CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

2.1. Electrical Energy

In electrical system, principal machines, transformers and other power devices
are used. Such a system comprises all the apparatus used in the generation,
transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
Electrical energy is carried by conductors such as overhead transmission lines
and underground cable. Although these conductors appear very ordinary, important
electrical properties that greatly affect the transmission of electrical energy can be
achieved. There are high-voltage, low-voltage, high-power, low-power, aerial lines
and underground lines. The voltage and power flow are controlled in an electric
system.

2.2. Transmission and Distribution System

The function of transmission and distribution system would be to take up
power to the consumers from the source of power generation as economically and as
conveniently as possible. In high-voltage transmission, the generation voltage is
stepped up to transmission voltage by transformers at the station.
The transmission lines take up power to transmission substation. The choice of
voltage of transmission in a particular system depends on the distance of transmission
and the amount of power to be transmitted. In a larger power system, the distribution
will be effect direct from the transmission substation but would need subtransmission
lines also to reduce the voltage to distribution system-voltage level in stages.
From a transmission substation, power would be taken to a subtransmission
substation or substation at less than transmission voltage. This is again chosen by
economic consideration for particular system depending on the distance and the load.
Power would be taken from the subtransmission station or substation to distribution
substations by means of primary distribution or feeders. There may be needed for a
primary distribution system to supply a few large loads such as industrial loads in the
area at high voltage, e.g. 11 kV or 33kV or so and this may from primary distribution.
 5

The distribution transformers are located at distribution substation to change

the primary distribution voltage to the secondary distribution voltage. The distribution
substations are the feeding points for the secondary distribution system. The
distribution is run from the distribution substations or feeding points. These are
conductors which are tapped to supply the various loads of the consumers by service
mains [81Pab].

2.3. Distribution System

An electric distribution system or distribution plant is all of that part of an
electric power system between the bulk power source or sources and the consumer’s
service switches. In a large power system, the distribution will be effected direct from
the transmission substation but would need sub-transmission lines also to reduce the
voltage to distribution system-voltage level in stages. A typical distribution system
will consist of one or more distribution substations consisting of one or more feeders.
Components of the feeder may consist of the following:
 Three-phase primary main feeder
 Three-phase, two-phase (v phase), and single-phase laterals
 Step-type voltage regulators or load tap changing transformer (LTC)
 Shunt capacitor banks
 Three-phase, two-phase, and single-phase loads

2.3.1. Main Parts of Distribution System

Distribution system can, in general be divided into six parts:
 sub-transmission circuits
 distribution substations
 distribution or primary feeders
 distribution transformers
 secondary circuits or secondaries
 consumers’ service connecting and meters or consumers’ services.
Figure 2.1 is a schematic diagram of a typical distribution system showing
these parts. Power would be taken from the sub-transmission station or stations to
distribution sub-stations by means of primary distribution or feeders. There may be
 6

need for a primary distribution system to supply a few large loads such as industrial
loads in the area at high voltage. The sub-transmission substation steps down the
transmission voltage to primary distribution levels. The distribution transformers are
located at the distribution substation to change the primary distribution voltage to the
secondary distribution voltage. The distribution substations are the feeding points for
the secondary distribution system.
The distributions are run from the distribution substations or feeding points.
These are conductors which are tapped to supply the various loads of the consumers by
service mains [81Pab].

Bulk Power Source

Sub-transmission

Distribution
Substation
Primary
Feeder

Distribution
Transformer

Secondaries

Consumers’ Service

Figure 2.1. Typical Distribution System Showing Component Parts [81Pab]

2.3.2. Classification of Distribution Systems

Classification of distribution systems are as follow:
 According to voltage: the distribution system may be primary or secondary.
The primary distribution is done at 11kV and the secondary at 440V.
 According to the kind of currents: it may be carrying DC or AC.
 7

 According to service: it may serve a house (domestic) or an industry.

 According to construction: it may go along roads with poles, insulators, etc., or
underground in trenches.
 According to connection schemes: the distribution scheme may be of three
types are radial, ring main and interconnection scheme.

2.3.3. Requirements of a Good Distribution Scheme

The requirements of a good distribution scheme are:
 Reliability of supply should be maintained. If there is a breakdown, it should be
for the least possible time.
 The voltage drop at any consumer terminal should remain within ± 5 % of the
declared voltage.
 The efficiency of the system should not be less than 90 %.
 The insulation resistance of the system is high so that there is no leakage.
 The system should be economical.

2.4. Basic Types of Distribution System

The basic type of distribution systems are:
 DC Distribution: According to number of wires, DC distribution systems of
two types are two wire distribution system and three wire distribution system.
 AC Distribution: AC distribution systems of two types are high voltage
(primary distribution) and low voltage (secondary distribution).

Table 2.1. Comparison between AC and DC Distribution Systems [81Pab]

No DC System AC System
1. It requires only two conductors.
It requires, at least, two wires for the
However, if earth is used as the
single phase system, and three wires for
return conductor, only one
three phase system. However, the three
conductor is sufficient; thus, much
phase transmission is economical.
copper can be saved.
2. Problems of inductance,
capacitance, surges, etc., are It has all these problems.
eliminated in this system.
 8

3.
It has no skin effect. It has skin effect.
(continued)

4. The DC system has no corona loss The AC system suffers from corona
and has, therefore, no radio losses which produce radio interference.
interference.
5. Voltage regulation in the DC system Voltage regulation in the AC system is
is better. poor.
6. In the DC system, high voltage In the AC system, with transformers,
cannot be made available as high can get any voltage (high or low).
voltage generation is quite However, the generation voltage is
uneconomical. 11kV
7. The DC switch gear/substation The AC switch gear/substation is easy
needs more maintenance. to maintain.

2.5. Type of Distribution System

The distribution system can be classified as follows:

 Radial system

 Parallel or loop system

 Network or grid system

2.5.1. Radial System

The sub-transmission substation supplies the primary distribution system
feeders radiating from the substation bus. They feed the distribution transformer of
substations which step down the voltage to distribution voltage and supply various
loads through distributors.
Feeders are conductors that are not tapped in between the subtransmission
substation the distribution substations while distributors are conductors that are tapped
throughout at all points when they are laid from substation transformers to various
consumers in the area to be served. Primary feeder voltages of 11 kV and 3.3 kV are
very common. This is also shown as radial distribution and is on the secondary
distribution side. Type of this system is shown in Figure 2.2.
 9

2.5.2. Parallel or Loop System

From the source of supply such as sub-transmission substation, feeders are laid
in parallel to supply substations from which the secondary distribution of power will
be effected. In this system, the circuit returns to the same point so that there is in affect
one feeding point only. In case of fault in one part of the circuit, an alternative path is
available giving mare reliability than the radial system. The type of this system is
shown in Figure 2.3.

2.5.3. Network or Grid System

This type of system is applicable in large distribution areas with-large loads
and where the system has to be made more reliable for continuity of supply. This is
true for primary distribution systems as well as in some applications to secondary
distribution system.
The network gives better voltage regulation and less possible outages of
consumers. Shifting of loads or load growth in the area can be handled with minimum
systems. There are not extensive reconnections or changes in circuits necessary for the
purpose. The network system of distribution is shown in Figure 2.4.

Transmission
Substation

Circuit Breaker
Substation Bus

Circuit Breaker

Load
Primary Feeder

Fuse
Distribution
Transformer
Distribution

Load

Figure 2.2. Radial Distribution System [81Pab]

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Source

Parallel
or Loop
Circuit

Ring
Loop

Load Load

Figure 2.3. Parallel or Loop Distribution System [81Pab]

Sub-transmission Sub-transmission
Substation Substation

Substation

Substation

Substation Substation Load

Load Load
 11

Figure 2.4. A Network or Grid System of Distribution [81Pab]

2.6. Principal Components of a Power Distribution System
To provide electrical energy to consumers, a transmission and distribution
system must, satisfy some basic requirements. Thus, the system must
 Provide, at all times, the power that consumers need
 Maintain a suitable, nominal voltage that does not vary by more than 10%.
 Maintain a stable frequency the does not vary by more than 0.1 Hz.
 Supply energy at an acceptable price.
 Meet standards of safety.
 Respect environmental standards.
Figure 2.5 shows an elementary diagram of transmission and distribution
system. It consists of two generating stations G 1 and G2, a few substations, an
interconnecting substation and several commercial, residential and industrial loads.
The energy is carried over lines designed extra-high voltage (EHV), high-voltage
(HV), medium-voltage (MV), and low-voltage (LV). This voltage classification is
made according to a scale of standardized voltage whose nominal values are shown in
Appendix. Transmission substation serves to change the line voltage transformers and
to regulate it by means of static var compensators, synchronous condensers or
transformers with variable taps.

Figure 2.5. Elementary Diagram of Transmission and Distribution System [80Pet]

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Distribution substation change the medium voltage to low-voltage by means

step-down transformers, which may have automatic tap-changing capabilities to
regulate the low-voltage. The low-voltage range is from 120/240 V single phase to 600
V, 3-phase. It serves to power private residences, commercial and institutional
establishment and small industry [80Pet].
Interconnecting substations serve to tie different power systems together, to
enable power exchanges, and to increase the stability of the overall network. These
substations also contain circuit breakers, fuses and lighting arresters to protect
expensive apparatus and to provide for quick isolation of faulted lines from the system.
In addition, control apparatus, power measuring devices, disconnected switches;
capacitors, inductors and other devices may be part of a substation.
Electrical power utilities divide their power distribution systems into two major
categories;
 Transmission systems in which the line voltage is roughly between 115 kV and
800 kV.
 Distribution systems in which the voltage generally lies between 120 V and 69
kV.
Distribution systems, in turn, are divided into medium-voltage distribution
systems (2.4 kV to 69 kV) and low-voltage distribution system (120 V to 600 V).

2.7. Electrical Design

The distribution may be subdivided mainly into primary distribution system,
distribution transformers, secondary distribution and consumer’s service connections.
The electrical design will involve choosing the distribution voltage for primaries, size
and location of distribution transformers, type of distribution system for primaries and
secondary, allowable voltage regulation on load, length of the lines and the size of
conductors used for the distribution system.
Addition of voltage regulation devices is sometimes necessary for control. The
design involves the correct choice and application of transformers and their
accessories. The expected operating characteristics should be determined and the
necessary protection provided. Protective equipment should be properly chosen.
 13

Arrestors, grounding methods, spacing of wires and insulation levels to be used for the
lines should be properly chosen.
2.7.1. Primary Distribution
The primary distribution would be the circuits supplying power at high voltage
to large consumes such as industrial consumers and to distribution substation. The
voltages are 33kV, 11kV, 6.6kV, and 3.3kV. The three-phase, three wire system is
adopted for primary distribution.

2.7.2. Primary Distribution Design

The following points have to be considered in the design of primary
distribution.
 Choice of voltage
 Conductor size
 Types of distribution systems
 Voltage drop
 Design of primary network
The design of primary network involves the determination of the followings:
 location, size and character of larger loads on the primary distribution
system
 location, size and character of small loads on the primary distribution system
 anticipated load growth in the area
 location of power stations- generation stations or receiving stations
 capacity of transformers, substations, distribution circuits
 available sites for substations
 routes for distribution
 sub transmission supply circuits
 tie feeders if necessary and
 use of network transformer units

2.7.3. Secondary Distribution

The secondary distribution system would take the power to consumers such as
domestic consumers at distribution voltage. This is the low voltage distribution at the
voltage which is directly utilized by small and average consumers. Therefore, the
400/230V, 3 phase, 4 wire system is adopted for secondary distribution.
 14

The advantages of the three phase, four wire systems are at a time, one gets two
voltages, 400V and 230V the three phase supply is given to factories, whereas, the
single phase supply is given to houses for light and fan loads.
2.7.4. Secondary Distribution Design
The link between the primary distribution and secondary distribution is a series
of substations suitable located to step-down the voltage of the primary distribution
system to the secondary distribution voltage. The following points have to be
considered.
 Choice of voltage
 Conductor size
 Types of secondary distribution
 radial system
 loop radial or low voltage secondary network

2.8. Substation in Distribution

Substations are used throughout an electrical system. Starting with the
generating station a substation raises the medium-voltage generated by the
synchronous generators to high-voltage needed to transmit the energy economically.
The high transmission-line voltage is then reduced in those substation located close to
the power consuming centers. The electrical equipment is such distribution substation
is similar to that found in substation associated with generating plants.
A substation is fed by three separated lines all operating at 220 kV. It contains
six 3-phase transformers rated at 36/48/60 VA. The windings are connected in wye-
delta(Y-∆) and automatic tap-changers regulate the secondary voltage. A neutral is
established on the medium voltage side by means of 3-phase grounding transformers.

2.8.1. Medium Voltage Distribution

Thirty-six 3-phase feeders (30 active and 6 spares) rated at 24.9 kV, 400 A lead
outward from the substation. Each feeder is equipped with the current limiting reactors
that limit the line to ground short circuit currents to a maximum of 12 kA. Some
feeders are underground, other overhead and still others are underground or overhead.
Underground feeders are composed of three single-phase standard aluminum
cables insulated with polyethylene. The insulation is in turn surrounded by a spiral
 15

wrapping of tinned copper conductors which act as the ground. The cable is pulled
through underground concrete duct of simply buried along with active cables to
provide alternate service in case of a fault.
The 24.9 kV aerial lines are supported on wooden poles. The latter also carry
the LV circuits and telephone cable. The 24.9 kV lines are tapped at various points so
supply 3-phase and single phase power to residences, commercial establishments and
recreation centers.
For nearby areas the 24.9 kV line voltages is regulated within acceptable limits
by the tap-changing transformers at the substation. In more remote distinct, special
measures have to be taken to keep the voltage reasonably stable which changing load.
Thus self-regulating autotransformers are often installed.

2.8.2. Low Voltage Distribution

At the consumer end of the medium voltage feeders that spread out from the
substation, the voltage is stepped down by transformers from 24.9 kV to the much
lower voltages needed by the consumers. Two low-voltage systems are provided on
this typical suburban network.
 Single-phase 120/240 V with grounded neutral
 Three-phase 600/347 V with grounded neutral
The first system is mainly used in individual dwellings and for single-phase
power ranging up to 150 kA. The second is used in industry, large buildings and
commercial centers where the power requirement is under 2000 kVA.
For single-phase service, the transformers are usually rated between 10 kVA
and 167 kVA and they are pole-mounted. The voltage rating is typically 14400 V/240-
120 V. The transformers posses a single high-voltage bushing connected to one side of
the high-voltage winding. The other side of the winding is connected to the steel
enclosure which in turn is connected to the neutral conductor and also to ground.
In the case of 3-phase installations, 3-single phase transformers rated at 14400
V/347 V are used. The units are connected in wye-wye (Y-Y) and the natural on the
primary side is solidly grounded.
The secondary side provides a line voltage of 600 V, and it may or may not be
grounded. Such standard distribution transformers have no taps, and no circuits
 16

breakers of fuses are used on the secondary side. The primary high-voltage terminal is,
however protected by a cutout in order to prevent excessive damage to equipment in
case of a fault.
2.9. Development of a Distribution Plan
When designing and developing the distribution plan for a particular area, the
following main points should be considered;
 Service conditions are load tabbed serve, density of customers, length of lines
and points of supply.
 Electrical designs are transformers and accessories, protection of electrical
system and operation of the system.
 Mechanical designs are poles and spans, hardware and guying, wires and
clearances and installation of transformers and substations.
 Cost per kilometer of distribution lines and cost per consumer.

2.9.1. Analysis of Service Conditions

This involves a study of load, type of load to be supplied, density of
consumers, points available for supply of electrical distribution lines, determination of
the length and total load on the lines, street and road layouts, layouts of distribution
lines along the roads, topography of the country, etc.
The main loads on the distribution system may be divided into various
categories such as residential or domestic load, commercial load and industrial loaded.

2.9.2. Cost Comparison

Different possible distribution plans including subtransmission, primary
distribution and secondary distribution system and their combination should be
compared and the most economical plan should be adopted, suitable to the individual
cases.

2.9.3. Mechanical Design

This involves the choice of the wire size, clearances, spacing of wires, resultant
loading of structures, and selection of pole height, span length, hardware and support.

2.10. Calculation of Distributor Sizes

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Distributors are conductors that are tapped for supplying loads to consumers.
The main requirement of these conductors is to supply power to consumers at the rated
voltage within the permissible voltage variation. The voltage at the last consumer
connected across the distributors should not fall below the minimum prescribed value.
The distributors are fed from the feeding points or substations. The types of
load on the distributors are concentrated loads at various points of tapping of the
service mains. If the loads are uniformly distributed such as street lighting loads of
equal sizes at equal distances, they may be represented as uniformly distributed load
per unit length of the distributor.
In practice, it may be that the loads are both concentrated at various points as
well as uniformly distributed. The voltage drops that occur due to such loads can be
worked out and the voltage at the terminals of the last consumer can be found out.

2.10.1. Size and Voltage Drop in AC Single-Phase Distribution System

The voltage drop due to loads at the various points on a single-phase AC
distributor can be worked out considering the effect of resistance as well as reactance
of the conductors. If I ampere is the current at power factor (cos at a particular
loading point and if R is the resistance and X is the reactance of the distributor up to
that point, the approximate voltage drop would be (IR cosIX sin) volts (arithmetic
addition) [74Dep].

2.10.2. Current Distribution and Voltage Drop in Three-Phase-Four-Wire Distribution

System
In a three-phase four-wire distribution system, the motor loads and three-phase
balanced loads are supplied from the three-phase lines while single-phase loads are
distributed between each phase and neutral.
The connections are arranged in the system so that, as far as possible, the loads
are balanced and the current through the neutral is reduced to the minimum as the
current is due only to imbalance of loads. The sizes of the main conductors, needed to
carry the necessary current through the conductors and to be within the permissible
voltage drops, are obtained. The size of the neutral wire is generally taken as half the
size of the phase conductor.
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2.11. Single-Wire-Earth-Return System (SWER)

Electrification of small and isolated villages, where electric loading is light and
not likely to increase substantially in the near future that are sufficiently for away from
the existing high voltage (H.V) distribution lines is not economically viable if three-
phase distribution is adopted.
The SWER system comprises a single high voltage conductor erected on poles
and using the earth as the return path, supplying distribution transformers which have
primary windings connected between the single wire and the earth.
Advantages of the SWER distribution system are:
 Savings of two overhead conductors, two insulators, two insulators and one
cross arm.
 Only one H.V busing is required on distribution transformers.
 The insulator can be placed on the top of the pole to provide added ground
clearance with advantage to adopt longer spans.
 In most cases, smaller size (i.e. 13 mm 2) ACSR conductor would be adequate
for high voltage (H.V) line.
 Single-phase distribution transformers of smaller sizes, i.e. 10, 16 and 25 kV
would generally be adequate to meet the requirement of loads in the area.
 Distribution transformers, being small, can be erected on single pole structures.
 Reduction in cost.
 Savings in energy losses in the system.

Disadvantages of the SWER distribution system are:

 As the H.V earthing system carries heavy current under fault conditions,
dangerous potential may develop at the point of earthing. Therefore, extensive
earthing system is required for safety.
 It results in unbalanced loading in the system; hence is isolating transformers
for more balanced loading may be required.
 Great care is required to ensure that the telecommunication lines are not
harmfully affected.
 The system is not considered safe and suitable for the use in areas where the
soil resistivity is more than 200 Ωm.
 19

2.12. Types of Fault

The types of fault that can occur depends on the distribution system-single line
to ground fault, double line to ground fault and line to line fault are common to single
phase, two phase and three phase systems. The three phase faults are (very rare)
characteristic only of three phase systems (less than about 5% to total faults).
A fault in an electrical power system is the unintentional and undesirable
creation of a conducting path (a short-circuit) or a blockage of current (an open-
circuit). The short-circuit fault is typically the most common and is usually implied
when most people use the term “fault”.
The causes of faults include lightning, wind damage, trees falling across lines,
vehicles colliding with towers or poles, birds shorting out lines, aircraft colliding with
lines, vandalism, small animals entering switchgear, and line breakers resulting from
excessive ice loading. Power system faults can be categorized as one of four types.
The single line to ground faults result when one conductor falls to ground or contacts
the neutral wire. Single line to ground faults is relatively frequent (more than about
70%). Double line to ground faults result when two conductors fall and are connected
through ground, or when two conductors contact the neutral of a three phase/two phase
grounded system.
Line to line faults result when conductors of a two phase or three phase system
are short circuited. Balanced three-phase and the first three types constitute severe
unbalanced operating conditions [74Dep].

2.13. Voltage Regulation

The regulation is the change in voltage at the receiving end when full load is
thrown off, the sending end conditions remaining constant. It is usually expressed as a
percentage of the voltage at the receiving end.
The method of voltage regulation used on distribution systems are:
 Transformer taps, 2, 5, 7 % taps are generally used.
 Automatic-control induction-type voltage regulators.
 Boosters.
 Automatic tap-changers and boosters.
 20

 Shunt capacitors.
Automatic voltage boosters are less expensive than induction regulators and are
important in improving the service in low-density areas, particularly on long, rural
lines.
Automatic tap changing on-load is also used with large distribution
transformers and power transformers in substations to control the voltage on a bus or
feeder.
For satisfactory operation, operation of regulators on distribution circuit must
be coordinated with the system design and the regulator setting may be determined to
give the best results.
The distribution system may be designed with the following limitations:
 8% voltage drop is allowed between the primary of the first transformer and
end of the secondary of last transformer with maximum load on the circuit and
the maximum load on the last transformers and secondary.
 Regulators are set up to provide a voltage, at the primary of the first
transformer of about 4 % more than the normal voltage.
 When automatic control is used for the distribution system, the contact making
voltmeters are set to the value of the standard voltage to be maintained.
Shunt capacitors can be used on the distribution system to improve the voltage
regulation of the system. The shunt capacitors, it connected to utilization equipment
and switched on in accordance with the load, reduce the voltage drop in the
distribution system and thus help in obtaining the better voltage regulation.
Shunt capacitors installed on a distribution system reduce the current, improve
the voltage regulation and reduce energy loses in every part of the system between
capacitors and generators [74Dep].

2.14. Neutral Grounding

In practice the neutral of a three-phase system is earthed at substations. This is
known as neutral earthing or grounding. An earthed neutral system has the following
advantages:
 It provides a better protection against earth faults.
 It ensures nearly constant voltage of healthy phases because neutral point is not
shifted.
 21

 This system provides a better reliability of service.

 It is safer for personnel and equipment.
 It requires lesser maintenance expense as compared to the unearthed neutral
(isolated) system.
 In this system, transient voltages produced are very small.

 Ground fault relaying is simple. The earth fault may be utilized to operate
protective relays to isolate the fault.
 Persistent arcing grounds can be eliminated by employing protective gears.
The methods of neutral grounding are solid earthing and resistance earthing.
Earth resistance usually will be high where the gravel, sand or stone content in
the soil is high with a low content of clay or loam. Resistance will be lowest with a
high content of clay or loam in the soil and little or no sand, gravel, or stone [74Dep].

2.15. Utility AC Power System

The detail of power distribution varies from one city or country to another and
from one utility company to another, but the basics are the same. Figure 2.6 shows a
simplified distribution network. Power from a generating station or distribution gird
comes into an area substation. The substation consists of switching systems, step-down
transformers, fuses, circuit breakers, reclosers, monitors, and control equipment.

Transmission
Generating Lines Substation
Plants Load
Select
Switches
Distribution Substation
Voltage
Load Select Regulato Back- Sub-
r up Transmission
Line Lines
 22

Step-up Transformer
Power
Transformer

Generation Transmission
Voltage System Sub-Transmission
Regulato System
r

(b)
Power Distribution Network
To Another
Distribution
Substation
Primary Feeder
Low Voltage Low Voltage

(a)

Secondary Main

Customer Loads

(c)

Figure 2.6. Simplified Block Diagram of Basic Utility Power Distribution [75Ste]
(a) Overall Network
(b) System Terminology
(c) Distribution between Primary and Secondary System

The substation delivers output voltages of approximately to sub-transmission

circuits, which feed distribution sub-stations. The circuits feeding individual customer
loads are referred to as the secondary system, which the primary system is the network
upstream from the secondary.
 23

The secondary system originates at the distribution transformer and ends at the
consumer loads. This is referred to as secondary banking. If an even higher service
reliability factor is required the secondary mains in area can be connected in a mesh or
a network, similar to the networking of the primary.
Fuses and circuit breakers are included at a number of points in the distribution
system to minimize fault-caused interruptions of service. Ground-fault interrupters
(GFIs) are also included at various points in the system to open the circuit if excessive
ground currents begin to flow on the monitored line.
Depending on the geographic location, varying levels of lightning protection
are included as part of the AC power system design. Most service drop transformers
have integral lightning arresters. In areas of severe lightning, a ground wire is strung
between the top insulators of each pole, diverting the lightning to the ground wire, and
away from the hot leads [75Ste].
Substation

Distributor
Distributor

Distributor