SUMMARY FINAL REPORT

Water Movement in Road

Pavements and Embankments
June 2007 Andrew Dawson, Chairman of the COST351 Action

Inside 1. Overview
This is document is a summary of the work performed by the
1 Overview
‘COST351 Action’ known by its acronym “WATMOVE”.
2 Introduction
Following a programme lasting almost 3½ years the study team
4 COST 351
from 18 European countries has researched just about every
4 Aims & Objectives aspect of Water Movement in road pavements and in the
5 Achievements earthworks of highways constructed to allow roads to cross the
landscape. As water in the construction is one of the main
6 Summary of Technical
causes of deterioration and premature distress of pavements
Coverage & Findings
and their supporting geo-technical structures, the project has
15 Workshops, Newsletters
concentrated:
& Web-site
firstly on understanding water movement, water contents
15 Conclusions
and their effects on the materials that comprise the
16 Acknowledgements
highway construction,

secondly on how contaminant migration is associated

with water in the pavement and near-pavement
“There are three things hydrological environment,
that a road requires –
thirdly on measuring and describing the water location,
drainage, drainage and
quality and movement,
more drainage”
Arthur Cedergren, 1974.

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WATMOVE SUMMARY FINAL REPORT PAGE 2

fourthly on setting out possible mitigation strategies.

The principle output of the WATMOVE project is a book, to be

published soon by Springer, entitled “Water in Roads”. In almost
400 pages, with the help of many illustrations, it gives full
coverage of basic principles and more advanced theory, it sets
out methods of measuring water and water flow, it describes
best-practice in the collection of water samples, it explains
modern laboratory tests and their interpretation, it shows how
the value of and changes in the water condition effect soil and
aggregate behaviour, it provides an introduction to the tools
that are available to model water flow and its impact on the
pavement and soil materials and ends with chapters that
concentrate on practical solutions to ensure good drainage and
control of contaminant migration.

2. Introduction
Roads have been constructed for more than 2000 years. Even
the earliest engineers practiced drainage of the pavement’s
sub-surface layers in order to keep the highway functioning.

Hexagonal flagstones
Edge stone crossfall
sometimes cemented
in place as restraint
A Schematic of a Typical
50mm stone
sand layer Pavement and
Embankment Structure as
Built by Roman Engineers
Longitudinal
drain

Natural formation

Nowadays, many billions of euros are spent on road construction

and maintenance each year, and road transport is the primary
method of mobility for European people and goods. Transport
constitutes about 10 % of the Gross National Product of the
European Union and more than 80 % of the total transport of
people and goods is provided by the road infrastructure.
Investment in road construction and maintenance in Europe is
therefore at a very high level and any improvements can have
a significant effect on the European economy.

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Not only will well-maintained roads and highways contribute

economically, for they are also essential for social development
of Europe. On the other hand, the deterioration of roads can
have serious consequences for the safety and comfort of road
users.

In many countries premature break-down, especially of low-

volume asphalt roads, is an accelerating problem. Increasing
traffic and traffic loads demand higher performance levels from
pavement if premature rutting and cracking is to be avoided.
At the same time climate change means that highways are
likely to be exposed to more rain and to greater thermally
induced cracking that can lead the runoff into the structure.
Once in the pavement or embankment, water plays a primary
role in giving shorter service life and in increasing the need of
rehabilitation measures.

Rutting Ahead Rutting and Cracking of a Distressed Pavement with poor Drainage

A further problem that is becoming of more and more concern,

is the possibility that the road is a source of contaminants that
are having an undesirable effect on the hydrological
environment. Two sources are possible:

leaching of contaminants from the road construction

materials and earthworks,

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contaminant in runoff from rainwater or snowmelt that

flows over the top of the pavement and then soaks into
the ground.

3. COST 351

Members of the COST351 Action

For these reasons, in 2002, the COST programme (now
with dates of joining administered by the European Science Foundation) agreed to a
proposal to study these problems and to provide best guidance
Belgium 11/06/2003
for road owners, designer, maintainers and contractors. The
Croatia 12/06/2003
programme was given the number 351 and the title “Water
Czech Republic21/04/2004
Movements in Road Pavements and Embankments”, with the
Denmark 29/01/2004
acronym “WATMOVE”. The concerted Action commenced
Finland 11/06/2003
work in December 2003 and finished in April 2007.
France 11/06/2003
The membership quickly grew, as the problem areas it
Greece 02/06/2004
addressed are common to all countries, so that it soon had 18
Iceland 01/07/2004
members (see box). The work was performed in three major
Norway 29/01/2004
working groups (on Modelling and Monitoring, on Environmental
Poland 29/01/2004
Aspects, and on Performance-Related Aspects). Additional
Portugal 31/03/2004
supporting work was performed by two other working parties,
Romania 15/12/2004
one of which dealt with defining the state-of-practice and one
Serbia and Montenegro
of which handled dissemination.
21/04/2004

Slovenia 11/06/2003

Spain 08/10/2004

Sweden 29/01/2004
4. Aims & Objectives
Switzerland 10/09/2003

United Kingdom29/01/2001 To help ensure that valuable and applicable findings were
obtained from the study, the main objective of the Action was
defines as an increase in the knowledge required to improve the
highway performance and to minimise the leaching of
contaminants from roads and traffic. The overall goal will be
appreciated by the users of roads just as much as by pavement
engineers as it is to improve pavement performance allowing
less road closures, better use of the road network, longer service
lives and more effective transportation of goods and people.

The detailed objectives of the Action have been:

to identify water movement and moisture conditions in

unbound pavement layers and subgrade for different
types of road constructions in various climatic conditions,

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to investigate the relationship between the mechanical

behaviour of materials/soils and their hydraulic
conductivity and moisture condition,

to implement finite element modelling based on

laboratory analysis and field studies in order to simulate
water movement and moisture conditions in road
construction,

to identify, investigate and control contaminants leaching

from soils, natural aggregates and by-products.

5. Achievements
Chapters of the Book:
”Water in Roads” The chief achievement is a nearly 400 page book to be
published soon by Springer. The chapter outline is shown
Introduction
alongside. A total of 13 chapters, plus annexes, have allowed
Water Flow Theory

Measurement Techniques for Water

the WATMOVE team to cover the topic matter in considerable
Content & Water Flow detail so that students, researchers, practitioners and policy
Heat Transfer in Soils makers will all find sections of value to them. There is something
Contaminants of Water in
Pavements
of a tension developed when trying both to define the state-of-
Contaminant Sampling & Analysis
the-art for researchers at the front of their fields of study and also
Water Influence on Bearing to provide a best-practice guide to lead engineers, more
Capacity & Pavement Performance
generally, into applying scientific and technological advances
Mechanical Effects of Water in
Pavements and its Control
in their own businesses and duties. Nevertheless, the Action
Mechanical Behaviour: team believes that it has gone a long way to meeting this self-
Experimental Investigation
imposed goal by the coverage provided in the different
Modelling Coupled Mechanics,
Moisture & Heat
chapters. In essence, the earlier chapters explain theory, the
Pollution Mitigation central chapters seek to apply that in more advanced ways and
Recommendations for Control of the final chapters describe the practical out-workings. Thus best-
Water
practice is described both with respect to the latest modelling
techniques and also with respect to in-situ application. A
summary of the chapter titles appears alongside.

This represents something of an expansion beyond the original

proposal made to the COST organisation. Early on in the study ,
the team identified, that heat flow is a very important driver of
moisture content and moisture movement (for example, in
connection with water movements causing frost heave).
Therefore, particular and specific attention was given to this
aspect. Also, regarding the movement of contaminants in the
pavement construction, subgrade, embankments and adjacent
earthworks, it was quickly realised that the water driving such

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WATMOVE SUMMARY FINAL REPORT PAGE 6

seepage comes, largely, from run-off and will already be

contaminated before it enters the pavement / embankment
structure. The WATMOVE team therefore concluded that the
book should also address contaminated water run-off, albeit
with the emphasis on percolating water in the substructure.

Freezing pulls large volumes of

water into an unsealed road
which then softens excessively
during spring thaw because of
inadequate drainage and
water control

6. Summary of Technical Coverage &

Findings
After a brief history, the book introduces the topics to be
covered in an introductory chapter. Water flow theory is then
described in more detail. In addition to the conventional
description of saturated flow, water flow under partially
saturated flow is considered and the relationship between
partially saturated soil and the suction that, in part, controls
water content and movement is described and tools presented
for its description. Of course, a major reason for doing this is to
provide to the user the tools that will help him or her to benefit
from the remainder of the book. A further purpose is to clearly
define the fundamental issues that have such a major influence
in every aspect of the topic area.
Conventional and modern test methods for determining water
content are described, particularly those that are non-
destructive and, therefore, may be used in-situ for control and
monitoring purposes. Given the importance of suction, as
mentioned above, techniques for measuring this are also
covered. There are a wide range of permeability tests available.
Six are selected for detailed study and review and their
appropriate application is described.

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80
Refill the tensiometer
70
60
Comparison between

Soil suction (kPa)

50
laboratory soil suction Sensor #18
40 Tensiometer
measurements achieved
using a tensiomenter and 30
Tensiometer
achieved using a Thermal 20 failed due to
Conductivity Matric 10
cavitation

Suction sensor (#18).

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time (hour)

Next the book addresses heat flow issues. Temperature highly

affects pavement performance. High and low temperature not
only affect viscosity of asphalt concrete but can also have very
significant impact on moisture flow within pavements. At
temperatures below 0°C the freezing of pavements drastically
changes permeability and frost heave might occur forcing
water to flow upwards to the freezing front. Heat transfer in soils
involves convection, radiation, vapour diffusion and conduction.
For pavements, conduction is the most important factor. During
warm and sunny summer days though, it has been determined
that natural convection should not be neglected.
Frost susceptible soils always experience frost heave an freezing
but drainage will lower the heave by reducing the water
content. Nevertheless, a frost susceptible soil will always hold
enough water for a significant heave to be occur, therefore
other techniques than drainage alone must be employed in
such circumstances

Following these introductory sections on water movement and its

driving agency, temperature gradient, the book addresses the
sources, transport pathways and targets of road and traffic
contaminants. Given the wide range of sources of pollution
(including traffic and cargo, pavement and embankment
materials, road equipment, maintenance and operation, as well
as external sources) it is impossible to prevent the presence of
contaminants. Heavy metals, hydrocarbons, nutrients,
particulates and deicing salt are among the contaminants
needing the greatest attention. Runoff, splash/spray and
seepage through the road construction and the soil are major
transport routes of pollutants.

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Atmosphere deposition

To the surroundings
Road marking
Road material
-Dust Road salt
-Splash Vehicle deposition
-Spray
-Exhausts
Sources and
Run off Wear particles, Dust routes of
contaminants in
- Asphalt (bitumen + gravel) the road
- Tyres environment
- Road marking
Ditches Ground Water
- Sand for gritting, Chips
- Exhaust particles
- Wear products
- Dirt and Waste Infiltration, Leaching to ground water
- Salt (especially important for alternative materials)

In saturated media, diffusion, advection and dispersion are the

major processes of mass transport whereas, in unsaturated soil,
this strongly depends on the soil-moisture distribution inside the
pores. Sorption/desorption, dissolution/precipitation and
exchange reactions are the most significant chemical processes
governing pollutant transport in soils with redox conditions and
acidity having a major influence on heavy-metal mobility. Plants
close to heavily trafficked roads accumulate traffic-derived
pollutants that can disturb biological processes in themselves as
well as in animals, microorganisms and other biota. Even though
the pollution of such flora and fauna can be severe, European
legislation chooses to emphasise the protection of water bodies
(rivers, lakes, groundwater) against pollution, partly because of
the greater ease of policing their pollution levels. Another
reason for protecting water bodies is the dependence that
human life and commerce has on supplies of clean water.

Including consideration of measures for environmental

protection at an early planning stage is much more cost-
efficient than retrofitting measures and installations afterwards.
To judge the need for prevention and mitigation measures,
chemical and biological characterization of soil and water is
often required. For this reason a separate chapter of the book is
set aside to describe contaminant sampling and analysis.

Before any soil or water sampling regime is contemplated and

before any specimens are analysed, it is essential that a
systematic sampling programme and network is designed and

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planned with its purpose and constraints clearly in view.

Therefore, both the available techniques and their best
deployment is described in some detail, not only listing the
instrumentation devices that are available, but also giving
advice on design of sampling schemes and frequencies, data
handling and sample storage. Bibliographic information points
the user to more extensive supporting materials.

Water is sucked into a collection

bottle up a pipe from the tip.

A Suction Lysimeter being used to Collect Detail of Suction Lysimeter Tip

Groundwater in the Unsaturated Zone

A substantial section of the book is given over to introducing and

advancing the knowledge of the interaction between water
and the performance of highway construction materials
(specifically aggregates and subgrade soils). Initially this is
achieved by summarising in-situ observations of road behaviour
as a function of water condition. It is shown that water content
in the construction is very sensitive to the influences of climate –
especially rainfall and freezing and thawing – and that the
influence of rain is most marked nearest the edge of the

S9 (UGM)
20
S1 (subgrade) 14
18
Moisture content (% by mass)

16 Rain level (mm) 12

14
10 Water content variations in
rain level (mm/h)

12
8 the granular base and
10
subgrade of a low traffic
8 6
pavement (near the
6
4 pavement edge)
4
2
2
0 0
20/09/01 28/11/01 18/01/02 09/03/02 28/04/02 17/06/02
Date

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 WATMOVE SUMMARY FINAL REPORT PAGE 10

pavement. As an example of the utility of such information is the

recommendation that low-volume road owners may manage
trafficking of their to maximise performance of while minimising
inconvenience to users.
16
Near pavement
14
edge
Moisture content (% by mass)

12

10 Monthly average water

contents in the granular
8
base, at the centre and
6 S7 near the edge of a
Near pavement
4 centerline
S9 pavement
S8
2
S10
0
01/10/01 01/12/01 01/02/02 01/04/02 01/06/02 01/08/02 01/10/02
Date

Passes
0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 2500000
0

5
Rut depth
development in an 10
accelerated test. 0,88 mm / 100.000 passes
Rut depth (mm)

15
Note how added
water accelerates 20
1,03 mm / 100.000 passes
deterioration by a
25
factor of 4.
30 60 kN/800kPa
35
80kN/1000kPa
40
60kN/800kPa+Water
4,16 mm / 100.000 passes
45

50

In general, field observations indicate clear and significant

variations of moisture in subgrades. This is true both for moderate
climates as well as for cold regions where it is related to
temperature. In particular, thawing may induce strong increases
in moisture. The mechanical behaviour, as observed in situ, is
strongly affected by moisture variations: the wetter the state the
lower the stiffness (up to a factor 2 or more), the lower the
strength and the higher the deflection. Therefore we may
conclude that an efficient drainage system is crucial in order to
reduce the road structure’s ageing.

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Clearly, the impact of water on pavement performance can be

very significant indeed. The research team believes that there is
much room to improve the engineering approach to the subject
matter. Whilst traditional experience, historical practice and the
application of time-proved rules-of-thumb have much value,
their continued use without taking notice of the major
theoretical and analytical developments of the subject is
inimical. For this reason the book seeks to present the latest
research developments in the area of modelling of moisture
movement under gravitational and temperature drivers,
coupling this with mechanical behaviour by means of
comprehensive aggregate and subgrade constitutive
relationships.

Although a plethora of models are available in the literature, it is

concluded that the constitutive models suitable for routine
pavement design and advanced pavement design can be
classified as follows:
Long-term elastoplastic
models: resilient models (suitable for stress analysis and fatigue
computations) such as the k-θ model and Boyce models,
• analytical models,
• plasticity theory long-term elastoplastic models (suitable for rutting studies)
based models, can be split into four categories (see box alongside).
• viscoplastic- It is shown that routine pavement design is based on an elastic
equivalent models,
calculation, with a resilient modulus. Usually, the design criterion
• shakedown models.
is a limitation of the maximum vertical strain. However, a too
simple understanding of pavement and earthworks behaviour is
liable to mean that the range of possible material responses is
not fully considered. Partly for this reason, more elaborated
models take into account the other behaviours, particularly
irreversible behaviour (e.g. the Chazallon–Hornych model, the

Map of various
response regimes
that occur under
different stress
states during cyclic
loading

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Suiker model and the Mayoraz elasto-visco-plastic model) are

introduced. A particular advantage of some of these newer
approaches is their ability to take into account suction and
suction variation.

The coupling of mechanical behaviour, water content, water

movement and heat in pavement and earthworks structures is at
the forefront of current research. Developments in this field
allow us to:

describe geo-materials using a non-linear solids

mechanics framework incorporating elasto-visco-
plasticity and then to implement this for design purposes,

describe both saturated and non-saturated water flow

and to link this description to material condition,

to consider both the mechanical and fluid processes as a

function of, and an influence on, the movement of heat,

to model the transport of pollutants by and in the fluid,

noting that they may modify the fluid’s properties if
concentration is high enough.

m Cleary this is a tough proposition. It is impossible to

0
cover all the complexities involved but the
relevant chapter in the book gives a detailed
-2
overview of the computational approach that is
-4
necessary and then presents typical
computational results comparing them with in-situ
-6 measurements. By this means the power of the
a)
techniques are illustrated and their take-up
-8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
m encouraged.

m
Having introduced a theoretical framework for the
0 relationships between water and material
performance, it is now time to describe these by
-2
means of materials testing. Therefore a chapter is
set aside to present laboratory and in-situ
-4
experimental techniques used to describe
-6
mechanical behaviour of pavement material at
b) different saturation stages. Repeated load triaxial
-8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
testing was used to obtain both stiffness
m
characteristics and a description of the ability to
Predicted distribution of degree of saturation
under a pavement on a low embankment
withstand accumulation of permanent
assuming evaporation through the deformation during cyclic loading. As pavement
pavement is allowed (Mediterranean engineers are dealing with unsaturated soils,
climate). a) 1st July, b) 1st December techniques for the control of moisture/suction are

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 WATMOVE SUMMARY FINAL REPORT PAGE 13

particularly emphasised with the goal of obtaining sound

estimates of material parameters that are so necessary for
reliable modelling and prediction of in-situ performance. Of
course, no laboratory assessment can hope to replicate all in-situ
conditions, so the topic of model calibration has been
introduced.

Techniques for determining soil and pavement material

behaviour are not limited to the laboratory, as evaluation of
pavement structural capacity is often based on deflection
measurements with non destructive testing equipment. For this
reason, these approaches have also been presented and
typical responses are illustrated both for laboratory and in-situ
evaluations. The deleterious effect of water is very clearly shown
from these results.

250 125
Modulus, Mr (MPa)

Plastic strain (10-4)

A lightweight falling
200 100
weight device for
Modulus (stress state A)
assessing modulus, in-situ. 150 75
Modulus (stress state B)
It can easily be used to 100 50
Plastic Strain
assess materials at 50 25
different moisture contents
0 0
5 7 9 11 13
water content, w (%) Illustration showing the
sensitivity of a sand to
increased water
Roadowners and their maintenance
content
agents are responsible for ensuring
that the construction and use of roads
is not detrimental to the quality of natural waters. Strategies for
the protection of the environment from road and traffic
pollutants should primarily be directed towards limiting the
generation of pollutants. As a complement to source-based
measures, mitigation measures aim at reducing the dispersal of
pollutants to the roadside environment and detrimental effects
on soil, water and biota. Principles of road and traffic pollution
prevention and mitigation are therefore outlined. Pollution
prevention and mitigation is connected with several constraints
that can be classified in five major groups (see next page).

As the final sections of the book dealing with the practical

aspects of drainage were prepared, it became apparent that
pollution mitigation techniques are integrally involved with the
techniques for draining water from the pavement substructure
and embankment. The holistic approach to management of a

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pavement is needed to maintain the strength of the road

Constraints to structure, to provide long service life, safe traffic conditions and
Prevention & Mitigation
the environmentally acceptable handling of water in the
of Pollution
highway environment …. and to achieve this for optimum
• site sensitivity and
economy.
vulnerability,
• risk and hazard to
pollution,

Costs
• traffic characteristics,
• economic constraints
• legislative constraints
Total
Costs s ts
Co Drainage
nt economics
st me
e
Inv
Dama
ge Costs

Design Water Flow

Therefore the study team presents general principles for the

design and choice of a drainage system, the measures to adopt
during construction and maintenance phases and considers the
control of surface and subsurface water contamination, in order
to minimize the possible detrimental effect to existing aquifers
and habitats. Apart from drainage itself, the techniques
presented also aim at preventing ground waters from entering
the superficial layers of pavement. Sometimes this can occur
where the highway geo-hydrological environment is not properly
appreciated and/or where an inappropriate or
inadequate drainage system is provided. This can induce an
inversion in the direction of water flow, allowing water to re-enter
the earthworks or pavement structure.

embankment

Colector pipe
Rock fill
Longitudinal drainage for an embankment on “½ a hillside”

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As well as providing a comprehensive review of both traditional

and state-of-the-art drainage systems, with copious illustrations,
the final section of the book gives a basis for decision making in
the selection and design of the sub-surface drainage system
together with typical material properties and dimensions
required to ensure successful use.

7. Workshops, Newsletters & Web-site

Although you will need to buy the book, much of the work is also
available on-line at our web site. There you will find copies of
The WATMOVE web-site the presentations made at our three well-attended seminars/
www.watmove.org workshops – Madrid (2005), Constantza (2006) and Athens (2007)
– together with copies of our newsletters and questionnaire
results.

8. Conclusions
When the WATMOVE project started in late 2003, it seemed that
it would be difficult for a European group to spend three or more
years studying the movement of water in road layers and in the
adjacent earthworks. It turns out that the subject is far more
complex and extensive than any member of the WATMOVE
study team realised. Despite having produced a substantial
book, it seems that, in many respects, the task of advancing the
topic of sub-surface drainage is hardly started! Like many other
subjects, once you begin to investigate "how", "why" and
"where", you find that there are many aspects that are little
understood and that no-one has ever tried to answer some of
these questions. Certainly there are many areas that are, as yet,
unresearched by anyone and we have tried to enumerate these
in the book.

Although there is much more to be discovered and written, the

study team has produced a book with an original concept – it
brings together engineering theory, geological constraints, and
best-practice into a book that covers scientific aspects,
engineering principles and design solutions. The initial scope, set
down at the start, has been substantially expanded so that we
can explain seepage flow, temperature induced water

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movements, flow and quality monitoring, geo-environmental

aspects and highway sub-surface water control in all of their
interacting connectivity.

9. Acknowledgements
To produce a book like “Water in Roads” requires a huge
amount of effort. So this summary report must end with a very
big "thank you" to everyone who's co-operated during the life of
the project. Every one of the authoring team gives thanks to
colleagues, past and present, in their own institutions and in the
WATMOVE team, for all their many and varied contributions. The
WATMOVE Management Committee and its working groups
have given a great deal of time, energy and, above all,
enthusiasm to the task. We also acknowledge the debt to the
COST office in Brussels and to the dedicated team of scientific
and administrative officers who've helped the project in so many
ways, not least in funding our meetings. Thanks too, to the
publisher of the “Water in Roads” book – Springer. Final thanks
are reserved (in anticipation) for you – the work will have been
worthwhile when you start using the findings to increase your
knowledge and to build better roads!

The COST 351 team (Constantza, 2006)

Founded in 1971, COST is an intergovernmental framework for European Co-operation in the field of
Scientific and Technical Research, allowing the co-ordination of nationally funded research on a
European level. COST has 35 member countries. It is supported by the EU Framework Programme
and managed by the European Science Foundation. The COST Office is at 149 avenue Louise,
1050 Brussels, Belgium, Tel: +32 (0)2 533 38 00, Fax: +32 (0)2 533 38 90, E-mail enquiries:
office@cost.esf.org. European Science Foundation est une association à but non-lucratif de droit
français (Alsace), 1 quai Lezay-Marnésia, B.P. 90015, 07080 Strasbourg cedex, France.

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