Signature Assignment; Culminating Argument (PTSD)

Capstone 401

Professor Jose Candelario

July 30 2020
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Part 1.

Abstract

It is possible to experience a traumatic event in one's life. At times when that happens people

develop an effect that lasts beyond the experience. In such a case, one ends up with

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Many researchers have explored this phenomenon with

some examining people's responses to overwhelming experiences. Some of the findings have

indicated that the traumatic experience is usually stored in somatic memory and usually

expressed in the form of altered biological stress response. The resulting disorder is a normal

response portrayed by people who have experienced a traumatic event. Usually, a large number

of people who experience trauma are able to cope with assistance from loved ones and the same

is true for some who find coping mechanisms on their own. The intense emotions experienced

during the traumatic event trigger long term conditional responses to reminders of the event

which are associated with amnesias and chronic changes in the physiological stress response as

characterized by PTSD. According to the American Psychiatric Association, approximately 3.5

percent of adults in the U.S have been affected by PTSD with an estimated ratio of one in every

elven people will be diagnosed with PTSD in their lifetime. This paper focuses on which systems

in the human body are affected by PTSD as well as statistical facts related to this disorder

together with ethics and cultural aspect of the condition. Keywords: PTSD, Post Traumatic

Stress Disorder, Body Systems, Physiology, PTSD statistics)

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Introduction

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is a condition which results from an individual's encounter

with a traumatizing event. Actually, several categories of trauma include natural disaster trauma,

victim related trauma, survivor trauma, perpetrator guilt as well as other non-specified

posttraumatic stress disorders. One thing that all these different types of PTSD have in common

is that they compromise an individual's mental health and mental status as well. However, it is

worth noting that different people respond differently to PTSD as characterized by the cause of

the trauma. Research has noted that individuals who undergo a single traumatic even recover

more rapidly as compared to those who experience the event repeatedly or ones who undergo a

series of frequent trauma in their lives. The latter are considered vulnerable and it is common to

find suicidal tendencies within this group. The appeal to end one's life by committing suicide

comes from the thought that death ought to bring an end to the PTSD. PTSD results in changes

in one's body systems. Exploring these changes may help create awareness as well as provide a

better understanding of PTSD and insight on how to cope with the disorder.

PTSD is associated with changes in the body. Some body systems are affected by this

disorder. According to Kaminer and Eagle (2010) PTSD patients display an increased level of

physical arousal as compared to pre trauma experience. Changes in the body cause it to generate

a fight, flight, or freeze response. Some of these changes may also manifest in sleeplessness,

attention deficit, hypervigilance, being easily startled by noises and sudden movements,

irritability, anger, frustration, or even hostility towards others. If two or more symptoms are

present in a person who has experienced a traumatic event, that may qualify a person for a

possible diagnosis with PTSD. One of the body stems usually affected by PTSD is the mind.

PTSD patients experience flashbacks and intrusive memories of traumatic events (Kaminer &
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Eagle, 2010). They continue to say that the mind attempts to "achieve psychological mastery

over the traumatic event by replaying it repeatedly" (Kaminer & Eagle, 2010). They also point

out that the attempt at mastery by the psyche is aimed at attempting to adapt to and heal from an

intensely distressing experience. Other studies have associated the re-experiencing of symptoms

by PTSD patients with the formation of schemas. A schema is an internal cognitive framework

responsible for organizing and interpreting information from an individual's surroundings

(Kaminer & Eagle, 2010). Trauma essentially changes a person's working model of the world.

The female gender also appears to create a substantially higher risk for developing PTSD after a

trauma. Several studies in countries such as the United States, Canada, Mexico and Chile have

indicated that women are at least twice as likely as men to develop PTSD after a trauma

(Kaminer & Eagle, 2010). Hormonal differences between men and women may account for this

difference in vulnerability to PTSD. The receptors in the brain for the stress hormone, cortisol,

appear to be more sensitive in people who develop PTSD after a trauma, compared with those

who do not, possibly making them intensely sensitive and hyper-responsive to external events

(Kaminer & Eagle, 2010). PTSD does not appear to be simply an extreme version of the normal

stress response.

Problem Statement

As stipulated above, PTSD affects various body systems. Also, it is paramount to gain

statistical facts associated with this disorder. This paper will attempt to tackle four questions: -

1. Which body systems are affected by PTSD

2. What are some of the statistical facts related to PTSD

3. How Ethical Theories Apply to PTSD

4. Cultural Norms which Influence PTSD

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Scientific Explanation of how PTSD Affects the Mind and other Body Systems

Effects of PTSD on the Human Body

Several systems make up the human body to form a functional unit. Some of the systems in the

human body include; Circulatory system, digestive system, endocrine system, immune system,

muscular system, and the nervous system to name a few. As briefly discussed earlier, PTSD has

psychological effects on a person. However, it is worth noting that PTSD has both effects on

physical health and aging. A recent study has revealed that after conducting research on 64

studies, the study concluded that PTSD patients may be at a high risk of premature aging and

medical conditions associated with aging. These include heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and

dementia (DailyRX, 2015). According to Seahorn (2016) PTSD results in neurological changes

in that there is a reordering involving our neural networks and neural pathways as well as

sensory pathways such that one can survive in a relatively dangerous experience. The major

sensory systems in the body include the senses of sight, sound, smell, and taste as well. Changes

in the brain involve changes in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala (Seahorn,

2016). A PTSD patient has problems getting information to the prefrontal cortex and has a

shorter hippocampus. The amygdala release stress hormones which include noradrenaline,

epinephrine, and cortisone. When such happens, the sensory systems do get overwhelmed and

become sensitize to events in the surroundings making them easily triggered (Seahorn, 2016).

PTSD patients start to see things that may not be there and may at times fail to see things that are

actually present. The same is true for the sense of hearing whereby one might hear things that are

not present in the person's surrounding and at other times fail to hear things that are supposed to

be heard. When the sensory system of the brain is overloaded, the result is that a person becomes

hyper vigilant and hyper aroused (Seahorn, 2016). Other effects of PTSD are nightmares, panic
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attacks, night sweats, insomnia and flashbacks. When the body is under stress, as a result of

PTSD, one starts to have high incidences of hypertension or may even have chronic incidence of

strokes as well as heart attacks. PTSD may also lead to obesity, ulcers, chronic fatigue, and type

2 diabetes (Seahorn, 2016).

Mathematical Analysis of PTSD

Statistical Facts Associated with PTSD

The contemporary world is full of traumatizing events that we encounter every day as we go

about earning a living and the cases of unknown suicide and homicides have been on the rise.

Though many other factors are connected to these, I suppose the frequently ignored topic

(PTSD) significantly attributes to prevalent suicide and reduced quality of living. According to

the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2016, 28% of sexual abuse during childhood and 26% during

adulthood are risks for developing PTSD among both the veteran and noncombatants and this

drive to health risk, concurrent mood swing and increased substance abuse that derail the lives of

individuals (The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 2016).

Additionally, according to the National Centre for PTSD 2018, approximately eight million

persons in America experience symptoms of PTSD in their lives. The discussion about PTSD has

been left to military personnel ignoring the vast population who are also exposed to various

traumatizing events. I believe this is an area of concern that I will study to unveil the gaps in

identification, treatment, prognosis, and how it impacts and lives of combatants as well as

noncombatants. Moreover, my study will focus on early identification of symptoms in

individuals, including children, and explain how this contributes.

A study was conducted and a report was prepared. The report examined the incidence of mental

health complications and the application of mental health services by immigrant patients
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(Kallakorpi, Haatainen & Kankkunen, 2019). The study emphasized on the ethnography research

approach to determine immigrant patients using mental health services. The study results

revealed immigrant patients encountered PSTD conditions both in their homeland and foreign

areas.

A study aimed at identifying the correlation between the Ambivalence over Emotion Expression

(AEE) and the physical functioning of patients was conducted. The study also sought to

moderate and mediate the effects of cultural orientation upon the breast cancer survivors. The

research depicted a positive linkage between the AEE and the post-traumatic stress symptoms

affecting the patients (Wu, McNeill & Lu, 2019). In the study, a sample of 96 Chinese

participants experiencing PSTD conditions as a result of suffering from breast cancer. The study

addressed the AEE and PTSS conditions from the victims exposed to mainstream cultural

stigma.

Post-traumatic stress disorder, (PTSD), is a mental health condition that is triggered in some

individuals after being exposed to a traumatic event. The exposure could be due to the individual

having a personal encounter with the event or witnessing the event occur. Inability to perform

normal activities of daily living, attend school or work, or decreased interest in spending time

with family and friends, are not reactions to the initial shock and symptoms usually last within a

couple of weeks and up to three months (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2017).

Individuals who do not recover from the traumatic event and continue to have the symptoms for

longer than three months, develop Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, causing them to feel as if they

were in danger, even when they are not (National Institute of Mental Health, 2018). It has been

established that several biological anomalies have been found in measurable measures to

segregate PTSD from non-PTSD control bunches in different investigations; thus, based on this
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premise, they may freely be viewed as biomarkers. This paper seeks to answer the prominent

questions surrounding the chemical and biological components of PTSD and the economic

theories that best explain the prevalence of this mental illness. 

Right now, it has been comprehended, that the PTSD disorder is a mix of meddlesome

recollections as a result of previous exposure to traumatic conditions, trying to avoid any

incidences that may remind of it, hyper arousal as well as numbing emotionally. At first, PTSD

was conceptualized almost altogether in mental terms, and the biological writing on PTSD

comprised uniquely of inadequate psychophysiological perceptions (Greenspan, Greenspan, &

American Psychiatric Association, 2009). Though completely mental examination into PTSD is

essential, it is overhauled by an appreciation of the neurobiological parts shrouded the

disturbance. A complete destination of original research is to perceive danger factors, clarify the

instruments connected with the headway of PTSD, develop biomarkers, and make novel

preventive and healing interventions went for helping the liberal burden and brokenness this

issue powers (Greenspan, Greenspan, and American Psychiatric Association, 2009).

According to the National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine, exposure to

combat is the leading cause of PTSD, and critical risk factor in military soldiers (NAP,

2016). For some soldiers, being station away from home can be the most traumatic event of their

lives, these individuals have a low risk of developing PTSD. The risks increase if they have

already encountered a traumatic event. Soldiers who are deployed to war and experience combat

trauma are at most considerable risk (Delahanty & Nugent, 2006). Another risk factor that

contributes to PTSD is a lack of support from friends, family, and PTSD established support

groups or communities. Not being able to distress, communicate with others, and speak on the

occurred events, forced the individual to isolate themselves further. Not being able to talk about
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the incident inhibits them from learning coping strategies. Individuals suffering from anxiety and

depression, and having relatives that are also suffering from mental health disorders, have an

increased risk of developing PTSD. The onset of PTSD may also be related to natural disaster,

fire, kidnapping, torture, terrorist attack, and a life-threatening medical condition (Mayo Clinic,

2018).

An individual's genetic markers are associated with over 50% of an individual's vulnerability to

cases of PTSD. Other genetic factors that may have a bearing on a person's exposure to traumatic

conditions are considered. These include interpersonal violence or exposure in combat

(Delahanty & Nugent, 2006). The inheritable trait of an individual is thought to influence one

exposure to trauma. Hereditary hazard factors that are normal to real misery, summed up

uneasiness issue, and frenzy issue additionally represent the vast majority of the genetic variation

in PTSD recognized to date. Along these lines, qualities that influence the chance for PTSD

additionally impact hazard for other mental issue and the other way around (Delahanty &

Nugent, 2006). 

According to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, there are four types of symptoms

associated with PTSD, though some individuals may experience each one, every individual is

different and will present with symptoms in their way (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs,

2017). A frequent episode of reliving the traumatic event with upsetting nightmares or unwanted

bad memories or feeling as if the event is being relived again is called flashback. Avoidance is

when the individual does everything in their power to avoid talking about the event, avoids

places, thoughts, people, and activities that remind them of the trauma. Additionally, having

negative mood changes and thoughts is another symptom (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs,

2017). Hyperarousal is another symptom in which the individual may experience trouble
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sleeping, jittery, a sense of always having to be on high alert, they become easily frightened, and

in some cases may develop self-destructive behavior (Mayo Clinic, 2018).

Horowitz (1976, 1986) one of the most renowned specialists in the field of PTSD because of his

unfettered fascinating the thoughts preparations of people's thoughts, pictures, and states of mind

identified with misfortune and injury. His hypothesis has established in psycho-progressively

educated perceptions regarding typical and strange deprivation responses, and a lengthy custom,

stressing individuals' improvement of own assumptive universes. Horowitz contended that when

looked with injury, the underlying reaction of an individual is a clamor at the acceptance of the

damage (Bisson, 2009). Subsequently attempting to absorb the information on the new injury

with earlier information is the ideal reaction. Now, numerous people experience a time of data

over-burden during which they can't coordinate their considerations and recollections of the

injury with how that they spoke to significance before the stun. Due to this strain, mental guard

components are brought into play to dodge ant recollection from the injury and hasten the speed

with which it is reviewing takes place. As an example, the individual may try to become ignorant

about the difficulty, feel some numbness, or even try to maintain a strategic distance from tokens

of it (Brewin and Holmes, 2003).

A strict medication regimen with antidepressants and Psychotherapy may alleviate some of the

signs and symptoms. Like all medications and treatment options available for other medical

conditions, not all drugs and therapy will have a beneficial effect. Some patients will have to try

different remedies to see what works for them (Brewin & Holmes, 2003). Antidepressants can

reduce some of the symptoms of PTSD. This is because it works to control and relieve anger,

sadness, worry, and the numb feeling that some patients feel (National Institute of Mental

Health, 2018). Psychotherapy, also referred to as "talk therapy," is a method in which an

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individual talk with a mental health profession that is specialized in PTSD. Therapy sessions

usually last two to three months, but it is altered to the patient's need (Brewin & Holmes, 2003).

A strict medication regimen with antidepressants and Psychotherapy may alleviate some of the

signs and symptoms. Like all medications and treatment options available for other medical

conditions, not all drugs and therapy will have a beneficial effect. Some patients will have to try

different remedies to see what works for them. Antidepressants can reduce some of the

symptoms of PTSD, as it works to control and relieve anger, sadness, worry, and the numb

feeling that some patients feel (National Institute of Mental Health, 2018). Psychotherapy, also

referred to as "talk therapy," is a method in which an individual talk with a mental health

profession that is specialized in PTSD. Therapy sessions usually last two to three months, but it

is altered to the patient's need (National Institute of Mental Health, 2018). 

Part 2

Ethical Issues Associated with PTSD

How Ethical Theories Apply to PTSD

Ethical issues associated with PTSD

The issue of PTSD is a sensitive one. When dealing with such a disorder, it is paramount to make

ethical considerations especially when designing intervention undertakings aimed at PTSD

patients. Think of PTSD patients as people who need mental healthcare. Having a flawed ethical

approach towards the issue may lead to failure when handling the issue. For example, improper

ethical behavior such as publicizing the state of patients with PTSD may result in people who
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have the disorder to shy away from seeking treatment in fears that they may be talked about by

the public. In such a case, having privacy measures in place as an ethical approach to PTSD care

may go a long way in encouraging people who suffer from the disorder to seek medical and

expert care. Practices at a PTSD care facility should be overseen by an ethics regulatory board.

The board should effect access restrictions to patients from groups that would violate set ethical

standards at such facilities. For example, nowadays individuals and companies have begun to

invest in digital based interventions for PTSD patients. Such interventions require design

research which means that the designers will have to carry out contextual inquiry. Contextual

inquiry involves close observations on how patients interact with the technology as well as

conducting lengthy interviews. According to Doneva contextual inquiry may be "deemed

inappropriate by ethics regulatory boards" (2016).

One major ethical concern when it comes to PTSD is privacy and data security. Sensitive and

personal information about mental health conditions of PTSD patients must be protected at all

costs. As Doneva points out, 'The Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct'

recommends that psychologists must ensure that they take reasonable precautions to safe guard

confidential information regardless of medium in which such information is stored (2016).

Ethical guidelines associated with PTSD include the following.

Informed Consent

Among several guidelines by the APA ethics code are limiting intrusions of privacy,

maintenance of confidentiality, and obtaining informed consent (American Psychological

Association, 2002). The latter is important because it ensures that the person receiving PTSD

care has sufficient understanding of the practices and methods that are to be used in his or her
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therapy session. The consent should involve informing the patient about timelines of treatment,

specific tasks and goals as well as possible consequences that may result from said practices.

Clinicians are also required by ethical guidelines to maintain secure and firm boundaries while at

the same time putting emphasis on diagnosis and treatment of trauma for PTSD patients

(American Psychological Association, 2002). Durchane notes that some clients may want to

violate set boundaries by behaving in a manner contrary to the agreed upon guidelines including

calling at night or non-office hours and attempting to extend sessions as well as bringing gifts or

missing appointments (2017). Some even show up on impromptu without adherence to the set

schedule.

Transference and Countertransference

Both of these usually interfere with and skew treatment for PTSD patients. Clinicians should

avoid bringing to the intervention prejudices, thoughts and feelings that may arise before meeting

a client because one knows what such a client have had to go through (Dalenberg, Yvonne &

Oxana, 2001). According to Dalenberg, Yvonne and Oxana may create an ethical dilemma

following the fact that the clinician's beliefs, attitudes and values may be compromised.

According to the American Psychological Association, clinicians who experience

countertransference should adjust sessions to cope with the issue without compromising patient's

sessions or terminate the session with the client completely (2001).

Traumatic Bonding

The term refers to the bond that forms between the victim and the perpetrator following a series

of ongoing traumatic and positive experiences (Dutton & Painter, 1993). The same term can now

be used to describe the bond between the Clinician and the client. Usually, the PTSD client will
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describe their traumatic experience and that is usually accompanied by powerful emotions and

sensations which may lead to the formation of a powerful bond between a trauma clinician and a

PTSD client. The emotionally centered experiences may pose an ethical challenge to the

clinician where by the clinician might either become over protective of the client or distance

themselves from the client. Clinicians are required by APA's ethical guidelines to uphold

objectivity and competence when dealing with PTSD clients rather than letting their personal

problems stand in the way of delivering best care for their patients as per the guidelines.

Risk Management for PTSD Patients

As studies have shown, people who have survived traumatic experiences are more likely to

behave in a self-harming manner or report suicidal ideation as compared to those who have not

had such experiences (Ellis et al., 2017). Further research has indicated that people who have had

unpleasant treatment from people in their lives as children as well as those who show PTSD

severity have a high propensity for suicidal attempts (Guina, et al., 2017). Ethically, Clinicians

are expected to constantly monitor PTSD patients for suicidal ideations especially when it comes

to experiences that may trigger their traumatic experiences such as anniversary dates. Clinicians

must be cautious enough to follow up with clients especially when their clients undergo intense

sessions (Frankel, 2017).

Clinicians who Deal with PTSD Patients must create and maintain a Strong Therapeutic

Relationship with their Clients

As outlined by the American Psychological Association clinicians must strive to adhere to the

highest ethical ideals with regards to caring for PTSD patients by adhering to the principles of

Beneficence and Non-maleficence, together with integrity (2002). The first two encourage
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clinicians to do to the best of their abilities to benefit the patient and bring them no harm

American Psychological Association, 2002). The guidelines also indicate that a clinician must be

able to establish trust and professionalism whilst carrying out one's professional responsibilities

without fail (2002). At times one could be dealing with a patient who has experienced trauma

which involved betrayal and in such a case it is challenging to form therapeutic alliances unless

one enforces their trustworthiness. Clinicians must be aware of themselves and restrain from

negative reactions as sometimes clients may share disturbing, hurtful, horrifying and terrifying

experiences that will illicit strong reactions. Negative reactions in this case will thwart the efforts

of forging a therapeutic alliance as such reactions may cause the patient to become emotionally

detached and start distancing themselves from the clinician. It can also reinforce the client's

negative image which may lead to the deterioration of the client's health or even suicide. When

clinicians are overly inquisitive about the traumatic experience that may irritate the client and at

times lead to lack of accurate empathy. Establishing a therapeutic relationship with a PTSD

patient may prove somewhat challenging but with great caution, it is possible to succeed in the

attempt.

Cultural Perspective on PTSD

Cultural Norms Which Influence PTSD

Culture influences a lot of everyday life and that includes PTSD. A lot of research attention is

nowadays directed towards this issue because there has been an increase in the frequency of

currents of events and factors that cause trauma. War, technological disasters, natural disaster,

ethnic clashes and natural disasters have increased in frequency of occurrence. According to Frey

the annual number of people as reported by Red Cross to have been affected by disaster

continues to increase in contemporary society (2001). He continues to point out that floods and
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drought have affected the highest number of people with the first affecting 48% of the world's

population and the latter affecting 36% of people throughout the planet (Frey, 2001). Violence as

a result of man-made war, domestic violence, as well as human rights violation incidences have

become commonplace. All these events have negative and traumatic events which have

contributed greatly in an increase in cases of PTSD. The cultural norms of today's society have a

significant influence on PTSD. Traumatic experiences happen in every culture, it is therefore

important to understand how culture may affect elements of PTSD such as symptom expression.

An understanding of the influences of cultural norms on PTSD is crucial in understanding the

challenges as well as highlighting strengths of trauma survivors.

Strong cultural identity as well as a strong support structure such as a family or a community can

influence the way in which an individual perceives trauma. The same can influence how a

trauma survivor reacts to the trauma. Mostly, cultural beliefs for a framework of beliefs and

values which can contribute to resilience when facing trauma or work against one's traumatic

experience making it distorted in all kinds of ways. A system which utilizes culturally-sensitive

and trauma-informed care for PTSD patients can help survivors cope better with the traumatic

experience. Such a system has an edge in that it recognizes cultural variations and uses such

nuances in the subjective perception of trauma and associated responses. By so doing, the career

is able to assist more effectively in restoring a sense of safety for the trauma survivor.

According to the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ISTSS) culture usually

shapes the subjective meaning of trauma and also the pain and suffering associated with the

same. These then impact on symptom expression among trauma survivors (Ghafoori, et al.,

2014). The cultural rituals, norms and values associated with different cultural communities
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influence their unique ways of perception and individual responses, including PTSD clinical

symptoms (Ghafoori, et al., 2014).

"Differences in individual and cluster-level PTSD symptoms and other comorbid

symptoms could lead to differential relations between symptom clusters cross-culturally.

For example, one study using a sample of Hispanic, non-Hispanic Caucasian, and African

American survivors of sudden physical injury found that the Hispanic group reported

higher levels of overall posttraumatic distress, and also different patterns of symptoms

(Marshall, Schell, & Miles, 2009). The results of studies such as this lead to questions

regarding whether certain cultures truly have higher levels of distress after experiencing a

traumatic event, or whether cultural factors have an impact on the manifestation of

mental health symptoms, particularly the type of symptoms actually being measured"

Ghafoori, et al., 2014)

Ghafoori, et al., point out that one of the cultural norm that is variant cross-culturally is

avoidance (2014). However, research has revealed that evidence for intrusive thoughts and

memories is universal across all cultures a phenomenon which may be accounted for by the fact

that such evidence has the same biological framework regardless on one's culture. In some

cultures, there is higher prevalence of distressing dreams as manifestations of flashbacks from

trauma. Ghafoori et al. also notes that different cultures have different somatic expressions in

which case bodily symptoms and experiences may be amplified as a consequence of cultural

meanings attached to certain symptoms as well as misattributions (2014).

Another cultural aspect of PTSD associated with culture and one which affects PTSD is shame.

Traditional cultures often associate trauma with shame which stands in the way of people’s own

desire to seek intervention from clinicians and mental healthcare professionals. Some people
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may not want to associate with relatives or close friends who have recently been diagnosed with

PTSD and instead, they choose to distance themselves from such people. Shame and stigma

should be discouraged through education and sensitization of the public on PTSD. Culture

influences shame in a number of ways. One is Responsibility for the abuse whereby in the case

of a victim of, for example, rape, the victim might be blamed for dressing provocatively or

creating a misunderstanding that led to the abuse. Usually, this does not hold value because the

perpetrator bears greater responsibility for the abuse. Another component of influence of culture

is failure to protect. For example, if a parent loses a child in a fire or a flood, then that particular

parent may be blamed by society within certain culture of not having done enough to protect the

child from harm. Some cultural backgrounds give attention to the hand of fate and blame fate for

certain outcome. Other components of same affected by culture include loss of virginity,

victimization, predictions of shameful future, damaged goods, and layers of shame following

recurring trends.

Across all cultures, PTSD patients show a sense of cognitive and mood alterations in response to

traumatizing experiences as Young and Johnson (2010) point out in their study.

 Cultural sensitivity ensures success in PTSD treatment.

 Empirical treatments need to be modified depending on the patient’s cultural background.
 Avoid cultural stereotyping!

Conclusion

In conclusion, PTSD refers to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder a condition which results to

exposure to a traumatizing experience. Not everyone who is a trauma survivor develops PTSD as

some are able to cope with the experience and emerge unscathed. Usually, people who develop
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PTSD have a history of experiencing repeated trauma throughout their lives leading up to the

present moment. PTSD affects various body systems. One of the most affected systems is the

Mind. According to research studies conducted by cognitive psychology scholars, the brain has a

framework which it uses to process and interpret information received through the senses (sight,

smell, touch, and sound). Once it receives information from the sensory system, it interprets the

information through schemas to make sense of what is going on in the world around us. During

traumatic events, the brain experiencing sensory information that is beyond the normal range of

sensory input. Naturally, the brain attempts to make sense of the traumatic event by replaying the

scenes from said event repeatedly which results in flashbacks. Other body systems such as the

nervous system are usually affected when an individual develops PTSD. When the body is under

stress, as a result of PTSD, one starts to have high incidences of hypertension or may even have

chronic incidence of strokes as well as heart attacks. PTSD may also lead to obesity, ulcers,

chronic fatigue, and type 2 diabetes.

Some of the statistical facts related to PTSD include the following.

 28% of sexual abuse during childhood and 26% during adulthood are risks for developing

PTSD among both the veteran and noncombatants and this drive to health risk,

concurrent mood swing and increased substance abuse that derail the lives of individuals

 Approximately eight million persons in America experience symptoms of PTSD in their

lives

 An individual's genetic markers are associated with over 50% of an individual's

vulnerability to cases of PTSD.

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 There are four types of symptoms associated with PTSD, though some individuals may

experience each one, every individual is different and will present with symptoms in their

way

The American Psychological Association provides guidelines that clinicians ought to adhere to

when attending or caring for PTSD patients. The ethics concerns revolve around informed

consent, inference and countertransference, risk management for PTSD patients, and Clinicians

who Deal with PTSD Patients must create and maintain a Strong Therapeutic Relationship with

their Clients.

Several cultural norms usually influence PTSD diagnosis, treatment and care. Mostly, cultural

beliefs for a framework of beliefs and values which can contribute to resilience when facing

trauma or work against one's traumatic experience making it distorted in all kinds of ways.

Culture usually shapes the subjective meaning of trauma and also the pain and suffering

associated with the same.

A well rounded approach to PTSD that encompasses all the areas discussed in this paper will led

to better care for PTSD patients and lead to successful treatment of the disorder. All parts have to

work together in unison to curb the stigma, lead trauma informed care which is culturally

sensitive, ethical, scientific, and effective as well.

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References

American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of

Conduct. American Psychologist, 57(12), 1060-1073. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-

066x.57.12.1060

Bisson, J. I. (2009). Psychological and social theories of post-traumatic stress disorder.

Psychiatry, 8(8), 290-29.

Brewin, C. R., & Holmes, E. A. (2003). Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder.

Clinical psychology review, 23(3), 339-376.

DailyRX. (2015). How PTSD Might Affect Physical Health [Video]. Retrieved 29 July 2020,

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