Ionization: Ionization or Ionisation Is The Process by Which An
Ionization: Ionization or Ionisation Is The Process by Which An
Contents
1Uses
2Production of ions
3Ionization energy of atoms
4Semi-classical description of ionization
5Quantum mechanical description of ionization
o 5.1Tunnel ionization
5.1.1Quasi-static tunnel ionization
6Strong field approximation for the ionization rate
o 6.1Atomic stabilization/population trapping
o 6.2Non-sequential multiple ionization
o 6.3Multiphoton ionization of inner-valence electrons and fragmentation of polyatomic
molecules
7Kramers-Henneberger frame and ionization phase effects
8Dissociation – distinction
9See also
10References
11External links
Uses[edit]
Everyday examples of gas ionization are such as within a fluorescent lamp or
other electrical discharge lamps. It is also used in radiation detectors such as
the Geiger-Müller counter or the ionization chamber. The ionization process is widely
used in a variety of equipment in fundamental science (e.g., mass spectrometry) and in
industry (e.g., radiation therapy).
Production of ions[edit]
Avalanche effect between two electrodes. The original ionization event liberates one electron, and each
subsequent collision liberates a further electron, so two electrons emerge from each collision: the ionizing
electron and the liberated electron.
Negatively charged ions are produced when a free electron collides with an atom and is
subsequently trapped inside the electric potential barrier, releasing any excess energy.
The process is known as electron capture ionization.
Positively charged ions are produced by transferring an amount of energy to a bound
electron in a collision with charged particles (e.g. ions, electrons or positrons) or with
photons. The threshold amount of the required energy is known as ionization potential.
The study of such collisions is of fundamental importance with regard to the few-body
problem, which is one of the major unsolved problems in physics. Kinematically
complete experiments,[1] i.e. experiments in which the complete momentum vector of all
collision fragments (the scattered projectile, the recoiling target-ion, and the ejected
electron) are determined, have contributed to major advances in the theoretical
understanding of the few-body problem in recent years.
Adiabatic ionization is a form of ionization in which an electron is removed from or
added to an atom or molecule in its lowest energy state to form an ion in its lowest
energy state.[2]
The Townsend discharge is a good example of the creation of positive ions and free
electrons due to ion impact. It is a cascade reaction involving electrons in a region with
a sufficiently high electric field in a gaseous medium that can be ionized, such as air.
Following an original ionization event, due to such as ionizing radiation, the
positive ion drifts towards the cathode, while the free electron drifts towards
the anode of the device. If the electric field is strong enough, the free electron gains
sufficient energy to liberate a further electron when it next collides with another
molecule. The two free electrons then travel towards the anode and gain sufficient
energy from the electric field to cause impact ionization when the next collisions occur;
and so on. This is effectively a chain reaction of electron generation, and is dependent
on the free electrons gaining sufficient energy between collisions to sustain the
avalanche.[3]
Ionization efficiency is the ratio of the number of ions formed to the number of electrons
or photons used.[4][5]
The trend in the ionization energy of atoms is often used to demonstrate the periodic
behavior of atoms with respect to the atomic number, as summarized by ordering atoms
in Mendeleev's table. This is a valuable tool for establishing and understanding the
ordering of electrons in atomic orbitals without going into the details of wave functions or
the ionization process. An example is presented in the figure at right. The periodic
abrupt decrease in ionization potential after rare gas atoms, for instance, indicates the
emergence of a new shell in alkali metals. In addition, the local maximums in the
ionization energy plot, moving from left to right in a row, are indicative of s, p, d, and f
sub-shells.
Dissociation –
distinction[edit]
A substance may dissociate without
necessarily producing ions. As an
example, the molecules of table
sugar dissociate in water (sugar is
dissolved) but exist as intact neutral
entities. Another subtle event is the
dissociation of sodium chloride (table
salt) into sodium and chlorine ions.
Although it may seem as a case of
ionization, in reality the ions already
exist within the crystal lattice. When
salt is dissociated, its constituent
ions are simply surrounded by water
molecules and their effects are
visible (e.g. the solution
becomes electrolytic). However, no
transfer or displacement of electrons
occurs. Actually, the chemical
synthesis of salt involves ionization.
This is a chemical reaction.
See also[edit]
Above threshold ionization
Ionization chamber – Instrument for
detecting gaseous ionization, used
in ionizing radiation measurements
Ion source
Photoionization
Thermal ionization
Electron ionization
Chemical ionization
Townsend avalanche – The chain
reaction of ionization occurring in a
gas with an applied electric field
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