UNIT III OVERVOLTAGES

Sources of over voltages – Capacitor switching – Lightning – Ferro resonance – Mitigation of

voltage swells – Surge arresters – Low pass filters – Power conditioners – Lightning
protection –
Shielding – Line arresters – Protection of transformers and cables – Computer analysis tools
for transients – PSCAD and EMTP
1. What is overvoltage?
An overvoltage is defined as an average line-to-line voltage value greater than the
maximum acceptable for the equipment installed.
2. What are the sources of over voltages?
The sources of surges are,
i. Switching
ii. Lightning
3. Classify the over voltages.
With reference to shape and duration, overvoltage can be classified as:
 Continuous (power frequency)
 Temporary
 Transient
 Combined
4. Define capacitance switching.
Capacitors are used to provide reactive power (in units of vars) to correct the power
factor, which reduces losses and supports the voltage on the system. Some capacitors are
energized all the time (a fixed bank), while others are switched according to load levels.
During switching of shunt capacitor banks, high magnitude and high frequency transients
can occur.
5. Define lightning.
Lightning is a natural cause of overvoltage which is the electrical discharge of cloud in to
the tallest objects usually the power system structure.
6. What are the types of lightning?
Types of lightning are
 Direct lightning
 Indirect lightining
7. What is ferroresonance?
The resonance occurred in relation with the core of the transformer involved with the
power systems is called as ferroresonance.
8. List the methods to prevent ferroresonance.
 Preventing the open-phase condition
 Damping the resonance with load
  Limiting the overvoltages
 Limiting cable lengths
 Alternative cable-switching procedures
9. What is surge arrester?
Surge arresters are devices used to limit high-amplitude transient overvoltages.
10. What are line arresters?
The arresters placed periodically along the line (normally on the top phase conductor) to
prevent insulator flashover and hence the interruption and sag significantly are called line
arresters.
11. What is meant by shielding?
Shielding is the arrangement of installing grounded bare conductor over the live
conductor of the power system to provide protection from the lightning strikes. This will
intercept most lightning strokes before they strike the phase wires.
12. Define PSCAD.
PSCAD (Power Systems CAD) is a powerful and flexible graphical user interface to the
world-renowned, EMTDC solution engine. PSCAD enables the user to schematically
construct a circuit, run a simulation, analyze the results, and manage the data in a completely
integrated, graphical environment. Online plotting functions, controls and meters are also
included, so that the user can alter system parameters during a simulation run, and view the
results directly.
13. Define EMTP.
The EMTP (Electromagenatic Transient Program) has been specifically developed for the
power systems problems, but some of the methods have applications in electronic circuit
analysis as well. The EMTP can solve sny network which consists of interconnections of
resistances, inductances, capacitances, single and multiphase -circuits, distributed
parameters lines and certain other elements.
14. List the protection methods of transformers and cables.
The transformer can be protected against overvoltages by the following methods:
a. Internal Protection
i. Capacitive Protection
ii. Use of interleaved coils
b. External Protection
i. Ground wires
ii. Lightning arresters
The cable protection schemes against overvoltages are,
a. Open Point arrester
b. Under oil arrester
c. Elbow arrester
d. Fluid injection
 e. Lower discharge arrester
PART B
1. Explain the over voltages induced by lightning.
Statistical data shows that an average of 1000 storms break out each day throughout the
world. Of all the electric lines, overhead networks are the most affected by lightning
overvoltages and overcurrents.
Lightning strikes are characterized by their polarization: they are generally negative even
if approximately 10% of them have reversed polarity, but these are the most violent. The
rising front of lightning strikes defined by standards is 1.2µs for voltage and 8µs for current.
A distinction is often made between direct lightning strikes on a line and indirect
lightning strikes, falling next to a line, or on the earth cable.
i. Direct Lightning Strikes:
Direct lightning strikes result in the injection of a current wave of several dozens of kilo-
amperes in the line. This current wave, which may cause conductors to melt by propagating
on either side of the point of impact, results in an increase of voltage U given by,
i
U  Zc
2
where i is the injected current and Zc the characteristic line zero-sequence impedance (usually
from 300 to 1000).
U reaches values of several million volts, which no line can withstand, then at the first
pylon which the wave meets, the voltage increases until clearance breakdown occurs
(insulator string). According to whether or not arcing has occurred (depending on the value of
the current injected into the line), the wave which continues to propagate beyond the pylon is
said to be broken or full. For various network voltages, arcing does not occur below the
critical current indicated by the straight line in Figure 3.1.

Fig.3.1: Strength of direct lightning strikes and minimum arcing strengths as a function of
network voltage level
For networks with a voltage less than 400 kV, all direct lightning strikes result in arcing
and an earth fault. It is estimated that only 3% of overvoltages exceed 70 kV and have an
origin in direct lightning strikes. Moreover, as a result of attenuation of the voltage wave
throughout its propagation along the line, maximum overvoltages at the entrance of a
substation or building are estimated at 150 kV in MV systems.
ii. Indirect Lightning Strikes:
When indirect strokes fall on a support or just next to a line, high overvoltages are then
generated in the network. Indirect strokes are more frequent than direct ones and are proven
to be also almost as dangerous.
If lightning hits the pylon or the earth cable, the current flowing off causes an increase in
metal frame potential with respect to earth. The corresponding overvoltage U is
 i L di
U R 
2 2 dt
where R is the earth connection steep wave resistance and L is the inductance of the pylon
and/or the earthing conductor.
When this voltage reaches the value of arcing voltage of an insulator, an arcing return
occurs between the metal structure and one or more of the conductors. When the voltage is
greater than 150 kV, this arcing return is unlikely to happen. The quality of pylon earth
connections plays an important role: from 750 kV upwards, there is virtually no risk of arcing
return, thus justifying the installation of earth cables on EHV lines. In networks below 90 kV,
these cables provide efficient protection if the pylon earth connection is excellent.
If lightning hits just near the line, the energy flowing off to the ground causes a very rapid
variation in the electromagnetic field which induces waves on the line that are similar in
shape and amplitude to those generated by a direct stroke. They are mainly characterized by
their very steep front and their very fast damping.
When the voltage wave resulting from a lightning stroke passes through an MV/LV
transformer, transmission mainly occurs by capacitive coupling.
The amplitude of the overvoltage thus transmitted, observed on the secondary winding on
the LV side, is less than 10% of its value on the MV side (generally less than 70 kV).
Therefore, on LV lines, induced overvoltages are generally less than 7 kV.
2. Write a brief notes on capacitance switching.
One of the more common causes of electrical transients is switching of capacitor banks in
power systems. Electrical utilities switch capacitor banks during peak load hours to offset the
lagging kVAR demand of the load. The leading kVARs drawn by the capacitor banks offset
the lagging kVAR demand of the load, reducing the net kVA load on the circuit. Switching of
capacitor banks is accompanied by a surge of current which is initially limited by the
characteristic impedance of the power system and resistance of the line.

Fig.3.2.Capacitor Switching

Fig.3.3. Capacitor Switching Transient – 135% of System Voltage

 A sharp reduction in the voltage is followed by a voltage rise, which decays by oscillation
at a frequency determined by the inductance and capacitance of the circuit. Several cases of
power system component failures and malfunctions due to capacitor bank switching
operations have been seen by the author. Typically, the voltage rise due to capacitor
switching operation can attain values 1.5 to 2 times the nominal voltage. Power equipment
can withstand only a limited number of exposures to such rises in voltage magnitude. With
time, the insulation systems of such devices weaken, and a point is reached when the devices
can fail. In one particular instance, two power distribution transformers failed at the same
time; the cause was traced to large capacitor bank switching operations by the utility at a
substation located adjacent to the affected facility.
Adjustable speed drives (ASDs) and solid-state motor controllers are quite sensitive to
voltage rises resulting from capacitor bank switching operations. The ASD might shut down
the motor due to voltage on the system rising beyond the maximum tolerance. In some cases,
capacitor switching causes the voltage waveform to undergo oscillations and produce stray
crossings of the time axis. This is unacceptable for devices that require the precise number of
zero time crossings for proper performance.
3. Write a note on ferroresonance.
The ferroresonance occurs when the magnetising impedance of the transformer is placed
in series with a system capacitor. This happens when there is an open phase conductor.
Ferroresonance result in magnification of harmonics, high voltages and currents, but resulting
waveforms are usually irregular in shape. The concept of ferroresonance can be explained in
terms of linear system resonance as follows.
Consider a simple RLC series circuit as shown in fig.3.2. Neglecting the resistance R for
the moment, the current flowing in the circuit can be expressed as,
E
I
j X L  X C 
where, E – Driving voltage
XL – Reactance of L
XC – Reactance of C
When XL=| XC |, a series resonant circuit is formed, and the equation gives an infinitely
large current that in reality would be limited by R.

Fig.3.4 Simple Series RLC Circuit

The voltage across the inductor, v=jXLI
v=E+j|XC|I
where v is a voltage variable.
 Fig.3.5 Graphical solution to the linear LC circuit.
Fig.3.3 shows the graphical solution of these two equations for two different reactances, XL
and XL’. XL’ represents the series resonant condition. The intersection of the capacitive and
inductive lines gives the voltage across inductor EL. At resonance, the two lines will intersect
at infinitely large voltage and current since the |XC| the line is parallel to the XL’ line.
In practice, ferroresonance most commonly occurs when unloaded transformers become
isolated on underground cables of a certain range of lengths. The capacitance of overhead
distribution lines is generally insufficient to yield the appropriate conditions.
The minimum length of cable required to cause ferroresonance varies with the system
voltage level. The capacitance of cables is nearly the same for all distribution voltage levels,
varying from 40 to 100 nF per 1000 feet (ft), depending on conductor size.
However, the magnetizing reactance of a 35-kV-class distribution transformer is several
times higher (the curve is steeper) than a comparably sized 15-kV-class transformer.
Therefore, damaging ferroresonance has been more common at the higher voltages. For delta-
connected transformers, ferroresonance can occur for less than 100 ft of cable. For this
reason, many utilities avoid this connection on cable-fed transformers. The grounded wye-
wye transformer has become the most commonly used connection in underground systems in
North American. It is more resistant, but not immune, to ferroresonance because most units
use a three-legged or five-legged core design that couples the phases magnetically. It may
require a minimum of several hundred feet of cable to provide enough capacitance to create a
ferroresonant condition for this connection.
4. Discuss the protection against lightning.

Fig.3.6. Protection against lightning strokes

Protective devices used to prevent the system from lightning overvoltages are,
 Surge arresters
  TVSS (Transient Voltage Surge Suppressor)
The arresters are diverting the surges to ground independently of the rest of the system. It
is important to place the arrester across the sensitive equipment or instruments to be
protected. The arresters are usually connected to the local ground. So the local ground may
not remain at zero potential during transient events.
In Fig.3.6, the first arrester is connected from the line to the neutral- ground bond at the
service entrance. It limits the line voltage V1 from rising too high relative to the neutral and
ground voltage at the panel. When it performs its voltage-limiting action, it provides a low
impedance path for the surge current to travel onto the ground lead. Note that the ground lead
and the ground connection itself have significant impedance. Therefore, the potential of the
whole power system is raised with respect to that of the remote ground by the voltage drop
across the ground impedance. For common values of surge currents and ground impedances,
this can be several kilovolts.
One hopes, in this situation, that most of the surge energy will be discharged through the
first arrester directly into ground. In that sense, the arrester becomes a surge “diverter.” It can
only be a diverter if there is a suitable path into which the current can be diverted. That is not
always easy to achieve, and the surge current is sometimes diverted toward another critical
load where it is not wanted.
In this figure, there is another possible path for the surge current - the signal cable
indicated by the dotted line and bonded to the safety ground. If this is connected to another
device that is referenced to ground elsewhere, there will be some amount of surge current
flowing down the safety ground conductor. Damaging voltages can be impressed across the
load as a result. The first arrester at the service entrance is electrically too remote to provide
adequate load protection.
Therefore, a second arrester is applied at the load—again, directly across the insulation to
be protected. It is connected “line to neutral” so that it only protects against normal mode
transients. This illustrates the principles without complicating the diagram but should be
considered as the minimum protection one would apply to protect the load. Frequently, surge
suppressors will have suppression on all lines to ground, all lines to neutral, and neutral to
ground.
Efforts to block the surge current are most effective for high-frequency surge currents
such as those originating with lightning strokes and capacitor-switching events.
The amount of current flowing between the grounds may be reduced by improving all the
intentional grounds at the service entrance and nearby on the utility system. This will
normally reduce, but not eliminate entirely, the incidence of equipment failure within the
facility due to lightning. However, some structures also have significant lightning exposure,
and the damaging surge currents can flow back into the utility grounds. It doesn’t matter
which direction the currents flow; they cause the same problems. Again, the same principle
applies, which is to improve the grounds for the structure to minimize the amount of current
that might seek another path to ground.
When it is impractical to keep the currents from flowing between two grounds, both ends
of any power or signal cables running between the two grounds must be protected with
voltage-limiting devices to ensure adequate protection. This is common practice for both
utility and end-user systems where a control cabinet is located quite some distance from the
switch, or other device, being controlled.
5. Explain the transformer protection schemes.
 Common ways for the utility to protect the transformer:
i. Use transformers with interlaced secondary windings. (Design Characteristics)
ii. Apply surge arresters at the X terminals.(Possible to place arresters at LV
terminals)
 Note that arresters at the load service entrance will not protect the transformer. In fact,
they will virtually guarantee that there will be a surge current path and thereby cause
additional stress on the transformer.
 While interlaced transformers have a lower failure rate in lightning-prone areas than non-
interlaced transformers, recent evidence suggests that low-voltage arresters have better
success in preventing failures.
 The primary arrester is mounted directly on the tank with very short lead lengths. With
the evidence mounting that lightning surges have steeper wavefronts than previously
believed, this is an ever increasing requirement for good protection practice.
 It requires a special fuse in the cutout to prevent fuse damage on lightning current
discharge.
 The transformer protection is completed by using a robust secondary arrester. This shows
a heavy-duty, secondary arrester adapted for external mounting on transformers.
Internally mounted arresters are also available. An arrester rating of 40-kA discharge
current is recommended.
 The voltage discharge is not extremely critical in this application but is typically 3 to 5
kV.
 Transformer secondaries are generally assumed to have a BIL of 20 to 30 kV. Gap-type
arresters also work in this application but cause voltage sags, which the MOV-type
arresters avoid.
6. Describe the mitigation of voltage swells in a power system.(16)

Principles of Protection
1. Preventive protection:
• To limit internal or lightning impulse overvoltages (overhead protection cable, neutral
earthing, regulators, protection relays, switching-impulselimiting circuit-breaker);
2. Repressive protection:
 • For draining the overvoltage to earth using special equipments (dischargers, surge
arresters).
The fundamental principles of overvoltage protection of electrical equipment are:
i. To limit the voltage for sensitive insulation.
ii. To reduce, or prevent, surge current from flowing between grounds.
iii. To drain the surge current away from the load.
iv. To bond the ground and equipment.
v. To create a low-pass filter using limiting and blocking principles.
Insulation Coordination
Three basic elements to insulation coordination, which are:
 Determining the overvoltage stresses from the system.
 Knowing the strength of the insulation of specific equipment in the substation.
 Selecting surge arrester ratings and locations, or other mitigation equipment or
operating restrictions, to ensure that the system-imposed overvoltages do not
exceed the insulation strength of the equipment, including an appropriate
protective margin.
Protection level is determined by three factors:
 Installation;
 Environment;
 Equipment used.
Final objective of insulation coordination is to ensure safe and optimized distribution of
electric power, which means the best possible economic balance between the various costs,
namely:
 Insulation;
 Protective devices;
 Failures (operating loss and repairs) weighted with their probabilities.
Clearance:
i. Gas clearance: Shortest path between two conductive parts (air, SF6, etc.)
ii. Creepage distance: Shortest path between two conductors following the outer
surface of a solid insulator.
Insulation Deterioration depends
 Environmental conditions (humidity, pollution, UV radiation);
 Age (deterioration of the material);
 Permanent electrical stresses (local value of the electric field).
Gas Clearance depends
 Air pressure with altitude;
  Device filling pressure.
Voltage Withstand
Power Frequency Withstand: Voltage withstand monitored through the standard one-
minute dielectric tests is generally sufficient.
Switching Impulse Voltage Withstand:
 Characterized with the following properties:
 Non-linear relation with voltage;
 Unbalance, variation according to wave polarity;
 Passage through a minimum curve value of the withstand voltage as a function
of front time;
 Dispersion withstand must be expressed in statistical terms.
 Standard tests of a wave of front time 250 ms and half-amplitude time 2500 ms
Lightning Overvoltage Withstand:
 Positive and Negative Polarities – 1.2/50μS
 Two formulas can be used to evaluate withstand to a 1.2/50 μS positive-polarity
impulse of an air gap for HV and MV networks:

where V50 is the voltage for which the breakdown probability is 50 %; and

where V0 is the withstand voltage and d is clearance in meters (V50 and V0 are in MV).
A lot of experimental studies have provided tools to evaluate the relation between
clearance and withstand voltage, taking into account a variety of factors such as front and tail
times, environmental pollution and insulator type.
7. Discuss in detail about Cable protection. (08)
 Main source of outages in underground distribution is cable failures.
 As a cable ages, the insulation becomes progressively weaker and a moderate transient
overvoltage causes breakdown and failure.
 The life of the cable may be increased for few years by arrester protection than cable
replacement.
 Depending on voltage class, the cable may have been installed with only one arrester at
the riser pole or both a riserpole arrester and an open-point arrester.
 Fig.3.6. Cable Protection
To provide additional protection, utilities may choose from a number of options:
1. Add an open-point arrester, if one does not exist.
2. Add a third arrester on the next-to-last transformer.
3. Add arresters at every transformer.
4. Add special low-discharge voltage arresters.
5. Inject an insulation-restoring fluid into the cable.
6. Employ a scout arrester scheme on the primary
The cable life is an exponential function of the number of impulses of a certain magnitude
that it receives. The damage to the cable is related by,
D=NVc
where, D - Constant, representing damage to the cable
N - Number of impulses
V - Magnitude of impulses
c - Empirical constant ranging from 10 to 15
Therefore, anything that will decrease the magnitude of the impulses only slightly has the
potential to extend cable life a great deal.
8. Explain about the low impedance power conditioners.
Low-impedance power conditioners (LIPCs) are used primarily to interface with the
switch-mode power supplies found in electronic equipment. LIPCs differ from isolation
transformers in that these conditioners have much lower impedance and have a filter as part
of their design (Fig. 3. ).

Fig.3.7 :Low impedance power conditioner

The filter is on the output side and protects against high-frequency, source-side,
common-mode, and normal-mode disturbances (i.e., noise and impulses). Note the new
neutral-to-ground connection that can be made on the load side because of the existence of an
isolation transformer.
Drawbacks:
 Low- to medium-frequency transients (capacitor switching) can cause problems for
LIPCs
 Transients can be magnified by the output capacitor.
9. Write notes on surge arresters. (8)

 TVSS have more surge-limiting elements than an arrester, which most commonly consists
solely of MOV blocks.
 An arrester may have more energy-handling capability.
 Different modes of operation, crowbar and clamping.
Crowbar devices are normally open devices that conduct current during overvoltage
transients. Once the device conducts, the line voltage will drop to nearly zero due to the short
circuit imposed across the line. These devices are usually manufactured with a gap filled with
air or a special gas. The gap arcs over when a sufficiently high overvoltage transient appears.
Once the gap arcs over, usually power frequency current, or “follow current,” will continue to
flow in the gap until the next current zero. Thus, these devices have the disadvantage that the
power frequency voltage drops to zero or to a very low value for at least one-half cycle. This
will cause some loads to drop offline unnecessarily.
Clamping devices for ac circuits are commonly nonlinear resistors (varistors) that conduct
very low amounts of current until an overvoltage occurs. Then they start to conduct heavily,
and their impedance drops rapidly with increasing voltage. These devices effectively conduct
increasing amounts of current (and energy) to limit the voltage rise of a surge. They have an
advantage over gap-type devices in that the voltage is not reduced below the conduction level
when they begin to conduct the surge current. Zener diodes are also used in this application.
MOV arresters have two important ratings. The first is maximum continuous operating
voltage (MCOV), which must be higher than the line voltage and will often be at least 125
percent of the system nominal voltage. The second rating is the energy dissipation rating (in
joules). MOVs are available in a wide range of energy ratings.
10. Write notes on protection against overvoltage using isolation transformer. (8)
 Fig.3.8.a. Isolation Transformer

Fig.3.8.b. Isolation Transformer with electrostatic shield

 Isolation transformer (Fig.3.8.a) attenuates high-frequency noise and transients as they
attempt to pass from one side to the other.
 However, some common-mode and normal-mode noise can still reach the load.
 Electrostatic shield (Fig.3.8.b) is effective in eliminating common-mode noise -However,
some normal-mode noise can still reach the load due to magnetic and capacitive coupling.
 Main characteristic for electrically isolating the load from the system for transients is
their leakage inductance.
 Therefore high frequency noises are protected from reaching load to source and vice
versa.
 Voltage notching due to power electronics switching can well be protected by isolation
transformers.
 Capacitor-switching and lightning transients coming from the utility system can be
attenuated, thereby preventing nuisance tripping of adjustable-speed drives and other
equipment.
 In addition, isolation transformers allows the user to define a new ground reference, or
separately derived system. This new neutral-to-ground bond limits neutral-to-ground
voltages at sensitive equipment.
11. Discuss about the protection of power system using shielding. (8)
 Grounded neutral wire over the phase wires intercept lightning strokes before striking on
the phase wires. But, they will not necessarily prevent back flashovers.
 This shielding is common in transmission lines and substations, but is not common on
distribution lines because of its added cost.
 The back flashovers lead to temporary faults. In order to avoid back flashovers, the
ground path must carefully be chosen to maintain adequate clearance with the phase
conductors. Also the value of grounding resistance is important to maintain the voltage as
low as possible.
 When a particular section of a feeder is being struck frequently, the section may be
modified with a shield wire with justification to reduce the number of transient faults and
to maintain good power quality.
 Figure below shows a substation connected with a transmission line in which few spans
nearby substation being shielded to prevent high current faults that can damage substation
transformer and breaker.

Fig.3.9. Shielding of substation and lines.

 It is also common near substations for distribution lines to be underbuilt on transmission
or sub-transmission structures. Hence the shielded transmission provides shielding for the
distribution as well, provided adequate clearance can be maintained for the ground lead.
 If any other section of the feeder is experiencing more number of strikes, the area may be
effectively shielded to reduce lightning induced faults. This increase the cost to extend
poles to accommodate the shield wire.
 Opting line arresters would be more economical and effective for many applications.
12. Write notes on Line arresters. (8)
 Mounting line arresters in a periodic interval along the phase wires of a line exposed to
frequent lightning is more effective.
 Normally, lines flashover first at the pole insulators. Therefore, preventing insulator
flashover will reduce the interruption and sag rate significantly.
 It is observed that this strategy is more economical than shielding and results in fewer line
flashovers.
 Neither shielding nor line arresters will prevent all flashovers from lightning. The aim is
to reduce flashovers in particular trouble spots.
 Sometimes the arrester bleed off some of the stroke current as it passes along the line as
shown in figure. The amount that an individual arrester bleeds off will depend on the
grounding resistance.

Fig.3.10. Line arresters to prevent flashovers

 The spacing of the line arresters should ensure the voltage level at the poles in the span
should not exceed BIL (Basic Impulse Level) of the line insulators. This usually requires
an arrester at every second or third pole.
 It may be necessary to place arresters at every pole when the feeder supplies to highly
critical load or the feeder with high ground resistance.
 Some systems may be provided with the line arresters only on the top phase when other
lines are placed below. In other cases, the arresters put on all three phases to get
consistent reduction in flashovers.
13. Write notes on low-pass filter. (8)
 LPF provides better protection against high frequency transients.
 Consists of series inductance and parallel capacitance. This circuit provides low
impedance to the ground path.
 Voltage clamping devices are added in parallel with the capacitor in surge protection
usage.

Fig.3.11. Low pass filter

 High surge protector combines two surge suppressors and a LPF for maximum protection.
 It uses a gap-type protector on the front end to handle high-energy transients. The low-
pass filter limits transfer of high-frequency transients.
 Inductor helps block high-frequency transients and forces them into the first suppressor.
 Capacitor limits the rate of rise, while the nonlinear resistor (MOV) clamps the voltage
magnitude at the protected equipment.
 Other variations on this design will employ MOVs on both sides of the filters and may
have capacitors on the front end as well.