SECTION A:

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN VIOLENT CRIMES AND PTSD

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental condition in persons that have experienced or have
encountered a traumatic event such as natural disasters, a terrible accident, a terrorist attack, a war or
rape, or are endangered by death, sexual abuse or serious injury.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PSD) impacts individuals by causing them to have strong, uncomfortable
ideas and emotions about their terrible experience that remain long after the trauma. Their experiences
might be relived in flashbacks and dreams and they can experience sorrow, fear, or rage and a feeling of
separation or alienation from others. Persons suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can
avoid or recall the traumatic occurrence, and have substantial unpleasant reactions to seemingly benign
matters, such as loud noise or inadvertent touch.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis needs exposure to severe traumatic experiences. The
exposure may, however, be indirect rather than direct. For example, if a person hears that a close family
member or acquaintance dies violently, he or she can acquire a post traumatic stress condition (PTSD).
Frequent exposure to horrendous traumatic facts, such as police officers exposed to child abuse details,
can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A high number of people who have been exposed to
traumatic situations within days following the incidence display symptoms comparable to those
mentioned above. However, the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) must last for more
than one month and generate significant discomfort or difficulty in the day to day function of individuals
before a person may be diagnosed. Many people develop symptoms within three months of a stressful
event, although in certain situations symptoms may arise later and continue for months or even years.
In many situations, the PTSD develops in conjunction with other conditions such as depression,
medication misuse, memory impairment, and other physical and mental health conditions. (What Is
PTSD?, 2021)

Violence is defined as the intentional or threatened infliction of severe bodily damage on another
person. A few examples include hitting someone, physically coercing someone into having sex, and
threatening to use a pistol or a knife. When reading studies or media stories on violence and post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), it is critical to pay careful attention to how violence is characterized. In
certain cases, milder types of aggressiveness such as slapping, threatening to hurl something at
someone, or shoving have been classified as acts of violence. Similarly, criminal conduct has been used
interchangeably with violence in the past, despite the fact that the majority of criminal behavior is
nonviolent. Incorporating these activities into measures of violence artificially inflates reported rates of
aggression among individuals with and without post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). (PTSD Induced
Violence | Veterans Accused of Violent Crimes in Annapolis, 2021)

There is a two-way interaction when it comes to violent conduct and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms are produced by violence exposure, however, aggressive
conduct and aggression include some symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. In other words,
violence creates post-traumatic stress and post-traumatic stress is a result of violent experiences.
Aggressive behavior is more widespread as a forerunner to the development of post-traumatic stress
disorder. Symptoms of anxiety, aggression, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder are produced
by exposure to violence, including criminal and terrorist activities, sexual activity (especially early
childhood), and physical abuse. Various types of violence and its psychological and psychiatric
implications are now being studied in order to determine the existence of disparities in exposure to
violence, including their effects on the basis of age, gender, ethnicity and other sociodemographic
criteria. In addition to the effects for the individual and his or her family, the ramifications of violence
are increasingly being explored in the greater community. In contrast, when the patient has increased
awareness, the well-described post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may be present in the form of
violence, aggressiveness , fury and impulsivity which pose a major difficulty for the patient and his
family.(Is PTSD a Cause of Domestic Violence in Relationships?, 2021)

Anger and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are often associated with one another. Anger is one of
the hyper arousal symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and it may have a negative impact
on our interactions with those around us. It’s essential to understand that the rage experienced by
individuals suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may grow so strong that it seems out of
control. When this occurs, you may become hostile against others or even cause damage to your own
body. That, however, does not always occur, and not everyone suffering from post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) lashes out in anger. (Why People With PTSD Tend to Experience Irritability and Anger,
2021)

When comparing Veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to Veterans without the mental
health condition, the researchers discovered that the chances of becoming involved in the criminal
justice system were 61 percent greater. European prevalence studies have shown that prison inmates
had a greater incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms than clinical and community
samples. Violent crime victims may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which may be a
contributing element in the offenders’ actions as well as a result of the crimes themselves.(VA.gov |
Veterans Affairs, 2021)

A German study of 54 delinquents imprisoned in forensic mental facilities discovered a lifetime

A connection has been discovered between post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and domestic abuse,
according to research. Intimate relationship violence occurs more often than you would imagine.
Approximately every 60 seconds, 20 individuals are physically assaulted by an intimate partner,
according to national estimates in the United States of America. This amounts to more than 10 million
individuals each year on average. People who have encountered certain traumatic experiences or who
suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are more likely to engage in abusive relationships.

Those with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have also been shown to be more violent and to
participate in intimate partner violence than people who do not have a PTSD diagnosis. The link
between post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and aggression has been discovered in both men and
women who suffer from the condition. Researchers have tried to get a better understanding of the
factors that may cause individuals who have experienced trauma or post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) to engage in aggressive and violent actions. Depression was shown to have a role in the
aggressiveness of veterans in the United States, according to research. People who suffer from both
depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may have increased sensations of rage and, as a
result, may have more difficulty regulating their emotions. Although extreme anger may lead individuals
suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to be violent toward others, most of the time they
will attempt to suppress or conceal their feelings of rage. This may be helpful in the short term, but it
has the potential to escalate the anger to the point that it becomes uncontrollable. People who
experience this kind of rage may choose to take their frustrations out on themselves by engaging in self-
destructive conduct. This may involve drug addiction as well as intentional self-injury. While this is
typical with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), there are methods to deal with it that you should be
aware of. (Why People With PTSD Tend to Experience Irritability and Anger, 2021)

PTSD and traumatic brain injuries can affect the ability of a person to retain self-regulation and can even
make him/her more angry or hostile. The linkage between them cannot be established with any degree
of trust, but there is evidence that thousands of military troops working in Afghanistan and Iraq are
experiencing medical problems linked to their services. Those with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
tend to prevent certain activities or circumstances while they are highly alert. It is normal for them to
regularly suffer intrusive memories and despair.

SECTION B

HIDAY’S (1995) MODEL OF VIOLENT CRIMES ASSOCIATION WITH PTSD:

According to Hiday and Burns, two widely held ideas about mental illness and the criminal justice system
are examined: that deinstitutionalization has resulted in the criminalization of mental illness and that
mentally ill people are dangerous and more prone to commit crimes. Although the rates of arrest and
imprisonment for mentally ill people are greater than those for the general population, the term
"criminalization" may be overused to describe their situation. Furthermore, the vast majority of
individuals suffering from mental disorders are not aggressive, and only a tiny percentage of those
suffering from mental illnesses become violent. This section looks at how mentally ill people are treated
by the criminal justice system in the United States.

Following in the footsteps of Hiday and Wales, the authors propose that there are five categories of
people suffering from serious mental illness who come into touch with the criminal justice system:

1. Individuals who are solely committing minor nuisance crimes.

2. Those who engage in criminal activity that is based on survival instincts.

3. Those who misuse alcohol and drugs, which results in a high incidence of criminal crimes resulting
from the use of illicit substances, from efforts to fund their addictions, and from violence resulting from
their use, among other things.

4. Those people who suffer from character disorders yet commit significant amounts of felony criminal
activity, including aggression against others.

5. The subgroup is a considerably smaller subset whose members match the conventional picture of a
seriously disturbed individual who is led to criminally violent acts by delusions.
All five categories have a tendency to live in poor, chaotic neighborhoods where it is difficult to survive
while suffering from a serious mental disease. The authors come to the conclusion that the criminal
justice system is left to pick up the pieces after other social institutions have failed to function properly.

This theoretical model contains the four previously mentioned confusions plus variables that are part of
the mechanisms through which it works. In this paradigm neurobiological illness and socially disordered
societies are both the fundamental causes of violence. After the arrows, it seems that socially
disordered societies influence all second grades of variables (ASPD/psychopathy, drug abuse, violence
and serious mental disease) together with stressful occurrences such as parental early death, fire,
school-leaving, etc. Neurobiological pathology only has a causal influence on two factors in the second
stage: serious mental disease and drug abuse, that is, it does not have a direct effect on violence.
Rather, it has an impact on violence through other variables. Psychopathy/ASPD, drug abuse, and
serious mental disease have curving lines to indicate tight, complex connections, which are not fully
unraveled. These three factors and violence influence the variables in the third and fourth levels and
ultimately affect violence. All these connections are logically based on empirical research in many fields,
such as psychology, anthropology, sociology, criminology and epidemiology; they are all fairly non-
controversial except for the indirect connection between serious mental health issues. (Hiday, V. A., &
Burns, P. J. 2010)

Health and violence.

This theoretical paradigm above hypothesizes that violence from serious mental illness and its
underlying neurobiological dysfunction is not directly related. Rather, the model suggests that serious
mental illness only indirectly promotes violence via two routes:

(1) via strange and/or unpleasant symptoms that lead to stressful circumstances that lead to violence in
the setting of the other factors
(2) Threatening / Control Override Symptoms These include frightening delusions and hallucinations that
threaten and remove control. This connection shows that serious mental illness interacting with
suspicion/misconception [which evolved via trauma and violence] leads to overriding symptoms of
threat/control. These signs may lead straight to violence or stressful circumstances that escalate to
violence.

This model has not been tested, however every cause connection contains a theory validated in one or
more research using empirical data. A big community study with all the predicted causative factors
assessed awaits the support of the whole hypothesis.

According to point number2, 4 and 5 of Hiday’s model, PTSD is a syndrome that is associated with the
Hiday’s Model. As PTSD is a mental illness that could reach to very dangerous level, it is included in the
cognitive model by Hiday. Stressful negative occurrences such as losing a job, divorce, or the loss of a
family’s breadwinner may create tense or conflict situations that can escalate into violence. Social
disorganization may be seen in poor areas where individuals have very low incomes, which affects a
significant proportion of the families in such places. In today’s culture, living with continuous sadness, a
lack of hope, and a lack of anything better produces a bad aura surrounding the person who is
experiencing these circumstances on a daily basis. This is also a contributing factor to post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), when trauma is induced by poverty, and a person is compelled to engage in
criminal activities to survive. Traumatic experiences in one’s life are frequent among those who suffer
from post-traumatic stress disorder. PTSD is developing as a significant public health issue in many parts
of the globe. Following a stressful incident, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is characterized by
impairment to the “fight or flight” stress response. This injury leads the person to feel stressed or fearful
even when there is no imminent danger in his or her environment. PTSD may manifest itself as a
disruption in one’s capacity to control one’s emotions. The over- or under-activation of emotions and
interpersonal involvement may be seen as a result of this process. There is little evidence to indicate
that this group has high rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at the same time. It is believed
that post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) mediates the detrimental consequences of trauma on the
development of mental disease. (Shin, L. 2008)

In this model, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has an impact on psychiatric disorders both directly
and indirectly, through the effects of specific PTSD symptoms such as avoidance, over arousal, and
reliving the trauma, and through the effects of common PTSD correlates such as traumatization,
substance abuse, and interpersonal relationship difficulties. The chance of getting PTSD rose by 7
percent after being exposed to two stressful experiences, and the risk increased by an additional 6
percent after being exposed to a third traumatic incident. By this, we conclude that PTSD is associated
with the Hiday’s Model of violent crimes as, even if forced, the circle of criminal activity is drawn. (Hiday,
V. A., & Burns, P. J. 2010)

SECTION C:

INTERVENTIONS:

Many PTSD therapies include anger management abilities, which has long been acknowledged by
mental health professionals.5 As a result, anger management skills are often included in many PTSD
treatments. A significant component of decreasing violent inclinations is learning more effective coping
mechanisms for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), such as deep breathing and recognizing both the
short- and long-term negative and positive effects of various actions. Additionally, learning to deal with
anger in healthy ways is a smart method to not only reduce the likelihood of violence, but it may also
help people suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) handle circumstances that generate
rage in a more positive manner. If you are a victim of domestic violence, it is critical that you take action
as soon as possible to protect yourself. Arousal can be a tough feeling to regulate, as you are
undoubtedly aware, particularly when it seems strong and out of control. Instead of resorting to harmful
habits in an attempt to minimize or forget the situation, it is a good idea to practice effective anger
management methods.

Simple activities like exercise, mindfulness practice, and finding someone you can confide in to speak
things through are all included in this category. It may seem to be a lengthy and winding path at times.
Eventually, something will probably click, and you’ll discover a few methods that work for you and your
circumstances.

When it comes to effective anger management techniques, one of the suggestions is to take a “time-
out” if you feel yourself beginning to get irritable. It’s a simple ability to pick up and use. When you
create a time-out plan, you are providing yourself with precise actions to follow when you are feeling
angry. Many individuals who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have found this to be a
wonderful source of comfort as well as an effective approach for improving their relationships. Self-
soothing techniques may also aid in the reduction of PTSD. Touch, taste, smell, sight, and sound are all
used in self-soothing techniques, as are your five senses. The most important thing is to remain focused
on the action. Keeping your mind and body focused on anything other than your anger allows your mind
and body to automatically become more calm. As surprising as it may seem, good coping strategies for
controlling anxiety may also help you regulate your anger more successfully. This is because strong
anger and anxiety are both feelings that tend to elicit a “fight or flight” reaction from the body.
Developing skills for dealing with severe anxiety also include learning how to maintain your anger at a
manageable level, which may be beneficial. When a crime occurs, victims may have difficulties that last
longer than the first month or two after the incident. Other times, even if the victim has not had any
other difficulties, they may have depression months after the event. The way in which each individual
responds to trauma is unique. When a crime victim has post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), he or she
may have difficulties functioning at home, with family, at work, or in school as a result of the trauma. A
person suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) feels the urge to avoid anything or anybody
that may, even in the slightest manner, remind them of their experience. People who suffer from post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often have a strong emotional response when they are reminded of
what occurred. Most people who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have recurrent
nightmares and flashbacks to the traumatic event. This is perhaps the most important symptom of PTSD.
PTSD victims often feel a sense of separation and isolation from friends, family, and colleagues due to
their preoccupation with the reliving of the event. It may be very beneficial to get ongoing counselling
from a counsellor or to be sent to a Crisis Center. In many cases, victims of rape get rapid assistance, and
victims of other horrific crimes may benefit from therapy during the first 24 to 96 hours after the
traumatic event. An experienced health professional may intervene during a crisis and offer assistance
as well as advice on stress management. Additional treatment provided soon after a stressful incident
may also assist to avoid future difficulties. Treatments such as behavior therapy and cognitive-
behavioral therapy may help you in regulating your emotions and addressing the trauma that has
occurred as a consequence of the incident. Stress management measures, such as relaxation, and other
anxiety-relieving techniques are often used in the treatment of OCD. In addition, the cognitive-
behavioral psychotherapist will help the PTSD patient in facing what occurred to him in a cautious and
controlled way, allowing the anguish of the memory to be endured more effectively as a result of the
experience. The research has shown that, over time, people who are taught different cognitive and
behavioral strategies for actively dealing with all elements of the trauma rather than attempting to shut
it out have the best chance of healing their mental health outcomes. Finally, cognitive-behavioral
psychotherapists may be very beneficial in helping the traumatized client in re-establishing their
connections at work and in their personal lives. (Verywell Mind 2021)

REFERENCES:

1. Hiday, V. A., & Burns, P. J. (2010). Mental illness and the criminal justice system. In T. L. Scheid &
T. N. Brown (Eds.), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and
systems (pp. 478–498). Cambridge University Press.
2. ABCT – Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 2021. Crime | Fact Sheet | ABCT –
Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. [online] Available at:
https://www.abct.org/fact-sheets/crime/ [Accessed 15 July 2021].
3. Psychiatry.org. 2021. What Is PTSD?. [online] Available at: https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-
families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd [Accessed 15 July 2021].
4. Verywell Mind. 2021. Why People With PTSD Tend to Experience Irritability and Anger. [online]
Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/the-relationship-between-anger-and-ptsd-
2797543 [Accessed 15 July 2021].
5. Verywell Mind. 2021. Is PTSD a Cause of Domestic Violence in Relationships?. [online] Available
at: https://www.verywellmind.com/ptsd-and-domestic-violence-2797405 [Accessed 15 July
2021].
6. Drew Cochran, Attorney at Law | Ellicott City and Annapolis, Maryland. 2021. PTSD Induced
Violence | Veterans Accused of Violent Crimes in Annapolis. [online] Available at:
https://www.drewcochranlaw.com/criminal-defense/ptsd-induced-violence/ [Accessed 15 July
2021].
7. Ptsd.va.gov. 2021. VA.gov | Veterans Affairs. [online] Available at:
https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/cooccurring/research_violence.asp#:~:text=Individ
uals%20with%20PTSD%20have%20an,misuse%20and%20comorbid%20psychiatric
%20disorders.&text=The%20prevalence%20of%20violence%20in,%25%20(2%2C5). [Accessed 15
July 2021].
8. Miller, L. (2015). PTSD and forensic psychology: Applications to civil and criminal law. Springer
book
9. Hamner, M. B. (2014). The role of PTSD in adjudicating violent crimes. Journal of Law, Medicine
& Ethics, 42(2), 155-160. https://doi.org/10.1111/jlme.12131
10. Shin, L. (2008). Is PTSD a stress induced fear circuitry disorder? PsycEXTRA Dataset.
https://doi.org/10.1037/e517302011-104