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CHAPTER.1
INTRODUCTION
A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store by products of mining
operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore.
Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose, but due to cost, a tailings dam is
more viable. Tailings can be liquid, solid, or a slurry of fine particles. Solid tailings are often
used as part of the structure itself. Tailings dams rank among the largest engineered structures
on earth. The Syncrude Mildred Lake Tailings Dyke in Alberta, Canada, is an embankment
dam about 18 kilometres (11 mi) long and from 40 to 88 metres (131 to 289 ft) high. It is the
largest dam structure on earth by volume, and as of 2001 it was believed to be the largest
earth structure in the world by volume of fill. There are key differences between tailings
dams and the more familiar hydro dams. Tailings dams are designed for permanent
containment, meant to "remain there forever". Copper, gold, uranium and other mining
operations produce varied kinds of waste, much of it toxic, which pose varied challenges for
long-term containment. An estimated 3,500 active tailings impoundments stand around the
world, although there is no complete inventory, and the total number is disputed. As of 2000
these structures experience known "major" failures of about 2 to 5 annually, along with 35
"minor" failures. Assuming the 3,500 figure is correct, this failure rate is "more than two
orders of magnitude higher than the failure rate of conventional water retention dams".

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CHAPTER.2
TAILING DAM
Environmental factors have increasingly driven tailings dam designs in recent years, but not
necessarily to the benefit of engineering safety of tailings dam structures. For while design
tools have improved and designs may have become more rigorous with technological
improvements, the safety record of tailings dams has not markedly improved. Highly
publicised failures continue to occur, resulting in a negative image for the mining industry,
and particularly for Canadian mining companies, which have been involved in several of the
more prominent failures. Unfortunately, the failure statistics do not tell the real story, which is
that design, construction, operation and management of tailings facilities has advanced
tremendously over the past thirty years. The security of tailings facilities is now a recognized
priority at a corporate level in most large mining companies and the concept of sustainable
mining, which clearly involves appropriate mine waste stewardship, is an accepted part of the
modern industry. Tailings, and waste rock, are the waste products of the mining industry.
Their disposal adds to the cost of production, and consequently, it is desirable to accomplish
their disposal as economically as possible. This requirement for low cost led to development
the upstream method of tailings dam construction, which was the standard for tailings
disposal up to the mid-1900s, irrespective of site conditions. With the advent of sound
engineering practice, it became recognised that there are significant weaknesses and risks in
the upstream method of construction under many site conditions. To augment the upstream
method, embankment designs were developed using downstream and centreline construction
methods. Sound civil engineering designs for embankment slopes, transition zones and filters
were applied to tailings dams on an industry wide basis for the first time, beginning in the
1960s. Once designed and constructed based on an empirical and experience-based
approach, tailings dam design has since evolved into a formal specialist engineering
discipline. Over the past 30 years, the most significant change in tailings disposal technology
has been the recognition of the long-term geochemical risks, particularly the potential for acid
drainage and metal leaching.

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The tailings dam designer of 30 years ago was not tasked with understanding and addressing
geochemical issues. Today, geochemical characterisation is one of the most important aspects
of tailings disposal planning, and designs for operation and closure are focussed on
geochemical issues. These issues often govern not only the type of tailings dam, but also may
govern tailings dam site selection. Contaminant loading analysis is now required on
practically all 1 tailings dam design projects. Closure strategies to prevent long-term
geochemical impact to receiving environments are often the driving factors in design of
tailings impoundments. The other significant trend over the last 30 years has been the
considerable number of highly publicised failures of tailings dams that have continued to
occur with alarming frequency over the past three decades. In response to these large
numbers of failures, mining corporations, financial institutions, environmental groups,
government regulators and even the general public have instituted much more rigorous
scrutiny of tailings management systems. This paper attempts to describe how the state of
practice of tailing impoundment design, construction and operation has changed, and to
outline some of the technologies that have been developed in recent years.

CHAPTER.3
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STRUCTURE
Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of
the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed, and as it fills with a
mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the
tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.
There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline,
named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used is
dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings, and cost. An upstream
tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of
another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and
a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The
downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill
and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams
constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support
and slurry supports the upstream side.

CHAPTER.4
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TAILINGS IMPOUNDMENT DESIGN

The actual design of a tailings dam and impoundment occurs only after the site has been
selected. However,the site selection and design are best considered to be a dynamic process.
A number of design principles should affect the site selection process as well as the
determination of the embankment type and the impoundment configuration. This section first
describes some of these fundamental design principles as well as major design variables and
site-specific factors that influence ultimate design. As noted previously, the major
considerations in the design of a tailings dam and impoundment are stability, cost, and
environmental performance.
1. Basic Design Concepts
In general, tailings impoundments (and the embankments that confine them) are designed
using information on tailings characteristics, available construction materials, site specific
factors (such as topography, geology, hydrology and seismicity) and costs, with dynamic
interplay between these factors influencing the location (or siting) and actual design of the
impoundment. Because water is a major component in any tailings impoundment system,
principles of hydrology (applied to flow of water through and around the tailings
embankment) dictate many of the rules of tailings impoundment design. Indeed, because
impoundment and dam stability are in large part a function of the water level, these principles
are of fundamental concern in the design of any tailings impoundment. One of the basic
principles used in the design of impoundments and their embankments is the maintenance of
the phreatic surface within the embankment. The phreatic surface is the level of saturation in
the impoundment and embankment in natural systems it is often called the water table. The
phreatic surface exerts a large degree of control over the stability of the embankment, under
both static and seismic loading conditions (Vick 1990). The major design precept is that the
phreatic surface should not emerge from the embankment and should be as low as possible
near the embankment face (Vick 1990). This basically maintains a pore pressure at the face of
the embankment lower than atmospheric pressure plus the weight of the embankment
particles and maintains the face of the dam. Thus any factors that might affect the phreatic
surface in the embankment may also affect stability of the embankment.

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The primary method of maintaining a low phreatic surface near the embankment face is to
increase the relative permeability (or hydraulic conductivity, since water is the fluid) of the
embankment in the direction of flow.
Creating a relative increase in permeability downstream can be accomplished in one of two
ways, or a combination of the two: by incorporating lower permeability zones in the upstream
areas of the embankment (typically by constructing embankments with low permeability
cores) and by using higher permeability zones downstream (typically using internal drainage
zones). The selection of which technique to use is often based on the availability of materials,
such as clays for cores and/or clean sands for drains. The use of cores and drainage zones to
maintain embankment stability are further discussed in a later section. It should be kept in
mind, however, that major changes in phreatic surface require permeability differences in
adjacent zones to be two or more orders of magnitude (Vick 1990). The low permeability
layer generally controls the overall flow rate through the impoundment. This allows higher
permeability layers located downstream of the low permeability layer to drain and avoid
increased pore pressure. The rule on increasing permeability in the direction of flow only
applies in areas near the embankment face; if a low permeability core in the center of the
embankment is used and permeability increases downstream toward the face, permeability of
the material on the upstream side of the embankment may have little effect on the phreatic
surface downstream of the low permeability core (Vick 1990). In most embankments,
materials in the various zones are also arranged to meet filter requirements, which are
designed to prevent migration of tailings and finer materials into coarser zones. Otherwise
voids will be produced that can form a pathway through the dam along which water can
escape. As seepage rates accelerate along the pathway, erosion of the dam material occurs
leading to failure of the dam. Such failures are referred to as piping failures, because of the
natural "pipe" that is formed through the embankment.
Piping failures can be avoided by the proper application of various filter rules that have been
established in the design of water-retention dams. (Vick 1990) Factors that affect the phreatic
surface in the embankment affect its stability. These factors include the depositional
characteristics of the tailings (permeability, compressibility, grading, pulp density, etc.) and
site-specific features such as foundation characteristics and the hydrology and hydrogeology
of the impoundment area and its upstream catchment area.

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Changes in the phreatic surface in a waste embankment will change the pore water pressures
and consequently the resistance of the dam materials to sliding. Changes to the phreatic
surface can be caused by: malfunction of drainage systems, freezing of surface layers on the
downstream slope of the dam, changes in construction method (including the characteristics
of the placed material), and changes in the elevation of the pond. The level of the water table
also may be altered by changes in the permeability of the underlying foundation material;
sometimes these are caused by strains induced by mining subsidence (Vick 1990). In
addition to maintaining the phreatic surface for stability purposes, dam design now includes
factors related to environmental impacts associated with tailings seepage. By the use of
liners, drains, and pumpback systems, tailings seepage may be controlled. These techniques
are discussed in more detail in a later section of this report. The design should also address
the future reclamation of the site.
2. Design Variables
Tailings-Specific Factors
Tailings composition, pulp density, grading, and other characteristics are used in the design of
tailings impoundments in three basic ways: tailings analysis to assess the potential use of
tailings sands in constructing the embankment, analysis of tailings to be placed in the
impoundment to determine their potential impact on structural stability and seepage
characteristics, and mineralogical analysis to determine the potential chemical aspects of
seepage or other discharges from the impoundment. In addition to the physical
characteristics, the method of deposition of tailings into the impoundment plays a role in the
"engineering characteristics." (Vick 1990) Tailings sands are often used as an inexpensive
source of material for embankment construction; by removing the sands for embankment
construction the volume of tailings to be disposed of is reduced. Depending on the gradation
(grain size distribution) of the tailings, a cyclone may be used to separate sufficient amounts
of coarse sand from the whole tailings to construct the embankment, leaving a higher
percentage of slimes to be deposited behind the embankment. Cycloned sands can have both
high effective strength and high permeability, the two major characteristics necessary for
downstream embankment material. In addition, cycloning results in the deposit of the less
permeable slimes behind the embankment, possibly reducing impoundment seepage.
With regard to their general physical properties, tailings are considered to be soils, subject to
traditional soil mechanics patterns of behavior.

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In addition to tailings characteristics that affect stability and seepage quantity, tailings can be
analyzed to determine seepage water quality. Besides process chemicals (e.g., cyanide) that
may be present, metal mine tailings may contain an array of minerals originally present in the
host rock that can contaminate tailings seepage. Contaminants including arsenic, copper, lead,
manganese, selenium and other metals. Tailings also can have significant levels of
radioactivity. Tailings and effluent may be acidic or caustic, and in some cases are neutral but
later become acidic. The oxidation of sulphides, particularly pyrite (FeS) and pyrrhotite
can result in the generation of acid drainage. In the presence of free oxygen, the pyrite
oxidizes to produce acidic conditions. The chemical reaction is the combination of metal
sulfide and water to produce a metal hydroxide and sulphuric acid. In addition to chemical
oxidation, a bacterium (thiobacillus ferrooxidans) causes bacterial oxidation which may
become the dominant process in the later stages of acid production. The acidification of
tailings ponds can occur in tailings that were initially alkaline; as water levels drop within the
tailings impoundment, they introduce air into the void spaces and the subsequent oxidation
produces acids. Analysis of the ore and tailings prior to disposal is useful in anticipating
water quality problems and the need to adjust seepage flows. Water management and the
associated fate and transport of contaminants is addressed in a later section.

Site-Specific Factors

Site-specific factors play a major role in the design of an impoundment. Siting considerations
include:
I.
II.

Physical considerations such as volume of tailings and area required by the dam
Financial considerations such as the amount and cost of fill material, water controls,

III.

and tailings depositional methods

Environmental requirements such as flood control, ground water and surface water
contamination, and wildlife habitats.

The process of selecting the most favorable site typically is a screening process wherein less
suitable sites are successively removed from further consideration. The screening criteria
include cost, design constraints, and environmental conditions/performance; the importance
of each of the criteria may vary depending on the operation and the site being screened. In
selecting an appropriate site, the constraints are imposed mainly by the mill location,
topography, hydrology, geology, and hydrogeology (Vick 1990).

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Consideration of all potential factors and full investigation of the potential site can alleviate
design problems once a site has been selected. Because design factors also influence site
selection, a dynamic iterative process of site selection can result in the most favorable
outcome.
3. Mill Location
Tailings are generally transported from the mill in slurry form, typically with a solids content
from 15 to 55 percent by weight. This requires an extensive piping system for the tailings, as
well as for pumping reclaim water back to the mill. Vick (1990) quotes an average cost of
about $500,000/mile for these systems. Consequently, sites close to the mill are favored on a
cost basis over those further away. Initial site screening usually considers sites within about
five miles of the mill; this distance may be expanded later if no suitable sites are found.
Ideally, sites are located downhill from the mill to allow gravity flow of the tailings to the
impoundment and to minimize slurry pumping costs; however, pipelines with steep gradients
are avoided where possible. Sites having small elevation rises from mill to impoundment may
not be ruled out.
4. Topography
In addition to distance and elevation, natural topography is one of the main considerations for
the given impoundment volume required. The aim is to achieve maximum storage capacity
with the least amount of embankment fill. Natural valleys and other topographical
depressions are usually investigated first. As a rule of thumb, embankment heights are kept
below 200 feet. High embankments (greater than 400 ft) often pose design and construction
problems that could be avoided by better siting. (Vick 1990) Topography is also an
important factor in the site's hydrology.
5. Hydrology
Surface water hydrology factors generally favor water diversion around the impoundment
and the minimization of water inflows into the impoundment (unless one of the objectives is
to collect water for the mill operation). In general, these flows are minimized both for normal
and flood conditions. If possible, this is achieved by locating the impoundment as close as
possible to the head of the drainage basin to minimize the costs of constructing surface water
diversion structures. In order to avoid excessive water handling requirements, the total
catchment area should be less than 5 to 10 times the impoundment surface area (Vick 1990).
Even then, there must be provisions for controlling runon and runoff after the impoundment
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is"closed." Because location, topography, and hydrologic considerations and constraints are
relatively easily evaluated, they assume great importance in the screening process. As site
investigations proceed (and more costly investigations are necessary), it may be appropriate
to re-examine some sites that are eliminated from further consideration early in the process.
6. Foundations
The foundation area beneath the embankment is assessed using the geotechnical and other
methods noted above. Weak material beneath the slope, such as buried slopes once exposed to
weathering, snow covered surfaces over which additional material has been deposited, layers
of fine material included in a coarse material embankment, and foundation strata of low shear
strength, can cause rotational sliding. If a deposit of clay is extensively fissured, water
penetrating into the fissures can seriously weaken the deposit due to the dependency of the
shear strength on the softened material strength adjacent to the fissures. Compression or
consolidation of the foundation can cause appreciable settling of the overlying material,
sometimes causing cracks in tailings embankments (or zones of embankments) that can lead
to seepage or piping. The permeability of the foundation significantly affects the stability of
an embankment. When an embankment is constructed on a foundation of saturated
impervious clay, for example, the loading of the embankment will create excess pore water
pressure in the foundation material. Because the immediate loading is taken by the water
phase in the foundation material, there is no increase in shear strength and the rapid increase
in loading can precipitate embankment failures extending through the foundation. If the
foundation material beneath the tailings dam is pervious, excessive seepage can lead to piping
failure. All of these foundation factors are taken into account during design.
7. Seismicity
The design of tailings impoundments usually has to consider potential seismic activity at the
site. This requires the selection of a design earthquake for the site in question. A method
commonly used to determine the effects of the design earthquake on a particular site is to
assume that the earthquake occurs on the closest known possibly active fault. The fault is
selected on the basis of the geological studies previously conducted in the area. Attenuation
tables are then used to estimate the magnitude of the earthquake forces reaching the site as a
result of the design earthquake occurring on the selected fault.

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CHAPTER.5
TYPES OF TAILING DAMS
1. Water Retention
Water retention dams for tailings differ only slightly from conventional water storage
structures. The principal designs and construction techniques are the same, the main
difference being that tailings storage embankments have a steeper upstream slope as they do
not need to be engineered to cope with the rapid drawdown that is experienced in a
conventional water retaining structure (Vick 1990). Water retention tailings dams are mainly
used for mineral operations that plan to store high volumes of water. Water storage may be
required to keep a processing plant operational during the dry season or where surface water
inundation can occur especially if the impoundment is in a catchment area.

Water Retention type dam for tailings storage

2. Upstream
The upstream method is the lowest initial cost and most popular design for a raised tailings
embankment in low risk seismic areas. One of the reasons for this is mainly due to the
minimal amount of fill material required for initial construction and subsequent raising which
normally consists entirely of the coarse fraction of the tailings. The construction of an
upstream designed embankment starts with a pervious (free draining) starter dyke foundation.
The tailings are usually discharged from the top of the dam crest creating a beach that
becomes the foundation for future embankment raises (Vick 1990). Figure 2 shows a
simplistic diagram of the stages of construction of an upstream raised embankment. Where
the tailings properties are suitable, natural segregation of coarse material settles closest to the
spigot and the fines furthest away. Cyclones can be used to accelerate this particle
segregation for certain tailings characteristics to send the slime proportion to the centre of the
impoundment and the sand fraction to the beach behind the crest.
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The conventional method of upstream raises relies on no compaction of the spigotted beach
that forms the embankment shell (Martin 1999). Today compaction by earthmoving
equipment is common to increase the degree of safety of raised embankments. Generally the
settled coarse fraction from the spigots/discharge point is used as the raise material for the
embankments. For multiple spigot discharge a series of shallow pits are dug in front of the
spigots (once the tailings have dried and consolidated) and tailings placed on the
embankment crest, then they are compressed, the tailings lines lifted and reassembled then
normal operation commences.
It is not surprising that the upstream method is the most common design to fail causing huge
environmental consequences all over the world (ICOLD and UNEP 2001). Davies et al.
(2000) note that there are reported to be just over 3500 tailings dams worldwide of which
50% are of the upstream design. It was also noted that the key failure mode of upstream
embankments is a static/transient load induced liquefaction flowslide event. This is not
surprising considering the low relative density of the tailings and the potential for water
mismanagement to generate high saturation of the embankment and subsequently creating
liquefaction induced flows of the tailings.

This coarse beach material is essential for upstream designed impoundments to aid drainage
and prevent saturation of the embankments. This allows for a stronger and more permeable
crest to develop which reduces the height of the phreatic surface as the embankment
progressively rises. The best way to reduce the phreatic surface is to have a wide Beach
Above Water (BAW) between the dam crest and the supernatant pond (free water) within the
impoundment (Shaheen, Martin et al. 2003). The closer the supernatant pond is to the dam
crest, the higher the phreatic surface of the embankment and thus the greater the risk of
failure. The filter under-drain system of the embankments is a key component in reducing the
phreatic surface of an upstream designed embankment (ICOLD and UNEP 2001).
Upstream embankments are suited to areas where the climate is arid, minimal amounts of
water require storage in the impoundment and rapid water accumulation is improbable
(e.g. upstream water inundation and flooding).
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This helps to promote wide beaches and prevent frequent water level deviations that can
dramatically alter pond geometry, freeboard and the phreatic surface within the impoundment
area. Upstream embankments are not suited to areas of seismic activity as the risk of
liquefaction increases as a result of the potential for dynamic loading by earthquakes. In some
countries, for example Chile, upstream construction is not permitted for this reason.
Rates of rise of upstream embankments have to be controlled to prevent increased pore
pressures that can reduce the shear strength of the fill material (Jakubick, McKenna et al.
2003). Excessive rates of rise have been a trigger for static liquefaction that has been the
underlying cause for many upstream tailings impoundment failures.
3. Downstream
The downstream design was developed to reduce the risks associated with the upstream
design, particularly when subjected to dynamic loading as a result of earthquake shaking
(ICOLD and UNEP 2001). The installation of impervious cores and drainage zones can also
allow the impoundment to hold a substantial volume of water directly against the upstream
face of the embankment without jeopardising stability.
The downstream embankment design starts with an impervious starter dyke unlike the
upstream design that has a pervious starter dyke. The tailings are at first deposited behind the
dyke and as the embankment is raised the new wall is constructed and supported on top of the
downstream slope of the previous section (figure 3). This shifts the centreline of the top of
the dam downstream as the embankment stages are progressively raised (Vick 1990). An
advantage to the downstream design is that the raised sections can be designed to be of
variable porosity to tackle any problems with the phreatic surface of the embankment. This
can be particularly useful where a processing plant has made changes to increase efficiency
and as a result alter the tailings characteristics. This may result in pumping more water to the
tailings facility or alter the drainage characteristics of the newly deposited tailings.

The downstream design is very versatile for a range of site specific design parameters and
behaves similarly to water retention dams. Their main advantage is that the downstream
design can have unrestricted heights due to each raise being structurally independent of the
tailings.
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The main disadvantage is the cost of raising the embankment as large volumes of fill are
required which increases exponentially as embankment height increases, and subsequently a
large area around the dam itself is required as the toe of the dam moves out as more raises are
added. This can cause problems where limited space has been taken into consideration prior
to building, or if property line and utilities are in close proximity. Although a downstream
embankment can theoretically have no height limit, the dams ultimate height is determined by the
restriction of the advancing toe (Vick 1990).

4. Centreline
The centreline method is really a compromise between both the upstream and downstream
designs (Benckert and Eurenius 2001). It is more stable than the upstream method but does
not require as much construction material as the downstream design. Like the upstream
method the tailings are generally discharged by spigots from the embankment crest to form a
beach behind the dam wall. When subsequent raising is required, material is placed on both
the tailings and the existing embankment. The embankment crest is being raised vertically
and does not move in relation to the upstream and downstream directions of subsequent
raises, hence the term, centreline design.

The design incorporates the internal drainage zones that are similarly found in the
downstream method. Therefore, the free water can encroach closer to the dam crest than the
upstream method without the worry of increasing the phreatic surface and causing a potential
failure risk. However, a centreline dam cannot be used as a large water retention facility
solely due to the subsequent raises being partially built on consolidated tailings. A suitable
decant system needs to be installed to prevent the free water submerging the beach around the
dam crest.

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CHAPTER.6
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
A variety of construction methods and materials are used in the construction of tailings
embankments. In general, mines choose materials and methods to provide the required
stability at the lowest cost. If the tailings dam is near the mine, the use of waste rock can
significantly lower the cost of materials, while also reducing the need for waste rock disposal
areas. If borrow materials are to be used, they can be obtained from the impoundment area
and increase impoundment capacity. The materials also should meet permeability,
compressibility and shear strength requirements. They also must be chemically stable, so
potentially acidgenerating waste rock is not suitable for embankment construction, particular
in drainage systems. The most frequently used material in embankment construction is
tailings.
1. Construction Using Tailings Material
The use of tailings material is generally the most economical construction method. As
discussed previously, some of the disadvantages of using tailings as dam-building material
include: high susceptibility to internal piping, highly erodible surfaces, and high
susceptibility of the fine tailings to frost action. Also, loose and saturated tailings are subject
to liquefaction under earthquake shocks. During construction of the tailings dam, the two
major ways to improve these qualities are use of coarse fractions of tailings and compaction.
Generally, the sand fractions, after being separated from the slimes, may be easy to compact
using vibratory compactors. By compacting this coarse fraction of the tailings, the end result
is a dense mass of strong material that has greatly increased resistance to liquefaction.
Tailings separation most commonly occurs by spigotting or cycloning. The three methods of
construction using tailings are upstream, downstream and centerline.
2. Upstream Method
Upstream construction, the oldest and most economical method, begins with a starter dam
constructed at the downstream toe. The starter dam should be capable of passing seepage
water and the downstream portion should be resistant to piping. The tailings are discharged
peripherally from the crest of the starter dam using spigots or cyclones. This deposition
develops a dike and wide beach area composed of coarse material. The beach becomes the
foundation of the next dike. In some applications, the dikes are mechanically placed and the
discharge is used to build the beach only (in addition, slimes may be used to coat the
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upstream face of the dike to reduce permeability). These dikes can be built with borrow fill,
or beach sand tailings can be excavated from the beach and placed by either dragline or
bulldozer. Either way, some type of mechanical compaction of the dike is typically conducted
before the next stage of the dam is constructed. The single most important criteria for the
application of the upstream construction method is that the tailings beach must form a
competent foundation for the support of the next dike. Vick (1990) states that as a general
rule, the discharge should contain no less than 40 to 60 percent sand. This can preclude the
use of the upstream method for those mill tailings that contain very low percentages of sand.
Other references state that the determining factor for upstream versus downstream
construction is grain-size distribution of the tailings. In addition to grain size tests, Brawner,
et al, (1973) suggested that, "If a tractor cannot be operated on the first 100 to 200 feet of
beach, the grind is too fine for upstream construction methods." In addition to tailings
gradation, several other factors can limit the applicability of this method. These factors
include phreatic surface control, water storage capacity, seismic liquefaction susceptibility
and the rate of dam raising. Upstream embankment construction offers few structural
measures for control of the phreatic surface within the embankment. Vick (1990) identified
four important factors influencing the phreatic surface location: permeability of the
foundation relative to the tailings, the degree of grain-size segregation and lateral
permeability variation within the deposit, and the location of ponded water relative to the
embankment crest. Only the pond location can be controlled through operational practices.
The other factors must be planned for in the construction design phase. Both proper decanting
and spigotting procedures can be used to control the distance between the pond's edge and the
embankment crest. Although the pond's location can be controlled to some extent during
operation, a tailings pond that is expected to receive high rates of water accumulation (due to
climatic and topographic conditions) should be constructed using a method other than
upstream construction. Any change in environmental or operating conditions (heavy
rainfall, blockage of seepage outlets, rise in water levels of the pond, etc.) resulting in a rise
of the phreatic line and complete saturation of the outer sand shell could quickly lead to
failure by piping or sliding. An outer rockfill shell may mitigate failure potential from piping
or sliding. Tailings embankments constructed using the upstream method generally have a
low relative density with a high water saturation.

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This combination can result in liquefaction of the tailings embankment in the event of
seismic activity. In addition, vibration of sufficient intensity and magnitude caused by
blasting, trains, heavy trucks, etc., may cause liquefaction. The shear strength can be reduced
to near zero such that the fluidized slimes easily burst through the remaining thin, unsaturated
sand-dike shell and the dam collapses and flows. This can occur at very low heights and slope
angles. Therefore, upstream construction is not appropriate in areas with a potential for high
seismic activity. The rate of embankment raises is limited by the build-up of excess pore
pressures within the deposit. This build-up of pore pressures can lead to a shear failure, which
may result in breaching of the dam and the release of contained tailings (Brawner 1973). The
height at which potential failures are triggered depends on the strength of the tailings within
the zone of shearing, the downstream slope of the dam, and the location of the phreatic line.
Horizontal drainage zones may be installed during starter dike construction to help maintain
low pore pressure within the embankment. Vick (1990) states that a blanket drain extending
well upstream of the starter dike may be effective in lowering the phreatic surface in the
initial and subsequent embankment rises. He notes, however, that special effort must taken to
ensure against blockage of blanket drains when used in upstream embankments.
3. Downstream Method
The design requirements for the downstream method of construction are similar to
conventional water storage dams. As in upstream construction, downstream construction also
begins with a starter dam constructed of compacted borrow materials, however, this starter
dam may be constructed of pervious sands and gravels or with predominately silts and clays
to minimize seepage through the dam. If low permeability materials are used in the starter
dike, internal drains will need to be incorporated in the design. The downstream method is so
named because subsequent stages of dike construction are supported on top of the
downstream slope of the previous section, shifting the centerline of the top of the dam
downstream as the dam stages are progressively raised. A variety of tailings depositional
techniques can be used in conjunction with the downstream construction method, but
peripheral spigotting of tailings is very common. Coarse tailings can be spread in thin layers
utilizing on-dam cycloning, or they can be hauled from a central cycloned stockpile, then
spread and compacted. If the volume of coarse tailings is not sufficient to construct the dam,
local borrow materials may be incorporated for part of the structure. If coarse rock is used,

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due to its porosity, a filter or impervious upstream membrane is required to prevent piping of
the tailings through the rock.
If spigotting is controlled to create a wide tailings beach and the embankment has been made
of permeable tailings, the phreatic surface may be controlled without the need for internal
impervious zones or drains. However, Brawner, et al. (1973) recommend that if the dam will
be constructed in a potential earthquake zone and/or its height is to exceed 50 ft, the
downstream extensions must be compacted to a higher relative density than is typical to
minimize the risk of liquefaction. The downstream construction method allows for the
incorporation of drains and impervious cores to control the phreatic surface. Brawner, et al.
(1973) recommended the placement of a pervious sand underdrain layer or alternative
drainage system prior to each downstream extension. Several other drain designs can also be
incorporated into the design. For example, an inclined chimney drain near the upstream face
of the dike, and connected to a blanket drain at the dikes base, may be installed with each
successive raise of the embankment. (Vick 1990) Drainage controls help to control the
phreatic surface and minimize the chance for build-up of pore water pressures which reduce
shear strength. Due to the ability to incorporate drains into the design, this method of
construction is well-suited to conditions where large volumes of water may be stored along
with the tailings solids. The downstream method of construction provides a degree of stability
not found in upstream construction due to the ability and ease of compaction, the
incorporation of phreatic surface control measures and the fact that the dam raises are not
structurally dependent upon the tailings deposits for foundation strength. A major
disadvantage of this method is the large volume of fill material required to raise the dam. The
increased volume of fill required can dramatically increase the cost of this method of
construction if the tailings from the mill cannot provide a sufficient volume of sand.
Embankments constructed with downstream raises also cover a relatively large area, which
can be a major disadvantage if available space is limited.
4. Centerline Method
Centerline construction is similar to both the upstream and downstream construction methods
in that the embankment begins with a starter dam and tailings are spigotted off the crest of the
dam to form a beach. The centerline of the embankment is maintained as fill and progressive
raises are placed on both the beach and downstream face . The tailings placed on the
downstream slope should be compacted to prevent shear failure. The centerline method of

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construction provides some of the advantages over the other two methods while mitigating
some of the disadvantages.
As in the downstream method, drainage zones can be incorporated into the construction. A
wide beach is not mandatory and this method is amenable for use with tailings that contain a
relatively low percentage of sand. Since less sand is required, the dam raises may be added
faster than in the upstream or downstream methods. Coarse gradation of the tailings is
necessary if rapid drainage is required to provide support for construction equipment.
Although this embankment type is not amenable to permanent storage of large volumes of
water, short term storage of water due to heavy precipitation events or mill shutdown will not
adversely affect the stability of the dam. If the embankment has been properly compacted and
good internal drainage is provided, this embankment type is resistant to seismic activity. Even
in the event that the slimes placed against the upstream slope liquefy, the central and
downstream portions of the dam may remain stable due to their good compaction and
drainage characteristics.
5. Embankments Constructed Using Alternative Materials
Although the three embankment construction methods discussed above are typically built
with large volumes of coarse tailings, portions of the dams (particularly the starter dam) may
incorporate a variety of borrow fill materials. For example, waste rock and overburden
excavated during open-pit stripping can be used to construct embankments. However, waste
removed from the mine may not keep pace with the demand to raise the dam crest. Also,
waste rock that may potentially be acid-forming is not suitable for embankment (or drainage)
construction. In general, where natural materials are used exclusively for dam construction,
standard earth dam (water retention) design may be followed. A water retention dam
constructed with native materials should contain internal zoning such as an impervious core,
drainage zones, and appropriate filters. These designs are best suited when large volumes of
water are planned to be stored with the tailings. Design changes are required to account for
the higher unit weight of saturated tailings. In addition, since water retention dams are
designed to limit the drainage through the core, placement of spigotted slimes on the
upstream face usually produce a moderately impervious upstream seal.

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CHAPTER.7
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE
The mining and processing by products collected in tailings dams are not part of the aerobic
ecological systems, and are unstable. They may damage the environment by releasing toxic
metals (arsenic and mercury among others), by acid drainage (usually by microbial action on
sulfide ores), or by damaging aquatic wildlife that rely on clear water.
Tailings dam failures involving significant ecological damage include:

The Bento Rodrigues dam disaster, Brazil, November 5, 2015, considered the worst
environmental disaster in Brazil's history, killed 13 when an iron ore containment dam
failed and released 60 million cubic meters of iron waste

The Mount Polley mine disaster, British Columbia, August 4, 2014

The Ok Tedi environmental disaster on New Guinea, which destroyed the fishery of
the Ok Tedi River, continuously from 1984 through 2013

The Ajka alumina plant accident, Hungary, October 4, 2010

The Baia Mare cyanide spill, Romania, January 30, 2000, called the worst
environmental disaster in Europe since the Chernobyl disaster

The Church Rock uranium mill spill in New Mexico, July 16, 1979, the largest release
of radioactive waste in U.S. history

Tailings ponds can also be a source of acid drainage, leading to the need for permanent
monitoring and treatment of water passing through the tailings dam. For instance in 1994 the
operators of the Olympic Dam mine, Western Mining Corporation, admitted that their
uranium tailings containment had released of up to 5 million m3 of contaminated water into

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the subsoil. The cost of mine cleanup has typically been 10 times that of mining industry
estimates when acid drainage was involved

CONCLUSION
A review of the state-of-practice in tailings dam/impoundment design and construction
shows that great technical progress has been made. Better investigation and design tools are
available. New technologies in thickening and filtration of tailings have provided the
opportunities for alternatives to disposing of tailings as conventional slurries. New concepts
include dry-stack tailings, thickened tailings and paste tailings. Geomembrane liners are
commonly used where tailings may present a risk of groundwater contamination, and design
and construction methods for lined impoundments have been developed. Improvements have
been made to the traditional upstream construction method to reduce stability risks.
Environmental considerations have become increasingly more important in tailings dam
design and permitting. Closure planning has become an integral part of initial design and
permitting. Designs must address ARD and include measures for long term control and/or
prevention of ARD. In spite of the improvements in tailings disposal practices, a number of
highly publicised failures have overshadowed the advances. These failures have led to
increased scrutiny of mining projects by regulators, environmental groups, and financial
institutions. Numerous guidelines and risk assessment programs have been developed by the
industry to reduce tailings dam failure risks.

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REFERENCES

www.ieee.com

www.studymafia.com

www.wikipedia.com

www.seminarsonly.com

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