Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13 – 22

The evolution of the seven steps of selling

William C. Moncrief a,1, Greg W. Marshallb,*
a
M.J. Neeley School of Business, Texas Christian University, TCU Box 298530, Fort Worth, TX 76129, United States
b
Crummer Graduate School of Business, Rollins College, 1000 Holt Avenue-2722, Winter Park, FL 32789-4499, United States
Received 15 January 2003; received in revised form 5 April 2004; accepted 5 June 2004
Available online 11 November 2004

Abstract

The traditional seven steps of selling is perhaps the oldest paradigm in the sales discipline. The seven steps model has served as a basic
framework in sales training, personal selling textbooks, and teaching personal selling classes. Very little has changed in this framework since
the turn of the 20th century. This article reviews the traditional seven steps of selling, examines transformative factors that have led to
changes in each step, and presents an evolved seven steps process. While the traditional seven steps reflected a selling orientation on the part
of a firm, the evolved selling process reflects more of a customer orientation in that the focus is on relationship selling—that is, securing,
building, and maintaining long-term relationships with profitable customers.
D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Selling; Selling activities; Selling function; Selling process; Selling steps

1. Introduction Throughout modern selling history, one of the oldest and

most widely accepted paradigms in the sales discipline is
The profession of selling has a rich history that traces its commonly referred to as the bseven steps of sellingQ
roots back to the ancient world, gained prominence in the (Dubinsky, 1980/1981). These seven steps present the typical
early 20th century, and continues to evolve as we move into sales scenario as composed of the following: (1) prospecting,
the beginnings of the 21st century (Hawes, Anne, & Midmier, (2) preapproach, (3) approach, (4) presentation, (5) over-
2004; Powers, Koehler, & Martin, 1998; Powers, Martin, & coming objections, (6) close, and (7) follow-up. Ever since
Daniel, 1987). Review of these historical perspectives reveals selling began to be recognized as a professional discipline,
distinct differences in the importance of selling to the overall the seven steps have served as a foundation in sales training
economy and to the development of both the marketing and for the process of making a sale, as well as a framework for
sales disciplines, particularly in light of changes in economic teaching personal selling classes (Hawes et al., 2004).
conditions (Wotruba, 1991). Business in the 20th century Current personal selling textbooks commonly base the
progressed through various eras popularly portrayed as organization of the book around some form of these basic
beginning with the production era, followed by the sales steps (Futrell, 2002; Manning & Reece, 2001; Weitz,
era, and the marketing era (Dawson, 1970). Selling or the Castleberry, & Tanner, 2001).
philosophy of selling is depicted as different in each of these The seven steps of selling is one of the most widely
eras, resulting in changes in the salesperson and the sales accepted tenets in the sales field, and can be found in early
discipline through the three evolutionary stages. sales books and periodicals. For example, a 1920 sales
training book titled How to Increase Your Sales lists the bsixQ
steps of selling as (1) find the prospect, (2) preapproach, (3)
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 407 691 1150; fax: +1 407 691 1151.
E-mail addresses: b.moncrief@tcu.edu (W.C. Moncrief)8
approach, (4) the demonstration, (5) the argument, and (6)
gmarshall@rollins.edu (G.W. Marshall). the close (How to Increase Your Sales 17th ed.). The only
1
Tel.: +1 817 257 6185; fax: +1 817 257 6049. traditional selling step not mentioned is the bfollow-up,Q
0019-8501/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2004.06.001
14 W.C. Moncrief, G.W. Marshall / Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13–22

which is a more recent addition. For at least 80 years, the selling, relationship selling, etc.). They produced a 10-cell
steps in a selling process have remained virtually the same. grid depicting these activities based on technology (or
Over time, effective selling methods have evolved from nontechnology), which is shown in Table 1. The authors
closed, forceful techniques to more of a relationship selling conclude that the sales job has experienced significant job
approach (Schurr, 1987). Relationship selling involves enlargement with an increase of job activities required to
securing, developing, and maintaining long-term relation- support successful performance.
ships with profitable customers (Johnston & Marshall, 2005, The above evidence is compelling that the field of
p. 5). Several behavioral forces are having a major impact selling has evolved over the past century, with particularly
on shifting selling to a more relationship-based approach. high impact changes in the most recent decade (for an
Rising customer expectations, consumer avoidance of enlightening assessment of selling as a profession, see
buyer–seller negotiations, expanding power of giant Hawes et al., 2004). Concurrently, sales organizations have
retailers, globalization, and demassification of domestic changed and continue to evolve. And of course, the
markets are radically changing the way salespeople perform salesperson him-/herself has also changed over time,
their jobs (Anderson, 1996). including increased diversity and globalization in general.
In today’s world of selling, world firms focus on the Today’s professional sales force is better educated with
strategic use of the sales organization with an emphasis most having a college degree and many having graduate
on the selling mission rather than just maintaining a degrees. New philosophies of selling dominate, with
sales force (Leigh & Marshall, 2001). The sales organ- emphasis on relationships. Given such dramatic evolution
ization has a variety of selling methods to employ, the in the sales field, it is odd that, if the sales textbooks
bselling mix.Q The mix includes traditional field sales represent reality, one tenet that gives the appearance
forces but also includes other methods of selling, such as outwardly of having changed little is the seven steps of
teleselling, national account representatives, part-time sales selling. In fact, the steps are still widely cited in textbooks
forces, Internet selling, and selling through the use of and form the basis for much sales training. However, is the
partners (Cardoza & Shipp, 1987; Marshall, Moncrief, & anchoring of selling as a discipline on the seven steps
Lassk, 1999). model still appropriate? We argue that various trans-
Technology, a changing customer base, new selling tools, formative factors have impacted the steps in recent years,
and globalization all have had a major influence on the and present an evolved selling process that better reflects
salesperson of today. Certainly, changes have occurred in practice today.
the day-to-day job. Marshall et al. (1999) tracked the daily
activities of salespeople and compared them to activities
collected in 1981 by Moncrief (1986). Their results show 2. Traditional seven steps of selling
that the majority of 1981 activities were still being
performed. However, they also found 49 new sales This section briefly reviews the historical seven steps of
activities, many of which revolve around new philosophies selling and some of the topical discussion of each selling
of selling (consultative selling, adaptive selling, value-added step that one might find in most any sales textbook.

Table 1
New selling activities
Communication Sales Relationship Team Database
a
Technology Email, dictaphone, Internet, Set up appointments, script sales Web page Conference calls Collect new
laptopsa–CD ROM, voice- pitch from database, use software information from
mail, fax, cellular phone, pager, for customer background, laptop database, enter
Web pagea, newsletters, audio– for presentationa, VCR for information/data
video conference, provide presentation, provide technology, on laptopa, update
technical info., overnight ability to customer customer files
services, maintain virtual office
Nontechnology Practice language skills Adaptive selling, conduct research Bring in vendor/alliance, Mentor, make sale
at customer’s business, avoid develop relationship, and turn it over to
potential litigation, plan for hand-hold customer, someone else,
multiple calls to close deal, sell write thank-yousa, coordinate with
value-added services, respond to purchase dealers, call on sales support
referrals, write thank-yousa, target CEOs, build rapport with
key accounts, pick up sales buying center, network,
supplies, consultative selling, listen, build trust, train brokers
ask questions, read body
language, sell unique competencies
Source: Marshall et al. (1999).
a
Appears in more than one cell.
 W.C. Moncrief, G.W. Marshall / Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13–22 15

2.1. Prospecting and attributes are visualized and built around a call agenda
or sales proposal. This step can be complex, and preparation
Prospecting is the method by which salespeople search is essential. Sales textbooks and sales training programs
for new customers and potential customers. One obvious spend substantial time on this step of the selling process.
reason for prospecting is to expand the customer base,
which is important because most sales organizations lose 2.5. Overcoming objections
customers every year (Jolson & Wotruba, 1992). Sales
textbooks typically discuss methods of prospecting, such as Objections can be broadly defined as customer questions
referrals, networking, bird-dogging, cold canvassing, and and hesitancies about the product or company. Salespeople
numerous others. Prospecting usually includes a discussion should expect that objections will be encountered in every
of qualifying the prospect and thus developing some type of sales presentation. A number of reasons exist for objections,
screening procedure. and despite the fact that objections can delay the sales
Traditionally, salespeople were expected to find their own process, for the most part they should be perceived in a
prospects. Prospecting was an essential and large part of the positive sense as useful. This is because by revealing
selling job, and for many salespeople, this was the most objections, true buyer needs can be uncovered. In the early
difficult and tedious part of the job—in fact, it is an aspect of days of selling, sales objections were viewed mostly as a
sales jobs that has chased off many would-be salespeople. hurdle that salespeople had to overcome to get to the
ultimate sale. In more modern times, a true objection might
2.2. Preapproach be viewed as a sign not to pursue the sale further because a
need may not be met with a given product. Most sales
The preapproach step includes all postprospecting textbooks provide a discussion of differing types of
activities prior to the actual visit with a prospect or objections and procedures for how the salesperson can
customer. The preapproach step occurs on virtually every overcome them.
sales call. Sellers are doing their research on the prospect or
customer, familiarizing themselves with the customer’s 2.6. Close
needs, reviewing previous correspondence, and pulling
together any other new and relevant material that might be The close is defined as the successful completion of the
appropriate for bringing to the sales call itself. Preapproach sales presentation culminating in a commitment to buy the
activities also include talking with gatekeepers, doing good or service. Once any objections have been successfully
homework on the customer (individual and organization), overcome, the salesperson must actually ask for the business
mentally preparing for the approach and presentation and thus begin the process of closing the sale. This step
(rehearsal), and breadingQ the customer’s office on entry. traditionally has been trumpeted as difficult for many
salespeople (especially new salespeople) because many
2.3. Approach simply do not ask for the order. A myriad of closing tactics
are available, some of which are quite colorful, that are
The approach usually takes the first minute or minutes of a typically discussed in sales textbooks and sales training
sale. It consists of the strategies and tactics employed by sessions.
salespeople when gaining an audience and establishing initial
rapport with the customer. The approach includes opening 2.7. Follow-up
small talk, the handshake, eye contact, and generally making
a good initial impression. Most sales textbooks include a As mentioned earlier, the follow-up step is a relatively
variety of different approaches that can be used, including the newer addition to the steps of selling in which the
introductory approach, the assessment approach, the product salesperson does not assume the sale is over with the
approach, the consumer-benefit approach, the referral acceptance of an order. Rather, much work begins after the
approach, the consultative approach, and many others. sale to make sure the customer is happy with the product/
service and that everything that was promised is being
2.4. Presentation delivered. Examples that are frequently given include a
thank-you letter to the customer or a follow-up phone call to
The presentation is the main body of the sales call and ensure the customer is happy.
should occur after the salesperson has predetermined the
needs of the customer. This step can be one presentation or
multiple presentations over a period of time. Goals for the 3. Transformative factors impacting the selling process
sales presentation will vary. First-time buyers must get
sufficient information to adequately understand the pro- In the last two decades, the seven steps of selling have
duct’s benefits, which may be facilitated by building the begun to evolve based on the influence of a variety of
presentation around a product demonstration. Selling points transformative factors, including technology, the expanding
16 W.C. Moncrief, G.W. Marshall / Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13–22

strategic role of selling within organizations, team-based spent with current customers or making a call on a qualified
approaches to selling, increased buyer knowledge and prospect that someone else has identified.
sophistication, and others. These key transformative factors Many sales organizations today are using telemarketers to
have proven to be catalysts in moving the traditional seven (in effect) perform the prospecting function. Once the
steps to an evolved selling process. That is, sales organ- prospect is found, the telemarketer may attempt a sale or
izations and salespeople have moved beyond mere applica- may pass the lead to the appropriate salesperson depending
tion of sequential traditional selling steps to a process that is on the structure of the organization. The Internet has also
largely nonsequential. The evolution is still underway, and allowed potential prospects to approach the organization,
many of today’s sales organizations are in various stages of where they are later contacted by a salesperson. Technology
the evolution toward a selling process that will be discussed has allowed the organization to become more cost efficient
in the next section. Table 2 presents the traditional seven steps and effective in the prospecting step, freeing the salesperson
of selling, key transformative factors impacting the selling to focus on other sales functions. Especially, database
steps, and the evolved selling process that today has replaced marketing and CRM have enhanced marketing’s ability to
more traditional approaches in many sales organizations that aid salespeople in prospecting. As a result, the current
are seeking long-term relationships with their customers. evolution for prospecting is that salespeople may no longer
be performing the prospecting step as a systematic part of
3.1. Transformation of the prospecting step their job, but the step typically remains elsewhere within the
organization.
Based on 1981 data, Moncrief (1986) found that different
sales jobs require different frequencies of sales activities, 3.2. Transformation of the preapproach step
including prospecting. Now, well over 20 years later, the
prospecting step is not necessarily performed by a sales- The traditional preapproach might consist of a sales-
person at all. In fact, much of what constitutes prospecting is person sitting in his/her car reviewing notes on a 35 index
now being conducted by others in the organization, and in card about the upcoming sales call. A 1921 sales manual
many cases, the salesperson has little or no direct responsi- states, b. . .a card is written for each of these firms; on it, in
bility for prospecting. Traditional prospecting is an expensive addition to their office address, is placed their rating, the line
procedure because it takes multiple calls to provide one of business in which they are engaged, the names of their
person who may or may not become a bona-fide prospect. officers, . . .any personal information regarding any or all of
Salespeople are very expensive assets for an organization and these men (SIC) is also obtainedQ (How to Increase Your
many organizations believe that a salesperson’s time is better Sales, 17th ed., pp.15–20).
Today, a laptop computer loaded with customer data
instantly makes a salesperson highly customer knowledge-
Table 2
able. They have the customer records at hand, their buying
The evolution of the seven steps of selling history, and any personal information they might need.
Traditional seven Transformative Evolved selling
Well-executed CRM systems are adept at providing the
steps of selling factors process means to update any aspect of this customer information at
(1) Prospecting Telemarketing (1) Customer retention and any customer touchpoint (places where customers come in
Internet selling deletion contact with the selling firm). In short, they are the best
Organizational informed of any sales generation in history. Today’s
prospecting salesperson often calls on multiple people (buying center
(2) Preapproach Laptop account data (2) Database and knowledge members) within a firm rather than one traditional purchas-
Support staff management
(3) Approach Build a foundation (3) Nurturing the relationship ing agent, and the salesperson can have as much information
(relationship selling) at hand (electronically) as can be collected. Bottom line: no
(4) Presentation PowerPoint/ (4) Marketing the longer is the preapproach an individual activity—it is now
multimedia product an activity that the home office and staff can help facilitate
Listening
for the salesperson. Preapproach functions are still being
Team selling
Multiple calls conducted, but the amount and quality of information is
Value-added substantially improved over prior years. Technology
Buying centers (including the cell phone, virtual offices, Internet, pagers,
(5) Overcoming Predetermining (5) Problem solving and laptops) has greatly facilitated the preapproach step at
objections needs
the salesperson level.
(6) Close Identifying mutual (6) Adding value/satisfying
goals needs
(7) Follow-up Increased (7) Customer relationship 3.3. Transformation of the approach step
effectiveness of maintenance
communication The traditional approach is based on what tactics the
through technology
salesperson would employ once he/she was in front of the
 W.C. Moncrief, G.W. Marshall / Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13–22 17

customer or potential customer. A shift has occurred to a presentation compared to the traditional way of presenting
broader relationship approach where the salesperson likely to one purchasing agent.
has already developed the foundation of an interpersonal
network within the buying organization and the goal is to 3.5. Transformation of the overcoming objections step
provide more information or solve some existing problem—
that is, provide a solution. Obviously, this approach is easier In this step, the traditional salesperson attempts to
if a relationship already exists. However, in the situations of overcome any reason the customer might have for not
a new buy, the approach still should be foundation based, buying the product and move the customer to the close.
determining the organizational structure, needs, problems, Today’s salesperson through either predetermined needs or
and issues. Because most sales do not occur on the first call multiple calls is attempting to ascertain earlier and more
but rather are a result of multiple calls and contacts with precisely what the customer requires from the product.
multiple people, establishing and building on this founda- Listening and asking questions become key elements of the
tion is what eventually facilitates relationship selling. transformation of the overcoming objections step. A survey
of 215 sales managers from a variety of industries found
3.4. Transformation of the presentation step listening skills is the single most important attribute sought
in new sales recruits (Marshall, Goebel, & Moncrief, 2003).
One of the early presentation styles developed by Although any salesperson wants the successful completion
National Cash Register was the bcanned presentationQ in of a sale, when making multiple calls on a customer the goal
which a script was provided and all salespeople were trained in each call is not necessarily a classic close. Thus
to follow the same basic sales pitch. The advantage was overcoming objections is not necessarily the ultimate goal
consistency among the salespeople, while the obvious of this step.
disadvantage was a lack of flexibility and adaptability.
Traditional presentations consist of a one-on-one buyer– 3.6. Transformation of the close step
seller meeting in which the salesperson provides arguments
for the advantages and attributes of his/her products through The traditional close implied that the salesperson had
presentational systems, such as features-advantages-benefits asked for the order and the customer had either agreed to
(F-A-B). The typical presentation might be five minutes or purchase or had declined. As such, the goal of most
up to an hour. traditional sales calls was the borderQ—the bcompletionQ of
For many salespeople, the presentation step has under- the sale. In terms of transformation, the key goal of this step
gone a substantial transformation. Marshall et al. (1999) has moved beyond simply short-term physical closure to the
found that numerous new sales activities exist related to the successful realization of the mutual goals of both parties to
presentation, including activities such as adaptive selling, the relationship, over the long run. Of course, in many cases,
consultative selling, and value-added selling. Today’s this indeed might include a traditional bclosedQ sale, but
presentations typically are conducted over several meetings, with most customers the relevant closure is the level of
with the salesperson often doing more listening than talking success in achieving whatever the stated mutual goals are at
(Castleberry & Shepherd, 1993; Comer & Drollinger, 1999). this point in the relationship, whatever level of scope and
This is a quite different approach from the canned (or content those goals may represent.
semicanned) presentation. Today’s salesperson must be Firms today focus on lifetime value of a customer. The
prepared to make several sales calls to discover the needs goals to be achieved between seller and buyer must be
of the customer base prior to attempting a sale. mutually beneficial. Developing a long-term relationship
The physical presentation has also undergone a trans- with customers whose ROI is negative is bad business.
formation, spurred on by several factors. First, salespeople
can now use a PowerPoint-type presentation that can been 3.7. Transformation of the follow-up step
easily adapted from call to call. Second, with the use of a
laptop computer, a salesperson can provide much more The traditional follow-up was typically done with a
depth of knowledge that is targeted to a specific customer. A phone call or letter thanking the customer for the sale and
third major transformative factor is the fact that today’s determining if the product was meeting expectations.
presentations often are delivered by a team from the selling Frequently, the salesperson would bdrop byQ to see if any
organization, rather than via the traditional approach of problems were occurring. The key transformative factor
individual salesperson presentations (Deeter-Schmelz & here is increased effectiveness of communication through
Ramsey, 1995; Moon & Armstrong, 1994; Moon & Gupta, technology. Today, email has become a dominant method of
1997; Perry, Pearce, & Sims, 1999). Finally, as mentioned follow-up because of its ease of use and timeliness. The
earlier, more and more sales presentations are made to a salesperson can literally go back to the office (real or
buying center, probably including firm executives, as virtual) and send a quick message that the customer will
opposed to a single purchasing agent. This transformative receive immediately rather than two or three days later.
factor greatly impacts the style and content of the Although the phone is also quick, it is becoming more
18 W.C. Moncrief, G.W. Marshall / Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13–22

difficult to actually get through to the required person. traditional steps. In fact, overreliance on the traditional
Emails are quick and efficient and also allow the customer seven steps today may be counterproductive for many sales
to quickly respond to the salesperson if difficulties arise. In organizations. This is because, taken in sum, the traditional
the era of relationship selling, the follow-up step has gained steps have a distinct lack of customer orientation. The
importance and is also now much quicker and more efficient traditional steps represent more of a sales orientation rather
to execute. than an orientation toward or building customer relation-
ships (Dawson, 1970). Ultimately, they imply a simplicity
and degree of certainty to the sales process that is
4. Evolved selling process deceptively seductive and thus potentially dangerous to
progress toward building relationships.
Although not all sales organizations are involved equally The evolved steps are as follows: (1) customer retention
in all components of the evolved selling process presented and deletion, (2) database and knowledge management, (3)
in this section, as the impact of transformative factors nurturing the relationship (relationship selling), (4) market-
discussed in the prior section grows, more of the processes ing the product, (5) problem solving (also known as
discussed in this section will begin to occur. These evolved consultative or solution selling), (6) adding value/satisfying
bseven steps,Q which importantly unlike the traditional seven needs, and (7) customer relationship maintenance. These
steps are not sequential, are a natural progression from the evolved steps flow directly from the transformative factors
past based on the way business is conducted between sellers for each step as depicted in Table 2 and described in the
and customers today. That is, most modern sales organ- prior section. Because in the transformation sales jobs have
izations, and certainly the vast majority of the Fortune 500 broadened substantially (evidenced by the many new
firms, have moved beyond the traditional seven steps of activities depicted in Table 1), these evolved steps have
selling. And although the traditional seven steps has been a emerged to support that broadened role. As emphasized in
pervasive and convenient paradigm for representing the the prior section, the sales role in many firms is now a
sales function, we are clear that for many (most) firms, it is shared role between salespeople and other firm members.
yesterday’s paradigm. Fig. 1 provides a pictorial representation of the evolved
Supporting this, Marshall et al. (1999) report from selling process, with the center or focus of the execution of
their focus groups of salespeople across multiple indus- each step being the customer. Substantial evidence exists
tries that substantial differences were found in the degree that customer-oriented selling drives firm success today
of bmodernizationQ among the sales forces represented. (Schwepker, 2003).
Many of the salespeople were heavily technology oriented The following discussion introduces each evolved step
while others were basically conducting business as they and describes how it flows from the original seven steps
always had. Some reported numerous changes in sales through the transformative factors.
approaches, with the changes accelerating; others were
surprised at these new changes being reported and claimed 4.1. Customer retention and deletion versus prospecting
that little sales innovation was occurring in their industry.
Not every industry finds selling evolving at the same In today’s business environment, organizations are find-
rate, but it is inevitable that the selling process ultimately ing the old 80:20 rule to be even more of a reality. Eighty
will evolve or else it will become ineffective in the quest for percent of the business is coming from 20% of the customers
business success and survival (Wotruba, 1991). This (or in many cases, an even more skewed ratio). Rather than
concept of an evolutionary pattern can be compared to focusing mainly on prospecting for new customers, sales
Darwin’s theory of natural selection, whereby the species organizations are spending more resources to retain existing
(organizations) that adapt to the changes in the environment profitable, high potential customers. When a customer is
survive, and those that do not adapt cease to exist strategically important to the welfare of the whole selling
(Henderson, 1983; Lampkin & Day, 1989; Wotruba, 1991). organization, it deserves more resources from that organ-
The steps in the traditional seven step selling process are ization (Sengupta et al., 2000). Time spent with successful
sequential and cumulative in that a salesperson starts with established clients has a positive impact on performance,
prospecting and works his/her way through to follow-up. often more so than calling on potential customers (Weeks &
The amount of time or effort in any one step may vary but Kahle, 1990).
the traditional model requires that every step occur. Today, resources are being diverted to provide more
In contrast, the evolved selling process assumes that the service and value-adding assets to key customers. The
salesperson typically will perform the various steps of the salesperson(s) assigned to the customer may spend the
process in some form, but that the steps do not necessarily majority or all of his/her time on the one customer or at a
occur for each sales call. Rather, they occur over time, minimum, a few key customers. Sales organizations are
accomplished by multiple people within the selling firm, finding that the typical bCQ account (small customer) can
and not necessarily in any given sequence. They represent actually cost the organization money. Customer Relation-
various aspects of sales strategy that have replaced the ship Management (CRM) programs talk of bfiringQ custom-
 W.C. Moncrief, G.W. Marshall / Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13–22 19

Fig. 1. Evolved selling process.

ers that show poor long-term potential for return on purchasing, past and present needs, and even the antici-
customer investment (Reichheld, 2001). Often these bCQ pation of what would benefit the customer in the future.
accounts may be deleted as customers, or outsourced to Organizations are spending substantial money and resources
other companies. An outsourced account is still considered building databases that will allow the firm to better serve the
to be a customer of the firm, but for them, selling and related customer base. Salespeople are expected to contribute
activities are performed by other companies—typically knowledge to the database, and in return they also gain
smaller and more specialized sales firms. The parent broad customer knowledge.
organization may not want the negative publicity of giving This capability for enhanced knowledge management has
up customers, particularly long-term customers, but neither been facilitated in part by the increased availability and use
can they afford to invest resources in nonperforming of technology by salespeople. In comparing sales activities
customers. As organizations go through mergers, global from the mid-1980s to today, 25 substantive new uses of
expansion, and downsizing the level of customer attention technology in selling were identified (see Table 1). Whereas
also shifts with some customers getting more emphasis and in the traditional preapproach the salesperson largely
many (most) getting much less attention. worked the phones and perused hard copy customer records
For modern sales organizations, this evolved step is the to prepare for the call, today sales organizations often
antithesis of the traditional prospecting step. Instead of provide extensive in-house assistance with customer
attempting to acquire as many new customers as possible, research, and the knowledge management systems at the
the firm assesses the lifetime value of existing customers salesperson’s disposal are extensive. No question: database
and acquires new customers only when the benefits and knowledge management have made selling more
outweigh the costs of doing business (Reichheld, 2001). professional and made salespeople more relevant to their
Today, many salespeople are not spending much time customers’ businesses.
prospecting, but instead have shifted focus to retaining their
best customers. 4.3. Nurturing the relationship (relationship selling) versus
approach
4.2. Database and knowledge management versus
preapproach Implementing relationship selling requires that the selling
activities be directed toward building partnerships with key
Much of marketing and sales strategy today revolves customers (Johnston & Marshall, 2003). This method may
around the construction, maintenance, and use of database require salespeople and sales organizations to change much
marketing (Swift, 2001). This is the cyber version of the old of the way they perform the selling function and the way they
preapproach, because today’s the organization has broad reward their salespeople (Leigh & Marshall, 2001). Relation-
customer knowledge, including a complete history of ship selling requires that the sales force focus on the long
20 W.C. Moncrief, G.W. Marshall / Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13–22

term and not simply focus on closing the next sale (Bever- Salespeople within the evolved selling process are still
land, 2001), a contrast to much of the history of selling. A conduits of information within the selling firm, just as they
long-term, customer-oriented focus places important new are conduits of information to the customer base. The
responsibilities on the sales organization. The conduct, difference from the traditional presentation step lies in the
activities, and behavior of the salesperson personify how the methods of delivery and the emphasis on conducting more
organization regards its customer base. Therefore, in many of the marketing function at the salesperson level.
respects, the success of the firm as a whole depends on the
success of the salesperson (Williams & Attaway, 1996). 4.5. Problem solving versus overcoming objections
In the traditional seven steps, the approach step was about
finding the best way to open a dialogue with the customer or The goal of the traditional step of overcoming objections
potential customer. The key transformative factors for this is to uncover the true reason(s) why the customer was
step focused on building a foundation to serve as a hesitating to close the sale. Reasons may include a lack of
springboard to relationship selling. In the more evolved information, a dislike for the person, product, or price, or an
selling process, the goal is not to decide what approach unwillingness to make a decision. Traditionally, the goal of
method might be best; rather, it is to provide the best long- the salesperson has been to satisfy the customer regarding
term customer service, a shift in focus that can only occur if their objections.
relationships are already established. Organizations are now The key transformative factor in overcoming objections is
experimenting with a variety of methods to enhance the the shift to predetermining many of the needs of customers,
relationships with their suppliers and customer base (Cannon allowing for an evolved process of selling focused (in many
& Perreault, 1999). Within this modern paradigm, the customer relationships) on problem solving via the imple-
traditional bapproachQ step is relatively inconsequential mentation of a consultative selling approach. In consultative
because the relationship must already be in development. selling, also referred to as bsolution sellingQ or bselling
solutions,Q the salesperson is not focusing so much on
4.4. Marketing the product versus presentation overcoming objections but rather on serving as a
bconsultantQ to work with the customer to identify problems,
The traditional role of the salesperson in this step of determine needs, and propose and implement effective
selling was to plan and physically make a presentation to solutions (Bosworth, 1995; Rackham & DeVincentis,
the customer, typically in a one-on-one interaction. The 1999). Many times, this will mean that the product originally
relevant transformative factors consist of buying and selling proposed turns out to be inappropriate and/or that work
teams, a variety of different philosophical approaches to needs to be done via product modifications.
selling, and multiple sales calls to reach a decision. These The philosophy underlying consultative selling is funda-
factors have led to an evolved selling process in which mentally different from that of merely overcoming objec-
salespeople have become more engaged in marketing tions. The goal is not necessarily an immediate sale but
(Leigh & Marshall, 2001). One of the issues facing sales rather the enhancement of the relationship based on win–
and marketing organizations today is the degree of win solutions. Fundamentally, in the evolved selling
separation or inclusion between the marketing and sales process, the mind-set of a salesperson should be that of a
functions. Sales personnel are becoming more involved in valued partner with his/her customers, and the feeling
functions that traditionally have been under marketing’s should be mutual. To the degree this is in place, overcoming
purview (Cespedes, 1995). The role of the salesperson is objections becomes moot (Bosworth, 1995).
expanding to participate in strategic marketing activities,
such as market segmentation, product development, market 4.6. Adding value/satisfying needs versus close
development, and diversification as well as traditional sales
activities that complement or support marketing activities Need satisfaction is a key goal of the evolved selling
(e.g., database management, providing and analyzing process. This may mean multiple sales calls to bcloseQ one
market information, hiring and training, and assessing deal. Or it may mean providing totally new solutions to a
market segments; Leigh & Marshall, 2001). customer’s problems. Overall, the sales organization (and
In the evolved selling process, salespeople still make salesperson) must add value to the customer’s enterprise.
presentations, but a presentation is not necessarily the This realization provides additional impetus for sales and
primary function of the sales call. Much of the information marketing becoming more closely aligned within a firm. A
that can be gleaned by a customer from a presentation is customer need that is satisfied efficiently and effectively
now being delivered through Web pages, national advertis- through value-added selling means continual business
ing, and continual updates of materials from the selling firm. (repeat purchase), and hopefully customer loyalty (Rackham
An email today with attachments can give the customer up- & DeVincentis, 1999).
to-date information on many issues in a quicker, more The key transformative factor that has led to this change
comprehensive, and more time-convenient manner than from traditional emphasis on bclosing the saleQ is the
most face-to-face interactions. identification of mutual goals between the seller and
 W.C. Moncrief, G.W. Marshall / Industrial Marketing Management 34 (2005) 13–22 21

customer. Throughout the evolved selling process, the seller seven steps of selling may have lost much of its power as
and customer are actually working in tandem toward mutual the received view upon which to build training programs
success. In this atmosphere, the bcloseQ is often quite and anchor an organization’s overall sales philosophy.
anticlimactic—almost an afterthought as both parties gear This is not to say that the traditional framework is no
up for their next consultative encounter. Win–win relation- longer at all relevant. Clearly, industries exist that still rely
ships built on customer satisfaction and added value do not on the traditional seven steps, but most sales organizations
require a closing technique to bring the parties together in in these industries do not rely primarily on repeat sales. In
agreement. addition, many salespeople are still active who were trained
on the traditional seven steps process and find it difficult to
4.7. Customer relationship maintenance versus follow-up give up this approach (even if their own organization and
customers are evolving).
As mentioned in the earlier section on transformation of In this article, we have reviewed the seven steps process
the follow-up step, this traditional selling step is probably and presented a set of transformative factors that has led
the most similar to its counterpart in the evolved selling (and will continue to lead) to an evolved nonsequential sales
process. The change is owed primarily to increased process that reflects a changed organizational philosophy
efficiency and effectiveness of communication through toward selling and customer relationships. The evolved
technology. Follow-up has typically implied that the sales- process has occurred primarily because of a shift from a
person sent letters of thanks for the business or made an selling orientation to a customer orientation by many firms.
occasional phone call or visit to determine if the product This customer orientation requires a differing set of sales
was still working well for the customer. Customer relation- strategies. The evolved selling process assumes that the
ship maintenance implies that the selling firm has assigned, salesperson and/or others within the firm perform steps in
on an ongoing basis, an individual or a team to truly the process with the center or focus of execution of each
maintain all aspects of the business relationship. This may step being the customer. The individual steps do not occur
be the salesperson him-/herself, or it may be turned over to on each sales call. Rather, the steps occur over time and
others. This approach to follow-up, in turn, implies nonsequentially.
continual service, even more consultative sales calls, and With this change, one of the oldest and best known sales
generally more of a business-building approach versus a paradigms has transformed and evolved into a new 21st
postsale problem-handling focus. Sales organizations are century approach, an approach that relies on the premise that
currently altering their control and reward systems to the organization as a whole will be focused on securing,
account for this shift toward a more ongoing customer developing, and maintaining long-term relationships with
relationship maintenance approach to doing business profitable customers.
(Ingram et al., 2002).

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