Unit I I: Information Systems in Business Functions
Unit I I: Information Systems in Business Functions
Unit I I: Information Systems in Business Functions
OBJECTIVES:
1) identify various business functions and the role of ISs in these functions;
4) explain how information technology is used in the most common business
functions to make business processes more effective and more efficient;
UNIT III
INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN BUSINESS FUNCTIONS
In an economy that produces and consumes so much information, manager must know how to
use information systems in virtually every business activity. Managers must have an overall
understanding of all elements of a system, so that they know what options are available to control
quality, costs, and the sues of resources. Without information, none of these activities or the decision
making that underlies management is possible. Practically the only tool to handle this important
resource is information technology, which is used in a broad range of business functions across
different industries.
The telephones at the offices of Capital One Financial Corp., a leading credit card issuer, ring
more than a million times per week. Card holders call to ask about their balance or to ensure that the
company received their recent payment. While callers almost immediately hear a human voice at the
other end, computers actually do the initial work. The computers use the caller’s telephone number
to search the company’s huge databases. Inferring from previous calls and numerous recorded
credit-card transactions of the caller, the computer predict the reason for calling. Based on the
assumed reason, the computer channels the call to one of 50 employees who can best handle the
situation. On the computer monitor of that employee, the computer brings up important information
about the caller. Although callers usually do not contact the company to make purchases, the
computer also brings up information about what the caller may want to purchase. As soon as the
customer service representative provides the caller with satisfactory answers, he or she also offers the
cardholder special sales. Many callers do indeed purchase the offered merchandise. All of these
steps—accepting the call, reviewing and analyzing the data, routing the call, and recommending
merchandise—take the computers a mere one tenth of a second. It is often said that the use of
information technology makes our work more effective, more efficient, or both. What do these terms
mean? Effectiveness defines the degree to which a goal is achieved. Thus, a system is more or less
effective depending upon (1) how much of its goal it achieves and (2) the degree to which it achieves
better outcomes than other systems do. Efficiency is determined by the relationship between
resources expended and the benefits gained in achieving a goal. Expressed mathematically.
Efficiency = Benefits/Costs
Thus, one system is more efficient than another if its operating costs are lower for the same or
better quality product, or if its product’s quality is greater for the same or lower costs. The term
productivity is commonly used as a synonym for efficiency. However, productivity specially refers to
the efficiency of human resources. Productivity improves when fewer workers are required to
produce the same amount of output, or, alternately, when the same number of workers produces a
large output. This is why IS professionals often speak of “productivity tool,” which are software
applications that help worker produce more in less time. The closer the result of an effort is to the
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ultimate goal, the more effective the effort. The fewer the resources spent on achieving a goal, the
more efficient the effort.
ISs contribute to both the effectiveness and efficiency of businesses, especially when positioned
in specific functions, such as accounting, finance, and engineering, and when used to help companies
achieve their goals more quickly by facilitating collaborative work. ISs can be used in a wide variety of
applications. They can automate manual processes such as painting cars; they can make innovative
products and services accessible, such as Web-based customer services available 24 hours per day,
365 days per year; they can shorten routine processes, such as issuing purchase orders; and they can
improve an organization’s strategic position, such as establishing a Web site for selling products
directly to the consumers before the competition does.
The discussion addresses the role of information system, one business function at a time.
Organizing the information this way does not take full advantage of IT, but most businesses do
operate many ISs separately; one for engineering, one for marketing, one for finance, and so on.
Usually, they do this because systems developed at different times for different business functions are
often incompatible in hardware, software, data sharing, and the like. Business functions do in fact,
have substantial information interdependencies. Systems thinking tell us that, ideally, ISs supporting
different functions would connect so that information in one system flows into another accurately
and without delay. For example, a business can develop information from market research to define
design requirements for products, and the sales force can then use the information to sell the
products.
ACCOUNTING
The purpose of accounting is to track every financial transaction within a company, from dollar
to multimillion dollar purchases, from salaries to benefits, to sales of every item. Without tracking
the costs of labor, materials, and purchased services using a cost-accounting system, a company may
discover too late that it sells products below what it costs to make them. Without a system of
accounts receivable, managers may not know who owes the company how much money and when it
is due. Without an accounts payable system, managers cannot know how much money the company
owes each supplier and when payment is due. Without a system that records and helps plan cash
flow, managers cannot keep enough cash in the bank to make payments on schedule. At the year’s
end, the company cannot present a picture of its financial position—called the balance sheet—and a
profit and loss report, unless it maintains a general ledger to record every transaction with a financial
impact.
Accounting was among the earliest business functions to embrace IT. Virtually all businesses in
the industrialized world use IT for accounting. General ledger, accounts receivable, accounts payable,
and cash-flow books conveniently lend themselves to computerization and can easily generate
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balance sheets and profit and loss statements from records. There are also systems to manage capital
investments.
Accounting ISs are also used extensively for managerial purposes, assisting in organizing
quarterly and annual budgets for departments, divisions, and entire corporations. The same systems
help managers control their budgets by tracking income and expense in real time and comparing
them with the amounts predicted in the budget.
FINANCE
A firm’s health is often measured by its finances, and ISs can significantly improve financial
management. The goal of financial managers, including controllers and treasurers, is to manage an
organization’s money as efficiently as possible. They achieve this goal by (1) collecting payables as
soon as possible, (2) making payments at the latest time allowed by contract or law, (3) ensuring that
sufficient funds are available for day-to-day operations, and (4) taking advantage of opportunities to
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accrue the highest yield on funds not used for current activities. These goals can be best met by
careful cash management and investment analysis.
Cash Management
Financial information systems help managers track a company’s finances. These systems record
every payment and cash receipt to reflect cash movement, employ budgeting software to tack plans
for company finances, and include capital investment systems to manage investments, thus balancing
the need to accrue interest on idle money against the need to have cash available. Systems that deal
specifically with cash are often called cash management systems (CMSs). One common use for a
CMS is to execute cash transactions in which financial institutions transfer huge amounts of money
using electronic funds transfer (EFT). EFT is the electronic transfer of cash from an account in
one bank to an account in another bank. It is used in more than $300 billion of transactions daily in
New York City alone and twice the amount throughout the U.S.
A growing number of companies (and individuals) do their banking through the Web: applying
for credit, paying bills, transferring funds from one corporate account to another, and executing
other common banking operations. Online banking saves time by reducing the time financial
managers spend on the phone and in face-to-face visits with bank officers. Observers expect the
number to grow in the near future.
Every investor’s goal is to buy an asset and later sell it for more than its cost. When investing in
securities, such as stocks and bonds, it is important to know the prices of securities in real time, that
is, “right now.” The ability of financial ISs to record millions of security prices and their changes over
long time periods, coupled with the ability to manipulate numbers using software, puts powerful
analysis tools in investment managers’ hands. Within seconds, an investment analyst can use financial
IS and chart prices of a specific stock or bond over a given period and then build models to estimate
what may happen to stock prices in the future.
Some financial services would simply impossible without IT. Consider the money-market
accounts millions of businesses use to manage investments. These businesses can invent extra cash in
securities only because all records are connected through an IS, so that any amount of investment
can be liquidated by simply writing a check. The managing bank redeems an amount of securities
held in the company’s account to cover the check. The system can also automatically generate a
combined statement of deposits, investments, and liquidations. Without ISs and telecommunications
networks, this transaction would take days rather than seconds, as it indeed did until the late 1970s.
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Within seconds, ISs now provide subscriber brokers with news, in addition to stock prices,
commodity prices, and currency exchange rates from multiple locations across the world. Consider
what happens when a foreign currency’s exchange rate fluctuates a fraction of a percent. A brokerage
house can make a profit of several thousand dollars within two minutes of buying and selling several
million dollars’ worth of foreign currency. Information technology has enabled many smaller
companies to enter the arena.
Financial managers need consider many factors. In the past, evaluating more than one or two at a
time was difficult. Now, financial ISs provide new tools for visualizing decision-making factors in
three-dimensional graphics. Managers at financial institutions such as insurance companies find these
tools useful in managing their portfolios of stocks, bonds, and other commercial papers. Some of the
most important factors these financiers must consider are (1) risk, measured as the variability (degree
of change) of the paper’s past yield, (2) expected return, and (3) liquidity, a measure of how fast an
investment can be turned into cash. Special programs help calculate these factors and present the
results either in tables or graphs.
ENGINEERING
The time between generating an idea for a product and completing a prototype that can be
mass-manufactured is devoted to engineering and is known as a engineering lead time, or
time-to-market. Engineering includes brainstorming, developing a concept, creating mock-ups,
building prototypes, testing, and other activities that require investments of time, labor, and money.
Minimizing this time is the key to maintaining a competitive edge: it leaves competitors insufficient
time to introduce their own products first. Changes over the past two decades in the automotive
industry indicate how ISs can contribute significantly to this effort. Over the past decade, automakers
have used ISs mostly in engineering to reduce the time from product concept to market from seven
to two years.
IT’s greatest contribution to engineering is in the area of computer-aided design (CAD) and
rapid prototyping (created one-of-a-kind products to test design in three dimensions). Instead of
using the traditional paper and pencil, engineers and technicians can use computers to quickly modify
and store drawings electronically. With groupware software, they perform much this process in
collaboration: engineers can conduct remote conferences while viewing and developing plans and
drawings together. Sophisticated systems then allow manufacturing departments to feed the data of
the electronic drawings into computerized numeric control (CNC) machines that take the data
and create instructions that tell robots how to manufacture and assemble prototypes. Ultimately,
engineers can design the manufacturing process directly from the original drawings, a process that
was enormously time-consuming in the past.
One example of applying IT to make engineering more precise and the engineering process more
efficient is the design and manufacture of the Boeing 777 aircraft, unveiled in 1994. Executives from
various airline companies (the potential buyers of the aircraft) gave Boeing engineers valuable
information for its design. For instance, the airline company input led Boeing to reposition overhead
bins so they are low enough for short passengers to access, but high enough so tall passengers don’t
hit their heads. Boeing designed every component and system—from toilet seats to fold-up
wings—using computer-aided systems. This high-tech approach eliminated the extremely time
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consuming and expensive step of building a wooden model of the full-sized plane to verify that all
systems worked together and that the aircraft could, in fact, be constructed. With the new
computerized system, Boeing enjoyed 20 percent fewer manufacturing errors.
Manufacturing is the processing of raw materials into physical products. Manufacturing is more
complex to manage than most services because, in addition to customers and personnel, it involves
elements with which the service sector does not deal: purchasing and warehousing raw materials and
running production and assembly lines. Probably the most important IT achievement in
manufacturing is improved agility, which is a company’s ability to adjust its manufacturing process in
real time to meet both market and manufacturing demands. ISs have been instrumental in reducing
manufacturing costs, including the costs of managing resources and controlling inventory.
One area of manufacturing that has experienced the greatest improvement from IS is inventory
control, or materials requirement planning (MRP). Traditional inventory control techniques
operated according to the basic principle that future inventory needs are based on past use: once used
up, inventory was replaced. By contrast, replenishment in MRP based on future need, calculated by
MRP software from demand forecasts. MRP programs take customer demand as their initial input.
The main input to MRP programs is the number of product units needed and the time at which they
are needed; the programs then work back to calculate the amounts of resources required to produce
subparts and assemblies. The programs use long-range forecasts to put long-lead material an order.
Other important input to MRP applications includes a list of all raw materials and subcomponent
demands (called the bill of materials, or BOM) and the economic order quantity of different raw
materials. The economic order quantity (EOQ) of a specific raw material is the optimal quantity
that allows a business to minimize overstocking and save cost, without risking under stocking and
missing production deadlines. A special program calculates EOQ. It considers several factors: the
item’s cost, the discount schedule for large quantities, the cost of warehousing ordered parts, the cost
of alternate uses of the money (such as the interest the money could earn had it not been spent on
inventory), and other factors affecting the cost of ordering the item. Some MRP applications are tied
to a purchasing IS, to automatically produce purchase orders when the quantity on hand reaches a
reorder level. The purchase order includes the economic order quantity.
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MPR II systems help balance production economies, customer demands, manufacturing capacity,
and inventory levels over a planning horizon of several months. MRP II systems have made a
significant contribution to just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, where suppliers ship parts directly to
assembly lines, saving the cost of warehousing raw materials, parts, and subassemblies.
Ideally, the ISs of manufacturing organizations and their suppliers would link in a way that makes
them subsystems of one large system. The MRP II application of an organization that manufactures a
final product would plan and dictate the items required, their quantities, and the exact times they are
needed at the assembly lines. Suppliers would ship items directly to assembly lines just before they
are incorporated into the final product (hence the term just-in-time manufacturing). Manufacturing
organizations have not yet reached the point where JIT is accomplished with every product, but they
have made great progress toward this ideal.
The Internet facilitates such system linking. Companies that were quick to link their systems to
their suppliers’ systems attained strategic advantages. One such company is Cisco Systems, a world
leader in design and manufacturing of telecommunications devices. The company used to maintain
many manufacturing plants. By 2001 it had sold all but two. The company’s ISs are linked through
the Internet to the ISs of its suppliers, some of whom purchased the very plants that Cisco sold.
Through these systems managers can track orders. They can tell Cisco clients the exact status of their
orders at the time of delivery. Cisco managers keep track of the products they order and know at
what phase of the manufacturing and delivery each item is—as if they were running the
manufacturing plants. Over 80 percent of what Cisco orders never pass through the company’s
facilities; the manufacturers ship the products directly to Cisco’s clients.
MRP and MRP II systems are designed to plan for manufacturing, not control it. That is, they
are fed information on the current situation: expected demand, EOQs, and the production capacity
of each machine in the production line. But some of the current situation can still be improved. The
production manager should ask: Is the maximum capacity of Machine A really just x units per
month? What are the bottlenecks in the line? Manufacturing execution systems (MESs) help
answer these questions. Their purpose is to track, schedule, and control manufacturing processes.
These systems collect data such as the number of hours the machine operates every day of the
month, the number of hours the machine lies idle, and the reasons. Analyzing this data can pinpoint
problems that can sometimes be easily resolved.
No commercial organization can survive without selling its products or services. Thus,
businesses seek to provide products that consumers want and to entice them to buy what they
produce. They exert marketing efforts to pinpoint demographic groups that are most likely to buy
products, to determine features that consumers desire the most, and to provide the most efficient
and effective ways to execute a sale when a consumer shows interest in the product or service.
Because these efforts depend mainly on the analysis of huge amounts of data, ISs have become key
tools to conceiving and executing marketing strategies. When marketing succeeds, ISs support the
sales effort; to entice customers to continue to purchase, ISs support customer service.
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Market Research
Few organizations can sell their products and services without promotion; fewer still can
promote successfully without market research. Market research system help to find the populations
and regions that are most likely to purchase a new product or service. They also help to analyze how
a new product fares in its first several months on the market.
Through interviews with consumers and retailers, market researchers collect information on what
consumers like and dislike about products. When the researchers collect sufficient data, the
marketing department uses statistical models to predict sales volumes of different products and of
different designs of the same product. This critical information aids in planning manufacturing
capacities and production lines. It is also extremely important for budgeting purposes.
Many companies have enthusiastically embraced the opportunity to collect consumer data via the
Web. Consumers provide valuable personal data in return for Web-based services or participation in
sweepstakes. Special software programs track and record the click stream (the sequence of mouse
clicks a person executes when browsing a site) of online shoppers. The advantage of this data
collection method is not only its low cost but also is electronic form. Records are automatically
routed into databases, from which they are later retrieved for analysis.
Targeted Marketing
To save resources, businesses use IT to promote to people most likely to purchase their products
(called targeted marketing). Great advances in database technology enable even the smallest and
poorest business to use targeted marketing. The principle of targeted marketing is to define the
prospective customer as accurately as possible and then to direct promotional dollars only to those
people most likely to purchase your product. Perhaps the best evidence of how much companies use
ISs for targeted marketing is the huge amount of promotional mail—usually called “junk mail”—we
receive daily. While many people hate to receive junk mail, commercial organizations know that it is
one of the least costly and most effective means to market their products and services. Many
organizations also use the Internet for mass communication of their promotional e-mail, in a practice
called “spamming.” Many people loath spamming, but it is certainly one of the least expensive
methods of advertising.
To define their target, businesses collect data everywhere they can: from sales transactions and
warranty cards, or by purchasing databases with information about organizations and individuals.
Using database management systems(DBMS), special programs to build and manipulate data pools, a
company can sort and categorize names by age, gender, income, previous purchase of related
product, or any combination of these facts and other demographic information. The company then
selects those whose characteristics match the company’s customer profile and spends its promotional
dollars to try to sell to those select customers.
The great amount of personal information that corporations collect and purchase lets them
prepare electronic dossiers on the interests, tastes, and buying habits of individuals. The information
they posses lets them target “a market one,” namely, an individual rather than a group. Some
marketing experts like to call this 1:1 (one-to-one) marketing. Because obtaining and manipulating
the information has become inexpensive, and the marketing applications so affordable, targeting “a
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market of one” is now economical in some industries, especially financial services. In addition,
software companies use information they collect from printed and online registration forms to create
a profile of typical software each consumer uses. They encourage customers to provide registration
information to receive help, service, and, often, rebates. The vendor later sends promotional material
via ground mail or e-mail only to those customers whose profiles indicate potential interest.
The Web has been used to hone this practice even further. Using special software, companies
that offer shopping and related purchase services through their Web sites can track the click stream
to compile a purchasing profile. Numerous online retailers use this technique to promote sales by
sending e-mail to people who’s shopping and purchasing profiles are a good match. Furthermore,
special software presents lists of new items for sale that are generated specifically for an individual
visiting the site.
Telemarketing (marketing over the telephone) makes much use of IT. The telemarketer uses a
PC connected to a large database. The database contains records of potential or existing customers.
With a retrieved record displayed on the screen, a marketer dials the number by pressing a single key
or clicking the mouse. The telemarketer speaks to the potential buyer while looking at that person’s
purchasing record with the organization or even other organizations. Universities and charitable
organizations use the same method to solicit donations. Although not targeted marketing, marketing
via television also information technology. When you call to order an item that has just been
advertised on your TV, a computer most likely takes your order. All you need to do is press keys on
your phone, following the computer’s instructions.
Computer telephony integration (CTI) is a technique allowing computer to use the digital signal
coming through a telephone line as input in a computer system. It has been used often in marketing,
sales, and customer service. For example, some mail-order firms use caller ID to better serve their
customers. Caller ID was originally intended to identify the telephone number from which a person
calls, but mail-order businesses quickly found a new use for the gadget. They connect it to their
customer database. When you call to order, a simple program searches for your number, retrieves
your record, and displays it on a PC monitor. You may be surprised when the person who receives
your call greets you by name and later asks if you want to use the same credit-card number you used
in your last purchase.
For several decades, radio and television were marketing’s only non-print media. Now, the
household computer has become a means of promoting products. In the mid-1980s, several
companies, especially in the auto industry, started to develop disk programs with information on
their products, usually called promotional disk. Companies send the disk to previous buyers and
other prospective customers to examine on their personal computers.
While some companies still mass-mail these disks, most now use the Internet for the same purpose.
Users are attracted from one Web site to another through banners and icons that serve as links to
other sites. E-mail messages containing attractive graphics and animations provide links to
commercial Web sites. While a television commercial can keep a viewer’s attention for an average of
30 seconds, Web sites keep visitors for several minutes. Also, a 30-second television commercial
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costs many times more than does an informative Web page laced with attractive graphics, animation,
and online games.
Use of information technology for target marketing has taken the boldest forms on the Web.
Special software on the servers of online retailers keeps track of every visit consumers make and
captures their click streams and the amount of time they spend viewing each page. They combine this
information with information from online purchases to personalize the pages whenever consumers
revisit the site. The reconstructed page introduces information about the products that the individual
visitor is most likely to purchase.
Commercial announcements pervade the Web. Sites that have nothing to do with marketing
often place advertisements for other companies for a fee. Web surfers who reach these sites cannot
avoid seeing them. Interactive software lets surfers receive several levels of information on products
and services and, if they wish, purchase them immediately. For a decade, PC sales have exceeded
television sales and the average time spent online by Web users is increasing constantly. Marketing
executives cannot ignore this great potential.
To grasp the Web’s great potential for marketing, consider the growth of purchases online.
According to a report published by the National Retail Foundation, online spending by consumers
rose from $3 billion in January 2000 to $3.4 billion in February 2001. The numbers of households
buying online increased by 200,000 to 13.5 million, while the average monthly spending per person
increased from $229 to $248. These numbers continue to grow steadily.
Sales force automation is equipping traveling salespeople with information technology to
facilitate their productivity. Typically, salespeople are equipped with notebook computers that store
promotional information for prospective customers, software for manipulating this information, and
computerized forms. In recent years, many salespeople started carrying handheld computers, also
called palm computers. Sales force automation can increase sales productivity significantly, making
sales presentations more efficient and letting field representatives close deals on the spot, using
preformatted contracts and forms.
Information technology lets salespeople present different options for products and services on
the computer, rather than asking prospective customers to wait until the main office faxes or mails
the information. At the end of the day or the week, salespeople can upload sales information to a
computer at the main office, where it is raw input to the order processing department, the
manufacturing unit, or the shipping and invoicing department. In the past, transmitting such
information to the office required the use of dial-up through a physical telephone line. Now, many
salespeople use wireless communication, which allows them to send the information from almost
anywhere.
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Using personal digital assistants (PDAs) that connect to the Internet wirelessly enables
salespeople to check prices, check availability of the items in which a customer is interested, and
place an order away from the office. The salespeople can then spend much more time on the road,
increasing time spent with prospective customers, and they can place the order faster.
Corporations regard customer service as an important part of their overall marketing and sales
effort. With growing competition and so many options available to consumers, keeping customers
satisfied is extremely important. Many executives will tell you that their companies do not make
money (and may even lose money) on a first sale to a customer because of the great investment in
marketing. Thus, they use customer service and other techniques to ensure repeat sales and to
encourage customer loyalty.
To better serve customers and learn of their changing needs, companies use customer
relationship management (CRM) applications. The applications help track past purchases and
payments, update online answer to frequently asked questions (FAQs) about products and services,
and analyze customers’ contracts with the company to maintain and update an electronic customer
profile. As the Web evolved into an important vehicle for commercial activity, companies have
endeavored to automate much of the relationship with customers so that they can help themselves,
save company resources, still receive accurate answers to their questions and obtain faster service.
Web-based customer service provides automated customer support 24 hours per day, 365 days per
year. At the same time, it saves companies the cost of labor required when humans provide the same
service. Letting customers pay their bills electronically also saves (both customers and companies) the
cost of postage and paper and saves the company time dealing with paper documents. AirTouch, the
large provider of cellular phone services, saves $24.5 million per year because 10 percent of its
customers pay bills online. Observers predict that a growing number of consumers prefer to pay their
bills this way.
HUMAN RESOURCES
Human resource (HR) management has become more complex due to the fast growth in
specialized occupations, the need to train and promote highly skilled employees, and the growing
variety of benefit programs. Human resource management can be classified into five main activities:
(1) employee record management, (2) promotion and recruitment, (3) training, (4) evaluation, and (5)
compensation and benefits management.
ISs easily facilitate employee record management. Human resource department must keep
personnel records to satisfy both external regulations (such as federal and state laws) and internal
regulations, as well as for payroll and tax calculation deposit, promotion consideration, and periodic
reporting. Many HR ISs are now completely digitized (including employees’ pictures), which
dramatically reduces the space needed to store records, the time needed to retrieve them, and the cost
of both.
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Promotion and Recruitment
To select the best qualified person for a position, a human resource manager can search a
database of applicants and existing employees’ records for set criteria, such as a specific type and
length of education, particular experience, specific talents, and required licenses or certifications.
Automating the selection process significantly minimizes time and money spent on recruitment but
does require the current database be maintained.
Intranets (intra-organization networks that support Web applications) help HR managers post
position vacancy announcements for employees to peruse and consider from their own PCs. This
system is especially efficient in large organizations that employ thousands of workers, and even more
so at multisite organizations.
The more common way to recruit people for new positions is to communicate with the general
population, for instance, through classified ads. The most dynamic development in this arena is
recruiting on the Web. Search companies have set up Web sites that let potential candidates post
their resumes in their databases. Using keywords, recruiting consultants can then use special software
to scour the databases for the most qualified candidates. HR consultants say that this process reduces
the time spent on a typical search from several hours to several minutes.
The Web has prompted many companies to e-recruit, making much of the recruiting process
electronic. Consider Humana, Inc., a health-care provider with annual revenues of $7.8 billion. In
1999, the company started using software that searches the Web for resumes and then matches
qualified candidates with job openings. The company then uses a tracking system to e-mail
candidates while updating the corporate HR databases with their resumes. Adopting this approach
cut the cost of processing a qualifying resume from $128 to a mere six cents. Overall, the new
process saves Humana $8.3 million annually and more effectively forecasts the fit of candidates
tracked through the recruiting system.
Training
One important function of human resource departments is improving employee skills. In both
the manufacturing and service sectors, multimedia software training is rapidly replacing training
programs involving classrooms and teachers. Such applications include interactive, three-dimensional
simulated environments. Some applications contain full-blown virtual reality components. For
example, one such application trains workers to make wrought-iron parts that must be hammered
manually. The worker wears special goggles and holds a hammer in one hand and a piece of metal in
the other, over an anvil. The worker “sees” the metal piece through the goggles, “hears” the hitting
sound through earphones, and receives a programmed, realistic jolt every time he “hits” the metal.
This safety prepares the worker for the dangerous work instead of putting him at risk for injury
before he has enough experience to do the actual work. Although the initial investment in multimedia
training systems may be high, human resource managers find the system very effective.
Training software emulates situations in which an employee must act and includes tests and
modules to evaluate a trainee’s performance. In addition to saving a trainers’ time, there are other
benefits. The trainee is more comfortable because he or she controls the speed at which the sessions
run. The software lets the trainee go back to a certain point in the session if a concept is missed.
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Also, the software can emulate hazardous situations, thereby testing employee performance in a safe
environment. And if training in a real environment involves destruction of equipment or
consumption of materials, virtual reality training applications accomplish the same results in skill
enhancement without destruction or waste.
Developments in IT enable organizations to dramatically reduce training costs. Consider CVS,
one of the largest U.S. drugstore chains. The company has 17,000 employees it calls “technicians,”
whom it trains continually. The technicians must pass exams to be promoted. In 2000, the company
installed PCs at its 400 training sites where technicians could take courses, review, and take exams
during breaks or after work. The average cost per trainee was $50. Then, the company put the
training materials on CD-ROMs. More than 80 percent of the trainees took the CDs home, so they
could learn at their convenience. This approach reduced the average cost per employee to $15. In fall
of 2001, the company moved the training materials and exams to a central Web site. Employees can
now personalize learning: using a Web browser, they can find the materials they need, bookmark
selected Web pages, leave the training sessions when they wish, and come back to finish it later.
When they do finish a training session, they can take certification tests. Their completed tests are
then fed into a database at corporate headquarters so that managers can track who is ready to be
promoted. The move to the Web reduced the average training cost per employee to $5.
Evaluation
One of the difficult, and often unpleasant, tasks of supervisors is the periodic evaluation of
technical ability, communication skills, professional conduct, and general behavior of employees on
the job. While objective factors are involved in evaluation—such as attendance rates and
punctuality—employee evaluation is often very subjective. Assessing performance and effort levels,
and their relative weights of importance, varies significantly, depending upon who is evaluating. A
supervisor may forget to include some factors altogether or may inappropriately weigh a particular
aspect of performance. Subjectivity is particularly problematic when several employees are being
considered for a promotion, and their evaluations are compared to determine the strongest candidate.
By helping to standardize the evaluation process across employees and departments, evaluation
software adds a certain measure of objectivity and consistency.
In an evaluation, a supervisor provides feedback to an employee, records the evaluation for
official records and future comparison, and accepts input from the employee. Software helps
managers standardize their employee evaluations by providing step-by-step guides to writing
performance reviews, a checklist of performance areas to include in the evaluation (with the option
to add or remove topics), scales to indicate how strong the employees is in each area, and the ability
to select the relative importance each factor should hold in the overall evaluation. Performance areas
include written and oral communication, job knowledge, and management skills, with each topic
broken down into basic elements to assist the supervisor in creating an accurate evaluation. Atypical
application guides the user through all necessary factors and includes a help guide. When the
evaluator finishes entering the data, the application automatically computes a subtotal for each
category and weighted grade, which can then be electronically stored as part of the employee’s
record.
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ISs help HR officers manage compensation (salaries, hourly pay, commissions, and bonuses)
efficiently and effectively. Programs can easily calculate weekly, monthly, and hourly pay according to
annual salaries and can include federal, state, and local tax tables to assist in complying with
compensation regulations. This same system can also automatically generate paychecks or direct
deposits, which are electronic transfers of funds from the firm’s bank account to the employee’s.
Special software helps the HR department manage benefits, such as health insurance, life
insurance, retirement plans, and sick and leave days, which are determined by seniority, amounts
individuals pay into programs, and other factors. To optimize benefits, some companies use special
software, incorporating expert systems (ISs that emulate human expertise) that determine the optimal
health and retirement plans for each employee based on factors such as marital status, age,
occupation, and other data.
Using intranets, many organizations allow their employees to access the benefits database directly
and make changes to their preferences, such as selecting another health-care insurance program, or
adding a family member as a beneficiary in an insurance plan. By making the changes directly from
their PCs, employees reduce the amount of work of the HR staff and reduce the company’s overhead
costs.
In recent years, many corporations have opted to replace their disparate ISs with a single
integrated system. Rather than using an IS, or several ISs, in each business function, all business
functions are served by one system that supports different activities for different departments. Such
systems are often called enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. Although these systems do
help in planning, their main focus is to help run the different functions, therefore, their more
accurate name is enterprise applications, but ERP is their more popular name.
Designers of ERP systems take a systems approach to an enterprise. They regard all business
processes, such as purchasing, manufacturing, shipping, and billing, as a chain of main and
supporting activities. The chain is often called a supply chain; therefore, ERP systems are said to
support supply chain management. For example, the MRP II component of the system uses the
information recorded on a sale to retrieve product specifications; the data are use to generate
purchasing information such as items, quantities and the timetable for suppliers to deliver for the
purchasing department. As products are manufactured, the system tracks the stages of the
work-in-progress. When items are ready to be shipped, the shipping department can retrieve
information on the items for its operations. The system keeps shipping information such as content
and destination, along with billing information, to help produce shipping and billing documentation.
The system also records financial transactions involved in such activities, such as paying from a bank
account. The accounting component records the transactions. In addition, some ERP systems also
provide human resource components for payroll, employee benefits management, and employee
evaluation software
All the activities from planning the purchasing and production to the collection of proceeds for
the goods delivered can be supported by several modules of the same ERP system. Other
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components of the system support daily activities such as accounting and human resource
management that are required for the smooth operation of all phases of the supply chain.
ERP systems are quite complex. Because they are not tailored to the needs of specific clients,
they often require adjustment and fine-tuning for specific businesses. Therefore, their installation and
testing involve experts who are usually employees of the software vendor or professionals who are
certified for such work by the vendor. The most visible software companies specializing in ERP
systems are the German company SAP, the Dutch company Baan, and the American companies
PeopleSoft and Oracle.
When people work together, either to provide a service or create a product, they often do so in
sequence: one person provides his or her input to the project, then passes it along to another person,
who does the same, and so on along a chain. A series of such repeated activities is called a work
cycle, or simply cycle. Work cycles may take a long time to complete.
For instance, engineers developing a new car must wait for the body design so that they can
figure how to fit in the engine and other mechanical items. Or, lawyers representing a buyer and a
seller must wait for each other’s modifications to a draft contract before agreeing on a financial
version. Almost without exception, across a full range of industries and business functions, IT can
shorten cycle times and deliver products and services significantly sooner by allowing people to work
together in real time rather than wait a long time for the result of their peers’ work.
Software that lets users work together is called groupware, a term that refers to a broad and
somewhat diverse collection of technologies, including group calendaring and scheduling,
collaborative document handling, group application development tools, audio/video/desktop
conferencing, group decision-support systems, electronic-meeting system, and work flow and group
project management. ISs can help with three major types of collaborative work: document control,
collaborative projects, and brainstorming.
Document Control
Business processes produce thousands of documents, many of which are repeatedly accessed
worldwide and continually revised through collaborative efforts. Frequent revisions often create a
problem: people inadvertently work with outdated information, unaware that revisions have been
made. For instance, engineering design sheets and blueprints are updated so frequently that engineers
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often find themselves working with outdated plans because updated plans haven’t been distributed or
it’s too costly to redistribute plans every time they’re updated.
To help prevent these problems, programs like Notes and Sametime from Lotus Development (a
division of IBM) let users distribute and track electronic documents containing text, graphics, and
video or audio data. The latter software, available in 15 different languages, lets users chat via typed
messages and share and collaborate on documents in real time. Shared documents are usually stored
in a central location. Both these programs track annotations by time and source and immediately
include the information in the electronic document, so that the document is current whenever
accessed. This currency can be extremely important to accurate, efficient work, especially when it
involves engineering.
Collaborative Projects
Several groupware programs, such as MarkUp from Mainstay, let multiple users working on
many different terminals coordinate their efforts on a single document. Keeping the original
document intact, MarkUp lets workers use on-screen tools to change parts of drawings, add notes,
and delete material. Another type of application maintains an unchanged original text document that
each user can edit on his or her local PC. Authorized participants may permanently replace the
master copy with one that includes the desired changes. Other users can then retrieve the updated
document. Such applications prove extremely helpful in law offices, publishing houses, and other
text-intensive environments.
Some applications let individuals participate remotely in a collaborative writing effort. For
example, Face-to-Face from Crosswise Inc. lets any combination of Windows and Macintosh users
simultaneously view and annotate entire documents. Document layering distinguishes each user’s
input, and a chat box at the bottom of the screen lets workers communicate. Another example is
ScreenLink from Datawatch Corp., which also lets remote users view each other’s screen images.
This capability is an excellent feature for user or customer-support desks. Users seeking help can
simply link their screen with that of the support person, eliminating the need to describe what’s
on-screen. Other project planning groupware program let users see modifications in project
schedules and activities as soon as they are made.
A growing number of collaborative tools utilize Web technology. For example, ActiveProjectby
Framework Technologies lets project managers create a Web site where team members from multiple
location can share ideas and stay abreast of current changes and important information using the
interface of familiar Web browsers. They can post large documents online, such as CAD drawings,
and mark them up with comments. The software also allows Web conferencing, project news
reporting, handling multiple documents at the same time in different windows, searching documents,
messaging, and sending information requests to other members. After a member creates a project
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Web site, a data repository of all project-related documents, correspondence, and images becomes
available to all team members who can access them via a Web browser.
Some remote collaboration applications are free of charge. For example, you can download
Microsoft’s NetMeeting and use it free of charge.teh software enables you to use a Web-based video
camera so you and your partner can see each other while you communicate. You can communicate
via a microphone or by typing. Whatever you draw in a drawing window, your partner sees on screen
as you draw. And if you want to shift total control of your computer to your partner, you can do that
too. While free software is not as sophisticated as software for sale, it is powerful enough for remote
collaborative work in many environments.
Brainstorming
In business, brainstorming refers to the process of a group of colleagues meeting and working
collaboratively to generate creative solution and new ideas. Groupware software can facilitate this
process and eliminate the expensive practice of bringing everyone to the same location. Groupware
lets users type ideas on a “whiteboard,” that is, a window that everyone can see on a monitor. People
working in the same location can use the same technology as well: the “whiteboard” can be a large
monitor, and participants may keep ideas and information they do not wish to share on their own
computers.
Ideas can be organized, reorganized, discussed, and then voted on. A major advantage of this
process is that individual users can propose revolutionary ideas anonymously, motivating discussion
without risking criticism. Some of the best ideas are generate during such groupware, thanks to the
low-pressure environment it fosters.
Additional Readings from the INTERNET
1). http://en.wikipedia.org
References:
1) Oz, Effy: Management Information Systems Third edition, Thomson Learning Center, 5
Shenton Way UIC Building, Singapore 2002.
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