L3PUC-Traffic Flow-Last PDF

2/22/2013
Example
 Design the pavement for construction of a new
bypass with the following data:
 Two-lane carriageway, Distribution Factor=0.75
 Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction
=400 CVPD (Sum of both direction)
 Traffic growth rate=7.5%
 Design life 15 years
 VDF based on axle load survey=2.5 standard axle per CV
(commercial vehicle)
 Design CBR of sub-grade soil =4%
Total pavement thickness
for CBR=4% is 660mm
Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 1
Solution
365 * [(1  r ) n  1]
N * initial traffic * DF * VDF
r
 Distribution factor = 0.75 DF=Distribution Factor
VDF=Vehicle Damage Factor
365 * [(1  0.075)  1]

15
N * 400 * 0.75 * 2.5
0.075
N  7,200,000  7.2msa
 Total pavement thickness for CBR = 4% and traffic 7.2 msa

from IRC:37 2001 chart1 = 660 mm
 Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from
pavement design catalogue
 Bituminous surface = 25 mm SDBC + 70 mm DBM
 Road base = 250 mm
 Subbase = 315 mm granular material of CBR not less than 30%
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 Design Hour Volume, DHV is a two-way traffic volume that is determined by

multiplying the ADT by a percentage called the K-factor.
 Values for K typically range from 7 to 12 % for urban facilities and 12 to 25% for rural
facilities.
 Directional Design Hour Volume, DDHV is the one-way volume

in the predominant direction of travel in the design hour,
expressed as a percentage of the two-way DHV. For rural and
suburban roads, the directional distribution factor (D) ranges from
50 to 80 percent. DDHV=ADT (or AADT)*K*D
DHV  K * AADT
DDHD  D * DHV  K * D * AADT
Relationships
Facility Type Normal Range of Factors
K D
Rural 0.15-0.25 0.65-0.80
Sub-urban 0.12-0.15 0.55-0.65
Urban 0.07-0.12 0.50-0.60
Subjects Cover Today

• Traffic Flow
• Flow Characterization & Parameters
• Traffic Parameters
• Volume and Rate of Flow
• Speed (Time and Space Mean Speeds) and Example
• Density
• Ancillary Traffic Flow Characteristics, Example
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Lesson 3:
q  k .v
Traffic Flow
Traffic Flow
Introduction
• Traffic data - a crucial importance in
• Concerned with the study of traffic flow on
highway design- both current and
and through various traffic facilities such future estimate.
as:-  Traffic data requires - monitoring
 Freeways (or expressway) and forecasting
 Signalized intersections, and • Traffic volume indicates the service
 Un-signalized intersections- for better for which the highway is being
designing of traffic facilities. planned and directly affects the
• Study of traffic flow is imperative for better geometric features such as width,
designing of traffic facilities. alignments, grades etc.
• The general unit for measuring traffic on
highway is the AADT, ADT
• A commonly used unit for geometric design
is the 30th highest hourly volume, 30HV
– For average Americans conditions, the 30
HV is about 15% of the AADT in the case
for Rural Highways and is about 8-12% of
AADT in case of Urban Streets.
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Flow Characterization & Parameters

Density (k) - the number of vehicles occupying
• The condition of any traffic a road lane per unit length at a given instant
stream can be defined by (vehicles/unit length) or concentration.
High densities indicate that individual
two stream variables vehicles are very close together, while low
– Speed and Density densities imply greater distances between
vehicle.
• Speed- average speed of the Flow (q)– the number of vehicles passing a
vehicle moving in that point per unit of time; often called Volume
stream and density of the when the time unit is one hour
(vehicles/unit time).
traffic stream is defined as Jam density – the density when speed and flow
the average number of are zero.
vehicles per unit length of Gap(g) – the time interval between the passage
the stream. of consecutive vehicles moving in the same
stream, measured between the rear of the
• Traffic flow is a difficult lead vehicle and the front of the following
phenomenon to describe vehicle. Gap is usually reported in units of
seconds.
without the use of a
common set of terms.
Traffic Parameter
PHF (peak hour factor) – this describes the Space mean speed – the arithmetic
relationship between hourly volume and the mean of the speed of those
maximum rate of flow within hour:
vehicles occupying a given
PHF = hourly volume/maximum rate of
flow. For the 15 minute periods, length of road at a given instant
PHF = volume/4x(maximum 15 minute (SMS).
volume within the hour) Time mean speed – the arithmetic
Spacing (s)– the distance between vehicles mean of the speed of vehicles
moving in the same lane, measured between passing a point during a given
corresponding points (front to front) of time interval (TMS).
consecutive vehicles. Spacing is the product
of speed and headway. Headway (h) – the time interval
Clearance (c)- clearance is similar to spacing- between passage of consecutive
except that the clearance is the distance vehicles moving in the same
between the rear bumper of the leading stream, measured between
vehicle and the front bumper of the
following vehicle. The clearance is corresponding points (front
equivalent to the spacing minus the length bumper) on a successive
of the leading vehicle. Clearance like vehicles
spacing, is usually reported in units of feet
or meters.
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• Traffic stream - A group of

individual drivers and vehicles,
interacting with one another and
with elements of the road and
driving environment.
• Traffic stream consists of:-
– The driver
– The vehicle
– The environment
• Traffic performance is impacted
by
– Carriageway width
– Number of lanes
– Vertical and horizontal alignment
– Type and condition of surface
– Frequency and type of
intersections
– Road furniture
– Terrain, and
– Other conditions eg. Weather,
lighting, signage, parking.
Gap, g
&
Clearance, c L
Spacing & Headway (h)
• Spacing (s) (space headway) – Distance from point 1 to

point 2; ≈ the reciprocal of density
• Headway (h) (time headway) – Time for front of vehicle 2
to reach point 1; ≈ the reciprocal of flow rate
- c= s-L=g*v, g=h-(L/v)
- s = v*h(t)
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v i
vt  u TMS  i 1
n
n*L
vs  u SMS  n
ti 1
i
Vs=space mean speed

Vt=time mean speed
L=length of highway section
Each thin line represents the trajectory of a vehicle over time n=number of vehicles observed
The speed of a traffic stream is an average speed of all the
vehicles in the stream. The speed Vi of a vehicle i in a stream of
n vehicles can be averaged in one of two ways as shown:-
Example
• Three vehicles traversed a 1 Km segment of a
freeway in 1.2, 1.5 and 1.7 minutes,
respectively. What is the average travel speed
of three vehicles? 40.91Km/h
• Three vehicles pass a fixed location on

Norodom Blvd at 50, 40 and 35 Km/h,
respectively. What is the time mean speed of
the three vehicles? 41.67Km/h
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Speed/Travel Time Example
• Blue car – 60 minutes (1 hr)

• Red car – 36 minutes (0.6 hr)
• Average speed ?
Special Speed & Density Condition
• The discussion of the speed-flow- • Jam density- extremely high

density relation mentioned several densities can bring traffic on a
speed-density conditions. roadway to a complete stop. The
density at which traffic stops is
• Free Flow Speed- this is mean called the jam density.
speed that vehicles will travel on
roadway when the density of
vehicles is low. Under low density
conditions, drivers no longer
worry about other vehicles. They
subsequently proceed at speeds
that are controlled by the
performance of their vehicles, the
conditions of the roadway, the
posted speed limit.
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Traffic Composition
• Traffic composition has a vital No. Vehicle Type PCU
effect on capacity and other 1 Passenger car, pick up van 1.00

2 Motorcycle, cycle or scooter 0.50
design considerations. Traffic is 3 Truck Bus 3.00
heterogeneous (various) in 4 Agriculture tractor, light
commercial vehicle 1.50
character, consisting of fast 5 Bullock-cart 6.00-8.00
driven cars, trucks, buses…
• Traffic volume expresses in
terms of the passenger car units,
pcus
Example
• An existing rural road going through a plain terrain
with hardly any curves and bends is to be upgraded so
as to form a part of an expressway. The annual
average daily traffic (AADT) on this section is
expected to be 27,000 vehicles per day with the
following mix:
– Motorized two-wheelers (18%)
– Passenger cars (35%)
– Light commercial vehicles and tractors (30%)
– Trucks and buses (17%).
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Solution
• Whenever the flow consists of a variety of vehicles, it is only
logical that they be converted to a single vehicle type (generally a
passenger car) for the purposes of uniformity and ease of
computation (otherwise we would have to list capacity and
service flow value for every type of vehicle mix-which is not
feasible).
• The conversion is done using passenger car equivalence factors
obtained from empirical data on vehicle size and performance.
These factors, for Indian conditions are provided in IRC codes,
we get:
(0.18*0.5+0.35*1.0+0.3*1.5+0.17*3.0)*27000 = 37,800 passenger cars per day.
Types of Traffic Flow

• Traffic flow can be divided • Under interrupted flow
into two primary types:- conditions, vehicle-vehicle
– Uninterrupted flow is the interactions and vehicle-
flow regulated by vehicle- roadway interactions play a
vehicle interactions and secondary role in defining
interactions between vehicle
and the roadway. i.e vehicles
the traffic flow.
traveling on an highway are
participating in uninterrupted v
flow.
– Interrupted flow is the flow L Spacing, S
regulated by an external
means such as traffic signal,
transit station and the like.
Vehicle following concept

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Types of Traffic Facilities
Uninterrupted • No external factors to cause

flow facility periodic interruption of flow.
• Traffic flow is a product of
interaction between vehicles and
geometric and environment
E.g. Basic sections of a freeway
Interrupted flow • Have external devices that
facility periodically interrupt traffic flow
• Constant stopping and restarting
needed
E.g. Urban streets and arterials
Remember it does not mean the quality of operation.
Volume and Rate of Flow

• Volume – actual number of
units observed to be passing a • Example: calculate the rate of
point during a given time flow of vehicles from the
following data. What is the
• Rate of flow – number of units hourly traffic volume?
passing a point during a time
interval less than 1 hour but
expressed as an equivalent Time period Volume (vehicles)
hourly rate
– Example – volume of 200 4:00-4:15 700
vehicles in 10 minutes period 4:16-4:30 812
implies a rate of flow: 200 x
60/10=1200 vph 4:31-5:00 1635
Volume = 3147 vph
Rate of flow = 700x60/15=2,800 vph

812x60/15=3248 vph
Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP
1635x60/30=3270 vph 20
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Speed
• Speed is important for Time & Space Mean Speeds
economic operation and has a Time mean speed, Vt-measure the speed
great bearing on the safety of of each vehicle passing a given point
highway- geometric design (spot speed) on a road during a
selected time period
• Measurement of the speed of
an individual vehicle requires
observation over both time and n
space.
 (v 1  v 2  ...  vn )
vt  1
n
• The speed of an individual Where v1,v2,…,vn are spot speeds of n vehicles
vehicle is defined as follows:
n
vs  n
1 1 1
ui 
dx 
1
( 
v1 v 2
 ...  )
vn
dt
Speed, Cont.
• Posted speed = Speed limit
• Operating speed = freeflow (spot speed)
– Is instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified
location
• Running speed = length of highway section ÷
running time
• Journey Speed
• Design speed = selected speed used to
determine geometric design features
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Speed, Cont.
Design Speeds for highway, (IRC)
• The maximum safe Classification Design Speed (in Kph)
speed on a highways Flat or

rolling
Hilly or
mountainou
depends on the country s country
following: NH or SH 80 48
– Type of highway MDR 64 40
ODR 48 32
– Type of road surface
VR 32 24
– Condition of road surface
– Type of curves Wliey has recommended the following
– Sight distance empirical formula for speed on curves
– Intensity of traffic and Sc 3  6356 R (e  0.2)

nature of traffic
Where Sc = critical speed in kph
– Type of country R = Radius of curvature in meters
e = super elevation
Time and Space Mean Speeds

• Time and Space Mean Speeds are related.
vt  vs  s2
• Time mean speed is always greater than vs
space mean speed.
Classification of Speeds in Km/h vs  vt 

 t2
Road vt
Arterial 80 t 2  variance of the time mean speed
Sub-arterial 60
s 2  variance of the space mean speed
Collector streets 50
Local streets 30
Mean Deviation 
 x
Suggested design speeds in urban area, India n
 2

 x    2
Variance- The arithmetic mean of the squared

n
 - Variance
2 deviations from the mean.
 - Standard deviation
2 
t
 v i  vt 
2
n
 2  [(50 - 41.67) 2  ( 40  41.67) 2  ( 35  41.67) 2 ] / 3
t
 2  37.58
t
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Density
• Density (k)- the number of vehicles
per unit length of roadway at a given
instant (vehicles/Km)
K 5280
spacing ( s )
(veh/mi)
q  k .v S= average spacing between vehicle in the lane, ft
q – Volume (Veh/hr)
V – Km/hr
Speed
v  0.68 * ( hs )
V= average speed, mi/h
s= spacing, ft
h= headway, sec
• Directed measurement
of density can be Ex. A highway segment
obtained through aerial with a rate of flow of
photography, but more 1350veh/h and average
commonly it is travel speed of 45km/h
calculated from the would have a density of
above equation if speed k=1350/45=30veh/km
and rate of flow are
known.
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Ancillary Traffic Flow Characteristics
• Headway/Gap Both spacing and headway are

(seconds)- the time related to speed, flow rate
(volume) and density.
interval between two
consecutive vehicles
passing a given point
3600 3600
Volume( veh/hr)  
mean headway (sec) h
h= average headway in the lane, second
1000 x space mean speed (Km/hr) 1000 * vs

Volume (veh/hr)  
mean spacing (m) s
Examples
1- if the mean headway between vehicles is 6 seconds. What is the
volume of traffic? q=600vph
2- if the space mean speed of the traffic in Ex.1- is 80 Km/h. what

is the traffic density? K=7.5veh/km
3- an aerial photograph of a 0.4 Km section of road shows that
there are 10 vehicles on it. What is the density of traffic? 25veh./km
4- what is the traffic density on a freeway segment with a rate of

flow of 1,350 veh/hr and average travel speed of 45 km/hr? K=30veh.km
5- Traffic in a congested multilane highway lane is observed to

have an average spacing of 200ft and an average headway of
3.8s. Estimate the Rate of Flow, Density and Speed of traffic in
this lane.
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Example, Cont
6. At time of observation, there were seven vehicles counted on the
1000ft section of roadway lane. Calculate the density (k)? K=36.96veh/mi
7. An observer noted that a traffic stream on a freeway lane
displayed average vehicle headway of 2.5 seconds at a space
mean speed of 80 Km/h. it was also noted that 55% of the
vehicles were passenger cars (5 meters long), 40% were semi -
trailers ( 16.8 meters long) and 5% were articulated buses (18.3
meters Long). What is the density of this traffic stream? 18 vehicles/km
8. The time taken by five vehicles to traverse a 2Km section of the
Norodom Blvd were recorded by an observer. They were 80, 87,
73, 80 and 91 seconds respectively. What is the space-mean speed
of the vehicles? 88 Km/hr
Traffic Growth Rate

• The estimation of future
traffic is important for:
– Geometric design Design Year ADT  ( Z / 100  1) P * Y
– Pavement design, and
– Economic analysis.
– Trend analysis
where P  number of year (0,1,2,..., n)

Y  Present ADT (Current Traffic Count)
P  Number of years to Design Year (5Yrs,10Yr s or 20Yrs)
Z  average annula growth rate in decimal
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Example
• At the time of design in 2002, the average
daily traffic, ADT on RN11 was 420 vpd and
the average annual growth rate is 2%.
1. Calculate the 5 year design ADT? 464 vpd
Summary
• A number of basic parameters are used to
measure a traffic stream
– Speed and Volume
– Hourly, Daily and Seasonal Variations
• Introduced the basic relations used to describe
the characteristics of traffic stream
– Space and Time Mean Speeds
– Volume and Rate of Flow
– Density and Occupancy
– Spacing and Headway
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Speed-Density-Flow Relationship
• Because flow is the product of speed and
• Speed, Flow and Density are all density, the flow is equal to zero when one
related to each other. or both of these terms is zero. It is also
possible to deduce that the flow is
• Under uninterrupted flow
maximized at some critical combination of
conditions, speed, density and speed and density.
flow are given:
• Two common traffic conditions illustrate
these points. The first is the traffic jam,
q  k .v
where traffic densities are very high and
speeds are very low. This produces a very
low flow. The second condition occurs
when traffic densities are very low and
drivers can obtain free-flow speed. The
Where q= flow (vehicles/hr) extremely low density compensates for
higher speeds and the resulting flow is
V= speed (miles/hr, Km/hr)
very low.
K= density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/Km)
K * V - q Traffic Jam
Feb-13 K * V - q Free Flow Speed
33
Graphical Representations
Speed-Density Speed-Flow Flow-Density
V V q
K q K Level of Service A Level of Service D
The table shows the Speed, Flow and Density of

traffic under each LOS rating.
LOS Speed Range Flow Range Density Range

(mph) (veh./hour/lane) (veh./mile)
A Over 60 Under 700 Under 12

B 57-60 700-1100 12-20 Level of Service B Level of Service E
C 54-57 1100-1550 20-30
D 46-54 1550-1850 30-42

E 30-46 1850-2000 42-67
F Under 30 Unstable 67-maximum
Feb-13 34
Level of Service C Level of Service F
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Greenshield’s Model
Fig.1-1 Speed vs Density
• Greenshield was able to develop a A, free flow speed
model of uninterrupted traffic flow
that predicts and explains the trends
that are observed in real traffic flows. A/B, Jam density
Speed (v)
• Greenshield made the assumption
that, under uninterrupted flow
conditions, speed and density are
linearly related. This relationship is
expressed mathematically and Density (k)
graphically below
v  A  B*k q  (A  B *k)*k
A & B= constants determined from the field observation
q  A * k  Bk 2
V= speed (miles/hr, Km/hr)
K= Density (vehicles/mile, Vehicles/Km)
• As noted, you can determine q  (A  B *k)*k

the values of constants A
and B through field q  A * k  Bk 2
observations. This is done
by collecting velocity and This new relationship between flow and
density data in the field, density provides an avenue for finding
plotting the data, and then the density at which the flow is
using linear regression to fit maximized.
a line through data points.
• The constant A represents Fig.1-2 Flow vs Density
the free flow speed, while A2/4B
A/B represents the jam
density.
Flow (q)
A/2B
Density (k)
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Fig.1-3 Speed vs Flow

q  (A  B *k)*k
q  A * k  Bk 2
A/2
Speed (v)
dq / dk  A  2 * B * k  0
k  A/ 2* B A2/4B
Flow (q)
Therefore, at the density given This indicates that the maximum flow
above, the flow will be maximized. occurs when traffic flowing at half of
free-flow speed (A). Substituting the
optimum speed and density into the
v  A  B * ( A /(2 * B )) speed-density-flow relationship yields
v  A/ 2 the maximum flow as follow:-
q  ( A / 2) * ( A / 2 * B))
q  A2 /(4 * B )
Greenshield’s Conclusion
• The following can be derived from Gr.model
– When the density is zero, the flow is zero as there are no vehicles on
the roadway
– As the density increases, the flow also increases to some maximum
flow conditions
– When the density reaches a maximum, generally called jam density,
the flow must be zero because the vehicles tend to lines up end to end
(parking lot condition)
As the density increases the flow increases to some
maximum value, but a continual increase in density will cause
the flow to decrease until jam density and zero flow conditions
are reached.
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Example, Greenshield’s Model

1. Inspection of a freeway data set reveals a
free flow speed of 60 mph, a jam density
of 180 vehicles per mile per lane, and
observed maximum flow of 2000
vehicles per hour. Determine the linear
equation for velocity for these conditions
and determine the speed and density at
maximum flow conditions. How do the
theoretical and observed conditions
compare?
2. A study of freeway flow at a particular site has

resulted in a calibrated speed-density
relationship, as follows:
Vs= 57.5(1-0.008K)
From this relationship:
a. Find the free-flow speed and jam density.

b. Derive the equation describing flow versus
speed and flow versus density
c. Determine the capacity of the site
mathematically.
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Example 3
The Free-Flow Speed A 70 miles/hour 80?

The Jam Density A/B 175 veh./miles 180?
Q: Draw the Graph Relationship between:-

1- Density vs Speed?
2- Flow vs Speed?
3- Density vs Flow?
Name:
I.D No.
Homework 1: Application of Greenshield's Model
The free-flow speed A 75 miles/hour 80? miles/hour

The Jam density A/B 175 Vehi/mile 180? Vehi/mile
%of Jam Density,k Speed,v Flow,q

Density (A/B) k=%*(A/B) v=A-B*k q=k*v Calculation
0% 0 75 0
10% 17.5 67.5 1181.3 B=A/(A/B) 0.4286
20% 35 60 2100 Max flow
30% 52.5 52.5 2756.3 q=A^2/(4*B) 3281.3
40% 70 45 3150
50% 87.5 37.5 3281.3 M ax flow
60% 105 30 3150
70% 122.5 22.5 2756.3
80% 140 15 2100
90% 157.5 7.5 1181.3
100% 175 0 0
Flow vs Density
Speed vs Density
80 3500
70 3000
Speed (v)_
60 2500
Flow, q
50 2000
40
30 1500
20 1000
10 500
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Density (k) Density, k
Speed vs Flow
80
70
Speed (v)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Feb-13 0
Traffic
500
Flow
1000
4Yr
1500
by CSP
2000 2500 3000 3500
42
Flow (q)
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Average Daily Traffic Annual Average Daily

Traffic (AADT)
n
DTi
ADT  
365
DTi
AADT  
i 1 n i 1 365
Where DT=daily count of traffic
n=number of days counted
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Traffic Characteristics
• Axle load
– A vehicle can have a number of axles.
– A standard truck has two axles, namely the front and the
rear.
– The weights of individual axles are called the axle load
which may be assumed as approximately half the total
weight of a standard truck. In practice the weights of the
rear and the front axles are not equal, they depend on the
position of the load the vehicle carries.
– Generally, for design purposes, it is the weight of the rear
axle of a vehicle which is taken into account.
• The axle load of various

vehicles are different. The
Fourth power damage formula
damages caused by them are
of different magnitudes.
• If a damage is caused by N1 4
N1 W 2 
number of repetitions for an  
axle weight of w1 and the N2 W1 
same extent of damage is
caused by N2 number of
repetitions by another axle This equation is used to convert the number
of repetitions of vehicles of various axle
load W2 then AASHO’s loads plying on road to an equivalent
experimental data gives the standard axle load repetitions (ESAL).
following equation
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TMhMkarxUcxaténTMgn;GkS½ePøA
The Effects of Axle Loads
Equivalency Factor F = [Actual Axle Load P(t) /Standard Axle Load (10t)]n
• This formula compares the damaging effect on the

road structure of any axle load, P with that of a
standard single axle load of 10 ton. An average of
n=4 .
• Example: An axle carrying twice the legal load (20t)
has 16 times the damaging effect of legal axle load.
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• The standard axle load in India is 8.16 tonnes and

14.968 tonnes for single axle load and tandem axle
respectively.
• Legal axle load is that maximum axle load, any value
beyond which is not permitted to move over the road.
Countries Legal single

axle load
Japan, Netherland and Sweden 10 t
UK 10.17 t
European community proposed limit 11.15 t
Italy 12 t
Belgium, France, Greece, Luxembourg 13 t
Standard axle load is that axle load based on which all the
calculations related to pavement damage have been standardized.
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Capacity and LOS Analysis
• Two categories of traffic flow were

examined
– Interrupted flow
– Uninterrupted flow
• Capacity and quality or LOS are
most useful and important to the
transportation engineers.
• Present procedures for determining
the capacity and LOS of
uninterrupted flow transportation
facilities:
– Freeway
– Multilane highways
– Two-lane highway
Design Capacity of Rural Motorway

Type of Daily Design PHD
Carriageway Capacity, pcu/day Capacity Per Lane
PCU/hour
Dual 2 – lane 33,000 1,000
Dual 3 – lane 50,000 1,000
Dual 4 – lane 66,000 1,000
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• Capacity Under Ideal Conditions, the

possible capacity for uninterrupted • Ideal conditions consist of the
flow are as follows: following for 2-lane roads
– For 2-lane two way = 2,800pcu/h – Design speed ≥100Km/h
– For multi-lane (per lane) = 2,800pcu/h – Lane width ≥ 3.65m
– Clear shoulders wider than or equal
• Highway Capacity defined as the to 1.83m
maximum number of vehicles per – No “Passing Zones” on the
hour highway
– Under ideal condition, one freeway – All passenger cars in the traffic
lane: 2,000 pcu/h stream
– Two-lane: 1,000 pcu/h in each – A 50/50 directional split of traffic
direction – No impediments to through traffic
• Traffic flow theory can be used in the due to traffic control devices or
planning, design and operation of turning vehicles
highway system. – Level terrain
• AADT is not adequate details for design – in most

cases, the DHV must be estimated from the
AADT • Design Service Volume is
– DHV=k*AADT (k=7-12%) determined for highway design
– DHV=30HV but 30HV≠AADT by specifying a suitable LOS
• Typical procedure for estimating volume for (LOS A-F)
design is • Once the LOS is determined –
– Estimate design hourly volume
the design service volume is the
– Determine directional split
maximum flow rate for that
– Determine composition
LOS.
• In order to determine how large the road
• Demand, Capacity and Volume
should be needed to determine not only
– Demand : Volume not influenced
Demand but also Capacity. by highway capacity
– Demand given by DHV
– Capacity given by Design Hourly Service
Volume
– Capacity affected by highway and traffic
conditions
27
2/22/2013
From Ideal Conditions to Real, Prevailing

Conditions
We use adjustment factors to take into account the effect
of prevailing conditions on capacity and level of
service. Typically it is like…
Free-Flow Speed:
FFS  FFSi  f LW  f LC  f N  f ID
Passenger Car Equivalent Flow Rate:
v p  v /( PHF  N  f HV  f p )
Feb-13 SFi=MSFiTraffic
*N*fFloww*f
4Yr *fCSP
HVby p 55
Determine Free Flow Speed Determine Flow Rate

• FFS Free Flow Speed • Vp 15 minutes passenger car
• BFFS Base FFS, 70mi/h (Urban), 75mi./h equivalent flow rate (pcphpl)
(Rural)
• fLW Adjustment for lane width (mi/h) • V Hourly Volume (Veh/h)
• fLC Adjustment for Right Shoulder lateral • PHF Peak Hour Factor
clearance (mi/h)
• N Number of lanes in one
• fN Adjustment of Number of Lanes (mi/h)
• fID Adjustment for Interchange density
direction
(mi/h) • fHV Heavy Vehicle Adjustment
Factor
• fp Driver population adjustment
factor
FFS  FFSi  f LW  f LC  f N  f ID
v p  v /( PHF  N  f HV  f p )
28
2/22/2013
There are three sections in a

freeway
•Basic Unit
•Weaving sections
•Ramp (0n/Off)
LOS CALCULATION •Freeway usually have 4, 6, 8
Input lane alignment
Geometric Data
Measured FFS or BFFS
Volume
BFFS Adjustment Volume Adjustment

•Lane width •PHF
•Number of lanes •Number of lanes
•Interchange density Measured FFS •Driver population
•Lateral clearance Input •Heavy vehicles
Compute FFS Compute Flow Rate
DEFINE SPEED-FLOW CURVE
Compute Density Using Flow Rate

and Speed
Determine Speed Using Speed-Flow

Curve
Determine LOS
29
2/22/2013
Four Types of Analysis

Type Input Output
Operational I vp, FFS LOS
II vp, LOS, FFS S (Speed)
III FFS, LOS Vp (Service Volume = Vp * PHF)
Planning IV vp, LOS N (No. of lanes)
For planning analysis, you need to estimate the directional design

hourly volume (DDHV):
DDHV = AADT * K * D
besides all other potential prevailing conditions. Then,

V = DDHV/(No. of Lanes)
Problem 9-12: This is a case of Planning Analysis – Given vp and LOS,

find number of lanes needed
• Step 1: Compute heavy vehicle adjustment 1

factor f HV 
1  PT ( ET  1)  PR ( E R  1)
 Step 2: Assume Number of Lanes (Freeway >= 4 Lanes – 2 Lane each way
minimum) and compute 15-min peak passenger-car equivalent flow rate.
Hint 1: Design volume of a freeway is given for each direction.
Hint 2: Highest freeway lane capacity is about 2,300 pcphpl.
V
vp 
PHF  N  f HV  f p
 Step 3: Compute free flow speed given BFFS (70 mph in this case) and number
of lanes used in Step 2 and other data.
FFS  BFFSi  f LW  f LC  f N  f ID
 Step 4: Compute density using vp and FFS and determine LOS to see if
computed LOS meets the desired LOS. (Tab 9-33)
vp
Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP
Repeat steps 2 to 4 till design LOS is met. D 60
FFS
30
2/22/2013
Definitions
Capacity Demand
Traffic Intensity
Volume
Congestion
Time
31
2/22/2013
• Factors affecting FFS

– Lane width
• Factors contributing to
– Lateral clearance LOS
– Number of Lanes
– Lane width
– Interchange Density
– Geometric Design – Lateral clearance
 Freeway LOS based on traffic density
– Traffic composition
• LOS Calculation
– Does not consider – Grade
• Special lanes reserved for a particular
type of vehicle (HOV, Truck,
– Speed
Climbing etc)
• Segment near a toll plaza
• Posted speed limit
• ITS System
• Basic Freeway Segment

• Capacities of basic freeway segments
– Segment of a freeway at least 1,500ft
(457.5m) under base conditions at different FFS
– Base Freeway Condition – FFS=75mp =2,400pcphpl
• Lane width at least 12ft (3.65m) – FFS=70mph =2,400pcphpl
• Right side shoulder lateral – FFS=65mph =2,350pcphpl
clearance at least 6ft (1.83m) – FFS=60mph =2,300pcphpl
• Median lateral clearance at least – FFS=55mph =2,250pcphpl
2ft • LOS a function of density,
• Passenger cars only in traffic Volume/Capacity Ratio, and/or FFS,
stream
it varies from LOSA to F
• Interchange spacing not closer
than 2miles (3.2Km) – LOS A < 11 Density Range (pcphpl)
• Level terrain, with grade <2% – LOS B >11 to 18
• Five or more lanes for 1 direction – LOS C > 18 to 26
(in urban area only) – LOS D > 26 to 35
• A driver population consisting of – LOS E > 35 to 45
principally regular users. – LOS F > 45
32
2/22/2013
33
2/22/2013
34

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2/22/2013

365 * [(1  0.075)  1]

 Total pavement thickness for CBR = 4% and traffic 7.2 msa

 Design Hour Volume, DHV is a two-way traffic volume that is determined by

 Directional Design Hour Volume, DDHV is the one-way volume

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 3

Subjects Cover Today

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 4

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 5

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 6

Flow Characterization & Parameters

• Traffic stream - A group of

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 9

Spacing & Headway (h)

• Spacing (s) (space headway) – Distance from point 1 to

Vs=space mean speed

• Three vehicles pass a fixed location on

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 12

Speed/Travel Time Example

• Blue car – 60 minutes (1 hr)

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 13

Special Speed & Density Condition

• The discussion of the speed-flow- • Jam density- extremely high

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 14

• Traffic composition has a vital No. Vehicle Type PCU

effect on capacity and other 1 Passenger car, pick up van 1.00

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 15

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 16

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 17

Types of Traffic Flow

Vehicle following concept

Types of Traffic Facilities

Uninterrupted • No external factors to cause

Volume and Rate of Flow

Volume = 3147 vph

Rate of flow = 700x60/15=2,800 vph

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 22

• The maximum safe Classification Design Speed (in Kph)

speed on a highways Flat or

– Intensity of traffic and Sc 3  6356 R (e  0.2)

Time and Space Mean Speeds

Classification of Speeds in Km/h vs  vt 

Variance- The arithmetic mean of the squared

q  k .v S= average spacing between vehicle in the lane, ft

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 25

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 26

Ancillary Traffic Flow Characteristics

• Headway/Gap Both spacing and headway are

1000 x space mean speed (Km/hr) 1000 * vs

2- if the space mean speed of the traffic in Ex.1- is 80 Km/h. what

4- what is the traffic density on a freeway segment with a rate of

5- Traffic in a congested multilane highway lane is observed to

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 28

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 29

Traffic Growth Rate

where P  number of year (0,1,2,..., n)

P  Number of years to Design Year (5Yrs,10Yr s or 20Yrs)

Z  average annula growth rate in decimal

Feb-13 Traffic Flow 4Yr by CSP 30

• As noted, you can determine q  (A  B k)k