Newton's Laws of Motion

I Semester B.Sc.
Physics : Unit 1–Newton’s laws of Motion & their applications
Syllabus : Unit 1- Newton's laws and their applications

➢ Statement and explanation of the Newton's laws of motion, Inertial frames of
reference, Galilean transformations, Atwood machine, Static and dynamic
friction, Motion along inclined plane with and without frictional force, Use of free
body diagrams, motion in a resistive medium, terminal velocity.
➢ Non-inertial frames of reference, Rotating coordinate system, pseudo forces,
Centrifugal and Coriolis forces, effects of Centrifugal and Coriolis forces ai earth's
surface, the Foucault pendulum (qualitative)
Newton’s Laws of Motion : Newton’s First Law :

Statement : "A body remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon
by an external force (or unbalanced force)."
Explanation and significance :
➢ Newton's first law is often referred to as the law of inertia.
➢ Inertia is defined as the tendency of an object to remain at rest or move with a
constant velocity Inertia is a fundamental property of all matter and is important
to the definition of mass.
➢ Mass is that quantity which is the measure of inertia. The more inertia that an
object has, the more mass that it has.
➢ To change the state of rest or state of uniform motion of a body, an external force
is necessary.
Consider the following example. A string with its one end connected to a ball and the
other end held in hand is made to execute a circular motion. The string must provide
the necessary centripetal force to move the ball in a circle. If the string breaks, the ball
will move off in a straight line. The straight line motion in the absence of force is an
example of Newton's first law. This implies that a force is necessary to change the state
of rest or of uniform motion of a body.
Examples : 1. If you kicked a ball in space, it would keep going forever, because there
is no gravity, friction or air resistance going against it. It will only stop going in one
direction if it hits something like a meteorite or reaches the gravity field of another
planet. 2. If you are driving in your car at a very high speed and hit something, like a
brick wall or a tree, the car will come to an instant stop, but you will keep moving
forward. This is why cars have airbags, to protect you from smashing into the
windscreen
Newton’s Second law :

Statement : “The net force on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by
its acceleration." (F = ma). Also, the net force on a particle is equal to the time rate of
change of its linear momentum:
Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 1

I Semester B.Sc. Physics : Unit 1–Newton’s laws of Motion & their applications
𝑑𝑝
Explanation : Mathematically, it is given by 𝐹 = , where 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣(constant of
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
proportionality is taken as one). Thus 𝐹 = (𝑚𝑣). Assuming 𝑚 to be a constant, the
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
above equation is𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 ,As 𝑎 = , Thus 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
If 𝐹 = 0, then from above equation, 0 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 or = 0or 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. This is
𝑑𝑡
Newton’s first law.
Significance : Newton’s Second Law says that the net force, F, acting on an object
causes the object to accelerate. Since F = ma can be rewritten as a = F/m, you can see
that the magnitude of the acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass, m. Both force and acceleration are vector quantities,
and the acceleration of an object will always be in the same direction as the net force.
Examples : 1. If you use the same force to push a truck and push a car, the car will
have more acceleration than the truck, because the car has less mass. 2. It is easier to
push an empty shopping cart than a full one, because the full shopping cart has more
mass than the empty one. This means that more force is required to push the full
shopping cart.
Newton’s Third law:

"To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction."
Explanation : Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another
particle B, B simultaneously exerts a force on A with the same magnitude but in the
opposite direction. The law further postulates that these two forces act along the same
line.
Significance : The Third Law means that all forces are interactions, and there is no
such thing as a unidirectional force. If body A exerts a force on body B, simultaneously,
body B exerts a force of the same magnitude on body A, both forces acting along the
same line. It is important to note that the action and reaction act on different objects
and do not cancel each other.
The two forces in Newton's third law are of the same type (e.g., if the road exerts a
forward frictional force on an accelerating car's tires, then it is also a frictional force that
Newton's third law predicts for the tires pushing backward on the road.
Examples : 1. When you jump off a small rowing boat into water, you will push yourself
forward towards the water. The same force you used to push forward will make the boat
move backwards. 2. When air rushes out of a balloon, the opposite reaction is that the
balloon flies up. 3. When you dive off of a diving board, you push down on the
springboard. The board springs back and forces you into the air.

Forces are of two types :1. Contact forces are those types of forces that result when
the two interacting objects are perceived to be physically in contact with each other.
Examples of contact forces include frictional forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air
resistance forces, and applied forces.
2. Action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces that result even when the two
interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, Examples of action-at-
a-distance forces include gravitational forces, electrical and magnetic forces.
Types of forces
1. The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively
large object attracts another object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight
of the object. All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity that is directed
"downward" towards the center of the earth. The force of gravity on earth is always
equal to the weight of the object given by 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔.
2. The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact
with another stable object. For example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then
the surface is exerting an upward force upon the book in order to support the
weight of the book.
3. The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it
or makes an effort to move across it. The friction force often opposes the motion
of an object. For example, if a book slides across the surface of a desk, then the
desk exerts a friction force in the opposite direction of its motion. Friction results
from the two surfaces being pressed together closely, causing intermolecular
attractive forces between molecules of different surfaces.
4. The air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts upon objects as
they travel through the air. The force of air resistance is often observed to oppose
the motion of an object. This force will frequently be neglected due to its negligible
magnitude It is most noticeable for objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a
skydiver or a downhill skier) or for objects with large surface areas.
5. The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or
wire when it is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends. The tension force
is directed along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on the
opposite ends of the wire.
6. The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon
any object that is attached to it. An object that compresses or stretches a spring
is always acted upon by a force that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium
position.

Note :
➢ Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. More specifically, mass is a
measure of the inertia, or “laziness,” that an object exhibits in response to any
effort made to start it, stop it, or otherwise change its state of motion.
➢ Weight is the force of gravity on an object.
➢ If force is equal to mass x acceleration then, Weight is equal to mass ×
acceleration due to gravity. On earth, your weight is Your Mass × 9.8 ms-2
Frames of Reference
Rest and Motion
➢ A body is said to be at rest if its position does not change with time with respect
to an observer (or a reference point).
➢ A body is said to be in motion if its position changes with time with respect to an
observer (or a reference point).
➢ Rest and motion are relative terms. A body may seem to be at rest with respect to
one object, but may appear to be in motion with respect to another object.
➢ If you consider a passenger in a moving train, he is at rest with respect to his co-
passengers, but is in motion with respect to an observer standing on the ground.
A system of co-ordinate axis which defines the position of a particle in two or three
dimensional space is called a frame of reference. The simplest frame of reference is
the Cartesian system of co-ordinates, in which the position of the particle is specified
by its three co-ordinates x, y, z along the three perpendicular axes.
In general, it is a framework that is used for the observation and mathematical

description of physical phenomena and the formulation of physical laws. It consists
of an observer, a coordinate system, and clocks assigning times at positions with
respect to the coordinate system.
Inertial frame of reference Non-inertial frame of reference

The reference frames in which Newton’s Reference frames in which Newton’s
laws are valid. laws are not valid.
They are non-accelerating frames They are accelerating frames.
Such a constant velocity frame of Such an accelerating frame of reference
reference is called an inertial frame is called a non-inertial frame because
because the law of Inertia holds in it. the law of inertia does not hold in it.
In an inertial frame of reference no In a non-inertial frame of reference
fictitious forces arise. fictitious forces arise.

Here zero force corresponds to zero Here zero force doesn’t correspond to
acceleration zero acceleration
Examples : A space shuttle moving Examples : Elevator, Rotating frames,
with constant velocity relative to the any accelerating frames
earth, any reference frame that is not
accelerating, a reference frame
attached to Earth
Galilean relativity
➢ If Newton’s laws are true in any reference frame, they are also true in any other
frame moving at constant velocity with respect to the first one.
➢ Any two observers moving at constant speed and direction with respect to one
another will obtain the same results for all mechanical experiments.
➢ A ball thrown up by a passenger in an aero plane moving with constant velocity,
observes the ball moving in a vertical path. The motion of the ball is precisely the
same if it is thrown while at rest on the Earth.
➢ For an observer on earth, the ball thrown by the passenger is seen as parabolic.
Both observes agree with respect to the laws of physics.
➢ The law of gravity and the equations of motion under constant acceleration are
obeyed.
➢ There is no preferred frame of reference of describing the laws of mechanics.
The fundamental physical laws and principles are identical in all inertial
frames.
Galilean Transformation
➢ A set of equations that relate the space and time coordinates of two systems
moving at a constant velocity relative to each other.
➢ They are adequate to describe phenomena at speeds much smaller than the
speed of light.
➢ Galilean transformations formally express the ideas that space and time are
absolute; that length, time, and mass are independent of the relative motion
of the observer.
Galilean transformation equations

S and S’ are two inertial frames of reference. S is at rest and S’ moving with a uniform
velocity 𝑣 with respect to S along the positive X - direction. Also 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐 where c is the
speed of light.

At t = 0, the origins of the

two frames coincide. An
event occurs at a point P.
The observer O in frame S
determines the position of
the event as coordinates
𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 . The observer O’
in frame S’ determines the
position of the event as
coordinates 𝒙^′,𝒚^′,𝒛′ .
The time is assumed to proceed at the same rate in both the frames.
At a later instant of time, the distance between the two frames is 𝒗𝒕. From the diagram,
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂′ 𝑃 + 𝑂𝑂′ …(1)
As O𝑃 = 𝑥, 𝑂′ 𝑃 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑂′ = 𝑣𝑡 ,
the relation 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂′ 𝑃 + 𝑂𝑂′ is 𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡 or 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
As there is no relative motion between S and S’ along Y and Z directions, 𝑦 = 𝑦 ′ and
z = 𝑧′ .
The transformation equations given from S to S’ are
𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 , 𝒚′ = 𝒚 , 𝒛′ = 𝒛 and 𝒕′ = 𝒕 ……(2)
These are called Galilean position transformation equations
The inverse transformation from S’ to S are given by
𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡 , 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 , 𝑧′ = 𝑧 and 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡
Differentiating the following eqn. (2) with respect to time t,
𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 , 𝒚′ = 𝒚 , 𝒛′ = 𝒛 and 𝒕′ = 𝒕
𝑑𝑥′ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦′ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧′ 𝑑𝑧
= −𝑣 , = and = …….(3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥′
Let = 𝑢′ be the velocity of the particle at P as measured by S’,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑢 be the velocity of the particle at P as measured by S,
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒚′ 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛′ 𝒅𝒛
the equations are 𝒖′ = 𝒖 − 𝒗 , = and = ….(4)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
These equations are called non relativistic (𝑣 ≪ 𝑐) Galilean velocity transformation
equations.
The equation 𝒖′ = 𝒖 − 𝒗 can be expressed as 𝒖 = 𝒖′ + 𝒗
i.e., the velocity of a particle as measured by a stationary frame is equal to the sum of
the velocity of this particle as measured from the moving frame and velocity of S’ frame
with respect to S frame.
If 𝒖 = 𝟎 , i.e. the particle is at rest with respect to S frame, then 𝒖′ = − 𝒗.
The particle appears to move with uniform velocity in S’ frame.
Thus the Newton’s first law is obeyed in both the frames.
𝑑𝑥′ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦′ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧′ 𝑑𝑧

Differentiating these relations again = −𝑣 , = and =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥′ 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑦′ 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑧′ 𝑑2 𝑧
= , = , = . (𝒗 is a constant).
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥′ 𝑑2 𝑥
As = 𝑎′ is the acceleration of the particle as measured by S’ frame and =𝑎 is
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
the acceleration in S frame.
Thus 𝒂′ = 𝒂 ….(5) Thus the acceleration of the particle as measured by the two frames
are the same or acceleration is invariant. Equation (5) is the Galilean acceleration
transformation equation.
Multiplying eqn. (5) by m, the mass of the particle, 𝒎𝒂′ = 𝒎𝒂 or 𝑭′ = 𝑭 .
Thus the Newton’s laws are valid in S’ frame also and thus a inertial frame.
Thus the laws of mechanics are same in all inertial frames of reference which is
the principle of Galilean relativity.
FRICTION
When a solid body moves on a surface, an opposing force acts, which resists the forward
motion of the body.
The resistive force, which opposes the forward force applied on the body due to relative
motion between the two surfaces in contact is known as the force of friction or
frictional force.
The magnitude of the frictional force depends on the nature of the two surfaces in
contact. This force always act in the direction opposite to that of the motion of the body.
Examples of friction - We are able to hold a pen and write due to friction. We are able
to walk and run on a road, without slipping, due to the friction offered by the ground.
Explanation of friction: Consider a wooden block kept on the horizontal surface. One
end of a string is attached to the block and the free end of the string moves on a pulley
to a scale pan, as shown.
When weights are gradually added to the scale pan, the wooden block does not move
initially. This is due to the applied horizontal force F opposed by an equal force f due to
friction. This is called as the *force of static friction.
When weights are further (increase of F) increased, N
the frictional force also increases and the block still

remains static. Therefore force of static friction is F
self-adjusting force. f
As the weights are added further, at a particular

value of weight, the wooden block would just begin
to move. The minimum force F required to just W = mg
move the block is known as limiting force of friction.

The limiting force of friction is equal to the maximum force of static friction fs.
Once the block starts moving.it gets accelerated due to the force F and thus the force of
friction decreases.
The minimum force F just required to maintain the uniform motion of the block is called
the *force of kinetic friction (or force of sliding friction) (fk).
If the wooden block is provided with wheels, the block starts rolling on the surface.
The minimum force F required to pull the block. provided with wheels, is equal to the
force of rolling friction (fr), developed between the two surfaces.
It is found that fr < fk< fs..
The maximum force of static friction between any two surfaces is (a) independent of the
area of contact and (b) proportional to be normal reaction N
The normal force N is exerted by the surface on the body, perpendicular to the surfaces
in contact. It is equal and opposite to the weight W of the wooden block.
Coefficient of static friction The ratio of the magnitude of the limiting force of static
friction (fs) to the magnitude of the normal force N is called the coefficient of static friction
fs
(s ) It is a constant. s =
N
Coefficient of kinetic friction Kinetic friction arises between two surfaces when they
are in relative motion. The ratio of the magnitude of the force of kinetic friction fk to the
magnitude of the normal force N is called the coefficient of kinetic friction and is found
fk
to be a constant,  k =
N
Coefficient of rolling friction When a body rolls over a surface, the force of friction
developed between the two surfaces is known as the force of rolling friction, fr
The ratio of the magnitude of the force of rolling friction fr to the magnitude of the
fr
normal force N is called the coefficient of rolling friction and is a constant. i.e.,  r =
N
It is found that rks as fr<fk< fs.
Laws of static and kinetic friction

1 Limiting friction depends on nature of surface in contact.
2. It acts tangential to the two surfaces in contact and is opposite to the direction of
motion of the body.
3. The force of friction between two surfaces opposes their relative motion.
4.The force of friction is independent of the area of contact of the given surfaces when
the normal force is constant.

5. The force of limiting friction (static or kinetic) is

proportional to the total normal force. In the case of
kinetic friction, it is independent of the velocity of the
surfaces.
The graph shows the variation of frictional
resistance with applied force.
Angle of friction N
Consider an object placed on a horizontal surface as R
α
shown above. W is the weight and N is the normal force or 𝑓𝑠 F
the normal reaction. fs is the limiting force of friction and
F is the applied force on the object. The angle between W
the normal reaction and the resultant of fs and N (i.e. R)
is called the angle of friction . From the diagram the angle of contact is tan  = fs/N.
As fs/N = µs coefficient of friction. Thus tan  = µs
Expression for angle of contact or angle of repose

N
Consider a wooden block placed on an inclined
fs
plane which is slanting at an angle  with the
horizontal. The forces acting on the block are
(a) W = mg. the weight of the block acting 
F = W sin W cos

vertically downwards. W
(b) The normal force N exerted by the plane on
the Wooden block and
(c) the force of static friction fsopposite to the impending
motion of the block exerted by the plane on the body.
When the block is at rest, the condition is N + fs + W =0
The force W can be resolved into two components i.e..Wsin and Wcos as shown in the
diagram. Then the net force on the block along the vertical direction is N - Wcos = 0 or
N = Wcos ….(1)
and along the direction of impending motionfs - Wsin = 0or fs = Wsin ….(2)
Let the angle of inclination  between the planes be slowly increased until the block
just starts slipping down the inclined plane. This angle of inclination,  = s is called
as the angle of repose or critical angle or angle of friction.

fs
By definition  s = …(3) Substituting for fs and N from (1) and (2) in (3) we get
N
W sin 
s = = tan  or s = tan or  = tan-1s
W cos
Acceleration of a body sliding down an inclined plane (With friction)
Consider a block of mass m sliding down an

N 𝑓𝑘
inclined plane with an acceleration a which
is inclined at an angle greater than the angle
of contact.
The net force F acting on the body along

the incline is 𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒇𝒌 …(1) 𝜃
W 𝑾𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝐴𝑠 𝒇𝒌 = 𝝁𝒌 𝑵 ..(2) also 𝑵 = 𝑾 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 …(3) 𝜃
Eqn. (3) in (2) gives 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 …(4)
Eqn. (4) in (1) 𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 = 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 …(5)
As 𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 Eqn. (5) is 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
The acceleration is 𝒂 = 𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
If l is the length of inclined plane, the distance travelled by the block is

1 1
𝑙= 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝐴𝑠 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠 = 𝑙, 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑢 = 0)
2 2
Thus the time taken by the block to travel this distance is
2𝑙 2𝑙
𝑡 = √𝑎 or 𝑡 = √𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 −𝝁
𝒌 𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Acceleration of a body sliding down an inclined plane (Without friction)

For a body sliding along the incline, the net force F acting on the body in the absence
of friction is 𝐹𝑁𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 …(1)
As 𝐹𝑁𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
Eqn. (1) is 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 The acceleration is 𝒂 = 𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
If l is the length of inclined plane, the distance travelled by the block is
1 1
𝑙= 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝐴𝑠 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠 = 𝑙, 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑢 = 0)
2 2
Thus the time taken by the block to travel this distance is
2𝑙 2𝑙
𝑡 = √𝑎 or 𝑡 = √𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Free body diagram

Free-body diagrams are diagrams used to show the relative magnitude and direction of
all forces acting upon an object in a given situation. The size of the arrow in a free-body
diagram shows the magnitude of the force. The direction of the arrow shows the
direction that the force is acting. Each force arrow in the diagram is labeled to indicate
the exact type of force. It is generally customary in a free-body diagram to represent the
object by a box and to draw the force arrow from the center of the box outward in the
direction that the force is acting.
Examples of free body diagram

1. Consider a body experiencing a force F moving on a surface with constant
acceleration. The free body diagram is as shown with all the forces acting ob the object.
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹 − 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎 . From this
equation acceleration of the N
F f=N a
body can be determined.
F
Also, frictional force =  𝑁 =  𝑚𝑔 . (𝑊 = 𝑁)
W = mg
2. Consider two bodies in contact experiencing force F as
shown. Since F is the only net force acting on the two masses,
it determines the acceleration of both. The free
body diagram for both the masses are as shown.
𝐹
The acceleration is given by 𝑎 = . If frictional
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝐹−𝑓
force is acting then, 𝑎 = .where 𝑓 = (𝑚1 +
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑚2 ) The force on the smaller mass is 𝐹2 = 𝑚2 𝑎 .

From Newton’s third law, 𝐹2 also acts on mass 𝑚1 .
Thus net force on 𝑚1 is 𝐹1 = 𝐹 − 𝐹2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑎 −
𝑚2 𝑎 = 𝑚1 𝑎 .
3. Consider a set of three masses connected by strings as shown along with the free
body diagrams for each mass. . The force F is the only net force acting on the system of
three masses, which are constrained to accelerate together. Therefore Newton's 2nd law
𝐹
gives the acceleration. 𝑎 = . The equations corresponding to each mass as
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3

shown in the free body diagram are 𝑇1 = 𝑚1 𝑎 , 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑚2 𝑎 and 𝐹 − 𝑇2 = 𝑚3 𝑎 .

From these equations the tension in the string can be calculated.
4. Consider a body of mass m sliding down an inclined plane as shown. The

corresponding free body diagram is represented as shown with the forces after resolving
mg into its components. Assume
N =mg cos
frictional force is acting between the f
f=N
body and the surface of the inclined
plane.
From the diagram 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 
mg sin mg cos
the net force acting on the body is mg
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑓 As 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 and 𝑓 = 𝑁 =  𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Thus the acceleration of the body sliding down an inclined plane can be found by
equation 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −  𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
In the absence of friction this equation can be written as 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 .
5. A body moving on an inclined plane attached to a string moving over a pulley

Consider a body of
mass m1 fixed to a
string moving on an
inclined plane
attached to a string
which moves on a
pulley. The other end of the string is attached to a bosy of mass m2 as shown. The free
body diagram is as shown.
The mass m2 is larger than mass m1. Thus the m1 moves up the plane and mass m2
moves down with an acceleration a. From Newton’s second law for the mass m2, the
equation is 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑎 ….(1)
For the mass m1, the equation is 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚1 𝑎 ….(2)
Thus 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑚1 𝑎 ….(3)
Substituting for T from (3) in (1), we get 𝑚2 𝑔 − ( 𝑚1 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑚1 𝑎) = 𝑚2 𝑎
𝑚2 𝑔− 𝑚1 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛
Simplifying for a we get 𝑎 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
In the presence of friction equation (2) becomes

𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −  𝑁 = 𝑚1 𝑎where 𝑁 = 𝑚1 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 .

6. Consider a body of mass m1moving on a horizontal plane with a string attached

it which moves on a pulley. The other end of the string is attached to mass m2 as shown.
The free body diagram for
the two masses are as
shown.
Applying Newton’s second
law to the mass m1, we
have 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎 ….(1)
For the mass m2, we have 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑎 ….(2)
𝑚2 𝑔
Substituting for T from (1) in (2) we get 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑚2 𝑎 or 𝑎 = .
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Atwood machine
The Atwood machine was invented in 1784 by the English mathematician George
Atwood as a laboratory experiment to verify the mechanical laws of motion with
constant acceleration and to measure acceleration due to gravity.
An Atwood machine consists of two objects of mass m1 and m2, connected by an
inextensible massless string over an massless pulley.
When the two objects on the machine are of equal masses, then the system will be in
neutral equilibrium and no motion of any kind will take place.
If there is a very small difference in their masses, then their acceleration will be
small and can be easily measured. This is what makes the Atwood machine quite
useful to determine acceleration due to gravity (g).
Consider an Atwood machine as shown. Let the
pulley be frictionless and pulley mass is assumed to
be negligible. Let the two masses be m1 and m2 with
m2 greater than m1. Using Newton’s second law, for
the mass m1 the equation is
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 As 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚1 𝑎
Thus 𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 ….(1)
or𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝑚1 𝑔 ….(2)
For the mass m2, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇
or𝑚2 𝑎 = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇 ….(3)
Substituting for T from (2) in (3), we get 𝑚2 𝑎 = 𝑚2 𝑔 − (𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝑚1 𝑔)
(𝑚2 −𝑚1 )𝑔
Simplifying the above equation we get 𝑎 = .
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
(𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )
or acceleration due to gravity g = 𝒂
(𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 )
(𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 )
The tension in the string is found by substituting 𝒂 = 𝒈 in equation (3) or (6)
(𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )

Equation (3) is 𝑻 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒂 + 𝒎𝟏 𝒈
(𝒎 −𝒎 ) 𝒎 −𝒎
𝑇 = 𝑚1 ( 𝒎 𝟐+ 𝒎𝟏 𝒈) + 𝒎𝟏 𝒈 = 𝑚1 (𝒎 𝟐+ 𝒎𝟏 + 𝟏) 𝑔
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 −𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝟐 𝒎𝟐
𝑇 = 𝑚1 ( ) 𝑔 = 𝑚1 (𝒎 )𝑔
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
𝟐𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
or Tension in the string is 𝑇 = (𝒎 )𝑔
𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
Elevator with an occupant in

it. Different cases are explained
below. (1) In the first case, if the
moving elevator cable breaks
we feel weightless. (2) If the
elevator is at rest or moving
with constant speed, we feel
normal weight. (3) When the
elevator accelerates upwards
we feel more weight and when
it is accelerating downwards,
we fell less weight.
Motion in a resistive medium : When a body moves through a fluid, it

experiences frictional force (viscous force) which opposes its motion. The medium like
liquid or a gas that opposes motion of a body through it called resistive medium.
Drag Force (sometimes called air resistance or fluid resistance) is the opposing force
acting on a body opposite to its direction of motion due to the relative motion between
the body and the medium.
This can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Drag
forces depend on velocity. They are of two categories:
(1) Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow or a streamline flow
i.e. for objects moving with lesser velocities. ( 𝑭𝑫 ∝ 𝒗 𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝑫 = −𝒄𝒗 ). This is
applicable to a body moving through a more viscous medium like liquids.

(2) The drag force is proportional to square of the velocity for a turbulent flow i.e. for
objects moving with higher velocities (𝑭𝑫 ∝ 𝒗𝟐 or 𝑭𝑫 = −𝒄𝒗𝟐 ).This is applicable
to bodies moving through less viscous medium like air or any other gaseous
medium. These velocity dependent forces are non conservative forces.
In the above expressions c is called the drag coefficient. It depends on the
viscosity and density of the medium. It also depends on the effective area of
the surface of the body in contact with the fluid.
Examples : (i) The motion of a parachut is retarded as it drifts down towards
earth (ii) The motion of a cannon ball sinking in the ocean is retarded. (iii)
motion of a solid object through a viscous liquid like castor oil in which the
object attains constant velocity.
Terminal velocity
The maximum constant velocity attained by the body moving under gravity in a resistive
medium when the drag force equals the weight of the body is called the terminal
velocity denoted by 𝒗𝒕 .
Explanation : When a body is dropped in a resistive medium like a liquid, it experiences
two forces as it comes down. They are (1) weight of the body 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 acting vertically
downwards and (2) the drag force which acts vertically upwards. With time, the resistive
force increases and the acceleration decreases. The acceleration becomes zero when the
magnitude of the resistive force becomes equal to the weight of the object. At this point
the object will attain the maximum velocity.
Expressions for terminal velocity

1. Consider the case of drag force proportional to the velocity. The drag force is 𝐹𝐷 =
−𝑐𝑣 and the weight is 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔. When the two forces are equal, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 . Thus 𝑐𝑣𝑡 =
𝒎𝒈
𝑚𝑔 or 𝒗𝒕 = . Thus 𝑣𝑡 depends on the mass of the body and the drag coefficient.
𝒄
2. Consider the case of drag force proportional to square of the velocity. In this case
𝑚𝑔 𝒎𝒈
𝑐𝑣𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑔 or 𝑣𝑡2 = or 𝒗𝒕 = √ .
𝑐 𝒄
Motion of an object under the action of gravity in a resistive medium

with the drag force proportional to the velocity
Consider a spherical object of mass m falling under the action of gravity in a resistive
medium in which resistive force is proportional to the velocity of the object. The two
forces acting on the body are the force of gravity 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 and the resistive force or the
drag force 𝐹𝐷 = −𝑐𝑣.where is the resistive force per unit velocity.

To find the velocity of the object :

Applying the Newton’s second law to this vertical motion by considering vertically
downward motion to be positive (Y – direction)
The resultant force on the sphere is ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑐𝑣
𝑐
As ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎 , the above equation becomes𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑐𝑣 … . . (1) or 𝑎 = 𝑔 − 𝑣
𝑚
At the instant when the object is released, i.e. t = 0, v = 0.
Thus from the above equation, 𝑎 = 𝑔 .
When the body attains terminal velocity i.e. at 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 , a = 0.
𝑐
Thus ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0.Thus 𝑎 = 𝑔 − 𝑣 = 0.
𝑚 𝑡 𝐹𝐷
𝒎𝒈
The expression for terminal velocity is 𝒗𝒕 = ……(2)
𝒄
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Now as 𝑎 = , equation (1) can be written as 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑐𝑣 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑚 𝑑𝑣 𝑚𝑔
Dividing the above equation throughout by 𝑐𝑣 , we get = −1
𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑐𝑣 𝐹𝑔
𝒎𝒈
Using equation (2) in the above equation, i.e. = 𝒗𝒕
𝒄
𝑚 𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑡
= −1 or = −1
𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑣 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑣
𝑚 𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑡 −𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑐
Simplifying this equation = or (𝑣𝑡 −𝑣)
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑣 𝑚
𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑡 𝑐 𝑣 𝑐
Integrating, ∫0 = ∫0 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 we get − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑣) = 𝑚 𝑡
(𝑣𝑡 −𝑣) 0
𝑐 𝑐
− 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑣) − (− log 𝑣𝑡 ) = 𝑡 or 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑣) − log 𝑣𝑡 = − 𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑣𝑡 −𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
or = 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 or1 − = 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 or = 1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 𝑣⬚
𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑡
𝒄
− 𝒕 𝑣𝑡
Thus 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒕 (𝟏 − 𝒆 𝒎 ) ……(3) 𝑣
Equation (3) gives the expression for the velocity of the
object under gravity in the resistive medium. t
The variation of v versus t is as shown in the graph. As time increases the velocity
increases and reaches maximum value corresponding to the terminal velocity when
acceleration becomes zero.
𝑚 1 1
When 𝑡 = 𝜏 = , equation (3) becomes 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒) = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − )=
𝑐 2.718
0.632 𝑣𝑡 . Thus 𝜏 is the time constant defined as the time required by the object to reach
63.2% of the terminal velocity.
𝑎
To find the acceleration of the object :
Differentiating equation (3), we get 𝑔
𝑎
𝑐 𝑐
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑐
= 𝑑𝑡 [𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 )] = 𝑣𝑡 (0 − (− ) 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 ) 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑𝑣 𝑐 𝑐
− 𝑡 𝑚𝑔 t
As 𝑎= , 𝑎 = 𝑣𝑡 (𝑚 𝑒 𝑚 ) From eqn. (2) 𝑣𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑐

𝑐 𝑐
𝑚𝑔 𝑐
Substituting for 𝑣𝑡 in the above equation 𝑎 = (𝑚 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 ) = 𝑔𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡
𝑐
𝒄
− 𝒕
Thus 𝒂 = 𝒈𝒆 𝒎 This equation shows that when t = 0, a = g and as t tends to
infinity the acceleration becomes zero as shown in the graph.
To find the displacement of the object :

𝑑𝑦
The velocity of the object is given by 𝑣 = or 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Integrating 𝑦𝑦
𝑡 𝑡 𝑐
− 𝑡 𝑚 𝑐
− 𝑡 𝑡
𝑦 = ∫0 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 𝑚 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑡 (− 𝑒 𝑚 )
𝑐 0
𝑐 𝑐
𝑚 𝑚
or 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 (𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 − 𝑒 0 ) = 𝑣𝑡 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 (𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 − 1) t
𝑐 𝑐
𝒎 𝒄 t
or 𝒚 = 𝒗𝒕 [𝒕 − (𝟏 − 𝒆− 𝒎𝒕 )]
𝒄
The variation of displacement with time is as shown.
Motion in case of quadratic resistance – Drag force proportional to square

of the velocity
For an object falling under gravity at a high speed in a resistive medium the
drag force is proportional to the square of the velocity. It is given by 𝐹𝐷 ∝ 𝑣 2
or 𝐹𝐷 = −𝐷𝑣 2
1
The constant D is given by 𝐷 = 𝐶 𝜌𝐴 where A is the effective cross-sectional
2
area of the falling object, 𝜌 is the density of the surrounding resistive medium
and C is the drag coefficient that depends on the shape of the moving object
and whose value generally lies in the range 0.5 - 1.0.
Thus the magnitude of the drag force acting on the object is given by
1
𝐹𝐷 = − 2 𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 .
The net force acting on the object falling under gravity is ∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝐷 .
As ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 and 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 , the above equation can be written as
1 𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 2 𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 or𝑎 = 𝑔 − 2𝑚
By definition of terminal velocity, when 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑎 = 0,
𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
Then the equation 𝑎 = 𝑔 − becomes
2𝑚
𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑡2 𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑡2 2𝑚𝑔

0=𝑔− or𝑚𝑔 = or 𝑣𝑡2 = .
2𝑚 2 𝐶𝜌𝐴
𝟐𝒎𝒈
The expression for the terminal velocity is 𝒗𝒕 = √ . For example, a sky diver
𝑪𝝆𝑨
of mass 75 kg with cross sectional area 0.7 m2, the terminal velocity is 60 ms-1.

Numerical problems
1. The driver of a car moving at a speed of 20 m s-1 finds a child on the road 50 m ahead.
He stops the car 10 m behind the child. If the mass of the car is 1000 kg, calculate the
average force on the car and the time taken to stop the car.
Given data : 𝑢 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑠 = 50 − 10 = 40𝑚, 𝑣 = 0, m = 1000 kg
Formulae : 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 0 − 202
Solution : 𝑎= = = −5𝑚𝑠 −2
2𝑠 2×40
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 1000 × 5 = 5000 𝑁
𝑣 −𝑢 0 −20
𝑡= = = 4𝑠
𝑎 −5
2. If a body is moving with a speed of 15 ms-1 and the coefficient of friction between the
ground and the body is 0.3, find the distance travelled by the body before it comes to
rest. 𝑔 = 9.8 m s −2
Given data : 𝑢 = 15 ms-1, 𝑣 = 0 , 𝜇𝑘 = 0.3, 𝑔 = 10 m s −2
Formula : 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, (𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑊) 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 and 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠
Solution : 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝜇𝑘 W = 𝜇𝑘 mg or m𝑎 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔 a = 𝜇𝑘 g
𝑣 2 −𝑢2 0 −152
𝑎 = 0.3 × 9.8 = 2.94 𝑁. 𝑠 = = = 38.26 𝑚 𝑠 = 38.26 𝑚
2𝑎 2×2.94
3. A block of wood of mass 5 kg placed on an inclined plane moves down the plane with
a constant speed when the angle of inclination is 200. Calculate the force of sliding
friction between the block and the surface of the plane. Given the acceleration due to
gravity is 𝑔 = 9.8 m s−2 .
Given data : 𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝑔, 𝜃 = 200 , 𝑓𝑘 = ? 𝑔 = 9.8 m s−2
Formula :𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Solution : 𝑓𝑘 = 5 × 9.8 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛20 = 5 × 9.8 × 0.342 = 16.758 𝑁 𝑓𝑘 = 16.758 𝑁
4. A force of 10 N acts on a body of mass 1 kg lying on a table with the coefficient of

static friction as 0.2. Calculate the normal force, the net force and the acceleration of
the body.
Given data : 𝐹 = 10 𝑁, 𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔, 𝜇𝑠 = 0.2, 𝑁 = ? 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ? , 𝑎 = ?
Formula : [𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹 − 𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 ]
Solution : 𝑁 = 1 × 9.8 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹 − 𝑓 = 10 − (0.2 × 9.8) = 8.04𝑁 𝑎= = 8.04 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑚
5. Two bodies of masses 𝑚1 = 3 𝑘𝑔 and 𝑚2 = 2 𝑘𝑔 which are in contact on a frictionless

table as shown. A force of 10 N acts on the mass 𝑚1 as shown. Find the acceleration

produced in the bodies and also the contact force.

Given data :𝑚1 = 3 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 2 𝑘𝑔, 𝐹 = 10 𝑁, 𝑎 = ? 𝐹𝑐 = ?
𝐹
Formula : 𝑎 = and 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚2 𝑎
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
10
Solution : 𝑎 = = 2 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝐹𝐶 = 𝑚2 𝑎 = 2 × 2 = 4 𝑁
3+2
6. Three blocks of the same mass 𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔 each, connected by cords are pulled by a
force F on a smooth horizontal surface as shown. Find the tensions 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 and the force
F if the acceleration is 10 ms-2
Data given : 𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔,
𝑎 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2 , 𝑇1 = ? 𝑇2 = ? 𝐹= ?
Formula : 𝑇1 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝐹 − 𝑇2 = 𝑚𝑎
Solution : 𝑇1 = 1 × 10 = 10𝑁, 𝑇2 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑇1 = 10 + 10 = 20 𝑁
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑇2 = 10 + 20 = 30 𝑁
7. Two blocks are connected over a massless pulley as shown. The

mass of block 1 is 10 kg and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.2.
Block A slides down the incline at constant speed. Find the mass of
block 2. (𝜃 = 300 )
Data given : 𝑚1 = 10 𝑘𝑔, 𝜇𝑘 = 0.2, 𝜃 = 300 , 𝑚2 = ?
Formula : 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑔
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑎 = 0, 𝑁𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑇 − 𝑓𝑘 = 0
Solution : 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑇 = 10 × 9.8 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 − 0.2 × 10 × 9.8 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 = 49 − 16.95 = 32.05𝑁
𝑇 32.05
𝑚2 = = = 3.27 𝑘𝑔
𝑔 9.8
8. Find the acceleration of the system and the tension in the string of the diagram
shown. (𝑚1 = 2 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 8 𝑘𝑔, g = 10 ms-2)
Given data : 𝑚1 = 2 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 8 𝑘𝑔, g = 10 ms-2
𝑚 −𝑚
Formula : 𝑎 = (𝑚2 +𝑚1) 𝑔, 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝑚1 g
1 2
8 −2
Solution : 𝑎 = × 10 = 6 𝑚𝑠 −2
8+2
𝑇 = 2 × 6 + 2 × 10 = 32 𝑁
9. A block of mass 𝑚1 = 3 𝑘𝑔 is resting on a smooth horizontal surface. It is connected

to a mass 𝑚2 = 2 𝑘𝑔 by a massless string passing over a pulley. Find the acceleration of
the system and the tension in the string.

Data given : 𝑚1 = 3 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 2 𝑘𝑔, 𝑎= ? 𝑇= ?

𝑚2
Formula : 𝑎 = (𝑚 )𝑔 and 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎
1 +𝑚2
(𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎 For mass m2, 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑎 or 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑚2 𝑎 )

2
Solution : 𝑎 = 3+2 × 9.8 = 3.92 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑇 = 3 × 3.92 = 11.76 N
10. Find the acceleration of a block 1 and tension in the string shown in the diagram if
the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.2. Given 𝑚1 = 5 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 10 𝑘𝑔, 𝑔 =
10 𝑚𝑠 −2 , 𝜃 = 300 .
Given data : 𝑚1 = 5 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 10 𝑘𝑔, 𝑔 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2 , 𝜃 = 300 , 𝜇𝑘 = 0.2 . a =?
Formula : 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 1 𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 − 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑁 = 𝑚1 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
For block 2, 𝑚2 𝑎 = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇, or 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑚2 𝑎
Thus 𝑚1 𝑎 = ( 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑚2 𝑎) − 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 − 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑚2 𝑔 −𝜇𝑘 𝑁− 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑚2 𝑔 −𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃− 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Solution : 𝑎 = or 𝑎=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
10×9.8 −0.2×5×𝑐𝑜𝑠30−5×9.8×𝑠𝑖𝑛30
𝑎= = 4.84𝑚𝑠 −2
5+10
𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑚2 𝑎 = 10 × 9.8 − 10 × 4.84 = 49.6 𝑁
11. A trolley of mass 1.5 kg is pulled along a table by a string attached to a mass of 2
kg hanging down over pulley. If the trolley starts from rest, calculate the distance
travelled by it in 5 s.
Given data : 𝑚1 = 1.5 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 2 𝑘𝑔, 𝑢 = 0, 𝑡 = 5 𝑠, 𝑠 =?
𝑚2 1
Formula : 𝑎 = (𝑚 ) 𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
1 +𝑚2 2
2
Solution : 𝑎 = × 9.8 = 𝟓. 𝟔 𝒎𝒔−𝟐
1.5+2
1
𝑠 = 0+ × 5.6 × 52 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒎
2
12. Two bodies A and B of masses 1 kg and 0.25 kg respectively are connected by a
light string passing over smooth pulley at the top of smooth inclined plane. The system
remains at rest when A lies on the inclined plane and B hangs vertically down. Calculate
the angle of inclination of inclined plane and force exerted by the inclined plane on the
body A.
Given data : 𝑚1 = 1 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 0.25 𝑘𝑔, 𝜃= ? 𝐹= ?
Formula : 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑇, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑔
Solution : 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑔 = 0.25 × 9.8 = 2.45 𝑁
𝑇 𝑇 2.45
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = or 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑚 𝑔) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1×9.8) = 14.50
𝑚1 𝑔 1
𝐹 = 2.45 𝑁

13. A solid sphere of mass 0.1 kg falls through a resistive medium in which resistive
force is proportional to the velocity of the sphere. It attains a terminal velocity of 2 ms-
1.Calculate the drag coefficient and time constant.
Given data : 𝑚 = 0.1 𝑘𝑔, (𝐹 ∝ 𝑣), 𝑣𝑡 = 2 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝐶 = ? 𝜏 = ?
𝑚𝑔
Formula : 𝑣𝑡 = 𝜏 = 𝑚/𝑐
𝐶
𝑚𝑔 0.1×9.8
Solution : 𝐶 = = = 0.49 C = 0.49
𝑣𝑡 2
𝑚 0.1
𝜏= = 0.49 = 0.204 𝑠 𝝉 = 0.204 s
𝐶
14. Estimate the drag force on an automobile cruising at 100 kmph. Assume that the
drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 is 0.45 and that the car’s cross-sectional area is 4 m2 . Take air to
have a density of 1.25 kg m−3. Assume resistance varies quadratically with velocity.
100×1000
Given data : 𝑣 = 100 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ = = 27.77 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝐶𝐷 = 0.45,
60×60
𝐴 = 4𝑚2 , 𝜌 = 1.25 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
1
Formula : 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
2
1
Solution : 𝐹𝐷 = × 0.45 × 1.25 × 4 × 27.77 × 27.77 𝐹𝐷 = 867.56 𝑁
2
15. A small 150 g pebble is 3.0 km deep in ocean and is falling with a constant terminal
velocity of 30 ms-1. What force does water exert on the falling pebble? Find the drag
coefficient.
Given data : 𝑚 = 150 𝑔 = 0.15 𝑘𝑔, ℎ = 3 𝑘𝑚, 𝑣𝑡 = 30𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝐹 = ? 𝑐 = ?
𝑚𝑔
Formula : 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 and 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑐
Solution : 𝐹𝐷 = 0.15 × 9.8 = 1.47 𝑁
𝑚𝑔 1.47
𝑐= = = 0.049
𝑣𝑡 30
16. An object is dropped in a viscous medium in which resistance varies directly as

velocity of the object. How long does it take for the object to reach one – fourth of its
terminal velocity? Given : Mass of the object = 100 g and drag coefficient = 0.2 Nsm-1.
Also, calculate the terminal velocity.
1
Given data : 𝑚 = 100 𝑔 = 0.1 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐 = 0.2, 𝑣 = 𝑣, 𝑡= ?
4 𝑡
𝑐
𝑚𝑔
Formula : 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 ) and 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
− 𝑡 1 1
Solution : 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 𝑚 ) or 4 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 ) or 1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 = = 0.25
4
𝑐 𝑐
1 𝑐
or 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 = 0.75 or 𝑒 𝑚𝑡 = = 1.34 or 𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 1.34 = 2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1.34 =0.29
0.75 𝑚
0.1 0.1 ×9.8
or 𝑡 = 0.29 × 0.2 = 0.145 𝑠 𝑣𝑡 = = 4.9 𝑚𝑠 −1
0.2

17. A raindrop with radius 1.2mm falls from a cloud that is at a height of 1.2 km above
ground. The drag coefficient is 0.6. Calculate the terminal speed of the drop if density
of water is 1000 kgm-3 and density of air is 1.23 kg m-3.
Given data : 𝑟 = 1.2𝑚𝑚 = 1.2 × 10−3 𝑚, ℎ = 1.2𝑘𝑚,
𝐶 = 0.6, 𝜌′ = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 𝑣𝑡 = ? 𝜌 = 1.23 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
2𝑚𝑔 4
Formula : 𝑣𝑡 = √ 𝐶𝜌𝐴 and 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 Also 𝑚 = 𝜌′ × 𝑉 = 𝜌′ × 3 𝜋𝑟 3
Solution : 𝐴 = 3.14 × 1.22 × 10−6 = 18.92 × 10−6 𝑚2

4
𝑚 = 1000 × 3 × 3.14 × 1.23 × 10−9 = 7.23 × 10−6 𝑘𝑔
2×7.23×10−6 ×9.8
𝑣𝑡 = √0.6×1.23×18.92×10−6 = 3.18 𝑚𝑠 −1
18. A sphere of mass 3 g moving vertically downwards in a resistive medium has the
terminal velocity of 0.05 ms-1 and the drag coefficient is 0.6. Calculate the time constant
and the time taken by the sphere to reach 80%of its terminal speed. (Assume the
resistive force is proportional to its velocity)
80
Given data : 𝑚 = 3 𝑔 = 3 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔, 𝑣𝑡 = 0.05 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑐 = 0.6, 𝜏 = ? 𝑣 = 𝑣
100 𝑡
𝑡
− 𝑚
Formula : 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 𝜏 ) and 𝜏=
𝑐
𝑚 3×10−3
Solution : Time constant 𝜏 = = = 0.5 × 10−2 𝑠
𝑐 0.6
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
80
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝜏 ) = 𝑣 (1 − 𝑒 −
𝜏 ) or 0.8 = 1 − 𝑒 − 𝜏 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 − 𝜏 = 0.2
100 𝑡
𝑡
1 𝑡
or 𝑒𝜏 = =5 = 2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 5 𝑡 = 𝜏 × 2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 5 𝑡 = 0.805 × 10−2 𝑠
0.2 𝜏
19. A parachutist of mass 90 kg finds that his terminal speed is 6 ms-1. If the effective
area of the parachute is 30 m2, find the drag coefficient. Assume the density of air to be
1.25 kgm3.
Given data :𝑚 = 90 𝑘𝑔, 𝑣𝑡 = 6 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝐴 = 30𝑚2 , 𝜌 = 1.25𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 , 𝑐 = ?
2𝑚𝑔
Formula : 𝑐 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣2
𝑡
2×90×9.8
Solution : 𝑐 = = 1.306
1.25×30×6×6
20. Determine the drag coefficient of a 75 kg skydiver with a projected area of 0.33 m2
and a terminal velocity of 60 ms-1. By how much would the skydiver need to reduce his
projected area so as to double his terminal velocity?
Given data : 𝑚 = 75 𝑘𝑔, 𝐴 = 0.33 𝑚2 , 𝑣𝑡 = 60 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑐 = ?
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 1 1
Formula : 𝑣𝑡 = √ or 𝑐= 𝑣𝑡 ∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 ∝ 𝑣2
𝑐 𝑣𝑡2 √𝐴 𝑡
𝑚𝑔 75 ×9.8 1
Solution : 𝑐 = = = 0.204 As 𝑣𝑡 ∝ 𝐼𝑓 𝑣𝑡 is doubled, the area is reduced to
𝑣𝑡2 60 ×60 √𝐴
1/4th.

Non-Inertial Frame of reference

➢ Reference frames in which Newton’s laws are not valid.
➢ They are accelerating frames.
➢ Such an accelerating frame of reference is called a non-inertial frame because the
law of inertia does not hold in it.
➢ Its velocity is not constant. So, it is either changing its speed by speeding up or
slowing down, or it is changing its direction by traveling in a curved path, or it is
both changing its speed and changing its direction.
➢ Here zero force doesn’t correspond to zero acceleration
➢ In a non-inertial frame of reference fictitious forces arise.
Explanation : A person in the car is pushed forward when brakes are abruptly applied.
In reality, no force is pushing the person forward.
The car, which is slowing down, is an accelerating, or non-inertial frame of reference.
The law of inertia no longer holds in this non-inertial frame.
With respect to the ground, which is at rest, no force is pushing the person forward
when the brakes are applied. The ground is an inertial frame. Relative to this frame,
when the brakes are applied, the person continues with forward motion, according to
Newton's first law of motion.
From the point of view of the person in the car, he is pushed spontaneously forward.
Actually, there is no force acting on him. This imaginary force acting on the person is
called fictitious or pseudo force or the frame dependent force.
Two frames of reference in relative motion with uniform acceleration

(Accelerated frames)
S (inertial frame) and S’ (non inertial frame) are
the two frames with S at rest and S’ moving
with uniform acceleration 𝑎𝑖 .
Let a particle P of mass 𝑚 be moving along + X
direction with an acceleration 𝑎 as measured by
frame S. Since the frame inertial Newton
second law is verified. The observer O in S
measures force on particle P as 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Initially both frames are at rest and coincide.
Let frame S’ start from origin. After some time t, the position of particle P is 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑂′ +
𝟏
𝑂′𝑃 i.e. 𝒙= 𝒂𝒊 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒙′ ….(1)
𝟐
1
or 𝑥′ = 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑖 𝑡 2 ….(2)
2

𝑑𝑥′ 𝑑𝑥
Differentiating eqn. (2), = − 𝑎𝑖 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥′ 𝑑2 𝑥
Differentiating again, = − 𝑎𝑖 or 𝑎 ′ = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑖
or 𝑚𝑎′ = 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑚𝑎𝑖 … . (3)
The real force acting on the particle is 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
The frame S’ measures the force as 𝐹′ = 𝑚𝑎′
Hence eqn. (3) is 𝑭′ = 𝑭 − 𝑭′𝒊 𝒐𝒓 𝑭′ = 𝑭 + 𝑭′𝒊 where 𝐹𝑖′ = −𝑚𝑎𝑖
The force 𝐹𝑖′ is the additional force that acts in an accelerated force which is not real
called pseudo or fictitious force.
This is fictitious in the sense that, their origin cannot traced but it produces same effect
as that of any real force.
Example : Let a person be in a lift which going down with acceleration 𝑎𝑖 (frame S’) in
the y direction w.r.t to a fixed frame S.
𝑑2 𝑦′ 𝑑2 𝑦
The relation is = − 𝑎𝑖 or 𝑔 ′ = 𝑔 − 𝑎𝑖
or 𝑚𝑔′ = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑎𝑖 or 𝑊 ′ = 𝑊 − 𝑚𝑎𝑖
where, 𝑊 ′ = 𝑚𝑔′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 (as measured by inertial frame S)
Thus when the lift is accelerating downwards, the person feels loss weight or lighter.
Also when the lift is moving upwards, he feels heavier as 𝑊 ′ = 𝑊 + 𝑚𝑎𝑖 Thus the person
in the accelerated frame experiences this fictitious force or pseudo force.
Rotating frames
Expressions for Coriolis force and Centrifugal force
Consider the rotational motion of a particle P. Let its
motion be considered as seen by a rotating frame (non
inertial) and a inertial frame.
Let S (XYZ) be an inertial frame and S’(X’Y’Z’)
be a rotating frame with both having a common origin.
Z and Z’ axes always coincide.
Also S’ rotate about Z’ with an angular
velocity 𝜔.
Let a particle P of mass m rotate in the XY plane about
the Z axis. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟
P has an angular acceleration of 𝜔2 𝑟 along 𝑃𝑂⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
The position vector of P in S frame 𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑦 𝑗̂ + z 𝑘̂ …(1)
The position vector of P in S’ frame ⃗⃗𝑟′ = 𝑥′ 𝑖̂′ + 𝑦′ 𝑗′
̂ + z′ 𝑘′
̂ …(2)
As both S and S’ have same origin, 𝑟 = ⃗⃗𝑟′ or 𝑟⌉𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 = 𝑟⌉𝑅𝑜𝑡

̂ + 𝑧′ 𝑘′
Thus 𝑟 = 𝑥′ 𝑖̂′ + 𝑦′ 𝑗′ ̂ …(3)

⃗⃗ must also be equal as they are one and the same

The time derivative of 𝑟 and 𝑟′
𝑑 𝑑
physical vector (𝑟)𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 = (𝑟)𝑅𝑜𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥′ ̂ + 𝑑𝑦/ 𝑗′
̂ + 𝑑𝑧′ 𝑘′
̂
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑘̂ & ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑖′
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Differentiating eqn. (3),

𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥′ ′ 𝑑𝑦′ ̂′ ̂′ ̂′
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑖̂ + ̂ +𝑑𝑧′ 𝑘′
𝑗′ ̂ + 𝑥′ 𝑑𝑖 + 𝑦′ 𝑑𝑗 +𝑧′ 𝑑𝑘 …(4)
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
With respect to observer in S, S’ is rotating and unit vectors are also changing. The
𝑑𝑖̂′
vectors are rotating with angular velocity 𝜔 relative to S. Hence, = 𝜔 × 𝑖̂′ ,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑗̂′ ̂
𝑑𝑘′
= 𝜔 × 𝑗̂′ , = 𝜔 × 𝑘̂′ ….(6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
(Also ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = ( 𝑑𝑡 ) & ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = ( 𝑑𝑡 ) ′ ) Thus eqn. (4) is
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑆 𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑆
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥′ 𝑑𝑦′ ̂ 𝑑𝑧′ ̂
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = [ 𝑑𝑡 𝑖̂′ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑗′ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑘′ ] + [(𝜔 × 𝑖̂′ )𝑥 ′ + (𝜔 × 𝑗̂′ )𝑦 ′ + (𝜔 × 𝑘̂′ )𝑧 ′ ] ..(5)
𝑆
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥′ 𝑑𝑦′ ̂ 𝑑𝑧′ ̂ ̂ ] …(6)
or ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = [ 𝑑𝑡 𝑖̂′ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑗′ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑘′ ] + 𝜔 × [𝑥′ 𝑖̂′ + 𝑦′ 𝑗̂′ + z′ 𝑘′
𝑆
The first term in the RHS is the rate of change of position vector as measured in S’
𝑑𝑥′ 𝑑𝑦′ ̂ 𝑑𝑧′ ̂ 𝑑𝑟
frame. Thus [ 𝑑𝑡 𝑖̂′ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑗′ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑘′ ] = ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑣′
𝑆′
̂ + z′ 𝑘′
As 𝑟 = 𝑥′ 𝑖̂′ + 𝑦′ 𝑗′ ̂,
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
Eqn. (6) is ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = ( 𝑑𝑡 ) ′ + 𝜔 × 𝑟 …(7)
𝑆 𝑆
𝑑𝑟
Here ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑣 . Thus 𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ + (𝜔 × 𝑟) …(8) or 𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣0
𝑆
⃗ ′ + (𝝎 × 𝒓
⃗ =𝒗
𝒗 ⃗) where 𝑣 is the velocity of the particle P with respect to inertial or fixed
frame S and 𝑣 is the velocity with respect to non inertial or rotating frame.
′
Also 𝒗⃗ =𝒗⃗′+ 𝒗
⃗𝟎 where 𝒗 ⃗ 𝟎 = (𝝎 × 𝒓
⃗)
Thus, the velocity 𝑣 of the particle in the inertial frame is the vector sum of its velocity
in the rotating frame 𝑣 ′ and the linear velocity due to rotation (𝑣0 ), the value of which at
any instant depends on the value of 𝑟 at that instant.
⃗
𝒅𝒓 ⃗
𝒅𝒓
Operator equation – The relation ( 𝒅𝒕 ) = ( 𝒅𝒕 ) ′ + 𝝎 × 𝒓
⃗ may be conveniently expressed
𝑺 𝑺
𝒅 𝒅
by the operator identity (𝒅𝒕) ⃗⃗⃗ ×
= (𝒅𝒕) ′ + 𝝎 ……(9)
𝑺 𝑺
Applying the operator equation to the velocity vector in place of displacement vector,
⃗
𝒅𝒗 ⃗
𝒅𝒗
⃗
( 𝒅𝒕 ) = ( 𝒅𝒕 ) ′ + 𝝎 × 𝒗 …(10)
𝑺 𝑺
Substituting for 𝒗
⃗ from eqn. (8) i. e. 𝒗 ⃗ ) in (10)
⃗ ′ + (𝝎 × 𝒓
⃗ =𝒗
⃗
𝒅𝒗 𝒅
⃗ ′+𝝎 ×𝒓
( 𝒅𝒕 ) = 𝒅𝒕 (𝒗 ⃗ ′+𝝎 ×𝒓
⃗ )𝑺′ + 𝝎 × (𝒗 ⃗ )𝑺′
𝑺
⃗′
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑟
= + ( 𝑑𝑡 × 𝑟) ′ + 𝜔 × ( 𝑑𝑡 ) ′ + 𝜔 × 𝑣 ′ + 𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆 𝑆

⃗′
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
= + ( 𝑑𝑡 × 𝑟) ′ + 𝜔 × 𝑣 ′ + 𝜔 × 𝑣 ′ + 𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟)
𝑑𝑡 𝑆
⃗
𝑑𝑣 ⃗′
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = + 2(𝜔 × 𝑣 ′ ) + 𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟) + ( 𝑑𝑡 × 𝑟)
𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑆′
𝒅𝝎
Or ⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
𝒂 ⃗ ′ ) + 𝝎 × (𝝎 × 𝒓
𝒂′ + 𝟐(𝝎 × 𝒗 ⃗)+( ×𝒓⃗) ….(11)
𝒅𝒕 𝑺′
Here ⃗⃗⃗
𝒂′ is the acceleration of the particle as measured from rotating frame S and 𝒂
⃗ is
the acceleration as measured from fixed frame S’
In the eqn. (11) the term 𝟐(𝝎 ⃗ ′ ) is called the Coriolis acceleration and
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒗
𝝎 × (𝝎 × 𝒓⃗ ) is called the Centripetal acceleration.
𝒅𝝎
For a uniform angular velocity =𝟎.
𝒅𝒕
Thus ⃗𝒂 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝒂′ + 𝟐(𝝎 × 𝒗 ⃗ ′ ) + 𝝎 × (𝝎 × 𝒓
⃗)
or ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒗
𝒂′ = ⃗𝒂 − 𝟐(𝝎 ⃗ ′ ) − 𝝎 × (𝝎 × 𝒓 ⃗) …(12)
The term − 𝝎 × (𝝎 × 𝒓
⃗ ) is called Centrifugal acceleration.
As ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ ) − 𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟)
𝑎′ = 𝑎 − 2(𝜔
And if m is the mass of the particle,
⃗⃗⃗ = m𝑎 − 2𝑚(𝜔
m𝑎′ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ ) − 𝑚𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟)
or ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ ) − 𝑚𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟)
𝐹′ = 𝐹 − 2𝑚(𝜔 ……(13)
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒗
In the above equation −𝟐𝒎(𝝎 ⃗ ′ ) is called the Coriolis force and −𝒎𝝎 × (𝝎 × 𝒓
⃗ ) is
called the centrifugal force. These forces are frame dependent forces arising in non
inertial frame and are pseudo forces or fictitious forces.
The equation ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹′ = 𝐹 − 2𝑚(𝜔⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ ) − 𝑚𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟)
can be expressed as ⃗⃗⃗

𝐹′ = 𝐹 + 𝐹0
where ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ is the effective force on the particle m in the rotating frame S’ .
𝐹′ = m𝑎′
𝐹 = m𝑎 is the true force on the particle in the inertial frame S.
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ ) − 𝑚𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟) is the fictitious force in the non inertial frame
and 𝐹0 = −2𝑚(𝜔
S’. Thus 𝐹𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Coriolis force
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒗
The Coriolis force given by 𝑭𝑪 = − 𝟐𝒎(𝝎 ⃗ ′ ) is defined as the fictitious force that acts
on a particle when it is in motion relative to a rotating frame of reference.
𝑭𝑪 is proportional to the angular velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝝎 of the rotating frame and also to the velocity
⃗ ′ of the particle relative to it.
𝒗
The Coriolis force is zero if (1) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝝎 = 𝟎, i.e. the reference frame is non rotating and (2)
⃗ ′ = 𝟎, i.e. if the particle is at rest relative to the rotating frame.
𝒗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 ′ indicates that the direction of this force is
Also the cross product of 𝜔

perpendicular to both angular velocity of rotating frame and velocity of particle with
respect to rotating frame.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒗
In the equation 𝑭𝑪 = − 𝟐𝒎(𝝎 ⃗ ′ ), the negative sign indicates that the direction of
Coriolis force is opposite to that given by right handed screw rule.
This force can be represented as
𝑭𝑪 = − 𝟐𝒎(𝝎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒗
⃗ ′ ) = −𝟐𝒎𝝎 ⃗ ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒏
̂
Special cases : 1) If 𝜽 = 𝟎, Coriolis force is zero. Thus when the angular velocity vector
of the rotating frame is parallel to the particle velocity relative to the rotating frame, the
Coriolis force vanishes.
𝝅
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒗
2) If 𝜽 = 𝟐 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1. The Coriolis force is 𝑭𝑪 = 𝟐𝒎𝝎 ⃗ ′ which is maximum. The
Coriolis force is maximum when ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ′ are at right angles to each other.
𝝎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗
Centrifugal force
A centripetal force 𝑭𝒄 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒓 acts along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑶 on particle P according to frame S and no
𝑚𝑣 2
other force acts on it. (𝐹 = , Also 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 )
𝑟
According to observer in S’ frame, the particle P is at rest as S’ is rotating with the same
angular velocity as that of P.
An additional force 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒓 acts on the particle along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑷 (outwards) in addition to
centripetal 𝑭𝒄 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒓 along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑶 (inwards). Thus P is at rest.
This additional force is called frame dependent force or centrifugal force. (It is a
pseudo force or a fictitious force)
The term 𝑭𝑪𝑭 = −𝒎𝝎 × (𝝎 × 𝒓 ⃗ ) arises as a result of the rotation of co-ordinate axes and
the centrifugal force is defined as the fictitious force that acts on a particle at rest
relative to a rotating frame of reference.
It is numerically equal to the centripetal force but acts in the opposite direction i.e.
outwards and away from the rotational axis. Its magnitude is given by 𝑭𝑪𝑭 = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒓
Note : 1. Centrifugal force exists only when viewed from the rotating frame. It has no
existence in a inertial frame.
2. Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction of motion of the particle,
and does no work. It only changes the direction of motion of the particle without
changing the speed.

Effect of Centrifugal force due to Earth’s rotation on g

Earth rotates with a constant angular velocity
Y
⃗ from west to east and the frame fixed to it
𝜔 𝜔
is a rotating frame.
The particle under consideration is assumed
to be at rest so that there is no Coriolis force.
Only the effect of centrifugal acceleration is
C r P
considered on 𝑔 , the acceleration due to
𝑟𝜔2
gravity. R
Let 𝜔
⃗ be along Y direction. The value of 𝑔 at 𝜆 X
a point P on earth’s surface at latitude 𝜆 will O
be along PO with O being the centre of earth.
R is radius of earth.
The component of 𝑔 are −𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑖̂ along X-axis
and −𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑗̂ along Y-axis. Therefore 𝑔 =
−𝑔(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑖̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑗̂) Also 𝜔
⃗ = 𝜔𝑗̂
A perpendicular PC is drawn from P to OY. Then 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑟, the radius of the circle in which
a particle at P rotates. Therefore ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑟 = 𝑅⃗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑖̂
The observed g – value at P, taking centrifugal force into account , is
⃗⃗⃗
𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔
⃗ × (𝜔
⃗ × 𝑟) (since ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎′ = 𝑎 − 𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟) )
As 𝑔 = −𝑔(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑖̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑗̂) , 𝜔
⃗ = 𝜔𝑗̂ and 𝑟 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑖̂
The eqn. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔 ⃗ × 𝑟) will be
⃗ × (𝜔
⃗⃗⃗
𝑔′ = −𝑔(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑖̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑗̂) − 𝜔𝑗̂ × (𝜔𝑗̂ × 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑖̂)
= − {(𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆)𝑖̂ + 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑗̂}
⃗⃗⃗
𝑔′2 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑔′. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑔′ = {(𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆)2 + 𝑔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆}
2
𝜔2𝑅
= 𝑔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 (1 − ) + 𝑔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆
𝑔
2𝜔 2 𝑅 𝜔2𝑅
= 𝑔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 (1 − ) + 𝑔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆 (∵ ≪ 1)
𝑔 𝑔
⃗⃗⃗ 2𝜔 2 𝑅
𝑔′2 = 𝑔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 (1 − ) + 𝑔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆
𝑔
1/2
2𝜔 2 𝑅
𝑔′ = 𝑔 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 (1 − ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆] (by taking square root on both sides)
𝑔
1/2
2𝜔 2 𝑅 𝝎𝟐 𝑹
or 𝑔′ = 𝑔 [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆] 𝒈′ = 𝒈 [𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝀]
𝑔 𝒈
𝒈′ = 𝒈 − 𝝎𝟐 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝀 in magnitude
Thus due to the rotation of the earth, the value of g at latitude 𝝀 decreases by a
value 𝝎𝟐 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝀

𝒈′ = 𝒈 − 𝝎𝟐 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝀 At the equator, where 𝜆 = 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 = 1 the decrease in the g –

value is maximum and the decrease in g is
2𝜋 2
𝜔2 𝑅 = (24×60×60) × 6400 × 103 = 0.0337𝑚𝑠 −2
At the poles, where 𝜆 = 900 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 = 0, there is no decrease in the value of g due to
rotation of earth at the poles.
At the latitude of 𝜆 = 450 , the decrease in the value of g is 𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 45 =
1 2 1 1
𝜔2 𝑅 ( ) = 𝜔2 𝑅 = × 0.0337 = 0.0168 𝑚𝑠 −2 .
√2 2 2
The effect of centrifugal force due to the rotation of earth is minimum (zero) at
the poles and maximum at the equator.
Effect of Coriolis force on a moving particle on surface of Earth

The Coriolis force acting on a particle of mass m moving with velocity 𝑣 in a frame
rotating with angular velocity 𝜔
⃗ is
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ )
𝐹𝐶 = − 2𝑚(𝜔
Let P be a point on the surface of earth at a
latitude 𝜆 .
The cartesian coordinate system XYZ is fixed
to earth at point P and the Z – axis is taken
vertically upwards at P (radially outwards
from the centre of earth).
The xy – plane is horizontal containing P,
the + X axis pointing east and +Y axis pointing
north and earth rotates from west to east.
The angular velocity vector 𝜔
⃗ is in yz – plane directed parallel to the polar axis NS about
which earth rotates. Thus 𝜔
⃗ has no component along east –west i.e. along X – axis.
⃗ = 𝜔𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜔𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜔𝑧 𝑘̂
𝜔
= 𝜔𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜔𝑧 𝑘̂ as 𝜔𝑥 = 0
⃗ = 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑗̂ + 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑘̂
𝜔
Let a particle be projected from P horizontally with a velocity 𝑣 .
Then 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂
= 𝑥̇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑦̇ 𝑗̂ + 𝑧̇ 𝑘̂
= 𝑥̇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑦̇ 𝑗̂ as 𝑣𝑧 = 𝑧̇ = 0
The Coriolis force on the moving particle is ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣)
𝐹𝐶 = − 2𝑚(𝜔
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶 = −2𝑚 | 0 𝜔𝑦 𝜔𝑧 | = −2𝑚 |0 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆|
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 0 𝑥̇ 𝑦̇ 0

𝐹𝐶 = −2𝑚(−𝑦̇ 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑖̂ + 𝑥̇ 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑗̂ − 𝑥̇ 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑘̂)

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶 = −2𝑚𝜔(−𝑦̇ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑖̂ + 𝑥̇ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑗̂ − 𝑥̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑘̂)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
The magnitude of the Coriolis force is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶 = 2𝑚𝜔(𝑦̇ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆 + 𝑥̇ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆 + 𝑥̇ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆)1/2
1/2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶 = 2𝑚𝜔(𝑣𝑦2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆 + 𝑣𝑥2 ) in terms of latitude 𝜆
The horizontal component of Coriolis force is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 ) = −2𝑚𝜔(−𝑦̇ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑖̂ + 𝑥̇ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑗̂ )
(𝐹 𝐻
= −2𝑚𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆(−𝑦𝑖̂̇ + 𝑥̇ 𝑗̂ )
The magnitude of horizontal component of Coriolis force is
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 ) | = 2𝑚𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆(𝑦̇ 2 + 𝑥̇ 2 )1/2
|(𝐹 𝐻
1/2 1/2
= 2𝑚𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆(𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑥2 ) Also (𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑥2 ) =𝑣
= 2𝑚𝜔𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 …….. In terms of latitude 𝜆
= 2𝑚𝜔𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 …….. In terms of co-latitude 𝜙
The horizontal component of Coriolis force has maximum value at the poles (𝜆 = 900 )
and zero at the equator (𝜆 = 0)
The vertical component of Coriolis force is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 ) = −2𝑚𝜔(−𝑥̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑘̂ )
(𝐹 𝑉
= +2𝑚𝜔 𝑥̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑘̂
The magnitude of vertical component of Coriolis force is
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 ) | = 2𝑚𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆(𝑥̇ 2 )1/2 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆(𝑣𝑥2 )1/2
|(𝐹 𝑉
= 2𝑚𝜔 𝑣𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 …….. In terms of latitude 𝜆
= 2𝑚𝜔 𝑣𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 …….. In terms of co-latitude 𝜙
The vertical component (= +2𝑚𝜔 𝑥̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑘̂ ) of Coriolis force acts in the direction of +Z axis
which means vertically upwards. At the equator if it has an initial velocity, it will appear
to be lifted upwards.
Direction of Coriolis force in the northern and southern hemisphere

The direction of angular velocity ⃗⃗⃗
𝜔 of rotation of earth is always along the axis of earth
i.e. from south to north. In the northern hemisphere, if a body is moving towards north,
i.e. along the +Y axis, applying the rule of vector product of two vectors, the Coriolis
force will act towards east i.e. along +X axis.
If the body is moving towards south, i.e. along -Y axis, the Coriolis force will act along
west, i.e. along –X axis. Thus in northern hemisphere, a moving body turns towards
right and in the southern hemisphere a moving body turns towards left due to the effect
of Coriolis force.

Geophysical effects of Coriolis force

1. Direction of Trade winds : The air that gets heated at the equator due to sun-rays,
rises upwards and cooler air from poles (north and south) move towards the equator
creating pressure gradients.
Due to Coriolis force, the wind does not move straight instead it deflected towards its
right i.e. in west direction in the northern hemisphere and towards east in the southern
hemisphere.
2. Cyclones : Low pressure regions created in the atmosphere due to differential heating
of air is called cyclone. In the northern hemisphere, the iar from all directions rushes
towards low pressure region. This air is deflected towards right due to Coriolis force.
This causes anticlockwise rotation or whirling of wind round the low pressure area.
This rotational motion goes on till the thrust due to pressure gradient is balanced by
that due to Coriolis force.
In the southern hemisphere, the cyclonic direction is in the clockwise direction.
At equator, no cyclone occurs as the horizontal component of Coriolis force
2𝑚𝜔𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 = 0 as the latitude 𝜆 at the equator is zero.
3. Erosion of right bank of rivers : The water of rivers with their courses from north
to south or from south to north will experience Coriolis force towards the right of flow
direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left of the flow direction in the southern
hemisphere due to the rotation of earth. Thus the right bank of the river is eroded more
rapidly compared to the left bank.
Foucault pendulum
The Foucault pendulum is a simple device named after French physicist
Léon Foucault and is an experiment to demonstrate the Earth's rotation.
Foucault also observed that the small effect of Coriolis force could be greatly amplified
by using a pendulum.
He noticed that the rightward Coriolis deflection on one swing of the pendulum cannot
be nullified in the return swing.
Foucault pendulum consists of relatively large mass (around 28kg iron sphere)
suspended from a long steel wire (around 67 m) mounted so that its perpendicular plane
of swing is not confined to a particular direction and can rotates in relation to the
Earth’s surface.
While a Foucault pendulum swings back and forth in a plane, the Earth rotates beneath
it, so that relative motion exists between them.
At the North pole, latitude 90° N, the relative motion as viewed from above in the plane
of the pendulum’s suspension is a counterclockwise rotation of the Earth once

approximately every 24 hours Correspondingly, the plane of the pendulum as viewed
from above appears to rotate in a clockwise direction once a day.
A Foucault pendulum always rotates clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere with a rate
that becomes slower as the pendulum’s location approaches the equator. Foucault’s
original pendulums at Paris rotated clockwise at a rate of more than 11° per hour, or
with a period of about 32 hours per complete rotation.
The rate of rotation depends on the latitude. At the Equator, 0° latitude, a Foucault
pendulum does not rotate.
In the Southern Hemisphere, rotation is counterclockwise.
2𝜋
The period of rotation of the pendulum is 𝑇 = 𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
At the pole 𝜆 = 90 , 𝑇 = 24 hours.. Thus the plane of oscillation of the pendulum at the
0
poles makes a complete revolution in 24 hours.

At the equator 𝜆 = 00 , 𝑇 = ∞, 𝑖. 𝑒. There is no rotation of the plane of oscillation of the
pendulum at the equator. At any other latitude, the period 𝑇 > 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠.
By measuring T, Foucault determined the period of rotation of the earth and thus
provided the terrestrial demonstration of earth’s axial rotation.
1. Calculate the fictitious force and the total force acting on a mass of 3 kg in a frame
of reference moving (i) vertically downwards and (ii) vertically upwards with an
acceleration of 4𝑚𝑠 −2 . The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2.
Taking the earth to be inertial and upward direction as positive, the weight of the body
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = 3 × (−9.8) = −29.4 𝑁.
(i) For downward motion, the fictitious force 𝐹0 = −𝑚𝑎0 = −3 × (−4) = 12 𝑁 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
Thus, total force 𝐹 ′ = 𝐹 + 𝐹0 = −29.4 + 12 = −17.4 𝑁 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
(ii) For upward motion, the fictitious force 𝐹0 = −𝑚𝑎0 = −3 × (+4) = −12 𝑁 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
Thus, total force 𝐹 ′ = 𝐹 + 𝐹0 = −29.4 − 12 = −41.4 𝑁 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
2. A rocket of mass 5000 kg is fired vertically upwards from a place at the equator with
a velocity of 1200𝑚𝑠 −1 . If the angular velocity of the earth is 7.3 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 −1 , calculate
the Coriolis force acting on it.
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ ) = 2𝑚 𝜔 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑚 𝜔 𝑣
Coriolis force 𝐹𝐶 = 2𝑚(𝜔 As 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 900
𝐹𝐶 = 2 × 5000 × 7.3 × 10−5 × 1200 = 876 𝑁

Newton’s laws of motion and their applications

Multiple choice questions
1. The inertia of a moving object depends on:
i. Mass of the object
ii. Momentum of the object
iii. Speed of the object
iv. Shape of the object
Choose the correct option:
(a) (i) and (ii)
(b) only (i)
(c) only (ii)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
2. The seat belts are provided in the cars so that if the car stops suddenly due to an
emergency braking, the persons sitting on the front seats are not thrown forward
violently and saved from getting injured. The law due to which a person falls in
forward direction is
(a) Newton’s first law of motion
(b) Newton’s second law of motion
(c) Newton’s third law of motion
(d) Newton’s law of gravitation
3. Which of the following situations involves the Newton’s second law of motion?
(a) A force can stop a lighter vehicle as well as a heavier vehicle which are moving
(b) A force exerted by a lighter vehicle on collision with a heavier vehicle results in
both the (vehicles coming to a standstill
(c) A force can accelerate a lighter vehicle more easily than a heavier vehicle which
are moving
(d) A force exerted by the escaping air from a balloon in the downward direction
makes the balloon to go upwards
4. A passenger in a moving train tosses a coin which falls behind him. Observing this
statement what can you say about the motion of the train?
(a) Accelerated
(b) Retarded
(c) Along circular tracks
(d) Uniform
5. Newton’s first law of motion says that a moving body should continue to move
forever , unless some external forces act on it. But a moving cycle comes to rest
after some time if we stop pedaling it. Can you choose the correct reason for the
stoppage of cycle?
i. Air resistance
ii. Gravitational pull of the earth

iii. Friction of the road

iv. Heat of the environment
Choose the correct option:
(a) (iii) and (iv)
(b) (i) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (ii)
(d) (ii) and (iii)
6. Newton’s third law of motion explains the two forces namely ‘action’ and ‘reaction’
coming into action when the two bodies are in contact with each other. These two
forces:
(a) Always act on the same body
(b) Always act on the different bodies in opposite directions
(c) Have same magnitude and direction
(d) Acts on either body at normal to each other
7. An object of mass 2 kg is sliding with a constant velocity of 4 m/s on a friction less

horizontal table. The force required to keep the object moving with the same velocity
is:
(a) 32 N
(b) 0 N
(c) 2 N
(d) 8 N
8 A lift is moving upwards with an acceleration a. A force F exerted by a person of

mass m on the floor of the lift is
(a) mg (b) ma (c) m(g + a) (d) m(g - a)
9. Two trains are moving on parallel tracks with the same speed and in the same
direction. For a person sitting in one train, the other train appears to be
(a) moving with the same speed (b) at rest
(c) moving with twice the speed of either train (d) none of these
10. A stone dropped from a moving train appears to move along a ………….for a person
on the platform
(a) straight line (horizontally) (b) parabola (c) vertical straight line
(d) zigzag path
11 The Newton’s second law is not applicable if

(a) Force depends on time
(b) Momentum depends on time
(c) Acceleration depends on time
(d) Mass depends on time

12 Which of the following force is not a contact force

(a) Normal force
(b) Frictional force
(c) Gravitational force
(d) Spring force
13 Newton’s laws are obeyed in

(a) Accelerated frames of reference
(b) Frame of reference moving with constant velocity
(c) Rotating frames of reference
(d) Frame of reference moving vertically downwards under the action of gravity
14 Which of the following equations represent Galilean transformation equations

along the x direction
(a) 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
(b) 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡
1
(c) 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑖 𝑡 2
2
1
(d) 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑖 𝑡 2
2
15 A body of mass 50 kg acquires a speed of 20 𝑚𝑠 −1 under a force of 100 N in time

(a) 5 s (b) 10 s (3) 15 s (d) 20 s
16 A force of 12N gives an object an acceleration of 4 𝑚𝑠 −2 . The force required to give

it an acceleration of 10 𝑚𝑠 −1 is
(a) 15 N (b). 20 N (c) . 25 N (d). 30 N
Answers : 1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (c) 4 (a) 5(b) 6 (b) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (b) 10 (b) 11 (d) 12 (c)
13 (b) 14 (a) 15 (b) 16 (d)
Two mark questions

1. Why is Newton's first called law of inertia? Explain
2. What is the significance of Newton’s second law of motion.
3. Action and reaction are equal and opposite, then why they do not cancel each other?
4. What is the significance of Newton’s third law of motion.
5. What is frame of reference? Explain.
6. What is inertial frame of reference? Given an example.
7. What is non-inertial frame of reference? Given an example.
7 A body is moving with uniform velocity. Can we say the body is in equilibrium?
Explain.
8 Can a body remain at rest even though forces are acting on it? Explain.
9 What are the limitations of Newton’s laws of motion?
Six mark questions

1. State and explain Newton’ s laws of motion with examples.

2. (a) Distinguish between Inertial and non-inertial frames of reference
(b) Explain Galilean relativity.
3. Obtain the Galilean transformation equations when two frames are moving with
relative uniform velocity.
4 Show that Newton’s laws laws of motion are invariant under Galilean transformation.
Friction
1. A block is pulled across a horizontal surface. The mass of the block is 5 kg. The block
is travelling at a constant velocity. Calculate the force of friction acting on the block.
(a) 0 N (b) 4 N (c) 15 N (d) 20 N
2. Choose the correct statement

(a) A body can be accelerated by frictional force
(b) There can be zero friction
(c) Kinetic friction is greater than rolling friction
(d) Frictional force and area of contact between the two surfaces are proportional
3 A car moving with speed 72km per hour is to be stopped at shortest distance while
moving on a road of coefficient of friction  = 0.5. The distance is
(a) 30m (b) 40m (c) 72m (d) 20m
4 A block placed on an inclined plane with angle , slides down at uniform speed. The
coefficient of kinetic friction is
(a) sin (b) cos (c)g (d) tan
5 A block of 2kg placed on floor of  = 0.4 is acted upon by a force of 2.8N parallel to
floor. The force of friction between floor and block is
(a) 2.8N (b) 8N (c) 2N (d) zero
6 Use of lubricants cannot reduce

(a) inertia (b) static friction (c) rolling friction (d) limiting friction
7 The relation between the angle of friction and coefficient of friction is

(a) s = tan (2) s = sin (3) s = cos (4) s = cot
8 An inclined plane makes an angle  with the horizontal, the force experienced by a
body of mass m while sliding down the plane of coefficient of friction  is
(a) mg sin (b) mg (sin - cos) (c) mg (sin + cos) (d) mg cos
9 The acceleration of a body sliding down an inclined plane having coefficient of friction
𝜇𝑘 is

(a) 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

(b) 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑘 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(c) 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
(d) 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜇𝑘 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
10 The static friction is

(a) dependent on the area of contact of the given surfaces when the normal force is
constant.
(b) independent of the area of contact of the given surfaces when the normal force is
constant.
(c) Less than the kinetic friction
(d) None of the above
11 A force of 10 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg at rest and moves horizontally with

acceleration 2𝑚𝑠 −2. The frictional force is
(a) 12 N (b) 8 N (c) 10 N (d) 6 N
12 A body of mass 5 kg slides along the frictionless surface of an inclined plane with
the angle of inclination as 300 to the horizontal. The acceleration of the body is
(a) 4.9 𝑚𝑠 −2 (b) 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 (c) 8.477 𝑚𝑠 −2 (d) 11.2 𝑚𝑠 −2
13 The acceleration of two masses 10 kg and 20 kg suspended with the help of a string
from a pulley in a Atwood machine is
(a) 4.3 𝑚𝑠 −2 (b) 5.3 𝑚𝑠 −2 (c) 3.3 𝑚𝑠 −2 (d) 2.3 𝑚𝑠 −2
14 A mass 3 kg moves on a frictionless table with the help of another mass of 5 kg

attached through a string moving over a pully fixed at the edge of the table. The
acceleration of the mass is
(a) 4.125 𝑚𝑠 −2 (b) 5.125 𝑚𝑠 −2 (c) 3.125 𝑚𝑠 −2 (d) 6.125 𝑚𝑠 −2
15 Which of the following is true ?

(a) 𝜇𝑟 < 𝜇𝑘 < 𝜇𝑠 (b) 𝜇𝑟 > 𝜇𝑘 > 𝜇𝑠 𝜇𝑟 < 𝜇𝑘 > 𝜇𝑠 𝜇𝑟 > 𝜇𝑘 < 𝜇𝑠
Answers : 1 (a) 2 (c) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (a) 6 (a) 7 (a) 8 (b) 9 (a) 10 (b) 11 (d) 12 (a)
13 (c) 14 (d) 15 (a)
Motion in a resistive medium

1 Drag force depends on
(a) Effective cross-sectional area of the falling object
(b) Density of the surrounding resistive medium
(c) Velocity of the falling body
(d) All the above

2 Terminal velocity is the constant velocity attained by a body moving under the action
of gravity under the condition
(a) Drag force is greater than weight of the body
(b) Drag force is less than weight of the body
(c) Drag force is equal to weight of the body
(d) Drag force and weight equal to each other but acting in the same direction
3 The expression for the terminal velocity when the force is proportional to velocity is
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑐 𝑐
(a) 𝑣𝑡 = (b) 𝑣𝑡 = √ (c) 𝑣𝑡 = (d) 𝑣𝑡 = √𝑚𝑔
𝑐 𝑐 𝑚𝑔
4 The terminal velocity of a body of mass 2 kg falling through a resistive medium of drag
coefficient 0.6 when force is proportional to velocity is (𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2)
(a) 7.56 𝑚𝑠 −1 (b) 15.4 𝑚𝑠 −1 (c) 25.6 𝑚𝑠 −1 (d) 32.6 𝑚𝑠 −1
5 The terminal velocity of a body of mass 2 kg falling through a resistive medium of drag
coefficient 0.6 when force is proportional to square of velocity is (𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 )
(a) 12.52 𝑚𝑠 −1 (b) 15.4 𝑚𝑠 −1 (c) 5.72 𝑚𝑠 −1 (d) 32.6 𝑚𝑠 −1
6 The terminal velocity of a parachute of mass 90 kg with cross sectional area 30 m2,
moving a resistive medium of density 1.25 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and drag coefficient 1.3 is
(a) 22 𝑚𝑠 −1 (b) 6.1 𝑚𝑠 −1 (c) 9.4 𝑚𝑠 −1 (d) 12.5 𝑚𝑠 −1
7 Which of the following graph represent the variation of instantaneous velocity with
time of a body moving in a resistive medium under the action of gravity when the
force is proportional to the velocity is
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
𝑣𝑡 𝑦
𝑣 𝑎
𝑡 t
t
8 A 150 g pebble is falling with a constant terminal velocity of 30 ms-1. The drag
coefficient is
(a) 0.049 (b) 0.059 (c) 0.069 (d) 0.079
9 The drag coefficient of a 75 kg skydiver with a terminal velocity of 60 ms-1 is

(a) 0.204 (b) 0.045 (c) 0.45 (d) 0.65
10 By how much would the skydiver need to reduce his projected area so as to double
his terminal velocity
(a) By half (b) by one fourth (c) by one sixth (c) by one eighth
Answers : 1 (d) 2 (c) 3 (a) 4 (d) 5 (c) 6 (b) 7 (a) 8 (a) 9 (a) 10 (b)
Two mark questions

1 What is Drag force? Mention a factor on which it depends.
2. Explain terminal velocity

3. What are the different forces acting on a body moving vertically through a resistive
medium under the action of gravity?
4 What is drag coefficient? Mention the factors on which it depends.
5 Why does a body move with non-uniform acceleration when dropped vertically in a
resistive medium?
6 The terminal velocity of a body moving vertically downwards in water is less than that
when moving in air. Why?
Six mark questions

1 Arrive at the expressions for terminal velocity when (i) force is proportional to velocity
and (ii) force proportional to square of velocity.
2 Arrive at the expression for velocity of a body falling freely under gravity where the
resistance varies directly as velocity of the body. Represent the variation graphically
3 Given the velocity of a body moving in a resistive medium under the action of gravity
𝒄
as 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒕 (𝟏 − 𝒆− 𝒎𝒕 ), arrive at the expressions for the acceleration and displacement of
the body. Represent the variations graphically.
4 Arrive at the expression for terminal velocity in terms of density and area of cross
section of a body moving under action of gravity in case of force proportional to square
of velocity.
Rotational frames of reference

1. The expression for Coriolis force is
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ )
(a) −2𝑚(𝜔 (b) −𝑚𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟) (c) − (𝜔 × 𝑟) (d) − (𝜔 × 𝑣 ′ )
2. The horizontal deflection effect caused by the Coriolis Force is

(a) Greater near the pole
(b) Greater near the equator
(c) Equally Distributed all over the earth’s surface
(d) More near the surface of the earth and lesser above
3 Which of the following is correct about Coriolis Force?

(a) Coriolis Force affects only the large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere
(b) Coriolis Effect is caused due to rotation of Earth and pressure difference
between two points
(c) Winds are deflected to the right in the Southern hemisphere
(d) If it was not for the Earth’s rotation, global winds would blow in straight north-
south lines
4 Which of these is not a major cause of global wind circulation?

(a) Inequalities in the distribution of solar radiation
(b) The Coriolis effect
(c) Position of the major earth mountain ranges
(d) Carbon dioxide concentration

5 Which of the following is not correct for a non inertial frame of reference
(a) velocity does not remain constant.
(b) Newtons laws are obeyed
(c) Fictitious forces arise
(d) Zero force does not correspond to zero acceleration
6 The effect of centrifugal force due to rotation of earth

(a) Maximum at the poles
(b) Maximum at the equator
(c) Effect is same at the equator and the poles
(d) No changes in centrifugal force
7 Which of the following is not correct

(a) Centrifugal force exists only when viewed from the rotating frame.
(b) Centrifugal force has no existence in an inertial frame.
(c) Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction of motion of the particle,
and does work.
(d) It only changes the direction of motion of the particle without changing the speed
8 Which of the following is not correct for Coriolis force?

(a) Coriolis force is zero. when the angular velocity parallel to the particle velocity
(b) Coriolis force is maximum when the angular velocity is at right angles to particle
velocity
(c) Coriolis force is zero if the particle is at rest in a rotating frame
(d) Coriolis force is independent of rotation of earth
9 Due to the rotation of the earth, the value of g at latitude 𝜆 decreases by a

(a) 𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 (b) 𝜔2 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜆 (c) 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 (d) 𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
10 The plane of oscillation of a Foucault pendulum at the poles makes a complete

revolution in
(a) 24 hours (b) 12 hours (c) 18 hours (d) 6 hours
Answers : 1 (a) 2 (a) 3 (d) 4 (d) 5 (b) 6 (b) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 (a) 10 (a)
Two mark questions

1 What is non inertial frame of reference. Give an example.
2 Is Newton’s second law of motion valid in a rotating frame? Explain
3 What is meant by frame dependent force? Explain with an example.
4 What is Coriolis force? Explain.
5 What is Centrifugal force? Explain
6 Why the outer edge of a railway track or outer edge of a road slightly elevated than
the inner one?
7 Ia earth an inertial frame? Explain.
8 What are the forces that come into play in a rotating frame?
9 Does the Coriolis force do work? Explain.
10 What will be the direction of Coriolis force in the northern and southern hemisphere?
11 How do you account for the greater erosion to one bank of a river than the other.
12 Explain the formation of trade winds
13 Explain the formation of cyclones.
Six mark questions

1. Prove that a frame of reference moving with uniform acceleration in translatory
motion with respect to an inertial frame is a non inertial frame.
2 Arrive at the expressions for Coriolis force and centrifugal force acting on a particle
in a rotational frame of reference.
3 Explain the two fictitious force acting in a rotational frame namely Coriolis force and
centrifugal force.
4 Explain the physical significance of the terms in the equation ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹′ = 𝐹 − 2𝑚(𝜔 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ ) −
𝑚𝜔 × (𝜔 × 𝑟)
5. Assuming the earth to be a rotating frame of reference, explain the effect of centrifugal
force on the value of g. Also show that the effect is maximum at the equator and minimu
at the poles.
6 Explain the effect of Coriolis force on a moving particle on the surface of earth.
Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of Coriolis force.
Numerical problems
1 The diagram shows a block of mass m = 15 kg held by a chord on a

frictionless inclined plane. What is the tension in the chord if 𝜙 = 300 .
What force does the plane exert on the block?
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑇 = 𝐹 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 73.5 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
127.15 𝑁
2 A block is pulled at a constant velocity on a horizontal surface by a force of 10N applied

at an angle of 250 .to the horizontal. If the coefficient of friction is 0.5, find the mass of
the block.
As the velocity is constant, the applied force is equal to kinetic frictional force.
𝑓𝑘
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑘 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔 Thus 𝑚 = = 2.041 𝑘𝑔
𝜇𝑘 𝑔
3 A block of mass 1 kg is placed on a horizontal surface. The coefficient friction between

the block and the surface is 0.2. If an external force of 3 N is applied on the block parallel
to the surface, find the acceleration of the block.
𝐹−𝑓 𝐹− 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹 − 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐴𝑠 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔 Thus 𝑎 = = = 1.04 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑚 𝑚

4 A 10 kg block is placed on a horizontal table and is attached to a 5 kg block with the

help of a string passing over a frictionless massless pully. Calculate the acceleration
produced. Given the coefficient of static friction is 0.2 between block and the table.
𝑚2 𝑔− 𝜇𝑠 𝑚1 𝑔
𝑎= = 1.96 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
5 Two masses 6 kg and 12 kg are connected at the two ends of a light inextensible string
that goes over a frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration of the masses when masses
are released.
(𝑚2 − 𝑚1) 𝑔
𝑎= = 3.26 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
6. Calculate the fictitious and total force acting on a freely falling body of mass 18 kg
with respect to frame moving with a downward acceleration of 6 𝑚𝑠 −2 .
Fictitious force 𝐹0 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖 = 18 × 6 = 108 𝑁
Total force 𝐹 ′ = 𝐹 − 𝑚𝑎𝑖 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑎𝑖 = 68.4 𝑁
7. Three blocks of the same mass 𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔 each, connected by cords are pulled by a
force F on a smooth horizontal surface as shown. Find the tensions 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 and the force
F if the acceleration is 10 ms-2
𝑇1 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝐹 − 𝑇2 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑇1 = 10 𝑁, 𝑇2 = 20 𝑁 𝑇3 = 30 𝑁
8. Find the acceleration of a block 1 and tension in the string shown in the diagram if
the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.2. Given 𝑚1 = 5 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 10 𝑘𝑔, 𝑔 =
10 𝑚𝑠 −2 , 𝜃 = 300 .
𝑚2 𝑔 −𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃− 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑎= = 4.84𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑚2 𝑎 = 49.6 𝑁
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
9. A raindrop with radius 1.2mm falls from a cloud that is at a height of 1.2 km above
ground. The drag coefficient is 0.6. Calculate the terminal speed of the drop if density
of water is 1000 kgm-3 and density of air is 1.23 kg m-3.
2𝑚𝑔
𝑣𝑡 = √ 𝐶𝜌𝐴 = 3.18 𝑚𝑠 −1
10. An object is dropped in a viscous medium in which resistance varies directly as

velocity of the object. How long does it take for the object to reach one – fourth of its
terminal velocity? Given : Mass of the object = 100 g and drag coefficient = 0.2 Nsm-1.
Also, calculate the terminal velocity.
𝑐
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑡 ) 𝑣𝑡 = 4.9 𝑚𝑠 −1
11. Calculate the magnitude and direction of Coriolis acceleration of a rocket moving
vertically upward with a velocity of 2 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 at 600 𝑆 latitude. (𝜔 = 7.3 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 −1 )

𝑎 = 2𝜔 𝑣𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = 2 × 7.3 × 10−5 × 2 × 103 × cos 60 = 14.6 × 10−2 𝑚𝑠 −2 towards east
12. Calculate the Coriolis force acting on a body of mass 5 kg moving with velocity 2
𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 on the earth’s surface with the direction of angular velocity of earth and direction
of the body are at right angles to each other. (𝜔 = 7.3 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 −1 )
𝐹 = 2𝑚(𝜔 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣 ′ ) = 2𝑚𝜔𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 × 5 × 7.3 × 10−5 × 2 × 103 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 = 146 × 10−2 𝑁
13. Calculate the fictitious force and the total force acting on a mass of 3 kg in a frame
of reference moving (i) vertically downwards and (ii) vertically upwards with an
acceleration of 4𝑚𝑠 −2 . The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2.
(i) For downward motion, the fictitious force 𝐹0 = −𝑚𝑎0 = −3 × (−4) = 12 𝑁 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
Thus, total force 𝐹 ′ = 𝐹 + 𝐹0 = −29.4 + 12 = −17.4 𝑁 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
(ii) For upward motion, the fictitious force 𝐹0 = −𝑚𝑎0 = −3 × (+4) = −12 𝑁 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
Thus, total force 𝐹 ′ = 𝐹 + 𝐹0 = −29.4 − 12 = −41.4 𝑁 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
14 A mass of 1 kg is hurled horizontally due north with a velocity of 0.5 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 at a

latitude of 300 𝑁. Find the magnitude and direction of the Coriolis force acting on the
mass.
𝐹𝑥 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 = 2 × 1 × 7.3 × 10−5 × 0.5 × 103 × sin 30 = 3.65 ×
10−2 𝑁, 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 600 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
15 A 200 kg projectile is fired due east with initial speed of 500𝑚𝑠 −1. If the latitude of
the place is 500 𝑁, find the magnitude of Coriolis force.
𝐹𝑥 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 = 2 × 200 × 7.3 × 10−5 × 500 × sin 50 = 11.18 𝑁
16 Find the latitude of the place where the plane of oscillation of Foucault’s pendulum
rotates once in a day
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= Here T = 24 hours and = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠. 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 24 = 24𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 =
𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 𝜔
1 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝜆 = 900 at the poles.

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I Semester B.Sc.

Physics : Unit 1–Newton’s laws of Motion & their applications

Syllabus : Unit 1- Newton's laws and their applications

Newton’s Laws of Motion : Newton’s First Law :

Newton’s Second law :

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 1

Newton’s Third law:

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 2

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 3

In general, it is a framework that is used for the observation and mathematical

Inertial frame of reference Non-inertial frame of reference

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 4

Galilean transformation equations

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 5

At t = 0, the origins of the

𝑑𝑥′ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦′ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧′ 𝑑𝑧

the frictional force also increases and the block still

As the weights are added further, at a particular

move the block is known as limiting force of friction.

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 7

Laws of static and kinetic friction

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 8

5. The force of limiting friction (static or kinetic) is

Expression for angle of contact or angle of repose

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 9

Acceleration of a body sliding down an inclined plane (With friction)

Consider a block of mass m sliding down an

The net force F acting on the body along

Eqn. (4) in (1) 𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 = 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 …(5)

As 𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 Eqn. (5) is 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The acceleration is 𝒂 = 𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

If l is the length of inclined plane, the distance travelled by the block is

Thus the time taken by the block to travel this distance is

Acceleration of a body sliding down an inclined plane (Without friction)

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 10

Free body diagram

Examples of free body diagram

𝑚2 ) The force on the smaller mass is 𝐹2 = 𝑚2 𝑎 .

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 11

shown in the free body diagram are 𝑇1 = 𝑚1 𝑎 , 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑚2 𝑎 and 𝐹 − 𝑇2 = 𝑚3 𝑎 .

4. Consider a body of mass m sliding down an inclined plane as shown. The

5. A body moving on an inclined plane attached to a string moving over a pulley

In the presence of friction equation (2) becomes

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 12

6. Consider a body of mass m1moving on a horizontal plane with a string attached

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 13

Elevator with an occupant in

Motion in a resistive medium : When a body moves through a fluid, it

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 14

Expressions for terminal velocity

Motion of an object under the action of gravity in a resistive medium

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 15

To find the velocity of the object :

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 16

To find the displacement of the object :

Motion in case of quadratic resistance – Drag force proportional to square

𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑡2 𝐶 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑡2 2𝑚𝑔

Vijaya College Dr. K S Suresh Page 17