DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

AND
SUBSTATION DESIGN
 Course Content
1) Distribution system planning and automation
2) Load characteristics
3) Distribution Transformers
4) Design of Substations, primary and secondary systems
5) Voltage drop and power loss calculations
6) Voltage regulation and capacitor application
7) Distribution system modeling and simulation
8) Distribution system protection
9) Distribution system reliability
10) Electric power quality
11) Distributed generation and storage
12) Advanced topics
Distribution system planning
and automation
Introduction
Electrical Power System- A power system contains all electric equipment necessary for
supplying the consumers with electric energy. This equipment includes generators, transformers
(step-up and step-down), transmission lines, sub-transmission lines, cables, switchgear.

Three main parts- Generation System, Transmission System, Distribution System

Voltage Range in the System(PDC & PGC)

1. Low Voltage (0-1,000 V)
2. Medium Voltage(1,000-34,500 V)
3. High Voltage (34,500-230,000 V)
4. Extra High Voltage (230,000 – 765,000 V)
5. Ultra High Voltage ( 765,000 & Above)

Distribution Voltages
Primary Distribution Voltage- 7.97 kV/13.8 kV
Three-Phase Secondary Voltage – 400 V
Single-phase secondary Voltage – 230 V
Distribution System
-is the interface between the electricity generator and the electricity consumer.
-The system of wires and associated facilities belonging to a franchised Distribution Utility,
extending between the delivery points on the transmission, sub-transmission system, or
generating plant connection and the point of connection to the premises of the End-
User.(PDC)

Distribution Utility
-Refers to any Electric Cooperative, private corporation, government-owned utility, or
existing local government unit, which has an exclusive franchise to operate a Distribution
System in accordance with its franchise and the Act.(PDC)

Distribution Development Plan (DDP)

-The expansion, reinforcement and rehabilitation program of the Distribution System which
is prepared by the Distribution Utility and submitted to the DOE for integration with the PDP
and PEP. In the case of Electric Cooperatives, such plans shall be submitted through the NEA
for review and consolidation.
Detailed Planning Data
-Additional data, which the Distribution Utility requires, for the conduct of a more accurate
distribution system planning study.(PDC)

National Electrification Administration (NEA)

-The government agency created under Presidential Decree No. 269, whose additional
mandate includes preparing Electric Cooperatives in operating and competing under a
deregulated electricity market, strengthening their technical capability, and enhancing their
financial viability as electric utilities through improved regulatory policies.

Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC).

-The independent, quasi-judicial regulatory body created pursuant to Republic Act No. 9136,
which is mandated to promote competition, encourage market development, ensure
customer choice, and penalize abuse of market power in the restructured electricity
industry and among other functions, promulgate and enforce the Philippine Grid Code and
the Philippine Distribution Code.
Distribution Losses
1. Technical Loss- The component of System Loss that is inherent in the physical delivery
of electric energy. It includes conductor loss, transformer core loss, and technical error in
Meters.(PDC)
-Comprised of Variable Losses and Fixed Losses

a.Variable losses (load losses) are proportional to the square of the current, that is, depend
on the power distributed across the network. They often are referred to as copper losses
that occur mainly in lines, cables and copper parts of transformers. Variable losses can be
reduced by:
*increasing the cross-sectional area of lines and cables for a given load;
*reconfiguring the network, for example, by providing more direct and/or shorter lines to
where demand is situated;
*managing the demand to reduce the peaks on the distribution network;
balancing the loads on three-phase networks;
*encouraging the customers to improve their power factors;
and Locating the embedded generating units as close as possible to demand.
b. Fixed losses (no-load losses) -occur mainly in the transformer cores and take the form of
heat and noise as long as the transformer is energized. These losses do not vary with the
power transmitted through the transformer and can be reduced by using high-quality raw
material in the core (e.g., special steel or amorphous iron cores incur lower losses). Another
way to reduce fixed losses is to switch off transformers operating at low demand. Of course,
this depends on the network configuration that enables the operator to switch some loads to
other sources in the distribution network.
2. Nontechnical losses (commercial losses) -comprise units that are delivered and consumed
but for some reason are not recorded as sales. They are attributed to metering errors,
incorrect meter installation, billing errors, illegal abstraction of electricity and unread
meters. Use of electronic meters will help reduce those losses since the accuracy is high.
Also, incentives and obligation on participants should be as correct as possible to reduce the
illegal abstraction of electricity.
The component of System Loss that is not related to the physical characteristics and
functions of the electrical system, and is caused primarily by human action, whether
intentional or not. Non-Technical Loss includes the Energy lost due to pilferage, tampering
of Meters, and erroneous Meter reading. (PDC)
Distribution System Planning
System planning is essential to assure that the growing demand for electricity can be
satisfied by distribution system additions that are both technically adequate and reasonably
economical.
The objective of distribution system planning is to assure that the growing demand
for electricity, in terms of increasing growth rates and high load densities, can be satisfied in
an optimum way by additional distribution systems, from the secondary conductors through
the bulk power substations, which are both technically adequate and reasonably
economical.
Distribution system planners must determine the load magnitude and its geographic
location. Then the distribution substations must be placed and sized in such a way as to
serve the load at maximum cost effectiveness by minimizing feeder losses and construction
costs, while considering the constraints of service reliability.
The distribution system is particularly important to an electrical utility for two reasons: (1)
its close proximity to the ultimate customer and (2) its high investment cost. Since the
distribution system of a power supply system is the closest one to the customer, its failures
affect customer service more directly than, for example, failures on the transmission and
generating systems, which usually do not cause customer service interruptions.

1.Therefore, distribution system planning starts at the customer level. The demand, type,
load factor, and other customer load characteristics dictate the type of distribution system
required.
2. Once the customer loads are determined, they are grouped for service from secondary
lines connected to distribution transformers that step down from primary voltage.
3. The distribution transformer loads are then combined to determine the demands on the
primary distribution system.
4. The primary distribution system loads are then assigned to substations that step down
from transmission voltage.
5. The distribution system loads, in turn, determine the size and location, or siting, of the
substations as well as the routing and capacity of the associated transmission lines.
Duties of distribution system planners
The planners must study, plan and design the distribution system 3 to 5 years and
sometimes 10 or more years ahead. The plan is based on how the system can meet the
predicted demand for electricity supplied through its sub-transmission lines and zone
substations and on improving the reliability of supply to the customers.
1. The history, demand forecasts and capacity of each zone substation.
2. Evaluation of probable loss of load for each sub-transmission line and zone substation.
This requires an accurate reliability analysis including the expected economic and
technical impact of the load loss.
3. Determination of standards applied to the planning of the distribution system.
4. Studying the available solutions to meet forecast demand including demand
management and the interaction between power system components and embedded
generation, if any
5. The choice and description of the best solution to meet forecast demand including
estimated costs and evaluation of reliability-improvement programs undertaken in the
preceding year. The benefits of improving the system reliability and the cost of applying
the best solution to enhance the system performance must be compiled; that is, a cost-
wise study must be done.
Factors Affecting System Planning
1. Load Forecasting-The load growth of the geographic area served by a utility company
is the most important factor influencing the expansion of the distribution system.
Two Common time scales to Load Forecasting:
a. Long range- 15 to 20 years
b. Short range- up to 5 years
2. Substation Expansion
3. Substation Site Selection
4. Other Factors
Planning Objectives
a. meeting the load growth at desired quality
b. providing efficient and reliable supply
c. maximizing the performance of system components
d. satisfying the most cost-effective means of distribution system development and
e. Minimizing the price of electricity to customers by:
– Choosing the most cost-effective solution and
– Minimizing total life cycle costs.
Present Distribution System Planning Techniques
a. Configuration design starts at the customer level. The demand type, load factor, and
other customer load characteristics dictate the type of distribution system required.
b. Once customer loads are determined, secondary lines are defined, which connect
to distribution transformers. The latter provides the reduction from primary voltage to
customer-level voltage.
c. The distribution transformer loads are then combined to determine the demands
on the primary distribution system. The primary distribution system loads are then
assigned to substations that step down from sub-transmission voltage.
d. The distribution system loads, in turn, determine the size and location (siting) of
the substations as well as the route and capacity of the associated sub-transmission lines.
Distribution System Planning in the Future
1. Economic Factors
a. Inflation
b. Increasing expense of acquiring capital
c. Increasing difficulty in raising customer rates
2. Demographic Factors
3. Technological Factors

Future Nature of Distribution Planning

1. Increasing Importance of Good Planning
2. Impacts of Load Management (or Demand-Side Management)
3. Cost/Benefit Ratio for Innovation
4. New Planning Tools
Central Role of Computers in Distribution Planning
1. System Approach
2. Database Concept
3. New Automated Tools

Impact of Dispersed Storage and Generation

Dispersed Storage and Generation - generators are small (typically ranging in size
from 100 kW to 10 MW and connectable to either side of the meter) and can be
economically connected only to the distribution system.
Examples: hydroelectric, diesel generators, wind electric systems, solar electric
systems, batteries, storage space and water heaters, storage air conditioners, hydroelectric
pumped storage, photovoltaics, and fuel cells.
Distribution System Automation
-The supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system involves generation and
transmission systems. The distribution automation and control (DAC) system oversees the
distribution system, including connected load. Automatic monitoring and control features
have long been a part of the SCADA system.

More recently, automation has become a part of the overall energy management, including
the distribution system. The motivating objectives of the DAC system are:
1. Improved overall system efficiency in the use of both capital and energy
2. Increased market penetration of coal, nuclear, and renewable domestic energy sources
Reduced reserve requirements in both transmission and generation
3. Increased reliability of service to essential loads
Distribution Automation and Control Functions
Discretionary load switching- This function is also called the customer load management. It
involves direct control of loads at individual customer sites from a remote central location.
Control may be exercised for the purpose of overall system peak-load reduction or to reduce
the load on a particular substation or feeder that is becoming overloaded.

Peak-load pricing-This function allows the implementation of peak-load pricing programs

by remote switching of meter registers automatically for the purpose of time-of-day
metering.

Load shedding-This function permits the rapid dropping of large blocks of load, under
certain conditions, according to an established priority basis.

Cold load pickup-This function is a corollary to the load-shedding function. It entails the
controlled pickup of dropped load. Here, cold load pickup describes the load that causes a
high magnitude, short duration inrush current, followed by the undiversified demand
experienced when reenergizing a circuit following an extended, that is, 20 min or more,
interruption.
Load reconfiguration- This function involves remote control of switches and breakers to
permit routine daily, weekly, or seasonal reconfiguration of feeders or feeder segments for
the purpose of taking advantage of load diversity among feeders. It enables the system to
effectively serve larger loads without requiring feeder reinforcement or new construction. It
also enables routine maintenance on feeders without any customer load interruptions.

Voltage regulation- This function allows the remote control of selected voltage regulators
within the distribution network, together with network capacitor switching, to effect
coordinated systemwide voltage control from a central facility.

Transformer load management (TLM)-This function enables the monitoring and continuous
reporting of transformer loading data and core temperature to prevent overloads, burnouts,
or abnormal operation by timely reinforcement, replacement, or reconfiguration.

Feeder load management (FLM)-This function is similar to TLM, but the loads are monitored
and measured on feeders and feeder segments (known as the line sections) instead. This
function permits loads to be equalized over several feeders.
Capacitor control-This function permits selective and remote-controlled switching of
distribution capacitors.

Dispersed storage and generation-Storage and generation equipment may be located at

strategic places throughout the distribution system, and they may be used for peak shaving.
This function enables the coordinated remote control of these sites.

Fault detection, location, and isolation- Sensors located throughout the distribution network
can be used to detect and report abnormal conditions. This information, in turn, can be used
to automatically locate faults, isolate the faulted segment, and initiate proper
sectionalization and circuit reconfiguration. This function enables the dispatcher to send
repair crews faster to the fault location and results in lesser customer interruption time.

Load studies- This function involves the automatic online gathering and recording of load
data for special off-line analysis. The data may be stored at the collection point, at the
substation, or transmitted to a dispatch center. This function provides accurate and timely
information for the planning and engineering of the power system.
Condition and state monitoring- This function involves real-time data gathering and status
reporting from which the minute-by-minute status of the power system can be determined.
Automatic customer meter reading-This function allows the remote reading of customer
meters for total consumption, peak demand, or time-of-day consumption, and saves the
otherwise necessary man-hours involved in meter reading.
Remote service connect or disconnect-This function permits remote control of switches to
connect or disconnect an individual customer’s electric service from a central control
location.
Alternatives of Communication System
1. PLC
2. Radio carrier
3. Telephone (lines) carrier
4. Microwave
5. Private cables, including optical fibers

Power-line carrier (PLC) systems use electric distribution lines for the transmission of
communication signals. The advantages of the PLC system include complete coverage of the
entire electric system and complete control by the utility. Its disadvantages include the fact
that under mass failure or damage to the distribution system, the communication system
could also fail and that additional equipment must be added to the distribution system.

In radio carrier systems, communication signals are transmitted point to point via radio
waves. Such systems would be owned and operated by electric utilities. It is a
communication system that is separate and independent of the status of the distribution
system. It can also be operated at a very high data rate. However, the basic disadvantage of
the radio system is that the signal path can be blocked, either accidentally or intentionally.
Telephone carrier systems - use existing telephone lines for signal communication, and
therefore they are the least expensive. However, existing telephone tariffs probably make the
telephone system one of the more expensive concepts at this time. Other disadvantages
include the fact that the utility does not have complete control over the telephone system
and that not all meters have telephone service at or near them.