those teaching methods which
encourage 'student-centred learning', namely, methods that challenge students to take
responsibility for their own learning and, in so doing, to alter radically the role of the
teacher. One of the student-centred methods popular in higher education is the project.
The project is an important
teaching method in many
undergraduate and graduate
programmes; whether they are
business, information technology,
education, social sciences, nursing or
psychology. While the project is
student-centred, instructors play a
major role in supporting and guiding
students throughout the project work
process. Depending on the
programme, some projects are done
individually whole others are done in
small groups or even as a class
project (see Figure 5.1). In these Figure 5.1 Group skills in project work
circumstances, students share
resources, ideas, responsibilities and expertise.
The project method is an educational enterprise in which students solve a
practical problem over a period of several days or weeks. The project may be
suggested by the instructor, but they are planned and executed as far as possible by
the students themselves, individually or in groups. Project work focuses on applying,
not imparting, specific knowledge or skills, and on improving student involvement
and motivation in order to foster independent thinking, self-confidence, and social
responsibility.
Projects are widely used in higher education because they present students
with authentic and real-life tasks to which they are required to make decisions and
apply the relevant knowledge and skills towards culmination of a final product. The
final product could be a research report, solution to a problem, a model, an object, a
presentation or stage performance. The final product is usually shared with others in
the class, giving the project a real purpose.
The value of the project is not only just the final product but equally important
is the process of working towards the final product. Thus, there project work has both
a process and product orientation, and provides students with opportunities to focus
on discuss, give their opinion, make presentations which play an important role in
building self-confidence and self-esteem; and skills in working in groups (Fried-
Booth, 1986).
The project method was introduced into universities and colleges when
graduating students had to apply on their own the skills and knowledge they had
learned in the course of their studies to problems they had to solve as practitioners of
their trade. The history of the project method can be traced as follows:

 1590–1765: At the academies of architecture in Rome and Paris, advanced

students work on a given problem, such as designing a monument, fountain, or
palace.
 1765–1880: The project becomes a regular teaching method in newly
established schools of engineering in France, Germany, and Switzerland. In
1865, the project is introduced at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
into the United States.
 1880–1918: The project was introduced to primary and secondary schools in
the United States especially in vocational training and teaching of science.
 1918–1965: Kilpatrick conceives the project broadly as "whole-hearted
purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment." Kilpatrick's approach
loses its attraction in the United States, yet receives general approval in
Europe, India, and the Soviet Union.
 The 1970s: The project method gains popularity in Germany, the Netherlands,
and other European countries. Educators attempt to redefine the project,
viewing it as an important supplement to the traditional teacher-oriented,
subject-centred curriculum.

5.2 TYPES OF PROJECTS

The idea of the project was thought to have originally been introduced in 1908
is a new method of teaching agriculture in the United States, but it was educator
William H. Kilpatrick who elaborated on the concept and popularised it worldwide in
his famous article, "The Project Method" (1918). He identified FOUR types of
projects which has stood the test of time:

FIRST TYPE
 The first type represents those
experiences in which the dominating
purpose is to do, to make, or to effect
or to embody an idea or aspiration in
material form. The material for making
the idea into a product may vary from
clay, wood, cloth to the words and
thoughts and aspirations of a letter, a
speech, a poem, a symphony, or a song
[We could add more recent
technologies such as computer
programming, the internet, audio and
digital media].
 The finished product may range from a primary school student‟s project of a
volcano made from clay to Newton's Principia.
 The criteria for a project: What is the purpose or goal of the project? Is there
an effort toward achieving the purpose or goal? Is it dominated by the
realisation of an idea? If the answer is 'yes' to these questions, then the project
is of the first type.
SECOND TYPE
 The second type project may be defined as
one which involves purposeful enjoying of
an experience. For example, a boy who
enjoys seeing a fireworks display, or a girl
who enjoys seeing a spider spin a web and
catch a fly in it or a child who enjoys
listening to a story being read.
 Though some may argue that these
experiences are not projects, Kilpatrick
(1910) argued that if it met the same
criteria like the First Type, then it is a
project. Is there a purpose for engaging in,
enjoying the experience? Does the purpose guide the action of seeing or
hearing, as the case may be? If there is this purpose, then the experience may
be described as a project of the second type.

THIRD TYPE
 The third kind of a project is one in which the dominating purpose is to solve a
problem, to unravel some intellectual entanglement or difficulty. The problem
has a setting and origin, in the pursuit of some end.
 This type of a project begins with a felt difficulty or a problem; followed by a
purpose to solve the problem. For example, the problem is river pollution and
the purpose is to find ways to reduce river pollution.
 The solution of a problem has its own technique, varying, to be sure, with the
field of enquiry. The project requires a great deal of thinking to surmount the
problem. The use of problems as the starting point of a project has been
effective in guiding the steps of implementing the project.

FOURTH TYPE
 The fourth type includes experiences in which the purpose is to acquire some
degree of knowledge or skill. The difference between this type and other types
of projects is one of attitude.
 The child makes it his or her aim to learn the thing at hand, an attitude which
makes a great difference in the efficiency of learning. The purpose of learning
is to fix it in his or her memory knowledge and skills for effective use later.
 According to Kilpatrick (1910), this type of project is quite similar to Type 1
but it differs because the dominating purpose is to learn. This is the essence of
Type 4 project.

5.1 ACTIVITY
a) What is a project?
b) Do you agree with the four types of projects identified
sur by Kirkpatrick nearly 100 years ago?
c) Is the classification proposed adequate for using projects
in higher education today?
More recently, Henry (1994) identified three types of projects:

 Structured Projects – the topic, methodology and presentation are pre-

determined and in some cases a template is provided
 Unstructured Projects – students decide on the project
 Semi-structured Projects – decided in part by the instructor and in part
by students.

The basic structure of projects is similar across many disciplines. For example, a
project in marketing may be closely similar to a project in education or psychology. A
software engineering project may be slightly different from a project in finance.
Projects differ depending on the learning outcomes of the subject or course, course
expectations, student interests, time constraints and availability of resources. Projects
also differ in the extent to which the project is structured.

5.3 APPROACHES IN IMPLEMENTING PROJECTS

Apply Concepts
Acquire Knowledge and and Principle in
Skills Doing the Project

Approach 1: Deductive

Learn Concepts and Doing the Project

Principles from Doing
the Project

Approach 2: Inductive

Figure 5.2 Approaches in Implementing Projects

There are two basic approaches for implementing the project method (see
Figure 5.2). According to the historically older approach, the students take two steps:
initially, they are taught in a systematic course of study certain skills and facts, then
they apply these skills and knowledge, creatively and self-directed to suitable projects
(deductive approach).
According to the second approach (inductive approach), the instruction by the
teacher does not precede the project but is integrated in it. In other words the students
first choose the project then they discuss what they need to know for solving the
problem and learn the required techniques and concepts. Finally they execute the
chosen project by themselves.
In both approaches, time for reflection should be provided during all phases of
project learning, giving students the opportunity to evaluate their progress. In some
disciplines, especially in technical and science discipline, instructors use a series of
small-scale projects to help students develop continuously increasing competence in
practical problem solving.

5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROJECTS

The project which is popular in many disciplines in higher education has certain
characteristics which has made it an attractive teaching method (see Figure 5.3).

 Student centred
 Motivates learning
Project  Linking with the working world
Work  Detailed and precise planning
 Development of a product
 Development of inductive thinking (creativity)
 Collaborative effort
 Holistic experience
 Interdisciplinary

Figure 5.3 The characteristics of a project

Student Centred:
The selected project theme and its execution is based on the interests and needs of the
apprentices. Students are empowered to make their own decisions and learn to act
independently and be responsible for consequences of the choices made.

Motivates Learning:
The project process motivates students, as it is they themselves that develop probem-
solving solutions, plan and direct their own project.

Linking with the Working World:

The project method forms a bridge between the learning done and the working world.
The various forms of self-control applied throughout the process lead students to a
continuous reflection on their performance. The self-determination and responsibility
assumed by all members doing the project is similar to what will be required in the
world of work.

Related to Real Situations:

The proposed tasks and problems should be directly related to „real-life‟ situations
inherent to the selected occupation.
Detailed and Precise Planning:
Besides the final product (which is important), the project has a much wider scope. It
is based on an idea that needs to be realised, verified and subject to evaluation which
can only be achieved by detailed and precise planning of the steps to be followed.

Development of a Product:
The project method leads to the development of a final produce that is both relevant
and beneficial, and available to others for evaluation and criticism.

Development of Inductive Thinking (Creativity):

Students develop inductive thinking skills by analysing specific cases, deduce
principles and relations, formulate hypotheses that are proved through practical
application or disproved and replaced by newly induced hypotheses. The project
enables students to think outside the box, to be creative in how they approach given
situations.

Collaborative Effort:
Most projects are undertaken as a group, which is reflective of projects in the world of
work. The final product is something achieved by the group and everyone should
participate in each phase of the project; respecting each other and learning to work as
a community.

Holistic Experience:
The project invariably promotes the achievement of cognitive, affective and
psychomotor learning objectives. Students use their knowledge learned (cognitive),
emotions and feelings when working in groups (affective) and manipulate tools and
materials (psychomotor) towards realisation of the final product.

Interdisciplinary:
The project requires students to draw upon knowledge and skills from different
subjects and disciplines.

5.2 ACTIVITY
a) Compare the inductive and deductive approach when
designing projects. Which approach have you used in
your course?
b) To what extent have you taken into consideration the
characteristics of the project listed above when designing
projects for your course?
5.5 THE ‘6 As’ CHECKLIST FOR DESIGNING A PROJECT

Authenticity
 Does the project stem from a problem or question that is meaningful to the
student?
 Is the project similar to one undertaken by an adult in the community or
workplace?
 Does the project give the student the opportunity to produce something that has
value or meaning to the student beyond the school setting?
Academic Rigor
 Does the project enable the student to acquire and apply knowledge central to one
or more discipline areas?
 Does the project challenge the student to use methods of inquiry from one or more
disciplines (e.g., to think like a scientist)?
 Does the student develop higher order thinking skills (e.g., searching for evidence,
using different perspectives)?
Applied Learning
 Does the student solve a problem that is grounded in real life and/or work (e.g.,
design a project, organise an event)
 Does the student need to acquire and use skills expected in high-performance
work environments (e.g., teamwork, problem solving, communication, or
technology)?
 Does the project require the student to develop organizational and self-
management skills?
Active Exploration
 Does the student spend significant amounts of time doing work in the field,
outside school?
 Does the project require the student to engage in real investigative work, using a
variety of methods, media, and sources?
 Is the student expected to explain what he/she learned through a presentation or
performance?
Adult Relationships
 Does the student meet and observe adults with relevant experience and expertise?
 Is the student able to work closely with at least one adult?
 Do adults and the student collaborate on the design and assessment of the project?
Assessment Practices
 Does the student reflect regularly on his or her learning, using clear project criteria
that he or she has helped to set?
 Do adults from outside the community help the student develop a sense of the real
world standards from this type of work?
 Is the student‟s work regularly assessed through a variety of methods, including
portfolios and exhibitions?

[source: adaptation of A. Steinberg (1998). Real learning, real work: School-to-

work as high school reform. New York, NY: Routledge]
 5.3 ACTIVITY
a) In your opinion, is the „6As‟ checklist for designing projects
useful. Elaborate.
b) Would you use it in your course? Why not?

5.6 PHASES OF THE PROJECT METHOD

Tippelt and Amorós (2003), grouped project activities into the following phases
which provide a convenient guide for students when undertaking a project (see Figure
5.3).

1. INFORMING
 Compiling the necessary information
In the first phase, students compile the information needed to solve the
proposed problem or task, making use of available sources of information,
such as technical textbooks, specialised publications (e.g. magazines),
manuals, videos).
 High level of identification and motivation
Project objectives/tasks are defined in accordance with students‟ experience
and carried out with the participation of all group members, to ensure a high
level of identification and motivation.
 Familiarising students with the project method
The instructor‟s first task is to make sure that students are familiarised with
the project method and – with full group participation – that the themes or
areas to be dealt with are appropriate. A single student‟s proposal may well
form the central idea for a project, but in order to put this into practice
coherently, at the same time as ensuring its relevance to the whole group,
other factors relating to the environment need to be taken into consideration.
 Encouraging collaborative work
The project method represents a great opportunity to break the cycle of
individualism and encourage collaborative work in the search for common
solutions to a proposed problem. Successful teamwork requires a cordial
atmosphere and an open climate to facilitate the activities that form its base. It
is therefore extremely important, especially during this initial stage, that
trainers be able to direct and advise, with a view to encouraging and
developing attitudes of respect, understanding and participation – as many
students will often be unaccustomed to group or teamwork.

2. PLANNING
 Adapting or changing
The planning phase is characterized by the setting up of the work plan, the
structuring of the methodological procedures and the planning of the tools and
resources to be used. It should be stressed that simply preparing the work plan
does not always guarantee that this will be correctly implemented. It is
 therefore necessary that the planning phase be extended throughout the project
Although the procedure defined in the plan should be followed whenever
possible, it is important that a margin exist for making any modifications or
changes required. During the planning phases, the division of tasks between
group members should be clearly defined. The following serves as an example
of this:
 All group members should participate actively and collaboratively
in the execution of the project.
 Different work-groups should be formed for each part/component
of the project.
 Organizing on an individual level
The amount of material to be used and the speed of learning will generally
vary from one apprentice to another. It is quite feasible for a project to The
apprentices themselves compile and analyse the information needed to plan
and complete their tasks.

Informing

.
Planning

Deciding

Implementing the project

Controlling

Evaluating

Figure 5.2 Phases of the Project Method

[source: adaptation Tippelt, R. and Amorós, A. (2003). The project method in

vocational training. Technological Cooperation, System Development and
Management in Vocational Training. Mannheim. Germany]
  Intra and inter-group integration
Project methods learning is a technique based on the principles of
socialization. Students‟ different personalities influence the forming of the
workgroups. It is therefore necessary that trainers ensure that both intra and
inter-group relationships be as close and efficient as possible, with any
subsequent modifications beneficial to group dynamics.

3. DECIDING
 Collective decision-making involving trainer and group members
Before commencing the practical work phase, apprentices should take group
decisions about the alternatives or problem solving strategies to be pursued.
Once a course of action has been collectively decided upon, this should be
discussed at length with the trainer, to ensure that strategies or procedures be
established by means of a truly collective decision-making process involving
the trainer and all the members of the group. It is thus possible that the
decisions made differ somewhat from those originally anticipated by the
trainer.
 Learning to evaluate problems
During this decision making phase, the role of the trainer is to comment on,
discuss and – if necessary – modify the problem solving strategies proposed
by students. It is important that students learn to evaluate the potential
problems, risks and advantages presented by each possible alternative.
 Social communication process
One of the foundations of projects based learning is the social process of
communication established within the group, which permits students to take
decisions collectively.

4. IMPLEMENTING THE PROJECT (The ‘Big Event’)

 Activities based on experience and investigation
In the implementation phase, activities based on experience and investigations
take precedence. Creative, independent and responsible activities are carried
out and analysed. Each member of the project should perform his or her tasks
according to the agreed work-plan or division of work.
 The feedback process
During this phase, partial results are compared with the initial work-plan and
any necessary modifications made – at both planning and execution levels.
This process of feedback enables partial results to be revised and serves as a
self-control and evaluation tool for both individual and group.
 Carrying out tasks as independently as possible
Tasks should be carried out as independently as possible, although this does
not imply that students have the sensation of being alone. It should be
underlined that practical based learning needs to comply with certain
conditions in order to be effective. Apprentices encouraged to correct their
own mistakes will learn as a result but will generally also require expert
guidance from their trainer, who, being familiar with the teaching-learning
rules in the context of his own course and students will help them achieve
better results. The trainer must always be there for his apprentices, assuming a
directly participative role whenever advice or supports are needed – as well as,
 of course, being a motivator at all times. This motivational role includes a
social and emotional side, which is very important to the students, who will
expect a trainer to acknowledge a task well done.

5. CONTROLLING
 The self-controlling phase
Once a task has been completed, students should move into a self-controlling
phase, where they can learn to better evaluate the quality of their own work.
Here questionnaires or programmed tests similar to formal exams are often
used, enabling students to discover and – if possible – correct any mistakes
they may have committed during the implementation of the project. During
this self-controlling phase, the trainer should assume the role of advisor or
support-person, participating directly only if and when students fail to reach
agreement over the evaluation of their results.

6. EVALUATING
 Collective discussion of results
Once the project is complete, a final discussion should be conducted, in which
trainer and students collectively discuss and comment on the results obtained.
The instructor‟s main role is that of a facilitator, allowing students to conduct
feedback – related not only to the final product but to the whole process – and
to define any mistakes committed plus qualify the results obtained – with
regard to what has actually been achieved and what was originally expected.
The feedback should also include the effectiveness of the work carried out and
the personal experiences gained, as well as considering group dynamics and
processes. Students should then formulate proposals for the improvement of
future projects. This final discussion can also function as an important source
of feedback for the trainer himself, who should also optimize the planning and
execution of future projects.
 Flexible mechanics and open criteria
These observations can be summarized as the belief that the mechanics of
planning and carrying out of projects should be flexible and based on open
criteria students should be ensured a high level of participation in the decisions
governing the make-up of the groups as well as the content and organisation
of the learning process.
 The instructor’s role
The instructor‟s role moves from that of a “teacher”, simply transmitting
knowledge and skills, to one of a learning process advisor, coordinator and
support person. The trainer instigates, organises and stimulates the learning
situations. The student is led towards self-learning and motivated to plan
independently and collectively, and to implement and evaluate the learning
process.
 Full group participation
Taking account of individual experiences and interests, needs and
characteristics, the participation of all group members in each phase of the
project enables students to remain motivated and identified with its aims and
objectives, helping to make the learning process more productive.
5.7 ROLE OF THE INSTRUCTOR

The project method requires instructors to take a very different role to that
common in traditional teaching. Instructors cease to be mere “knowledge
transmitters“ and instead are facilitators, designers and learning advisors (Tippelt and
Amorós, 2003).. Instructors instigate, organise and stimulate learning situations.
Students are led towards self-learning and motivated to plan independently and
collectively, and to implement and evaluate the learning process. The role of the
instructor is different because he or she should:
 meticulously prepare the learning process. The Instructor is
 remain in the background as much as possible, facilitator, instigator,
taking note of what works and what doesn‟t. motivator, organiser,
 be on hand in order to answer questions during designer & advisor.
the carrying out of the project.
 encourage students to learn for themselves and to
formulate “correct“ questions.
 encourage students to self evaluate
their work and experiences
 pay special attention to the areas of
cooperation, organisation of tasks
and group or teamwork
methodology, addressing them
through conversations with students.

5.4 ACTIVITY
a) To what extent have students doing projects in your course
follow the phases identified by Tippelt and Amorós ?
b) What is the role of the instructor when using the project
method in teaching? Do you agree?
5.8 WHAT IS THE PRACTICAL?

Practical work is a time-honoured method of teaching in the education of

scientists, computer scientists, engineers, surveyors, geographers, geologists and
many other disciplines such as hospitality and tourism. Most practical work occurs in
laboratories but fieldworks are also an important feature of practicals. Focus here will
be primarily on the uses, skills and method of laboratory work, although many of the
issues discussed also apply to the organisation of fieldwork. The major goals of
practical work are:
 Teaching manual and observational skills relevant to the subject
 Improving understanding of methods of inquiry
 Developing problem-solving skills
 Nurturing professional attitudes
In the early days, practicals were essentially demonstrations of important
principles by the instructor followed by students doing exercises which led to the
„right‟ answers. However, lately there has been increased interest in the use of
laboratories as training ground for independent inquiry (Brown and Atkins, 1998).
The main principle underlying laboratory work is that students learn
effectively through doing practical tasks, i.e. learning by doing. The principle of
„learning by doing‟ needs two qualifications:
 The tasks to have be perceived as relevant and meaningful by the
students, otherwise interest may be minimal
 Students have to receive constructive feedback on their
performance, otherwise learning may be minimal.
Practice does not itself make perfect but practice with feedback almost always
improves performance (Brown and Atkins, 1998). These points should be borne in
mind when designing laboratory and marking laboratory work.

5.9 SKILLS OF LABORATORY TEACHING

Laboratory teaching often involves giving brief

explanations and instructions to the whole class and then
dividing class into pairs or small groups who work on a
particular experiment. So, not surprising, some of the skills
of laboratory teaching are similar to those to lecturing and
small group teaching. You need to create interest, and to
explain technical information; you need to ask students the
right questions, to know when to exercise control and when
to let go, and how to judge the level of demand. Most
important of all, you need to put yourself in the place of the students who are doing
the laboratory work so that you can choose appropriate experiments, give the right
instructions, and to make laboratory work into a challenging and rewarding
experience. The following are the essential skills of laboratory teaching:

 Explaining and presenting information

 Questioning, listening and responding
  Giving brief, clear explanation of processes and procedures
 Giving directions
 Observe students at work
 Anticipate major difficulties of understanding
 Recognise major difficulties of understanding
 Ask questions which guide students
 Ask question which clarify difficulties of understanding
 Answer questions in s simple, direct and non-critical way
 Offer supportive and encouraging remarks
 Know when to help and not help a student

5.10 DESIGNING LABORATORY TASKS

You have to think of the laboratory tasks in the context of the overall course. You
have to consider constraints such as time available, equipment, materials, student
numbers and laboratory space.

 Establish aims: Specify more precisely the objectives of the laboratory tasks.
For example, how to prepare a particular culture, how to use a mass
spectrometer. Prepare a matrix of aims and experiments (see diagram below).

Objectives Experiments

1 2 3 ………………………………….

 Write the objectives on the vertical axis and the proposed laboratory
experiences on the horizontal axis. Put a tick in the appropriate cell for each
objective.
 Designing the Tasks: Having chosen the tasks, you need to think about each
task in turn, in particular, consider:
o What do the students need to know to carry out the task?
o What psychomotor and observational skills will they use?
o What equipment and materials are necessary?
o What do you expect the students to know and be able to do when they
have completed the task?
 Design the Laboratory Manual: The written instruction and background
information of experiments are a crucial part of laboratory work. A good
manual can improve the overall effectiveness of laboratory work, show links
with the lectures and save students time. For each experiment the manual
should have:
o Explicit aims: So the students know what they are expected to know
and do when they have completed the laboratory work. Tell them how
the laboratory work fits into the overall course and programme. Relate
the laboratory work to material learned earlier. This will help students
to see the relevance of the laboratory work.
 o Clear instruction: Should indicate where apparatus and materials
are located and describe the procedures for using them. The
instructions can be presented in the form of flow charts and
algorithms which are easier to follow.
o Questions: Provide cues for essential points and they can
motivate students to think or to check that the procedures are
carried out correctly. What students are supposed to observe?
Questions should encourage students to read and think about
all aspects of the tasks.
o Self-evaluation checklist: With this checklist, students are able
to assess how well they carried out the practical task, to reflect
upon the implications of the task and consider how they might
improve. If the students are working in groups, they can use
the checklist to assess one another.

5.5 ACTIVITY
“It has pointed that many lab session are designed with a
particular result in mind, and that students therefore spend
their la time trying to get "the result" the instructor wants, rather
an underst than understanding the process of getting the result”.

Comment.

5.11 BEYOND THE ‘COOKBOOK’ PRACTICAL

“It would be better for us if we did more for

ourselves. In practical work, for instance, we’re
given a set of instructions showing us exactly
what we’re to do. You can take a chap off
Trumpington Street and give him the sheet, and
he would be able to do it” (Marris, 1964, p. 64).

The above statement was made more than four decade ago; “Is it the same
today in your institution?”. How does one move beyond the `cookbook' method and
encourage `discovery learning'? Even in the most structured laboratory situations,
there are ways to help your students learn through inquiry by helping them exercise
their investigative skills. Here are a few tips you may want to consider when
designing or conducting your next laboratory session:
  Instead of assigning the topic of the experiment, such as "the effect of pH on
the reproductive rate of yeast," phrase the topic as a question: "Does the pH
affect the reproduction rate of yeast?"
 When stating the purpose of the experiment, avoid presuppositions or
foregone conclusions, such as "to show that yeast reproduce better in acidic
pH". Don't give an answer, have the students investigate for one: "The purpose
is to test the effect of various pH levels (if any) on the reproduction rate of
yeast."
 Try to ask questions that are general enough so that students are not "guided"
to a particular result or variable. For example, ask "What were your findings?"
instead of "In which test tube did you find the largest amount of yeast?" Or
ask "What was the role of each of your test tubes?" rather than: "Why did you
mark test tube number 9 as control?"
 Instead of asking students for a summary statement ("Explain the presence of
acidic pH in the regular environment of yeast"), ask students to design a new
experiment or to extend their experiment by using the same equipment in the
lab ("Design an experiment to test the effect of another variable on the
reproduction rate of yeast").
 Instead of providing students with prepared graphs or charts and then asking
them to enter their data, such as "Enter your data in the graph provided by the
manual," ask students to chart their own results: "Draw a graph to show the
relationship between the reproduction rate of yeast and the pH level." Such
tips invite students to exercise their own powers of critical thinking, problem
solving, creativity, analysis, synthesis, or data evaluation in even the most
structured experiments. In the end, students may walk out of your laboratory
course with greater confidence, responsibility, and a greater understanding of
the risks, rewards, and uncertainties associated with scientific inquiry.

(Adapted from: "The Laboratory," Guidelines for Improvement of Instruction in

Higher Education Outlines 9 [1978], 4-10.)

5.12 STUDENT EVALUATION OF THE PRACTICAL

The following is an example of a checklist you can use to evaluate the conduct your
practicals:

Please put a tick in the appropriate box to indicate your response to each of the
following statements about the practicals you attended as part of the course.

Thank you very much.

SA = Strongly Agree
A = Agree
D = Disagree
SD = Strongly Disagree
 SA A DA SD

The practicals
 covered key areas and ideas
 were well-linked to lectures
 helped relate theory to practice
 were well-planned and structured
 were lively and stimulating

The demonstrator / technician

 made clear what was expected of
students
 helped students with any
difficulties
they encountered
 was interested in students and their
progress

As a student
 I looked forward to the practicals
 I enjoyed being in the practicals
 I learned a lot from the practicals

Please add below any comments about what would have made the practicals better for
you:

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

5.6 ACTIVITY
Comment on the student evaluation of practicals checklist.
Would you be able to use it in evaluating practical sessions
in your course? Why not?
SUMMARY

 The project is an important teaching method in many undergraduate and

graduate programmes.

 Projects are widely used in higher education because they present students
with authentic and real-life tasks to which they are required to make decisions
and apply the relevant knowledge and skills towards culmination of a final
product.

 Kilpatrick identified four types of projects: product, enjoying an experience,

solving a problem and learning something.

 Henry classified projects as: structured, semi-structured and semi-structured.

 The six phases of the project method are: Informing, Planning, Deciding,
Implementing, Controlling and Evaluating.

 Laboratory teaching often involves giving brief explanations and instructions

to the whole class and then dividing class into pairs or small groups who work
on a particular experiment.

 The skills of laboratory teaching:

o Explaining and presenting information
o Questioning, listening and responding
o Giving brief, clear explanation of processes and procedures
o Giving directions
o Observe students at work
o Anticipate major difficulties of understanding
o Recognise major difficulties of understanding
o Ask questions which guide students
o Ask question which clarify difficulties of understanding
o Answer questions in s simple, direct and non-critical way
o Offer supportive and encouraging remarks
o Know when to help and not help a student

 Laboratory tasks should be planned in the context of the overall course; and
consider constraints such as time available, equipment, materials, student
numbers and laboratory space.

 Efforts should made to go beyond the „cookbook‟ practical which is less

structured and encourages thinking.
 KEY TERMS
Projects Six As of a project Laboratory teaching
Product-based project Structured projects skills
Research-based project Semi-structured „Cookbook‟ practical
Project ideas projects Laboratory tasks
Project design Unstructured projects

REFERENCES

Brown, G. and Atkins, M. (1998). Effective teaching in higher education. London:

Routledge.

Henry, J. (1994). Teaching through projects. London: Kogan Page Limited.

Fried-Booth, D. (1986). Project work. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kilpatrick, W. (1918). The Project Method, Teachers College Record 19. September.
319–334.

The Laboratory, Guidelines for Improvement of Instruction in Higher Education

Outlines 9. 1978, 4-10.)

Tippelt, R. and Amorós, A. (2003). The project method in vocational training.

Technological Cooperation, System Development and Management in Vocational
Training. Mannheim. Germany.