Force

In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object.
A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving
from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a
pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is measured in
the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F.
The original form of Newton's second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal
to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. If the mass of the object is constant, this
law implies that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the
object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
Concepts related to force include: thrust, which increases the velocity of an object; drag, which
decreases the velocity of an object; and torque, which produces changes in rotational speed of
an object. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts; the
distribution of such forces through the body is the internal mechanical stress. Such internal
mechanical stresses cause no acceleration of that body as the forces balance one
another. Pressure, the distribution of many small forces applied over an area of a body, is a
simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to accelerate. Stress usually
causes deformation of solid materials, or flow in fluids.
The Force can be measured using a spring balance. The SI unit of force is Newton(N).

Common symbols: F→, F

SI unit: Newton

In SI base units: kg·m/s2

Other units: dyne, poundal, pound-force, kip, kilopond

Derivations from other quantities:  F = m a

Dimension: LMT-2

Ten Different Types of Forces

Force has a specific meaning in physics, and – unlike in movies – it doesn't have
anything to do with the underlying harmony of the universe. In physics, a force is a
push or pull resulting from an interaction between two objects. A force can result
from direct contact, such as a child pushing a wagon, or from action at a distance,
such as the gravitational attraction the Earth exerts on the moon. Within these two
broad categories, it's possible to identify at least 10 different forces that help shape
the universe and condition our experience in it.

Contact Forces

When he formulated his laws of motion, Sir Isaac Newton no doubt imagined
contact forces as his primary examples. These are the forces that result from direct
physical interaction between two objects. According to Newton's Second Law, F =
ma, a force of magnitude F produces an acceleration "a" when applied to an object
with mass "m."
Applied Force – This is the easiest type of force to understand. Push on an object
and the object pushes back, says Newton's First Law, until the magnitude of the
force overcomes the object's inertia. At that point, the object begins moving and, in
the absence of other forces, accelerates by an amount proportionate to the
magnitudes of its mass and the applied force.

Normal Force – Force is a vector quantity, which means its magnitude depends on
direction. In any interaction between two objects, the normal force is the force
perpendicular to the interface between the interacting objects. Normal force doesn't
always produce movement. For example, a table exerts a normal force on a book
to overcome the force of gravity and keep the book from falling.

Frictional Force – Frictional force usually resists movement. It's a result of the fact
that surfaces in the real world aren't perfectly smooth. The magnitude of the
frictional force exerted by a surface depends on the coefficient of friction of the
material from which the surface is made as well as that of the object moving along
it. The force of friction on a resting object, called static friction, is different from that
on a moving object, called sliding friction.

Air Resistance – Objects moving through Earth's atmosphere encounter a

resistive force created by the friction generated by air molecules. This force
becomes stronger with increasing speed and increasing surface area perpendicular
to the direction of motion. It's an important quantity in the aviation and aerospace
industries.

Tension Force – Tie a string to a fixed object, pull on the other end, and the string
pulls back until it breaks. The force the string exerts is the tension force, which is
applied along its length. It's a property of the material from which the string is made
as well as the diameter.

Spring Force – The amount of force necessary to compress a spring depends on

the material from which the spring is made, the diameter of the wire that forms the
coils, and the number of coils. These properties are quantified in a number
characteristic of the spring called the spring constant "k." The force needed to
compress the spring a distance "x" is given by Hooke's Law: F = kx.

Action at a Distance Forces

The fundamental forces of nature that keep the planets spinning and the sun and
stars burning all act at a distance. Without them, the universe we know probably
would not exist or, if it did, it would be a very different place.

Gravitational Force – The reason for the existence of this force is something of a
mystery, but if it didn't exist, planets and stars wouldn't be able to form. The
magnitude of the gravitational force objects exert on each other depends on the
masses of the objects and the inverse of the square of the distance between them.
The more massive the objects and/or the shorter the distance between them, the
stronger the force.

Electromagnetic Force – Although they don't seem to be the same, electricity and
magnetism are related. Flowing electrons produce magnetism, and a moving
magnet produces electricity. The relationship between these phenomena was
explained by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century and is
quantified in his equations. Electricity exerts a force via the attraction or repulsion
of charged particles, whereas the magnetic force is due to the attraction or
repulsion caused by magnetic poles.

The Strong Force – Because all protons are positively charged, they repel one
another, and they wouldn't be able to form an atomic nucleus if the strong force
didn't exist to hold them together. The strong force is the most powerful force in
nature. It's also the one that binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons.

The Weak Force – The weak force is another fundamental nuclear force. It's
stronger than gravity, but it only works at infinitesimally short distances. Carried by
subatomic bundles of energy called bosons, the weak force causes protons to
change into neutrons and vice versa during nuclear decay. Without this force,
nuclear fusion would be impossible, and stars, such as the sun, wouldn't exist.

What is the difference between torque and moment?

There is essentially no difference between them.  Well, OK, there is a difference.  You can
have a moment of a quantity that is not a force.  But when you have a moment of a
force, then that particular moment can also be called torque.  Torque refers only to the
case where the thing you are taking a moment of happens to be a force. 

The idea of a moment is to combine a moment arm with some other quantity.  For
example, when computing moments of inertia, you have mass with a moment arm from
the origin (the reference point about which you are computing moment of inertia).  If
you are talking about the momentum of that mass, then you can have the moment of
momentum, which we also call angular momentum.  When deriving beam bending
equations, depending on how it's presented, it might talk about a moment of an area.  A
moment is what you get when you multiply the moment arm by the thing at the end of
the moment arm.  If that thing happens to be a vector quantity, then the moment can be
computed using the cross product of the position vector and the vector quantity.  If that
vector happens to be a force, then you get a moment of a force, and that can also be
called torque. 

Torque is the moment of a force.  But people will often shorten "moment of a force" and
just say "moment."  That's where all this confusion is coming from.  But a moment of a
force is the same thing as a torque. 

People tend to use one word in some situations and the other word in other situations. 
Then they assume that one of the words applies in only those situations and the other
word only applies in the other situations. 

Torque = r x F.  I used bold to denote vectors.  Torque is a moment of force. 

What is a Force?
A "push" or "pull" exerted on a body.
Examples: A person pushing on a wall, Gravity pulling down on a mass, A rope pulling
on an object.
Scalars and Vectors
Scalar: Has only a magnitude. Examples: mass, length, time, volume, area, speed,
temperature, time.

Vector: Has both a magnitude and direction. Examples: velocity, displacement, or force.

To describe a force we need three things;

1. Magnitude (Newtons) N

2. Direction (degrees)

3. Location
Example: This force has Magnitude = 326N, Direction = 37 degrees, Location = Point A

Converting Angles to 360o Notation

Before we start adding anything, we should define the angle of each force in 360 degree
notation. This ensures any mathematical calculations will have the correct signs (e.g.
negative X is to the left). It also means the force can be fully defined without using extra
diagrams or symbols to help explain direction. Later it comes to calculations later on,
360 degree notation complies with spreadsheet, CAD and other software programmed
methods of force analysis.

To convert each force to 360 degree notation, follow these steps;

1. In the FBD, draw all forces as if they are "pulling". This means the tail of the force
connects to the body, and the arrowhead points away from the body.

2. Take the angle from the positive X direction (horizontal and to-the-right) and go
anti-clockwise to the force.
Examples:

Transmissibility 
A force has the same effect on a body whether it pushes from one side, or pulls from the
other. Consider a train - the loco might pull from the front or push from the back, the
effect is the same. So, provided we have the right point of location, and the right
direction, we can either push from one side or pull from the other. 
Example: The hammer can be pulled from one side, or pushed from the other. The
effect is the same if both the magnitudes (Newtons) and angles (degrees) are equal.

  

For analysis, we are allowed to move the force ANYWHERE

on the line of action of the force. We cannot change the
angle or direction, not the point of application.  So PUSH =
PULL.

Classes of Forces
There are three classes of force systems that have special methods of analysis.

1. Colinear. "Same Line" These forces act along the same line. Forces on each end
of a tensioned rope are colinear. They all have the same angle, and same
location. Because they act in the same line, colinear forces can be added as
scalars, e.g. 3+4=7N.

2. Concurrent. 'Same Point". These forces all go through the same point. Ropes
tied to an eyebolt give concurrent forces. These forces can be added as lines with
angle. e.g. 3N+4N = 5N (assuming 3N and 4N are perpendicular) 

3. Coplanar. "Same Plane'. These forces are 2 dimensional. They might have
different angles and locations. Addition is complicated because they can create a
turning effect around each other.

Mass and Weight

Mass is not the same as weight. Weight is a force and is measured in Newtons. Mass is
measured in kilograms, which is really just a count of how many neutrons and protons
inside it. So if someone wants to know your weight, give them the answer in Newtons!
Weight is the gravitational force caused by the object's mass. This depends on which
planet you are on. It even varies on earth - you would feel lighter at the equator than at
the poles, because the spinning earth lifts you up a tad (about 0.2% lighter!).

To find out how much force (weight) a mass will produce,

W=M*g

Where    
W = Weight (Newtons)
M = Mass (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2). In Sydney it is closer to 9.8, but the higher
figure is most common.

Example: How much does 10kg weigh? No, it's not a trick question.  W = 10 * 9.81 =
98.1N

Other Names for a Force

The following words can also used to describe a force (N);

 push

 pull

 effort

 tension

 weight

 thrust

 action
These words should only be used for mass (kg);

 mass
Watch out for this one, sometimes used for force (N) and somtimes mass (kg);

 load
Note: If unsure, always check the units! Force is always based on Newtons (N)

X & Y Components of a Force

Since our force lies on the XY plane, we can split it into X component (horizontal) and Y
component (vertical). Since we are using 360 degree notation for the angle (A), the
formula will always give the correct signs. This is a big reason to use 360 notation!
To get components;

Fx = Magnitude * cos (ngle)

Fy = Magnitude * sine (ngle)
Example: Find the X and Y components for a force of 316N at 35 degrees.

Addition of Forces

Parallelogram of Forces
Example: There are two forces (F1 and F2) acting on an object. The same effect could be
achieved with only one force which is the sum of F1 and F2. This sum is called the
Resultant Force.
This is actually just vector addition. Forces can be treated as lines, and just like drawing
a polyline in CAD, you must enter the length (representing Newtons) and the angle
(degrees).

Mathematical Addition of Forces

Step 1. Resolve into components

To avoid using CAD or triangle geometry (cosine rule etc), we can use the colinear force
trick. Colinear forces can be added like numbers! So if every force is resolved into X and
Y components, all the X ones can be added together to give the total X force. Same with
the Y components.

Since we are using 360 degree notation for the angle, the formula will always give the
correct signs. To get components;

Step 2. Get totals in X and Y.

This is the easy bit. Just add the numbers from step 1. You can only add all the Fx's
together, and all the Fy's together. The standard symbol for total is sigma (a Greek

letter):   In Maths it means "the sum of".

The following maths sentence reads like this: Taking upwards as positive, the sum of all
forces in the X direction = Force1 X component + Force2 X component + Force3 X
component + ...  

Step 3. Convert back to a single force (resultant).

Now do the reverse. Using Pythagoras theorem, get the length of the hypotenuse with
sides Fx and Fy. This is the MAGNITUDE of the resultant: R

To get the ANGLE of the resultant, we take the inverse tangent of Fy/Fx

Seems like hard work, but it is perfect for computers. This is the best method for adding
forces on a spreadsheet (Excel) or by any other programming method (Visual Basic,
Flash, Javascript etc)

Note 1: Always draw a triangle when

determining the resultant. You can't
trust you calculator because it can't
determine 360 degree notation from the
inverse tangent function.
Note 2: Inverse tangent is also called;
atan, arctan, invtan, or tan-1. On your
calculator it is usually... SHIFT TAN.

Worked Example
 
Example: A
Lifting Eye
Two ropes are attached to this
lifting eye. Force A is 1200N at
75o, and Force B is 1600N at
60o from horizontal. 
What is the RESULTANT of
these two forces?

Mathematical (components)
method
Step 0: Convert angles to 360
Notation:
F1 = 1200 N at 75o
F2 = 1600 N at 120o

Step 1: Get X and Y

components:
F1x = 1200 * cos(75) = 310.6
N
F1y = 1200 * sin (75) = 1159
N
F2x = 1600 * cos(120) = -800
N
F2y = 1600 * sin (120) =
1386 N

Step 2: Add X's and Y's

TotX = F1x + F2x = -489.4 N Here is a printout from a force adding program I
TotY = F1y + F2y = 2545 N wrote using VisualBasic. It uses the components
method for adding forces.
Step 3:  Convert back to get
Mag & Direction;
R = (-489.42 + 25452) ^ 0.5
= 2591 N
Angle = atan (2545 / -489.4)
= -79.1o  

Notes:

 Take care with the final

 angle conversion.  This
angle is in the 2nd
quadrant, so in 360
notation it is; 180 -
79.1 = 100.9o.

 Obviously this method

is silly for 2 forces, but
competitive with about
4 forces.

Triangular Geometry Method
Since there are only 2 forces,
we could also do this
using triangle geometry. It is
not a right-angle triangle, so
we need the Cosine rule.

a2 = b2 + c2 - 2*b*c*Cos (A)  

Where:
b = 1200
c = 1600
A =  75 + 60 = 135o

Putting these numbers into

the formula we get...
a2 = 6715290, so a = 2591.4
N

Now use the sine rule to get

angle C
a/sin(A) = c/sin(C) = 3664.77
So sin(C) =  0.436589  
So angle C = 25.886o

So the full angle for resultant

is 75 + C = 100.89o

Note: Use capital letters for angles and lower case for
the length of the opposite sides.
 This method could be
used to add a larger
number of forces by
doing two forces at a
time. There are better
alternatives.
What is Moment?
The MOMENT of a force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to rotate
about a specific point or axis.

When I sit on a chairlift, I am creating a moment that causes the chairlift to

rotate around the pivot.

How do you calculate moment?

The moment is equal to the force applied multiplied by the distance away from
the pivot:

Moment = Force x Distance

Let's try an example

A child weighing 60lbs is sitting 2 feet away from the center of the chairlift.
How far away from the center on the opposite side of the chairlift does her
father (who weighs 180lbs) have to sit, so that the chairlift is horizontal
(“balanced”)?
First calculate the moment caused by the child:

NOTE: We can model the chairlift as a weightless beam

Moment = Force x Distance

(60 lbs)(2 feet) = 120 ft-lbs

With the child sitting to the left of the pivot point which way does the chairlift
tip?

She causes the chairlift to pivot  counterclockwise.

Counterclockwise moments are considered negative values.

In order for the chairlift to be in equilibrium the moment acting on the pivot
from the Father must be equal and opposite to the child.

The child caused a -120 ft-lbs moment, therefore her father needs to create a
+120ft-lbs moment.
 120 ft-lbs = (180 lb)(x feet)

x = ⅔ feet = 8 inches.

Which side of the pivot point does the Father need to sit in order to balance the
child 

The right side!

WIth the Father sitting on the right side, he causes the chairlift to tip clockwise.

Clockwise moments are considered positive values.

With the Father sitting 8” to the left of the pivot he creates a -120 ft-lbs moment
around the pivot. An equal and opposite moment to the child’s. Therefore the
chairlift is in equilibrium.

What other real life applications can you think of involving moments?

 If a nut is difficult to undo with a short wrench, a longer wrench will help. This
is because there will be a bigger moment on the nut, when the same force is applied
further from the pivot.
 Try pushing a door open really close to its hinge point. The closer to the hinge
point, the harder you have to push. If the door is extremely heavy, push the door open
right at the edge farthest from the hinge. That’s another real life application of
moment.

Physics can seem abstract and confusing when you’re drawing beams and free-
body diagrams. But physics is everywhere. When you learn a new concept in
physics, challenge your tutors to come up with real life examples and explain
how the theory applies in practice!

Are you interested in connecting with a physics tutor in Cambridge and or New
York?

Moment

Moments generally refers to a measure of the effect of some physical quantity around an
axis. This measure is computed by the product of the physical quantity and the
perpendicular distance from the axis. Moment of force, moment of inertia, and polar
moment of inertia are examples found in mechanics for the application of this concept.
This concept is further extended to the fields such as statistical theory, where moments
of random variables are discussed.

If not specified, moment generally refers to the moment of a force, which is a measure of
the turning effect of a force. Moment of force is measured in Newton meters (Nm) in the
SI system, which looks similar to the unit of mechanical work but carries a completely
different meaning.

When a force is applied it creates a turning effect about a point other than on the line of
action of the force. The amount of this effect or the moment is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance to the force from the point.

Moment of a force=Force × Perpendicular distance from the point to force

Moment τ = F × x

If a force system has no resultant moments, i.e. ∑τ = 0 , the system is in rotational

equilibrium. When the moment of a force has a physical sense it is often called
“torque”. 

Moment of inertia is a measure of the distribution of mass of a body around an axis. It

is computed by the sum of the products of mass at each point and the distance to that
point from the axis.
If mi is the mass at point i and r i is the distance to that point from the axis concerned, the
moment of inertia is given by,

Discrete point mass system I = ∑mi

For a rigid body I = ∫mi ri2 

It is an important factor when considering the rotational motion of the physical systems.

The concept of moment is applied in many instances of physics, especially in

mechanics, but in all the cases it determines the effect of some physical property around
an axis at a distance.

• Electric dipole moment is a measurement of the charge difference and direction

between two or more charges.

• Magnetic moment is a measure of the strength of a magnetic source.

• Moment of inertia is a measure of an object’s resistance to changes in its rotation rate.

• Torque or moment is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis.

• Bending moment is a moment that results in the bending of a structural element.

• First moment of area is a property of an object related to its resistance to shear stress.

• Second moment of area is a property of an object related to its resistance to bending

and deflection.

• Polar moment of inertia is a property of an object related to its resistance to torsion

• Image moment is a statistical property of an image.

• Seismic moment is quantity used to measure the size of an earthquake.

Momentum

Momentum (Linear momentum) is defined as the product of mass and velocity. It is one
of the most important physical quantities of a system, and it is a conserved property in
the universe, both at microscopic and macroscopic levels.

Momentum = mass × velocity  ↔  P = mv

Mass is a scalar and velocity is a vector. The product of a vector and a scalar is a vector.
Therefore, momentum is a vector quantity and has a magnitude and a direction.

The momentum is directly related to the state of motion of a particle, a body, or a system
and often used to describe the changes in the physical systems. Momentum is used in
following key physical concepts;
Universal Law of Conservation of Momentum:

If unbalanced external forces are not acting on a system, the total momentum of the
system is a constant.

If  ∑Fexternal,system = 0, then ∑mvsystem = constant    ↔   ∆mvsystem  = 0

Newton’s Second Law:

Resultant force acting on a body is proportional to the rate of change of momentum of

the body, and it is in the direction of the change of momentum.

Fresultant  ∝ dmv/dt ≈ ∆mv/∆t

And from the definition of the impulse (I)

I = F∆t = ∆mv 

The moment of linear momentum around an axis is defined as the angular momentum. It
can be shown that angular momentum is equal to the product of the angular velocity and
the moment of inertia of the body/system around the considered axis.

Angular momentum = ∑mvi ri2  = Iω

What is the difference between Moment and Momentum?

• Momentum is the product of mass and the velocity of a body. Moment is a concept that
gives a measure of the effect of a physical property around an axis. It also gives a
measure of the distribution.

• Momentum is a vector while moments can be either vector or scalar.

• Momentum is a conserved property in the universe, and independent of the frame of

reference. Moments are dependent on the axis considered.

• Moment of linear momentum around an axis is the angular momentum about that axis.