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CAKES FROM ANCIENT TO CONTEMPORARY TIMES

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 CAKES
FROM ANCIENT TO CONTEMPORARY TIMES
"..And Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, make
ready quickly three measures and fine meal, knead it, and make cakes
upon the hearth" (Genesis 18:6).

Medical Research in Biblical Times

Examination of Passages from the Bible,
Exactly as Written

Liubov Ben-Nun

NOT FOR SALE

 Cake is a form of sweet dessert that is typically baked. In its oldest
forms, cakes were modifications of breads, but cakes now cover a
wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate, and
share features with other desserts such as pastries, meringues,
custards, and pies.
Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial
occasions, such as weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. There are
countless cake recipes; some are bread-like, some are rich and
elaborate, and many are centuries old.
Are cakes described in the Bible? What is the history of cakes?
Were they consumed in Biblical times? What is their composition?
What ingredients are used? What are the characteristics that
indicate quality? What are the formulations? What are the
rheological, micro-structure and baking properties of cakes and
batter? How can improvements to the texture and sensory
properties of baked items be achieved? What are gluten free cakes?
Rice cakes? How is fat reduction performed? Are alternative
sweeteners used?

The Biblical verse dealing with a cake was studied from a

contemporary viewpoint.

Author & Editor: Liubov Ben-Nun, Professor Emeritus

Ben Gurion University of the Negev
Faculty of Health Sciences, Dept. of Family Medicine
Beer-Sheva, Israel.

B. N. Publication House. Israel. 2018.

E-Mail: L-bennun@smile.net.il

The Author gains no financial or other benefits.

Technical Assistance: Carmela Moshe.

NOT FOR SALE

 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 4

THE BIBLICAL DESCRIPTION 5

HISTORY 5

CHARACTERISTICS 8

INGREDIENTS 12

CHANGES IN COMPOSITION 26

MAIN PRESENTATIONS 32

FORMULATIONS/PREPARATION 70

IMPROVEMENT OF TEXTURE & SENSE 73

PROPERTIES

FAT REDUCTION & REPLACERS 77

ALTERNATIVE SWEETENERS 82

RICE CAKES 84

GLUTEN FREE CAKES 87

CONTAMINATION 93

ADVERSE REACTIONS 96

INHIBITORY EFFECT/ DETOXIFICATION 99

SUMMARY 104
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INTRODUCTION
Cake is a form of sweet dessert that is typically baked. In its oldest
forms, cakes were modifications of breads, but cakes now cover a
wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate, and that
share features with other desserts such as pastries, meringues,
custards, and pies (1).
Typical cake ingredients are flour, sugar, eggs, butter or oil or
margarine, a liquid, and leavening agents, such as baking soda or
baking powder. Common additional ingredients and flavorings
include dried, candied, or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa, and extracts such
as vanilla, with numerous substitutions for the primary ingredients.
Cakes can also be filled with fruit preserves, nuts or dessert sauces
(like pastry cream), iced with butter cream or other icings, and
decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit (2).
Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial
occasions, such as weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. There are
countless cake recipes; some are bread-like, some are rich and
elaborate, and many are centuries old. Cake making is no longer a
complicated procedure; while at one time considerable labor went
into cake making (particularly the whisking of egg foams), baking
equipment and directions have been simplified so that even the most
amateur cook may bake a cake (1).

Are cakes described in the Bible? What is the history of cakes?

Were they consumed in Biblical times? What is their composition?
What ingredients are used? What are the characteristics that
indicate quality? What are the formulations? What are the
rheological, micro-structure and baking properties of cakes and
batter? How can improvements to the texture and sensory
properties of baked items be achieved? What are gluten free cakes?
Rice cakes? How is fat reduction performed? Are alternative
sweeteners used?

References
1. Cake. Available 18 August 2018 at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cake.
2. Cake finishes. Available 16 August 2018 at
youtube.com/watch?v=yAGxK7i2E4g&t=01m22s.
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THE BIBLICAL DESCRIPTION

When Abraham saw three guests: "…he ran to meet them, from the
tent door, and bowed himself towards the ground" (Genesis 18:2).

Here "And Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, Make
ready quickly three measures and fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon
the hearth" (18:6).

HISTORY
The term "cake" has a long history. The word itself is of Viking
origin, from the Old Norse word "kaka" (1).
The ancient Greeks called cake πλακοῦς (plakous), which was
derived from the word for "flat", πλακόεις (plakoeis). It was baked
using flour mixed with eggs, milk, nuts and honey. They also had a
cake called "satura", which was a flat heavy cake. During the Roman
period, the name for cake became "placenta" which was derived
from the Greek term. A placenta was baked on a pastry base or
inside a pastry case (2).
The Greeks invented beer as a leavener, frying fritters in olive oil,
and cheesecakes using goat's milk (3). In ancient Rome, basic bread
dough was sometimes enriched with butter, eggs, and honey, which
produced a sweet and cake-like baked good (4). Latin poet Ovid
refers his and his brother's birthday party and cake in his first book of
exile, Tristia (4).
The ancient Egyptians were the first culture to show evidence of
advanced baking skills. But, the first cakes were very different from
the moist chocolate cake we are familiar with today. Then they were
more bread-like, sweetened with honey, and nuts and dried fruits
were often added. In fact, in early Europe, the words for cake and
bread were virtually interchangeable; the only distinction was that
cakes were sweet while bread was not (5).
The English word for "cake" traces back to the 13th century. It is
derived from an Old Norse word, "kaka" (5).
Chen & al. (6) analyzed starch grain, phytolith and cereal bran
fragments in order to identify the food remains including cakes,
 5

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dumplings, as well as porridge unearthed at the Astana Cemeteries in

Turpan of Xinjiang, China. The results suggest that the cakes were
made from Triticum aestivum while the dumplings were made from
Triticum aestivum, along with Setaria italica. The ingredients of the
porridge remain emanated from Panicum miliaceum. Direct
macrobotantical evidence of the utilization of six cereal crops, such
as Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste, Panicum
miliaceum, Setaria italica, Cannabis sativa, and Oryza sativa in the
Turpan region during the Jin and Tang dynasties (about 3(rd) to 9(th)
centuries) is also presented. All of these cereal crops not only
provided food for the survival of the indigenous people, but also
spiced up their daily life (6).
It was sometime in the mid-17th century that the forerunners of
modern cakes (round ones with icing) were first baked in Europe. At
that time, cake hoops - round molds for shaping cakes were placed
on flat baking trays - became popular, but only among the well-to-do
(5).
In the middle of the 19th century, the practice of eating cake on a
regular basis by "average people" became attainable thanks to the
Industrial Revolution. Baking ingredients and tools became more
affordable and more readily available to home bakers. The
introduction of modern leavening agents (baking soda & powder),
the supply of cheaper ingredient substitutions (corn syrup for sugar;
margarine for butter), and the production of more reliable ovens
made it increasingly possible for the middle-class to enjoy this
confection by the late 1800s. Because of this, a plethora of simple
cake recipes began to show up in cookbooks (5).
Early cakes in England were also essentially bread: the most
obvious differences between a "cake" and "bread" were the round,
flat shape of the cakes, and the cooking method, which turned cakes
over once while cooking, while bread was left upright throughout the
baking process (4).
Sponge cakes, leavened with beaten eggs, originated during the
Renaissance, possibly in Spain (3).
The first frosting for cake was usually a boiled combination of the
finest available sugar, egg whites, and (occasionally) flavorings. This
"icing" was poured on the cake and then the cake was returned to
the oven for a short time. After the cake was removed, the icing
cooled quickly and formed a hard, glossy coating. In the first few
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decades of the 20th century, buttercream frostings (which use

butter, cream, powdered sugar, and flavorings) began supplanting
conventional boiled icings (5).
Łuczaj & al. (7) mentioned that Belarus is an Eastern European
country, which has been little studied ethnobotanically. The aim of
this study was to compare largely unpublished 19th century sources
with more contemporary data on the use of wild food plants. The
information on 19th century uses is based on twelve, mainly
unpublished, responses to Józef Rostafioski's questionnaire from
1883, and the newly discovered materials of the ethnographer
Michał Federowski, who structured his data according to Rostafioski's
questionnaire and documented it with voucher specimens.
Rostafioski's questionnaire was concerned mainly with Polish
territories, but for historical reasons this also encompassed a large
part of Belarus, and only the twelve responses (out of the few
hundred Rostafioski obtained), which concerned the present Belarus,
were analyzed. These data were compared with a few 20th century
ethnographic sources, and our own 40 interviews and questionnaires
from Belarus. Of wild food plants, 58 taxa used in the 19th century
were identified. Some of them are still used in modern Belarus,
others are probably completely forgotten. In the 19th century,
several species of wild greens were widely used for making soups.
Apart from Rumex, other wild greens are now either forgotten or
rarely used. The list of species used in the 20th and 21st century
encompasses 67 taxa. Nearly half of them were mentioned by
Rostafioski's respondents. The list of fruit species has not changed
much, although in the 19th century fruits were mainly eaten raw, or
with dairy or floury dishes, and now apart from being eaten raw, they
are incorporated in sweet dishes like jams or cakes. Modern
comparative data also contain several alien species, some of which
have escaped from cultivation and are gathered from a semi-wild
state, as well as children's snacks, which were probably collected in
the 19th century but were not recorded back then. The data show
that the responses to Rostafioski from 1883 present extremely
valuable historical material as the use of wild food plants in Belarus
has since undergone drastic changes, similar to those, which have
taken place in other Eastern European countries (7).
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References
1. The history of cakes. Available 16 August 2018 at
devlaming.co.za/the-history-of-cakes.
2. Cake history. Available 16 August 2018 at
whatscookingamerica.net/History/CakeHistory.htm.
3. Castella Krystina. A World of Cake: 150 Recipes for Sweet Traditions
From Cultures Around the World. 2010, pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-1-60342-576-6.
4. Ayto John. An A–Z of food and drink. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford
University Press. 2002. ISBN 0-19-280352-2.
5. A short & "sweet" history of cakes. Available 20 August 2018 at
chocolate-dessert-cafe.com/history-of-cakes.html.
6. Chen T, Wu Y, Zhang Y, et al. Archaeobotanical study of ancient
food and cereal remains at the Astana Cemeteries, Xinjiang, China. PLoS
One. 2012;7(9):e45137.
7. Łuczaj Ł, Köhler P, Pirożnikow E, et al. Wild edible plants of Belarus:
from Rostafioski's questionnaire of 1883 to the present. J Ethnobiol
Ethnomed. 2013 Apr 4;9:21.

CHARACTERISTICS
Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily
on ingredients and mixing techniques.
Although clear examples of the difference between cake and
bread are easy to find, the precise classification has always been
elusive (1). Thus, banana bread may be properly considered either a
quick bread or a cake (2).
Butter cakes are made from creamed butter, sugar, eggs, and
flour. They rely on the combination of butter and sugar beaten for an
extended time to incorporate air into the batter (3). A classic pound
cake is made with a pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, and flour.
Baking powder is in many butter cakes, such as Victoria sponge (4).
The ingredients are sometimes mixed without creaming the butter,
using recipes for simple and quick cakes (2).
Sponge cakes (or foam cakes) are made from whipped eggs, sugar,
and flour. They rely primarily on trapped air in a protein matrix
(generally of beaten eggs) to provide leavening, sometimes with a bit
of baking powder or other chemical leaven added as insurance.
Sponge cakes are thought to be the oldest cakes made without yeast.
An angel food cake is a white sponge cake that uses only the whites
 8

Ben-Nun L. Cakes

of the eggs and is traditionally baked in a tube pan. The French

Génoise is a sponge cake that includes clarified butter. Highly
decorated sponge cakes with lavish toppings are sometimes called
gateau; the French word for cake. Chiffon cakes are sponge cakes
with vegetable oil, which adds moistness (5).
Chocolate cakes are butter cakes, sponge cakes, or other cakes
flavored with melted chocolate or cocoa powder (6). German
chocolate cake is a variety of chocolate cake. Fudge cakes are
chocolate cakes that contain fudge (2).
Coffee cake is generally thought of as a cake to serve with coffee
or tea at breakfast or at a coffee break. Some types use yeast as a
leavening agent while others use baking soda or baking powder.
These cakes often have a crumb topping called streusel or a light
glaze drizzle (2).
Baked flourless cakes include baked cheese cakes and flourless
chocolate cakes. Cheesecakes, despite their name, aren't really cakes
at all. Cheesecakes are in fact custard pies, with a filling made mostly
of some form of cheese (often cream cheese, mascarpone, ricotta, or
the like), and have very little flour added, although a flour-based or
graham cracker crust may be used. Cheesecakes are also very old,
with evidence of honey-sweetened cakes dating back to ancient
Greece (2).
Butter or oil layer cakes include most of the traditional cakes used
as birthday cakes, etc., and those sold as packaged cakes. Baking
powder or bicarbonate of soda are used to provide both lift and a
moist texture. Many flavorings and ingredients may be added;
examples include devil's food cake, carrot cake, and banana bread
(2).
Yeast cakes are the oldest and are very similar to yeast breads.
Such cakes are often very traditional in form, and include such
pastries as babka and stollen (2).
Some varieties of cake are widely available in the form of cake
mixes, wherein some of the ingredients (usually flour, sugar,
flavoring, baking powder, and sometimes some form of fat) are
premixed, and the cook needs add only a few extra ingredients,
usually eggs, water, and sometimes vegetable oil or butter. While
the diversity of represented styles is limited, cake mixes do provide
an easy and readily available homemade option for cooks who are
not accomplished bakers (2).
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Cakes may be classified according to the occasion for which they

are intended. For example, wedding cakes, birthday cakes, cakes for
first communion, Christmas cakes, Halloween cakes, and Passover
plava (a type of sponge cake sometimes made with matzo meal) are
all identified primarily according to the celebration they are intended
to accompany (2).

Birthday cake

The cutting of a wedding cake constitutes a social ceremony in

some cultures. The Ancient Roman marriage ritual of confarreatio
originated in the sharing of a cake (2).

Wedding cakes at a bridal show.

Particular types of cake may be associated with particular

festivals, such as stollen or chocolate log (at Christmas), babka and
simnel cake (at Easter), or moon cake. There has been a long
tradition of decorating an iced cake at Christmas time; other cakes
associated with Christmas include chocolate log and mince pies (2).
A Lancashire Courting Cake is a fruit-filled cake baked by a fiancée
for her betrothed. The cake has been described as "somewhere
between a firm sponge – with a greater proportion of flour to fat and
eggs than a Victoria sponge cake – and a shortbread base was proof
of the bride-to-be's baking skills". Traditionally it is a two-layer cake
filled and topped with strawberries or raspberries and whipped
cream (8).
Cakes are frequently described according to their physical form.
Cakes may be small and intended for individual consumption. Larger
cakes may be made with the intention of being sliced and served as
part of a meal or social function. Common shapes include: Bundt
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

cakes; Cake balls; Conical, such as the Kransekake; Cupcakes and

Madeleines, which are both sized for a single person; Layer cakes,
frequently baked in a springform pan and decorated; Sheet cakes,
simple, flat, rectangular cakes baked in sheet pans; Swiss rolls (2).
Smith & Hawrysh (9) noticed that wheat bran was substituted for
cake flour in chiffon cakes at 10, 20, and 30 per cent levels. Bran
incorporation significantly affected (p<0.05) the appearance, height,
and grain of chiffon cakes. Cake height decreased and cell size and
cell wall thickness increased with higher levels of bran. Tenderness
decreased with higher levels of bran. Compressimeter readings were
higher with bran substitution at the 10 and 20 per cent levels.
Sensory evaluation indicated no significant differences (p<0.05)
between the control and 10 per cent bran cakes for moistness, flavor,
and overall acceptability. Panelists did note a significant (p<0.05)
decrease in tenderness and softness and an increase in crumbliness
with higher bran levels. All chiffon cakes, regardless of bran level,
were termed acceptable (9).

References
1. Ayto John. An A–Z of food and drink. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford
University Press. 2002. ISBN 0-19-280352-2.
2. Cake. Available 18 August 2018 at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cake.
3. Robbins, Mary Jane. Creaming butter and sugar. King Arthur Flour.
Available at blog.kingarthurflour.com/2015/4/7/creaming-butter-sugar/.
4. Cloake Felicity. How to make the perfect Victoria sponge cake.
Guardian. 2003. Available 12 August 2018 at
theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2013/may/16/how-bake-
perfect-victoria-sponge-cake.
5. Medrich Alice. Joy of Cooking. New York: Scribner. 1997, p. 949.
ISBN 0-684-81870-1.
6. Berry Mary. Chocolate sponge cake. Food: Recipes. Available 18
August 2018 at bbc.com/food/recipes/chocolate_cake_48307.
7. Cofarreation. Available 22 August 218 at
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confarreatio.
8. The history of the Courting Cake, a Lancashire tradition. Lancashire
Life. Available 12 August 2018 at lancashirelife.co.uk/food-drink/the-
history-of-the-courting-cake-a-lancashire-tradition-1-1645135.
9. Smith DA, Hawrysh ZJ. Quality characteristics of wheat-bran chiffon
cakes. J Am Diet Assoc. 1978;72(6):599-603.
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INGREDIENTS
This chapter is based on basic Cake Ingredients descriptions by
Sarah Phillips with mild changes as follows (1):
The ingredients used to make shortened (butter) and unshorten
(foam) cakes differ. However, the goal is always to the same: to
create great cake recipes through a delicate balance of its ingredients
- making sure they have the strength to hold the recipe together, but
still create a tender, moist and flavorful cake. Different mixing
methods also result in different cakes, as do the type of pans used
and their treatment, timing, temperature, baking, cooling and
storage. Afterwards, cakes can be filled, frosted or glazed and
decorated. Decorated cakes include wedding cakes.
A cake's structure is created mainly from the combination of the
flour's starches, by the proteins in whole eggs, egg whites, and/or in
milk. The melt-in-his/her-mouth texture comes from tiny air holes
left in the cake's structure, created through mixing, serving as nuclei
and enlarged through the carbon dioxide gas from the chemical
leaveners, heat and /or steam during baking. The sugar and fat in the
recipe, as well as any acids, tenderize the cake, as well; they interfere
with gluten formation and egg protein coagulation, interrupting the
network of gelated starch. But, if the recipe is unbalanced, for
example, if there's too much sugar and fat, the cake's structure is
weakened so much it cannot support its own weight and will
collapse. Too much flour and too many eggs may make the cake
tough and/or dry.
Overall, the flour mixtures that produce cakes and cookies are
very similar to those used to make breads, although they are sweeter
and often have added flavorings not typically used in breads. Cakes
have a higher proportion of sugar, milk and fat to flour than do
breads, and the flour used is usually cake flour.

WHEAT FLOUR. The vast majority of cakes - with the exception of

cheesecakes, foam cakes and gluten-free cakes – contain wheat flour
as very backbone of their composition. It establishes the crumb
structure in cakes and is used to bind all of the other ingredients
together during the cake making process. Wheat flour contains two
very important proteins, glutenin and gliadin, when mixed with
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

moisture and stirred, create its structural network. The flour's

starches gelatinize or set when baked. The bad part about gluten is
that too much - from too much mixing or using the wrong type of
flour - creates a tough, dry and flavorless cake. It is gluten from the
wheat flour that gives dough its strength and elasticity – qualities
that are wanted in yeast breads, but not in cakes.
To help prevent this, he/she may see cake recipes especially high-
ratio ones, typically made with chlorinated soft wheat flours, such as
bleached cake flour, a potentially containing low-gluten forming
proteins. High ratio cakes are where the sugar is higher than the
flour level, by weight. Other lower gluten flour types include
Southern bleached all-purpose and pastry flour. Soft wheat flours
are generally low in water absorption and do not require harsh
mixing or a long mix time.

THREE FORMULAS FOR HIGH-RATIO CAKES

There are three formulas for preparing the sweeter high ratio
cakes that contain more sugar than flour, by weight. Following these
ingredient proportions will ensure a high-ratio cake that is not too
dry or too moist:
1. The sugar should weigh the same or slightly more than the
flour. It is the weight and NOT the volume that counts.
2. Eggs should weigh almost as much as or slightly more than the
fat.
3. The liquid ingredients (including eggs), should weigh the same
as or more than the sugar.
High ratio cakes are mixed using the High Ratio or Two Step
Mixing Method.

Chlorination of cake flour provides two great benefits. First is

bleaching, which gives a whiter crumb color to cakes but second and
more importantly it lowers the gelatinization temperature of the
starch within the cake flour. This makes it possible for the cake to set
faster and therefore reduces the loss of leavening during baking.
Bleaching also gives the cake flour the ability to carry more sugar and
fat (as well as water), without their tenderizing (collapsing) effects,
balancing the recipe.
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SWEETENERS. We typically think of sugar's role in a cake recipe to

add sweetness, but it also plays other important roles depending
upon whether it is in the crystalline (granulated white or brown) or
liquid form (honey or corn syrup). All sugar acts as a tenderizer by
preventing the wheat flour proteins from forming an excessive
amount of gluten. It does this because sugar is hygroscopic, another
word for its ability to absorb or attract moisture from the air, and
dissolve readily in it (honey and some liquid sugars are more
hygroscopic than crystalline sugar). By doing so, sugar essentially
absorbs available water in the recipe, until saturated, leaving the rest
for the wheat’s available gluten forming proteins. Gluten is formed
when the wheat flour proteins are moistened and agitated or mixed;
the higher the flour’s gluten-forming potential, the more available
water or liquid and the more mixing (agitation) that takes place and
the less tenderizers, such as sugar and fat, (and the warmer the
ingredients), the more gluten is formed. Because sugar is also a
hygroscopic substance, it helps with a recipe's moisture retention
and thus increases its shelf life by slowing the staling process. Sugar
also tenderizes by slowing down the coagulation of the egg white and
milk proteins, as well, that also contribute to structure of the cake
when baked.
Crystalline sugar plays an important role by incorporating air into
the batter for leavening when beaten with solid, plastic fat, such as
stick butter or margarine or solid shortening, called “creaming” (only
when the fat is at an optimal temperature). Sugar plays an important
role with the lubrication of other ingredients in the recipe, when
molten, and with crust color. Increasing sugar in a cake recipe will
raise the gelatinization temperature of the starches in the wheat
flour and thus will increase expansion time, so care must be taken in
its ratio to the other ingredients; too much can cause a cake's
structure to fail or the cake may be so tenderized that it crumbles
when cut rather than staying in slices (a warm cake will also cause
crumbling). When the sugar is reduced too much, the gluten
structure is so strong that the cake develops some long cells or
tunnels. Overall volume may even increase, but the cake would be
tough.
Other types of sugars used in the cakes include dextrose and
brown sugar. Also syrups such as invert sugar, corn syrup, glucose,
molasses, honey or refiner's syrups are used either for the particular
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

flavor they impart or as a moisture retaining capabilities in cakes.

When using these sweetener varieties he/she must be aware that
some do not have the same sweetness as granulated sugar (sucrose)
and do contain various levels of water. Sugars of any kind when used
in cakes tend to soften the batter and make it thinner, and they need
to be included as liquids. Fine granulated sugar, also known as
superfine sugar is used to help create the finest texture and
maximum volume in a cake. Sugar can stand in for fat and is often
added to commercial low-fat products or recipes.

FATS. There are two types of fat used in cake baking: solid and
liquid. The primary function of solid fat, also known as plastic fat,
such as solid shortening, stick butter or margarine, is to incorporate
air bubbles into its malleable mass for volume. This is done through
creaming, or beating the fat with crystalline sugar, also known as
white granulated or brown sugar (white granulated sugar combined
with molasses). But, it can only be done successfully if the right
ingredients, ratios, mixing times and temperature, and using the
proper tools are followed.
This makes fat a great tenderizer; expanding air cells help lift the
cake's batter during baking, resulting in eventual cake tenderness.
They are also known as shorteners; they also shorten the length of
the gluten strands when the flour is stirred with that moisture. Fats
also tenderize by readily coating the flour proteins like a raincoat,
during mixing, preventing moisture from reaching them, helping to
reduce their gluten forming potential. Fat is also a good tenderizer
because it slows down the coagulation of the egg, flour and milk
proteins that set the structure of the cake when baked.
As the fat level in a cake goes up, more eggs are required to
emulsify the fat. Eggs also add structure and thus increase the
volume depending on the part of the egg used, if it is beaten and
when it is added to the recipe; sometimes less flour and chemical
leavening agents, such as baking soda or baking powder, is needed.
Fat is a lubricator. It coats the flour particles so the elastic
formation slows down; it makes the gluten strands slippery so the gas
bubbles can move easily; and it gives the final cake recipe a finer
grain. It also lubricates other ingredients, allowing them to mix and
disperse more readily and for the cake to rise more readily. Similarly,
fat lubricates the inside of his/her mouth, giving the perception that
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

a high fat cake is especially moist when you eat it because it glides
easily on your tongue.
Fat also increases a baked cake's shelf life by helping to retain the
moisture in it. Some fats, such as butter, add important flavor to a
cake recipe, whereas margarine does not have as fine a texture and
taste. Shortening does not contribute flavor, unless you use the
"butter flavored" type.
Denser oil cakes such as carrot, zucchini, apple and pumpkin are
commonly made with vegetable oil, called liquid fat. Cake mixes are
also classified as oil cakes.

EGGS. Eggs perform a multitude of important functions in a cake

recipe, depending on the part used. Foamed eggs provide leavening,
especially separated and beaten whites. Whole eggs and whites
contribute to structure. Egg yolk is also a rich source of emulsifying
agents and, thus, is a tenderizer; it facilitates the incorporation of air
and inhibits wheat starch gelatinization. Egg yolks also add color,
nutrition, and flavor and help to retain moisture in the finished cake.
On the other hand, whites can have a drying effect, but they
contribute slightly more protein than yolks do, although with far
fewer nutrients and without the fat and cholesterol.
Some white cake recipe can use 6 to 8 large egg whites, which
have a drying effect on the recipe. When white butter cake recipes
were developed, some of the egg whites were substituted with
whole eggs, without affecting its color. The result is a more flavorful
and moister cake.
Many of the changes from old-fashioned cakes to the recipes,
started with the development of cake mixes and the addition of
emulsifiers (found naturally in egg yolks) to the shortenings such as
Crisco. Before then, cakes tended to be heavier, more like the pound
cake consistency. Shortening used today gives better aeration when
mixed and with the addition of liquids, make a light and fluffier cake.

LEAVENERS. The leavening source(s) used in cakes may serve to

produce gas by physical, chemical or biological methods. It starts
with the creation of millions of tiny air bubbles from various mixing
methods, trapped in the structural framework of the cake's batter by
the gluten strands. Air incorporation comes from beating eggs,
creaming butter and sugar together, from folding ingredients
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together, and from any agitation. Cakes are then leavened when the
air bubbles in their batters expand when heated from water vapor or
steam from liquids; carbon dioxide produced from chemical
leaveners (baking soda and/or baking powder); general expansion
from heat from the oven and in some cakes, from yeast activity. In
many baked items, one or more of these agents participate in the
leavening process.
A chemical leavening agent provides a source of gas to the recipe
called carbon dioxide. When moistened (baking soda and double
acting baking powder) and/or heated (double acting baking powder),
it expands the millions of air bubbles previously created in a batter or
dough from mixing or any agitation made to the cake's ingredients,
trapped in the structural framework by the gluten strands. If the
batter is over mixed, becomes too warm or not baked promptly, the
gas will escape and the final recipe will have poor texture and low
volume.
One of the biggest failures of a cake recipe is using baking powder
or baking soda that has been weakened from being moistened
previously in the cabinet or refrigerator from humidity. Another
failure can be caused by pre-wetting a chemical leavened batter
because they start to release carbon dioxide bubbles immediately
(double acting baking powder will again leaven when heated).
Refrigeration will slow their release, but not stop it. When a batter is
placed in an oven that has not been preheated, baking powder fails
to act until the oven reaches over 120 degrees F. Using the wrong
flour can also affect leavening.

DAIRY AND LIQUIDS. Milk is usually the main liquid dairy used in
cake recipes. It hydrates the dry ingredients, dissolves the sugar and
salt, provides steam for leavening and allows for the baking powder
and/or baking soda to react and produce carbon dioxide gas. Milk
contains proteins (caseins) that set or coagulate from the oven's heat
and help to form the structure of the cake, as do flour and eggs.
Other dairy products, such as buttermilk, sour cream or cream
cheese add more moisture and flavor to a cake, consequently those
made with them keep well. The acid in the buttermilk and sour
cream help tenderize the gluten in the recipe, producing a finer
crumb. Sour cream and cream cheese add richness to a recipe, which
makes them moist and almost springy.
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FLAVORINGS. Flavorings come in different forms: ground spices,

extracts (especially pure vanilla extract), citrus zest (peel), citrus oil
and even liqueurs. Alcohol adds sugar and counts as a liquid
ingredient. Be careful how much to add; too much in proportion to
the other ingredients in the mix can cause his/her cake to fail.
Salt is an important ingredient because it is a flavor enhancer.

PUDDING. Some cake recipes and mixes call for added pudding.
Instant, not cooked pudding should be used in the recipe. The use of
cooked pudding will result in a drier, coarser, grittier texture. That is
because it has not been activated or pre-gelatinized, as instant
puddings have, affecting the cake.

Reference
1. Sarah Phillips. Basic Cake Ingredients. Available 15 August 2018 at
craftybaking.com/learn/baked-goods/cakes/ingredients.

FLOUR SPECIFICATION
Special cake flour with a high starch-to-gluten ratio is made from
fine-textured, soft, low-protein wheat. It is strongly bleached, and
compared to all-purpose flour, cake flour tends to result in cakes with
a lighter, less dense texture (1). Therefore, it is frequently specified
or preferred in cakes meant to be soft, light, and/or bright white,
such as angel food cake. However, if cake flour is called for, a
substitute can be made by replacing a small percentage of all-
purpose flour with cornstarch or removing two tablespoons from
each cup of all-purpose flour (2-4). Some recipes explicitly specify or
permit all-purpose flour, notably where a firmer or denser cake
texture is desired (5).

Three different kinds of wheat and rye flour. From left to right: wheat
flour Type 550, wheat flour Type 1050, rye flour Type 1150 (6).
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Flour that is used in baking comes mainly from wheat, although it

can also be milled from corn, rice, nuts, legumes, and some fruits and
vegetables. The type of flour used is vital at getting the right results
in the end product. Different types of flour are suited to different
items, and all flours are different. He/she cannot switch from one
type to another without consequences that could ruin the recipe. To
achieve success in baking, it is important to know what the right flour
is for the job (6).

Table 1 (7).

Table 2 (8).

Keppler & al. (9) mentioned that an accurate method was used to
heat treat flour samples to quantify the effects of heat treatment on
flour functionality. A variety of analytical methods has been used
such as oscillatory rheology, rheomixer, solvent retention capacity
tests, and Rapid Visco Analysis (RVA) in water and in aqueous
solutions of sucrose, lactic acid, and sodium carbonate. This work
supports the hypothesis that heat treatment facilitates the swelling
of starch granules at elevated temperature. Results furthermore
indicated improved swelling ability and increased interactions of flour
 11

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polymers (in particular arabinoxylans) of heat treated flour at

ambient conditions. The significant denaturation of the proteins was
indicated by a lack of gluten network formation after severe heat
treatments as shown by rheomixer traces. Results of these analyses
were used to develop a possible cake flour specification. A method
was developed using response surfaces of heat treated flour samples
in the RVA using i) water and ii) 50% sucrose solution. This can
uniquely characterize the heat treatment a flour sample has received
and to establish a cake flour specification. This approach might be
useful for the characterization of processed samples, rather than by
baking cakes. Hence, it may no longer be needed to bake a cake after
flour heat treatment to assess the suitability of the flour for high ratio
cake production, but 2 types of RVA tests suffice (9).
Singh & al. (10) mentioned that whole navy bean flour and its fine
and coarse particle size fractions were used to completely replace
wheat flour in cakes. Replacement of wheat flour with whole bean
flour significantly increased the protein content. The protein content
was adjusted to 3 levels with navy bean starch. The effect of navy
bean flour and its fractions at 3 levels of protein on cake batter
rheology and cake quality was studied and compared with wheat
flour samples. Batters prepared from navy bean flour and its
fractions had higher viscosity than the cake flour. Reducing the
protein content by addition of starch significantly lowered the
viscosity of cake batters. The whole navy bean flour and coarse bean
fraction cakes were softer than cakes made with wheat flour but had
reduced springiness. Principal component analysis showed a clear
discrimination of cakes according to protein. It also showed that low
protein navy bean flour cakes were similar to wheat flour cakes.
Navy bean flour with protein content adjusted to the level of cake
(wheat) flour has potential as a healthy alternative in gluten-free
cakes (10).
Ramseyer & al. (11) studied the functional differences between
straight grade (75% extraction rate) and patent (60% extraction rate)
flour blends from 28 genetically pure soft white and club wheat grain
lots, as evidenced by variation in sugar snap cookie and Japanese
sponge cake quality. Functional differences were examined relative
to arabinoxylan content, protein content, and oxidative cross-linking
potential of flour slurries. Oxidative cross-linking measurements
were obtained on flour slurries with a low shear Bostwick
 10

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consistometer and considered endogenous oxidative cross-linking

potential (water alone) or enhanced oxidative cross-linking potential
(with added hydrogen peroxide-peroxidase). A 2-way ANOVA
indicated that flour blend was the greater source of variation
compared to grain lot for all response variables except water-
extractable arabinoxylan content. Patent flours produced larger
sugar snap cookies and Japanese sponge cakes, and contained
significantly less total and water-unextractable arabinoxylans,
protein, and ash than did straight grade flours. Patent flours
produced more viscous slurries for endogenous and enhanced cross-
linking measurements compared to the straight grade flours. The
functional differences between patent and straight grade flours
appear to be related to the particular mill streams that were utilized
in the formulation of the 2 flour blends and compositional
differences among those streams (11).
Jun & al. (12) mentioned that fiber-enriched materials (FEMs)
obtained from preharvest dropped apple peels were utilized as a
source of dietary fiber in baked cakes and their effects on the
textural/nutritional qualities and starch digestibility (glucose release
behavior, starch digestion fraction, predicted glycemic index) of the
cakes were evaluated. When FEMs were incorporated into the cake
formulation (3 g and 6 g of dietary fiber per serving (100 g)), the
volume of the cakes seemed to be reduced and their texture become
harder. However, 3 g of FEMs did not degrade the cake qualities.
The use of FEMs in cakes significantly reduced the levels of rapidly
digestible starch and slowly digestible starch, while the levels of
resistant starch increased. Additionally, the cake samples prepared
with FEMs exhibited a lower predicted glycemic index. This study
may give rise to multi-functional bakery products with acceptable
quality and low glycemic index (12).
Min & al. (13) noticed that with rising consumer awareness of
obesity, the food industry has a market-driven impetus to develop
low-fat or fat-free foods with acceptable taste and texture. Fancy
buckwheat flour was thus subjected to steam jet-cooking and the
performance of the resulting product in cake-baking was evaluated as
a fat replacer. Steam jet-cooking caused structural breakdown and
starch gelatinization of buckwheat flour, thus increasing its water
hydration properties. In the pasting measurements, steam jet-cooked
buckwheat flour exhibited high initial viscosity, while no peak
 11

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viscosity was observed. Also, the suspensions of steam jet-cooked

buckwheat flour exhibited shear-thinning behaviors, which were well
characterized by the power law model. When shortening in cakes
was replaced with steam jet-cooked buckwheat gels, the specific
gravity of cake batters significantly increased, consequently affecting
cake volume after baking. However, shortening replacement with
steam jet-cooked buckwheat up to 20% by weight appeared to be
effective in producing cakes as soft as the control without volume
loss. The data indicate that when buckwheat flour was
thermomechanically modified by steam jet-cooking, it was
successfully incorporated into cake formulations for shortening up to
20% by weight, producing low-fat cakes with comparable volume and
textural properties to the control (13).
Lorenz & Coulter (14) evaluated the performance of quinoa-
wheat flour blends (5/95, 10/90, 20/80, 30/70) in breads, cakes and
cookies. Breads baked with 5% and 10% quinoa flour were of good
quality. Loaf volume decreased, crumb grain became more open and
the texture slightly harsh at higher usage levels of quinoa flour. A
bitter after taste was noted at the 30% level. Cake quality was
acceptable with 5% and 10% of quinoa flour. Cake grain became
more open and the texture less silky as the level of quinoa
substitution increased. Cake taste improved with either 5% or 10%
quinoa flour in the blend. Cookie spread and top grain scores
decreased with increasing levels of quinoa flour blended with high-
spread cookie flour. Flavor improved up to 20% quinoa flour in the
blend. Cookie spread and cookie appearance was improved with a
quinoa/low-spread flour blend by using 2% lecithin (14).
Segundo & al. (15) described the effect of mechanically
fractionated flours from green bananas on the nutritional, physical
and sensory attributes of two types of cakes (sponge and layer). A
plausible 30% replacement of banana flour in the formulation of layer
cakes is demonstrated, finding only a small decline in the sensory
perception. On the contrary, sponge cakes were noticeable
worsened with the use of banana flours (lower specific volume,
worse sensory attributes and higher hardness), which was minimized
when using fine flour. Both layer and sponge cakes exhibited an
enhancement of the resistant starch and dietary fiber content with
the replacement of green banana flour (up to a fivefold improvement
in RS performance). Sponge cakes yielded more polyphenols and
 12

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antioxidant capacity with banana flours, especially with the coarse

fraction. Therefore, results showed that a mechanical fractionation
allowed a feasible nutritional enhancement of cakes with the use of
banana flours (15).
Segundo & al. (16) also mentioned that about one-fifth of all
bananas harvested become culls that are normally disposed of
improperly. However, ripe banana pulp contains significant amounts
of fibre and polyphenol compounds as well as a high content of
simple sugars (61.06 g/100 g), making it suitable for sucrose
replacement in bakery products. This work studied the feasibility of
incorporating ripe banana flour (20 and 40% of replacement) in cake
formulation. Physical, nutritional and sensory attributes of sponge
and layer cakes were evaluated. The inclusion of ripe banana flour
generally led to an increased batter consistency that hindered cake
expansion, resulting in a slightly lower specific volume and higher
hardness. This effect was minimized in layer cakes where differences
in volume were only evident with the higher level of replacement.
The lower volume and higher hardness contributed to the decline of
the acceptability observed in the sensory test. Unlike physical
attributes, the banana flour inclusion significantly improved the
nutritional properties of the cakes, bringing about an enhancement in
dietary fiber, polyphenols and antioxidant capacity (up to a three-fold
improvement in antioxidant capacity performance). Therefore,
results showed that sugar replacement by ripe banana flour
enhanced the nutritional properties of cakes, but attention should be
paid to its inclusion level (16).
Moiraghi & al. (17) noticed that the flour parameters that related
strongly to cake-making performance were selected. In this study
the relationship between sponge cake quality, solvent retention
capacity (SRC) profile and flour physicochemical characteristics was
investigated using 38 soft wheat samples of different origins. Particle
size average, protein, damaged starch, water-soluble pentosans, total
pentosans, SRC and pasting properties were analyzed. Sponge cake
volume and crumb texture were measured to evaluate cake quality.
Cluster analysis was applied to assess differences in flour quality
parameters among wheat lines based on the SRC profile. Cluster 1
showed significantly higher sponge cake volume and crumb softness,
finer particle size and lower SRC sucrose, SRC carbonate, SRC water,
damaged starch and protein content. Particle size, damaged starch,
 13

Ben-Nun L. Cakes

protein, thickening capacity and SRC parameters correlated

negatively with sponge cake volume, while total pentosans and
pasting temperature showed the opposite effect. The findings
indicate that the negative correlations between cake volume and SRC
parameters along with the cluster analysis results indicated that
flours with smaller particle size, lower absorption capacity and higher
pasting temperature had better cake-making performance. Some
simple analyses, such as SRC, particle size distribution and pasting
properties, may help to choose flours suitable for cake making (17).
Jongsutjarittam & al. (18) improved the freeze-thawed cake
properties by 10-20% waxy rice flour (WRF) substitution for wheat
flour (WF). Viscosity of WRF-substituted batters was lower;
consequently, trapped air was less uniformly distributed than WF
batter. After five freeze-thaw cycles, firmness and enthalpy of
melting retrograded amylopectin of WF- and WRF-substituted cakes
increased and the matrix surrounding the air pores from SEM images
was denser than in fresh-baked cakes. Sensory evaluation showed an
increase in firmness and a decrease in firmness acceptability of
freeze-thawed cakes. However, freeze-thawed cake with WRF
substitution had significantly less firmness, less dense matrix and
more acceptability than WF cake. This could have been due to a low
amylose content of WRF and the spread of ruptured waxy rice starch
granules around swollen wheat starch granules as observed by
confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Thus, WRF could be used
for WF substitution to improve the firmness in freeze-thawed cake
(18).

References
1. Types of Flour. Available 19 August 2018 at
Whatscookingamerica.net.
2. Cake flour properties and substitutions. Available 16 August 2018 at
gourmetsleuth.com/ingredients/detail/cake-flour.
3. What is cake flour? Available 17 August 2018 at
archive.org/web/20090112002939/http://aww.ninemsn.com.au/article.as
px?id=282618.
4. Irma von Starkloff Rombauer, Marion Rombauer Becker. Joy of
cooking. Simon and Schuster. 1975. ISBN 978-0-02-604570-4.
5. Cake. Available 18 August 2018 at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cake.
6. Flour types. Available 20 August 2018 at
whatscookingamerica.net/Bread/FlourTypes.htm.
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7. Cake. Available 18 August 2018 at Flours.

1GCEA_enIL744IL745&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKE
wikkpfN1fDcAhWSYlAKHZsGDvgQ7Al6BAgFEBE&biw=1330&bih=686#imgr
c=zHyRq6TRh_p__M:
8. Major Functions of Wheat Flour Cake. Available 18 August 2018 at
isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjSnq6f2_DcAhVHK1AKHf6_
DQwQ7Al6BAgEEA8&biw=1330&bih=686#imgdii=6-7SxQfjdRNK2M:&
imgrc=zHyRq6TRh_p__M:
9. Keppler S, Bakalis S, Leadley CE, et al. Evaluation of dry heat
treatment of soft wheat flour for the production of high ratio cakes. Food
Res Int. 2018;107:360-70.
10. Singh M, Byars JA, Liu SX. Navy Bean Flour Particle Size and Protein
Content Affect Cake Baking and Batter Quality(1). J Food Sci. 2015;80(6):
E1229-34.
11. Ramseyer DD, Bettge AD, Morris CF. Flour mill stream blending
affects sugar snap cookie and Japanese sponge cake quality and oxidative
cross-linking potential of soft white wheat. J Food Sci. 2011;76(9):C1300-6.
12. Jun Y, Bae IY, Lee S, Lee HG. Utilisation of preharvest dropped
apple peels as a flour substitute for a lower glycaemic index and higher
fibre cake. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2014;65(1):62-8.
13. Min B, Lee SM, Yoo SH, et al. Functional characterization of steam
jet-cooked buckwheat flour as a fat replacer in cake-baking. J Sci Food
Agric. 2010;90(13):2208-13.
14. Lorenz K, Coulter L. Quinoa flour in baked products. Plant Foods
Hum Nutr. 1991;41(3):213-23.
15. Segundo C, Román L, Gómez M, Martínez MM. Mechanically
fractionated flour isolated from green bananas (M. cavendishii var. nanica)
as a tool to increase the dietary fiber and phytochemical bioactivity of
layer and spongecakes. Food Chem. 2017;219:240-8.
16. Segundo C, Román L, Lobo M, et al. Ripe Banana Flour as a Source
of Antioxidants in Layer and Sponge Cakes. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2017;
72(4):365-71.
17. Moiraghi M, de la Hera E, Pérez GT, Gómez M. Effect of wheat
flour characteristics on sponge cake quality. J Sci Food Agric. 2013;93(3):
542-9.
18. Jongsutjarittam N, Charoenrein S. Influence of waxy rice flour
substitution for wheat flour on characteristics of batter and freeze-thawed
cake. Carbohydr Polym. 2013;97(2):306-14.
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CHANGES IN COMPOSITION
Zielioski & al. (1) investigated changes in chemical composition
and antioxidative properties of rye ginger cakes during their shelf-life.
In particular, the changes in antioxidants content, antioxidative and
reducing capacity, and Maillard reaction development in rye ginger
cakesafter long-term storage were addressed. Ginger cakes
produced according to the traditional and current recipe were stored
for 5 years at room temperature in a dark place. The total phenolic
compounds (TPC), inositol hexaphosphate (IP6), reduced (GSH) and
oxidised glutathione (GSSG) contents, antioxidant and reducing
capacity and Maillard reaction products (MRPs) were determined in
ginger cakes after storage and then compared to those measured
after baking. After long-term storage a decrease in TPC and IP6
contents in cakes was noted. In contrast, an increase in antioxidative
and reducing capacity of stored cakes was observed. Long-term
storage induced formation of furosine, advanced and final Maillard
reaction products and caused changes in both reduced and oxidised
forms of glutathione. After long-term storage the modest changes in
furosine, FAST index and browning in ginger cake formulated with
dark rye flour may suggest that this product is the healthiest among
others. Therefore, traditional rye ginger cakes can be considered as
an example of a healthy food that is also relatively stable during long
term storage as noted by the small chemical changes observed in its
composition (1).
Pozo-Bayón & al. (2) reported that the use of solvent-assisted
flavor evaporation extraction (SAFE) and purge and trap in Tenax
allowed the identification of more than 100 volatile compounds in a
sponge cake (SC-e). Gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) of the
SAFE extracts of crumb and crust were achieved in order to
determine the most potent odorants of SC-e. The change in the
traditional dough formulation of SC-e in which eggs were substituted
by baking powder (SC-b) as the leavening agent produced important
changes in some key aroma compounds. The release curves of some
aroma compounds-some of them generated during baking and
others added in the dough-were followed by cumulative headspace
analysis. In the flavored SC-b, the aroma release curves showed a
plateau after 15 min of purge, while the release increased
proportionally with the purge time in the flavored SC-e. In general,
 16

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except for some of the aroma compounds with the highest log P
values, the rate of release of most of the added and generated aroma
compounds was significantly influenced by the changes in the cake
formulation. The higher rates of release found for the aroma
compounds in SC-b could contribute to explain its rapid exhaustion of
aroma compounds in the purge and trap experiments and might lead
to poorer sensorial characteristics of this cake during storage (2).
Przygodzka & al. (3) evaluated the effect of selected spices on
chemical and sensorial markers in cakes formulated on rye and light
buckwheat flour fortified with spices. Among collection of spices,
rye-buckwheat cakes fortified individually with cloves, nutmeg,
allspice, cinnamon, vanilla, and spice mix revealed the highest
sensory characteristics and overall quality. Cakes fortified with
cloves, allspice, and spice mix showed the highest antioxidant
capacity, total phenolics, rutin, and almost threefold higher available
lysine contents. The reduced furosine content as well as free and
total fluorescent intermediatory compounds were observed as
compared to nonfortified cakes. The FAST index was significantly
lowered in all cakes enriched with spices, especially with cloves,
allspice, and mix. In contrast, browning index increased in compare
to cakes without spices. It can be suggested that clove, allspice,
vanilla, and spice mix should be used for production of safety and
good quality cakes (3).
Trattner & al. (4) reported that trans-fatty acids (TFA) have been
associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease, by affecting
blood lipids and inflammation factors. Current nutrition
recommendations emphasize a limitation of dietary TFA intake. The
aim of this study was to investigate fatty acid composition in sweet
bakery products, with emphasis on TFA, on the Swedish market and
compare fatty acid composition over time. Products were sampled in
2001, 2006 and 2007 and analyzed for fatty acid composition by
using GC. Mean TFA levels were 0.7% in 2007 and 5.9% in 2001 of
total fatty acids. In 1995-97, mean TFA level was 14.3%. In 2007, 3 of
41 products had TFA levels above 2% of total fatty acids. TFA content
had decreased in this product category, while the proportion of
saturated (SFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids had
increased, mostly through increased levels of 16:0 and 18:2 n-6,
respectively. The total fat content remained largely unchanged (4).
 17

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Sunil & al. (5) noticed that oilseed cakes have been in use for feed
preparation. Being rich in proteins, antioxidants, fibers, vitamins and
minerals, oilseed cakes have been considered ideal for food
supplementation. These oilseed cakes can be processed and made
more palatable and edible by suitable treatments and then
incorporated as food supplements for human consumption. Rice
bran pellets (RBP), stabilized rice bran (SRB), coconut cake (CC) and
sesame cake (SC) were taken up for the study. These were mixed
with distilled water and cooked in such a way to separate the cooked
solid residue and liquid extract followed by freeze drying to get two
products from each. The raw, cooked dried residue and extract were
analyzed for various parameters such as moisture (0.9-27.4%), fat
(2.1-16.1%), ash (3.3-9.0%), minerals (2.6-633.2 mg/100 g), total
dietary fiber (23.2-58.2%), crude fiber (2.7-10.5%), protein (3.2-
34.0 %), and the fat further analyzed for fatty acid composition,
oryzanol (138-258 mg/100 g) and lignan (99-113 mg/100g) contents
and also evaluated sensory evaluation. Nutritional composition of
products as affected by cooking was studied. The cooked products
(residue and extract) showed changes in nutrients content and
composition from that of the starting cakes and raw materials, but
retained more nutrients in cooked residue than in the extract. The
sensory evaluation of cooked residue and extract showed overall
higher acceptability by the panelists than the starting cakes and raw
materials. On the basis of these findings it can be concluded that
these cooked residue and extract products are highly valuable for
food supplementation than the raw ones (5).
Krishnan & Chandra (6) investigated the effects of oilseed cakes
on extracellular thermostable alpha-amylase production by Bacillus
licheniformis CUMC305. Each oilseed cake was made of groundnut,
mustard, sesame, linseed, coconut copra, madhuca, or cotton. alpha-
Amylase production was considerably improved in all instances and
varied with the oilseed cake concentration in basal medium
containing peptone and beef extract. Maximum increases were
effected by a low concentration (0.5 to 1.0%) of groundnut or
coconut, a high concentration (3%) of linseed or mustard, and an
intermediate concentration (2%) of cotton, madhuca, or sesame. The
oilseed cakes made of groundnut or mustard could completely
replace the conventional peptone-beef extract medium as the
fermentation base for the production of alpha-amylase by B.
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licheniformis. The addition of corn steep liquor to cotton, linseed,

sesame, or madhuca cake in the medium improved alpha-amylase
production (6).
Liang & al. (7) evaluated composition change of Jatropha seed
cake samples upon lime pretreatment at 100 degrees C with different
parameters. With a lime dose of 0.2 g and a water content of 10 ml
per gram of cake and a treatment period of 1 hour, 38.2+/-0.6% of
lignin was removed. However, 65+/-16% of hemicellulose was also
lost under this condition. For all the treatments tested, cellulose
content was not affected by lime supplementation. Through further
examining total reducing sugar (TRS) release by enzymatic hydrolysis
after lime pretreatment, 0.1 g of lime and 9 ml of water per gram of
cake and 3 hour pretreatment produced the maximal 68.9%
conversion of cellulose. Without lime pretreatment, the highest
cellulose conversion was 33.3%. One microalgal species,
Schizochytrium limacinum SR21 was able to grow on the hydrolyzates
and generate a biomass density of 3.2 g/l in 4 day (7).
Shaik & al. (8) carried out studies to replace hydrogenated fat
(HF) with rice bran oil (RBO) and two varieties of rice bran oil spread
RBOS1 and RBOS2 in the preparation of cake. Physico-chemical
properties, sensory properties, scanning electronic microscopic (SEM)
study and fatty acid estimation with reference to trans fatty acids of
cake made with control and experimental samples were studied. The
best acceptable cake among the four i.e., RBOS2 cake was selected
for consumer evaluation along with control (HF) cake. Results
revealed that there was no significant difference in overall
acceptability of cake made with HF and RBOS2. The internal
structure and pore structure of RBOS2 cake was finer and smoother
than the control cake as per SEM imaging. The pores within the core
varied in diameter between 13.9 and 29.6 µm in control cake and
between 16.9 and 58.6 µm in RBOS2 cake at 500 × magnification
indicating good textural properties compared to HF cake. The fatty
acids analysis results showed that the amount of total trans fatty
acids (TFA) was 15.46% in HF cake, 3.56% in RBO cake, 4.54% in
RBOS1 cake, and 3.78% in RBOS2 cake. The major trans fatty acids
observed in all samples were elaidic acid (C18:1 trans-9) and
Linolelidic acid (C18:2, trans-6). Elaidic acid was the highest in HF
cake (6.64%) and the least in RBO cake (2.62%). Linolelidic acid was
the highest in HF cake (8.48%) and the least in RBOS2 cake (0.91%).
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Trans Vaccenic acid was detected only in HF cake (0.34%). TFA

content assumes significance in terms of its ill effects on the health of
consumers, only if fat content is also high. Hence, consumption of
the HF products might prove to be harmful, if consumed in large
amounts and at higher frequencies. Therefore RBOS can be
promoted as healthy fat for production of baked products (8).
Behera & al. (9) mentioned that Groundnut cake (GNC) and
soybean cake (SBC) by-product of agriculture industry had protein
and protein digestibility in the range of 42.7-50.5 and 71.3-76.8%,
respectively. Polyphenols present in GNC and SBC were cholorogenic
acid, syringic acid and p-coumaric acid. The number of bands
separated in soybean meal was greater than the bands observed in
GNC flour as seen in SDS-PAGE pattern, respectively. SEM of
groundnut flour showed distension of protein bodies due to roasting
of the oil cakes. The water absorption of wheat flour GNC blends
decreased from 59.2 to 57.3% and increased in wheat flour SBC
blends from 59.2 to 68.3% with an increase in oil cake from 0 to 20%.
With increase in either GNC or SBC, the biscuits became harder.
Addition of glycerol monostearate and sodium stearoyl lactylate in
combination with 20% blend of GNC/SBC decreased the breaking
strength (9).
Ramachandran & al. (10) noticed that oil cakes have been in use
for feed applications to poultry, fish and swine industry. Being rich in
protein, some of these have also been considered ideal for food
supplementation. However, with increasing emphasis on cost
reduction of industrial processes and value addition to agro-industrial
residues, oil cakes could be ideal source of proteinaceous nutrients
and as support matrix for various biotechnological processes. Several
oil cakes, in particular edible oil cakes offer potential benefits when
utilized as substrate for bioprocesses. These have been utilized for
fermentative production of enzymes, antibiotics, mushrooms, etc.
Biotechnological applications of oil cakes also include their usages for
vitamins and antioxidants production (10).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-10) indicates that various ingredients

affect changes in physical and chemical composition, aroma
composition and release, antioxidative properties, chemical and
sensorial markers of cakes.
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References
1. Zielioski H, del Castillo MD, Przygodzka M, et al. Changes in
chemical composition and antioxidative properties of rye ginger cakes
during their shelf-life. Food Chem. 2012;135(4):2965-73.
2. Pozo-Bayón MA, Ruíz-Rodríguez A, Pernin K, Cayot N. Influence of
eggs on the aroma composition of a sponge cake and on the aroma release
in model studies on flavored sponge cakes. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;
55(4):1418-26.
3. Przygodzka M, Zielioski H, Ciesarová Z, et al. Effect of selected
spices on chemical and sensory markers in fortified rye-buckwheat cakes.
Food Sci Nutr. 2016;4(4):651-60.
4. Trattner S, Becker W, Wretling S, et al. Fatty acid composition of
Swedish bakery products, with emphasis on trans-fatty acids. Food Chem.
2015;175:423-30.
5. Sunil L, Appaiah P, Prasanth Kumar PK, Gopala Krishna AG.
Preparation of food supplements from oilseed cakes. J Food Sci Technol.
2015;52(5):2998-3005.
6. Krishnan T, Chandra AK. Effect of oilseed cakes on alpha-amylase
production by Bacillus licheniformis CUMC305. Appl Environ Microbiol.
1982;44(2):270-4.
7. Liang Y, Siddaramu T, Yesuf J, Sarkany N. Fermentable sugar release
from Jatropha seed cakes following lime pretreatment and enzymatic
hydrolysis. Bioresour Technol. 2010;101(16):6417-24.
8. Shaik R, Kuna A, Azam M, et al. Effect of rice bran oil spread on the
physical, sensory and fatty acid profile of cake. J Food Sci Technol. 2017;
54(7):2126-34.
9. Behera S, Indumathi K, Mahadevamma S, Sudha ML. Oil cakes - a
by-product of agriculture industry as a fortificant in bakery products. Int J
Food Sci Nutr. 2013;64(7):806-14.
10. Ramachandran S, Singh SK, Larroche C, et al. Oil cakes and their
biotechnological applications - a review. Bioresour Technol. 2007;98(10):
2000-9.
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MAIN PRESENTATIONS
This section is based on cake descriptions by Tastessence Staff
with mild changes (1):

ANGEL FOOD CAKE

Origin: United States. Angel cake is a type of sponge cake, made from
egg whites, cream of tartar, flour, and sugar. Often baked in a tube pan
which resembles a Bundt pan. The cake is often drizzled with some glaze or
fruity syrup.

APPLE CAKE/DORSET APPLES CAKE/DEVON APPLE CAKE/

SOMERSET APPLE CAKE/SZARLOTA

Origin: United Kingdom. Apples are the main ingredient for this cake
along with almonds, walnuts, nutmeg, and cinnamon. The cake is often not
glazed or frosted; however, it can be decorated with sliced apples.

BABBKA/BOBKA/BABA

Origin: Poland. This is a yeasty sponge cake often found with a

chocolate or vanilla glaze and icing, garnished with almonds and/or rum.
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BASBOUSA

Origin: Turkey. Basbousa is traditional Middle-Eastern cake made from

semolina or farina soaked in simple syrup. The syrup is usually infused with
coconut, orange flower water, or rose water.

BOSTON CREAM PIE

Origin: United States. Boston Cream Pie is made from sponge cake and
chocolate cake with a layer of custard/cream in between the two layers of
cake. It is then glazed with chocolate or ganache, sprinkled with sugar, and
decorated with cherries.

BANANA CAKE/BREAD

Origin: United States. Banana cake or banana bread is made from

mashed ripe bananas topped with nuts and chocolate.
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BATTENBERG CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. Battenberg cake is a simple sponge cake, which

when cut into slices gives it a checkered pattern. It is decorated with
marzipan and jam. The Battenberg cake is generally available in yellow and
pink colored sponge cake.

BAUMKUCHEN

Origin: Germany. Baumkuchen is a unique vanilla layered cake with a

hollow center. The cake is known for its layers that resemble the rings of a
cut tree. In fact, the name of this cake in German translates to tree cake.

BIENENSTICH/BEE CAKE

Origin: Germany. Bienenstich is a yeasty cake, filled with vanilla custard,

buttercream, and topped with caramelized almonds. According to the
legend, a bee was attracted to this cake and stung the person who invented
it, hence the name.
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BLACK FOREST CAKE

Origin: Germany. This is a gorgeous chocolate sponge cake frosted and

sandwiched between whipped cream and maraschino cherries. Chocolate
shavings are sprinkled all over the cake to give it a richer taste.

BROWNIES

Origin: United States, Canada. Brownies are flat cakes baked square in a
shallow dish. They are often made of flour, eggs, chocolate, cocoa powder,
sugar, and butter. They may also contain nuts and chocolate chips.
Brownies can be enjoyed with chocolate syrup and a sprinkling of powdered
sugar.

BUCCELLATO

Origin: Sicily, Italy. The Buccellato is a circular cake prepared on special

occasions and for that special someone. It is usually given to the godchild
and his/her family by the godparents on the day of the christening. This
cake contains honey, marsala, aniseed, and raisins. It is often paired with
cappuccino or tea.
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BUNDT CAKE

Origin: United States. The Bundt cake is baked in a distinct ring shape
with a hollow center. This cake is generally found in one flavor, and often
sprinkled with powdered sugar or at times glazed with chocolate.

BUTTER CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. The main ingredient of the butter cake is

butter. Other ingredients include sugar, flour, and eggs. This cake is made
by the creaming method, which means butter and sugar are whisked till it
turns fluffy, and eggs are gradually whisked.

BUTTERFLY CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. The butterfly cake is a variation of a cupcake

and is also known as the fairy cake. This versatile cake can be made in any
flavor. The cake is carved out with a spoon to give it a shape that resembles
butterfly wings. Buttercream and jam are often preferred as the filling. The
wings are further decorated using icing sugar.
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CARROT CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. As the name suggests, carrots are the main
ingredient for this cake, followed by flour, eggs, sugar, and almonds. Cream
cheese, and sugar glaze best enhance the flavor of the cake.

CHARLOTTE CAKE

Origin: France. Charlotte cake is made from bread, sponge cake, and
cookies, while ladyfingers are used to mold the cake lining. Fruit puree or
custard, or flavored gelatin is filled in the layers to give it an intense taste
and flavor.

CHEESECAKE

Origin: Greece. Cheesecake has a base made from crushed cookies,

which is then topped with thick luscious soft cheese, eggs, and sugar.
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CHIFLON CAKE

Origin: United States. Chiffon cake is another type of sponge cake made
with vegetable oil, eggs, flour, and sugar. It is made in the same way as an
Angel cake but with a small change, its aerated properties are combined
with meringue.

CHOCOLATE BOUCHON

Origin: France. Bouchon is a rich chocolate cake, it has a unique

corkscrew shape, and it's aptly named bouchon - cork in French.

CHOCOLATE CHAMBORD CAKE

Origin: Chambord is a brand of raspberry liqueur, which is amalgamated

with rich dark chocolate sponge to make the chocolate Chambord cake. It is
then dolloped with a bittersweet chocolate ganache.

CHOCOLATE CAKE

Chocolate is often the base cake for many other chocolate cakes. It is a
common sponge cake with cocoa powder added to it while whisking the
ingredients together. Ganache, fudge, sweeteners and vanilla creme are
often used in between two layers as icing.
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CHOCOLATE SATIN CAKE

Chocolate satin cake is a deep rich and moist chocolate layer cake filled
and coated with chocolate ganache.

CHRISTMAS CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. A Christmas cake is rum-soaked cake infused

with dried fruit such as raisins and almonds, cinnamon, cherries, and
whisked into a chocolate cake. Royal icing or glaze are often used to
decorate this Christmas treat.

COCONUT CAKE

Origin: United States. Coconut cake, a popular southern delight, is white

or yellow cake made with coconut milk and coconut extract. This cake is
frosted and layered with cream cheese or buttercream frosting mixed with
grated coconut or coconut flavor.
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COLOMBA OR EASTERN DOVE CAKE

Origin: Italy. The Colomba cake is made from flour, eggs, butter, sugar,
candied peel, raisins, almonds, natural yeast, and pearl sugar. Often found
drizzled with chocolate.

COFFE CAKE

Origin: Germany. This cake does not have any coffee in it, but is often
has coffee. The cake is flavored with cinnamon, spices, nuts and fruits, and
drizzled with light glaze.

CREMESCHNITTE

Origin: Slovenia, Croatia, Germany. Cremeschnitte is a vanilla and

custard cream cake. There are many regional variations, but they all include
puff pastry base and custard cream.
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CROQUENBOUCHE

Origin: France. The Croquembouche consists of choux pastry balls

bound together with caramel. This cake is often made and served for special
occasions.

CRYSTAL CAKE

Origin: China. Crystal cake is a traditional Chinese dessert and derives its
name from its appearance. The cake is shiny, bright, glittering, and
translucent, like a crystal.

CUPCAKE

Origin: United States. Cupcakes are made in the shape of miniature

cups, hence the name. They are often frosted with rich delicious icing and
at times sprinkled with sprinkles and candy.
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DACQUOISE

Origin: France. Dacquoise is made from meringue, almonds, hazelnuts,

whipped cream, chocolate, and buttercream.

DATE AND WALNUT LOAF

Origin: United Kingdom. Date and walnut loaf/cake is heavily induced

with dates, walnuts, treacle, and tea.

DATE SQUARE/MATRIMONIAL CAKE

Origin: Canada. Date square/Matrimonial cake is a coffee cake made

from cooked dates, candied peel, and oatmeal crumble.

DEATH BY CHOCOLATE CAKE

Death by chocolate cake is a rich chocolate fudge cake with double the
chocolate. A soft delicious chocolate layer cake sandwiched between
chocolate ganache, meringue, buttercream, and mousse.
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DEPRESSION CAKE

Origin: United States. Depression cake originated, during the Great

Depression, hence the name. It is made from flour, apples, raisins, prunes,
allspice, cloves, nutmeg, walnut, almonds, pecans, and pears.

DEVIL'S FOOD CAKE

Origin: United States. Devil's food cake is a rich, moist chocolate layer
cake. Sandwiched between rich chocolate or vanilla frosting. The chocolate
cake is at times replaced by red velvet cake.

DUNDEE CAKE

Origin: Scotland. Dundee cake is made with oodles of currants, almonds,

sultanas, and fruit peels.
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DOBOS CAKE

Origin: Hungary. The Dobos cake has multiple layers of sponge cake. It is
frosted with chocolate buttercream and coated with a thin caramel topping,
with chestnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts, and almonds.

ECCLES CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. Eccles cake are small round cakes filled with
currants, topped with demerara sugar.

ESTERAZY TORTEÁZY CAKE

Origin: Hungary. The Esterházy torte is made with buttercream mixed

with vanilla or cognac, sandwiched between multiple layers of almond
meringue.

FAT RASCAL

Origin: Yorkshire, United Kingdom. The Fat Rascal is a yeast cake made
with dried fruit, candied peel, and oats.
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FINANCIER

Origin: France. The Financier is a small, light and moist, sponge cake,
containing almond flour, with ground almonds, and/or almond flavoring.
Other ingredients consist of flour, egg whites, and powdered sugar. The
cakes are baked in small rectangular loaves.

FROG CAKE

Origin: Australia. Frog cake is shaped exactly as their name suggests.

However, they are made from sponge cake, frosted with cream and fondant.

FRAISIER

Origin: France. Fraisier is a chocolate cake filled with fresh strawberries

and crème pâtissière.
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FRUITCAKE

Origin: Rome, Italy. Fruitcake is a simple cake loaded with dried fruits
and nuts, spices, and candied fruits. The cake is often soaked in spirits and
nuts.

FUNING BIG CAKE

Origin: China (Funing County, Jiangsu province). Funing big cake is a

simple Chinese cake made from sticky rice, sugar, pine nuts, and lard or
vegetable oil.

GENOA CAKE

Origin: Italy. Genoa cake is a yeasty cake made by adding pine nuts, and
fruits viz. sultana's, cherries, almonds, candied fruits, and raising.

GERMAN'S CHOCOLATE CAKE

Origin: United States. German chocolate cake is a multiple chocolate

layered cake filled and topped with pecan, chocolate, and coconut frosting.
It is often garnished with caramel and maraschino cherries.
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GINGERBREAD OR PIERNIK

Origin: United Kingdom. Gingerbread is a moist loaf cake made with

ginger root, molasses, and honey.

GOOEY BUTTER CAKE

Origin: United States. Gooey butter cake is a flat and dense cake. It is
sweet and rich, perfect to have with coffee as a coffee cake.

GÅSEBRYST

Origin: Denmark. Gåsebryst is also known as a cream cake. This cake is

made with Danish pastry at the base, topped with custard, jam, whipped
cream, and coated with marzipan.

HOT MILK CAKE

Origin: United States. Hot milk cake is a twin layered cake with a sweet
mocha icing, topped with fruits, boiled icing, and powdered sugar. The
recipe requires scalding hot milk that is poured into the batter to make this
cake.
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HUMMINGBIRD CAKE

Origin: United States. Hummingbird cake is made from fruits viz.

banana, pineapple, pecan, vanilla extract, and spices. It is topped with
dollops of cream cheese frosting.

ICE CREAM CAKE

Ice cream cake is often a three-layered cake, coated and sandwiched

between ice cream.

ICEBOX CAKE

An Icebox cake is made of ladyfingers or cookies, sandwiched between

jell-o, whipped cream, and pudding that is later set in the refrigerator.
Cream is whipped soft and infused with cookies, chocolate, and essence and
made into a cake. This cake is also called a zebra cake.
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ITALIAN CREAM CAKE

Origin: Italy. Italian cream cake is a rich cake containing nuts and sweet
creamy fillings.

JELLY ROLL/ROULADE/YULE LOG/ BÛCHE DE NOËL

Origin: France. Jelly rolls are sponge cake roles or roulade, filled with
buttercream, jam, ganache, fruit or fruit puree, lemon curd, whipped cream,
and nuts that are rolled into a log shape. They are then frosted with
buttercream icing.

KING CAKE, GALETTE DES ROIS

Origin: France, Spain. King cake is also known as the Epiphany cake and
is made at the end of the Christmas season. This cake has a yeasty base
filled with nuts and dried fruits. The cake often decorated with a tiny plastic
baby as a representation of Baby Jesus.
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KLADDKAKA

Origin: Sweden. Kladdkaka is a sticky chocolate cake that is quite similar

to a brownie with a soft center. The cake is dusted with powdered sugar
and dolloped with whipped cream and/or vanilla ice cream.

KLINǴERIS

Origin: Latvia. Kliņģeris is another yeasty cake baked in a mold with a

hollow center, like the bundt cake mold. The cake is infused with saffron
and golden dried fruits and sprinkled with sugar.

KOLACZ

Origin: Poland. Kolacz is a wheel shaped coffee cake. It is traditionally a

pastry that is often used as a wedding cake whole history dates back to the
13th century.

KOUIGN-AMANN

Origin: France (Brittany). Kouign-amann is doughy cake baked in a

round baking tin. It is made from bread dough, layered with butter and
sugar layers. The sugar and salty butter melts as the cake bakes, giving it
layers.
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KRANSEKAKE

Origin: Denmark, Norway. Kransekake is unique as it is made into a

series of concentric rings. Eighteen layers, to be exact, are layered on top of
each other. These rings are stuck to each other with a unique icing made
from almond paste, egg whites, and sugar.

KREMÓWKA

Origin: Poland. Kremówka is made of two layers of puff pastry,

sandwiched between whipped cream, custard, buttercream, or sometimes
egg white cream, and is dusted with powdered sugar.

LADY BALTIMORE CAKE

Origin: United States. Lady Baltimore cake is a popular wedding cake

made taller by layers of white cake enveloped and sandwiched in between
boiled white icing infused chopped nuts and candied fruits.
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LADYFINGERS OR SAVOIARDI OR SPONGE FINGERS

Origin: France. Ladyfingers are soft sweet sponge cakes made in finger-
shaped cake tins. These cakes are used to make other cakes viz. Charlotte
cake, Tiramisu. These cakes are sprinkled with powdered sugar before
baking. The sugar caramelizes and gives it a crunchy crust.

LAMINGTON

Origin: Australia. Lamingtons are square single-layered cakes that are

coated with a thin layer of chocolate ganache or syrup and re-coated with
desiccated coconut.

LEMON CAKE

Lemon cake batter is infused with lemon zest and a few drops of freshly
squeezed lemon juice, along with buttermilk, vanilla extract.
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MADELEINE OR PETITIE MADELEINE

Origin: France. Madeleines are known for their distinctive shell shape.
These cakes are simple sponge infused with ground almonds, lemon or
orange flower water.

MADEIRA CAKE

Origin: England. Madeira cake is a traditional sponge cake that is

sprinkled with confectioner's sugar and garnished with dollops of whipped
cream. This cake best complements tea.

MARBLE CAKE

Origin: Denmark. Marble cake is made by lightly swirling yellow cake

and chocolate cake batter together. Once done, the cake is laced with
chocolate frosting.
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MARJOLAINE

Origin: France. Marjolaine is a multiple layered cake sandwiched

between mocha almond, hazelnut butter, whipped cream, and iced with
coffee buttercream, or chocolate ganache, topped with toasted almonds.

MERINGUE CAKE

Meringue is a flourless cake made from numerous cakes made of

meringue, and filled with custard, mousse, whipped cream, and fruit.

MILLE CRÊPES CAKE

Origin: France. Mille Crêpes cake is composed of 20 layers of thin French

crêpes sandwiched between vanilla pastry cream.
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MILLE-FEUILLE OR NAPOLEONSKAKE

Origin: France. Mille-feuille, also known as a Napoleonkake, is made of

caramel or carob flavor and made in the same way as tompouce. The cake
has three layers of puff pastry alternating with pastry cream. It is glazed in
white icing and chocolate strips, only to be combed later.

MOLTEN CHOCOLATE CAKE/LAVA CAKE

Origin: United States. Molten chocolate cake is a cross between

chocolate soufflé and a flourless cake. It has an ooey-gooey molten
chocolate center in the middle. Resembling lava from a volcano―chocolate
volcano.

MOUSSE CAKE

A mousse cake is made of layers of mousse and sponge cake, biscuits,

meringue, macaroon, or butter cake layers. The cake also consists of a layer
of bittersweet chocolate mousse, and another milk chocolate mousse and a
few thin layers of chocolate butter cake, frosted with a some ganache.
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OPERA CAKE

Origin: France. Opera cake has a layer of chocolate, espresso, and

almond, called joconde, layered with coffee-chocolate ganache and
buttercream.

PACZKI

Origin: Poland. Paczki is a round spongy cake made of strawberry, sweet

cheese, liqueurs, and chocolate.

PANPEPATO

Origin: Italy. Panpepato is a round cake made of almonds, pine nuts,

pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, orange and lime zest, hazelnuts, cocoa, flour,
honey, and grape must.
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PANETTONE

Origin: Italy. Panettone is a cross between bread and cake, made in a

circular base. The cake contains lemon zest, citron, raisins, and candied
orange.

PARKIN

Origin: United Kingdom. Parkin is a gingerbread cake made with treacle

and oatmeal. It is often baked using golden syrup and sprinkled with extra
sugar.

PAVLOVA

Origin: New Zealand. Pavlova is named after a ballerina Anna Pavlova.

The cake is made of circles of meringue filled with fresh fruits and whipped
cream.

PETIT FOUR

Origin: France. Petit four are tiny cakes served with coffee after meals.
These are inch-square sponge cakes layered with buttercream and coated
with colored fondant and redecorated with fruits, marzipan, nuts, and more
icing.
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PETIT GÂTEAU

Origin: France. Petit Gâteau are small chocolate cakes with a crunchy
exterior with a soft and molten center. They are closely related to
chocolava cake and are often with vanilla ice cream.

POVITICA

Origin: Croatia. Povitica is a rich and dense yeasty cake made from
butter and cream cheese.

POUND CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. Pound cake is the base of many a cakes. It is a

rich dense buttery cake with ingredients used in the same quantity. Many
varieties of this cake are found with ingredients like liqueur, extracts,
flavors, chocolate chips, candied fruits, lemon and/ or orange zest, dried
fruits, coffee, key lime, and other fruits.
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PRINCESS CAKE

Origin: Sweden. Princess cake has alternating layers of whipped cream

and sponge cake, along with layers of jam and custard, coated with
marzipan.

PRINZREGENTENTORTE

Origin: Germany. The Prinzregententorte is made with sponge cake

sandwiched between buttercream and chocolate glaze.

PUNSCHKRAPFEN

Origin: Austria. Punschkrapfen is a punch cake made of fine rum infused

with nougat, chocolate, cake crumbs, apricot jam soaked in rum. It is glazed
in thick pink sugary rum glaze drizzled in chocolate. The cake is similar to
the petit four.

QUEEN CAKE

The Queen cake is a white-layered cake frosted in caramel.

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RED BEAN CAKE

Origin: Japan, China. Red Bean cake is made from mashed red beans
and gelatin.

RED VELVET CAKE

Origin: United States. The red velvet cake is a simple sponge cake
infused with beet root juice and cocoa powder, but nowadays, food color is
used instead of beet root, which gives it its distinct maroon color. The cake
is topped with a thick white frosting.

RUM CAKE

Origin: Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago. Rum cake is a pound or sponge

cake that is soaked in rum, and filled with whipped cream and fresh fruits.
The cake is frosted with boiled icing and dried fruits. This cake is often
baked in loaf or bundt baking tins.
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RUM BABA

Origin: Italy. Rum Baba are small yeasty cakes soaked in rum and/or hard
liquor. They are filled with whipped cream or royal icing.

RUSKE KAPE

Origin: Bosnia. Ruske Kape cake is made in small round molds and set
and cooled, the sides are coated with grated coconut and crushed walnuts.
The top of the cake is drenched in chocolate, vanilla, or mocha.

SACHERTORTE

Origin: Austria. Sachertorte is a three-layered chocolate sponge cake

layered and filled with apricot jam, only to be iced with dark chocolate and
whipped cream.
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ŠAKOTIS

Origin: Lithuania. Šakotis means 'a tree with many branches', this is
probably because the cake is often found in a conical shape. The cake is
rotated in front of an open fire as layers are added one on top of the other,
giving it a distinct shape. This cake is drenched in chocolate glaze.

SAVARIN

Savarin is another yeast cake baked in a bundt cake mold, and soaked in
orange rum syrup. It is later filled with royal icing and fresh fruit.

SEVEN LAYER CAKE

Origin: Hungary. Seven Layer cake is made of 5 to 7 thin layers and of

cake and frosted with chocolate buttercream.
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Sfouf

Origin: Lebanon. Sfouf is a simple cake made of semolina and almond

cake that is flavored with sugar and turmeric.

SHORTCAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. Shortcake is a simple sponge cake. The first half
of the cake is topped with whipped cream and fruits drizzled with biscuit or
scone powder.

SICILIAN CASSATA

Origin: Italy. Sicilian Cassata is a round sponge cake moistened by fruit

juices or liqueur. Layered with candied peels, ricotta cheese, and chocolate
or vanilla filling. It is then coated with marzipan.

SIMNEL CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. A Simnel cake is a fruit cake with marzipan.

The cake is induced with spices, dried fruits, and zest.
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SNOW SKIN MOONCAKE

Origin: Hong Kong, China. Snow Skin Mooncake is made and devoured
during a mid-autumn festival. It is made from glutinous rice which is later
frozen.

SOULLÉ

Origin: France. Soufflé is a light and fluffy cake made with eggs
combined with other ingredients like jams, cheese, fruits, chocolate, berries,
lemon and lemon zest.

SPEKKOEK

Origin: Netherlands. Spekkoek is a multilayer cake containing almonds,

cashews, cheese, and dried fruits.

SPICE CAKE

Origin: North America. Spice cake is made with an abundance of spices

like cloves, allspice, nutmeg, maple syrup, ginger, and cinnamon.
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SPONGE CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. The sponge cake is the base of almost any cake.
It is a light cake that makes the base of many cakes viz., ladyfingers and
many other.

STACK CAKE

Origin: United States. Stack Cake is a type of sponge cake in which cakes
made of different flavors and frosting are stacked one on top of the other.

STRAWBERRY CAKE

Strawberry cakes are simple white sponge cakes infused with fresh and
dried strawberries. They are then frosted with royal icing topped with fresh
strawberries.
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STREULKUCHEN

Origin: Germany. Streuselkuchen is a yeasty doughy flat cake which is

cut into oblong pieces. It is enveloped with streusel a combination of
crumbs made from sugar, flour, and fat.

SWISS ROLL

Origin: United Kingdom. Swiss roll is a thin sponge cake filled with jam,
icing, and whipped cream, then rolled and allowed to set. Then, it is cut into
slices.

Tarte Tatin

Origin: France. Tarte Tatins are upside down tarts that are made from
caramelized fruits.
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TEACAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. Teacakes are a cross between a cake and

cookie and served as finger foods. Dolloped with whipped cream and
sandwiched between two small discs of sponge cake.

THOUSAND/TWELVE LAYER CAKE

Origin: Dutch. Though the number thousand is highly exaggerated, the

cake has only 12 layers. The layers are thin and flavorful, often infused with
local spices.

TIRAMISU

Origin: Italy. Tiramisu has layers of ladyfingers that are soaked in

espresso liqueur and layered with mascarpone cheese and custard mixture,
and dusted with cocoa powder.
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TORTE

Origin: Spain. Tortes are a round, rich, dense cakes that are infused with
ground nuts and fruit puree. Unlike cakes, tortes are not layered and are
often glazed and topped with fresh fruits and whipped cream.

TORTA TRE MONTI

Origin: Italy (San Marino). A Torta Tre Monti is a three-layered cake

made of thin wafers sandwiched between hazelnut or chocolate ganache,
and decorated with fondant.

TRES LECHES CAKE

Origin: South America. The tres leches cake is a sponge cake soaked in a
variety of milk, like evaporated milk, condensed milk, and whole milk, which
is topped with whipped cream.

TUNIS CAKE

Origin: Scotland. Tunis cake is a madeira cake with a thick layer of

chocolate cake and coated with marzipan and fruits.
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UPSIDE-DOWN CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. The upside-down cake is a single-layer vanilla

cake. The base of which is layered and made of syrupy sliced fruit topped
with cake batter. Once baked and cooled, the cake is turned upside down,
making the base of the cake into the top of the cake. Fruits like pineapples,
apples, and cherries are often used in the cake.

VICTORIA SPONGE CAKE

Origin: United Kingdom. The Victoria sandwich cake is a twin-layered

sponge cake filled with whipped cream and jam, topped with a light glaze.
The cake is often served with tea and sandwiches.

WHOOPIE PIES

Origin: United States. Whoopie pies are a triple amalgamation between

cakes, cookies, and pies. It is also known as gob or black moon. Often found
in chocolate cake, pumpkin or gingerbread cake, sandwiched between
frosting.
WINE CAKE

Origin: Colombia. Wine cakes are made with additional ingredients such
as wine, candied fruit, rum, and raisins.
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Reference
1. Different Types of Cakes With Pictures. Available 12 August 2018 at
tastessence.com/different-types-of-cakes-with-pictures.

FORMULATIONS/PREPARATION
Sakiyan & al. (1) mentioned that dielectric properties can be used
to understand the behavior of food materials during microwave
processing. Dielectric properties influence the level of interaction
between food and high frequency electromagnetic energy. Dielectric
properties are, therefore, important in the design of foods intended
for microwave preparation. In this the variation of dielectric
properties of different cake formulations during baking in microwave
and infrared-microwave combination oven was determined. In
addition, the effects of formulation and temperature on dielectric
properties of cake batter were examined. Dielectric constant and
loss factor of cake samples were shown to be dependent on
formulation, baking time, and temperature. The increase in baking
time and temperature decreased dielectric constant and loss factor
of all formulations. Fat content was shown to increase dielectric
constant and loss factor of cakes (1).
Sakiyan & al. (2) also determined the effect of different
formulations on color and textural characteristics of different cakes
during baking in microwave and near infrared-microwave
combination ovens. For comparison, cakes were also baked in
conventional ovens. Color and hardness for both types of baking
schemes were found to be dependent on formulation. Cakes
containing Simplesse, a fat replacer consisting mostly of whey
protein, baked in microwave and near infrared-microwave
combination ovens were found to be the firmest cakes (2).
Hill & Reagan (3) mentioned that the quality of yellow butter
cakes was adversely affected by microwave cookery. Conventional
cakes consistently received the highest sensory ratings. Cakes baked
on a carousel in the microwave oven were evaluated as being equal
or superior to cakes baked in the microwave without a carousel.
Sensory evaluations for appearance and flavor were significantly
higher, and values for shear resistance were significantly lower,
indicating greater tenderness, for cakes baked in the microwave oven
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with a carousel compared to those manually turned. Although cakes

baked in a conventional oven were superior in appearance,
tenderness, mouth feel, flavor, and texture, cakes baked in the
microwave oven were considered satisfactory (3).
Ozkahraman & al. (4) compared the quality of legume cakes
baked in microwave-infrared combination (MW-IR) oven with
conventional oven. Legume cake formulations were developed by
replacing 10% wheat flour by lentil, chickpea and pea flour. As a
control, wheat flour containing cakes were used. Weight loss,
specific volume, texture, color, gelatinization degree, macro and
micro-structure of cakes were investigated. MW-IR baked cakes had
higher specific volume, weight loss and crust color change and lower
hardness values than conventionally baked cakes. Larger pores were
observed in MW-IR baked cakes according to scanning electron
microscope (SEM) images. Pea flour giving the hardest structure,
lowest specific volume and gelatinization degree was determined to
be the least acceptable legume flour. On the other hand, lentil and
chickpea flour containing cakes had the softest structure and highest
specific volume showing that lentil and chickpea flour can be used to
produce functional cakes (4).
Aydogdu & al. (5) investigated the effects of addition of dietary
fibers on rheological properties of batter and cake quality. Wheat
flour was replaced by 5 and 10% (wt%) oat, pea, apple and lemon
fibers. All cake batters showed shear thinning behavior.
Incorporation of fibers increased consistency index (k), storage
modulus (G') and loss modulus (G″). As quality parameters, specific
volume, hardness, weight loss, color and microstructure of cakes
were investigated. Cakes containing oat and pea fibers (5%) had
similar specific volume and texture with control cakes which
contained no fiber. As fiber concentration increased, specific volume
decreased but hardness increased. No significant difference was
found between weight loss of control cake and cakes with oat, pea
and apple fibers. Lemon fiber enriched cakes had the lowest specific
volume, weight loss and color difference. When microstructural
images were examined, it was seen that control cake had more
porous structure than fiber enriched cakes. In addition, lemon and
apple fiber containing cakes had less porous crumb structure as
compared to oat and pea containing ones. Oat and pea fiber (5%)
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enriched cakes had similar physical properties (volume, texture and

color) with control cakes (5).
Seyhun & al. (6) investigated the effects of different types of
emulsifiers, gums, and fat contents on the retardation of staling of
microwave-baked cakes. First, different types of emulsifiers (DATEM,
Lecigran, and Purawave) at three different fat contents (50%, 25%,
and 0%) were added to cake formulations to retard staling of
microwave-baked cakes. Then, three types of gums (guar gum,
xanthan gum, and methylcellulose) were added to the optimum
formulations chosen. As a control, cakes formulated without any
emulsifier or gum addition and baked in a conventional oven at 175
degrees C for 25 min was used. Weight loss, firmness, soluble starch
and amylose content of the cakes were used as the indicators of
staling criteria. Cakes were baked in a microwave oven for 1.5 min at
100% power. Variation of staling parameters during storage of cakes
followed zero-order kinetics. Use of emulsifiers and gums helped to
retard staling of microwave-baked cakes. Fat content was found to
be a significant factor in affecting variation of firmness and weight
loss of the cakes during storage. DATEM and Purawave were the
most effective emulsifier types. Using gums in combination with
emulsifiers gave better moisture retention and softer cakes than
using gums alone (6).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-6) shows that different formulations

affect physical properties of cakes baked with microwave and near
infrared-microwave combinations.
Although cakes baked in a conventional oven are superior in
appearance, tenderness, mouth feel, flavor, and texture, cakes baked
in the microwave oven are considered satisfactory.
Different flours affect quality of legume cakes baked in
microwave-infrared combination oven and conventional oven.
Addition of different fibers affects rheological characteristics of
cake batter and quality of cakes.
Different emulsifier types, fat contents, and gum types influence
retardation of staling of microwave-baked cakes.
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References
1. Sakiyan O, Sumnu G, Sahin S, Meda V. Investigation of dielectric
properties of different cake formulations during microwave and infrared-
microwave combination baking. J Food Sci. 2007;72(4): E205-13.
2. Sakiyan O, Sumnu G, Sahin S, Meda V. The effect of different
formulations on physical properties of cakes baked with microwave and
near infrared-microwave combinations. J Microw Power Electromagn
Energy. 2007;41(1):20-6.
3. Hill M, Reagan SP. Effect of microwave and conventional baking on
yellow cakes. J Am Diet Assoc. 1982;80(1):52-5.
4. Ozkahraman BC, Sumnu G, Sahin S. Effect of different flours on
quality of legume cakes to be baked in microwave-infrared combination
oven and conventional oven. J Food Sci Technol. 2016;53(3):1567-75.
5. Aydogdu A, Sumnu G, Sahin S . Effects of addition of different fibers
on rheological characteristics of cake batter and quality of cakes. J Food
Sci Technol. 2018;55(2):667-77.
6. Seyhun N, Sumnu G, Sahin S. Effects of different emulsifier types,
fat contents, and gum types on retardation of staling of microwave-baked
cakes. Nahrung. 2003;47(4):248-51.

IMPROVEMENT OF TEXTURE
& SENSE PROPERTIES
Ben Jeddou & al. (1) mentioned that demand for health oriented
products such as low calories and high fiber product is increasing.
The aim of the present work was to determine the effect of the
addition of potato peel powders as protein and dietary fiber source
on the quality of the dough and the cake. Powders obtained from
the two types of peel flour showed interesting water binding capacity
and fat absorption capacity. Potato peel flours were incorporated in
wheat flours at different concentration. The results showed that peel
powders additionally considerably improved the Alveograph profile
of dough and the texture of the prepared cakes. In addition, color
measurements showed a significant difference between the control
dough and the dough containing potato peels. The replacement of
wheat flour with the potato powders reduced the cake hardness
significantly and the L(*) and b(*) dough color values. The increased
consumption of cake enriched with potato peel fiber is proposed for
health reasons. The study demonstrated that protein/fiber-enriched
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cake with good sensory quality could be produced by the substitution

of wheat flour by 5% of potato peel powder. In addition and
technological point of view, the incorporation of potato peel powder
at 5% increase the dough strength and elasticity-to-extensibility ratio
(P/L) (1).
Aziah & al. (2) investigated sponge cake prepared by partial
substitution of wheat flour with mango pulp and mango peel flours
(MPuF and MPeF, respectively) at different concentrations (control,
5%, 10%, 20% or 30%) for the physico-chemical, nutritional and
organoleptic characteristics. Results showed sponge cake
incorporated with MPuF and MPeF to have high dietary fiber with
low fat, calorie, hydrolysis and predicted glycemic index compared
with the control. Increasing the levels of MPuF and MPeF in sponge
cake had significant impact on the volume, firmness and color.
Sensory evaluation showed sponge cake formulated with 10% MPuF
and 10% MPeF to be the most acceptable. MPeF and MPuF have
high potential as fiber-rich ingredients and can be utilized in the
preparation of cake and other bakery products to improve the
nutritional qualities (2).
Baeva & al. (3) studied the complete sucrose elimination and its
replacement by microencapsulated aspartame (Nutra Sweet) and
bulking agents (sorbitol, wheat starch and wheat germ) on the
physical and textural sensory characteristics of two diabetic sponge
cakes against a control sponge cake. Mathematical and statistical
methods were used and regression models worked out, describing
the physical and textural characteristics of the three sponge cakes
and their values were optimized. The effect on the porosity,
springiness, volume and shrinkage of sponge takes was substantial
and depended on the amount of the added ingredients. The diabetic
sponge cake containing wheat germ showed the least physical and
sensory deviations against the control sponge cake. The energy value
of the diabetic sponge cakes against the control one was reduced
with 25% for the ordinary sponge cake without sucrose and with 29%
for sponge cake without sucrose containing wheat germ (3).
Singh & al. (4) used whole navy bean flour and its fine and coarse
particle size fractions to completely replace wheat flour in cakes.
Replacement of wheat flour with whole bean flour significantly
increased the protein content. The protein content was adjusted to 3
levels with navy bean starch. The effect of navy bean flour and its
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fractions at 3 levels of protein on cake batter rheology and cake

quality was studied and compared with wheat flour samples. Batters
prepared from navy bean flour and its fractions had higher viscosity
than the cake flour. Reducing the protein content by addition of
starch significantly lowered the viscosity of cake batters. The whole
navy bean flour and coarse bean fraction cakes were softer than
cakes made with wheat flour but had reduced springiness. Principal
component analysis showed a clear discrimination of cakes according
to protein. It also showed that low protein navy bean flour cakes
were similar to wheat flour cakes. Navy bean flour with protein
content adjusted to the level of cake (wheat) flour has potential as a
healthy alternative in gluten-free cakes (4).
Srivastava & Semwal (5) mentioned that virgin coconut meal
(VCM) cakes were prepared by replacing refined wheat flour (maida)
(5 to 20% level) to check its effect on chemical, textural and
rheological attributes of cake. The addition of VCM significantly
(p≤0.05) increased redness (a*), yellowness (b*) while reduced
lightness (L*) of cakes. The incorporation of VCM affects the
hardness, adhesiveness gumminess and chewiness of cake. The
effect of flour replacement with VCM increased the viscosity of
batter which leads to increase in consistency index and lower the
shearthining behavior. The viscoelastic behavior of cake batter in
which elastic modulus (G') and viscous modulus (G") both were
decreased with the increase in percentage of VCM. The differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis revealed that the onset (To), end
set (Tc) and enthalpy of gelatinization (ΔH) increased with the
increased level of VCM (5).
Gough & al. (6) evaluated the literature on the role of chlorine
treatment of flour for use in high-ratio cake production in relation to
current knowledge of cereal chemistry and cake technology. A brief
perspective of the present use of chlorine in high-ratio cake flours is
included. Investigations of the uptake of gaseous chlorine by flour
and its distribution among and chemical action upon the major flour
components (water, protein, lipid, and carbohydrate) are assessed.
The physical effects of chlorination as demonstrated by experiments
with batters and cakes and by physicochemical observations of flour
and its fractions are also considered. The characteristics of the starch
in flour appear to be critical in high-ratio cakes. Chlorine treatment
modifies the gelatinization behavior of the starch granules yet does
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not change their gelatinization temperature not is there evidence of

chemical attack upon the starch molecules. Therefore, it is suggested
that chlorine effects the necessary changes in starch behavior by
reacting with the noncarbohydrate surface contaminants on the
granules. Alternative methods of improving high-ratio cake flours are
mentioned, particularly heat-treatment processes (6).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-6) demonstrates that texture and

sensory properties of cakes can be improved by addition of potato
peel powder with high level of dietary fiber and protein. In addition,
nutritional and sensory quality of sponge cake can be reached by
incorporation of high dietary fiber containing mango (Mangifera
indica var. Chokanan) pulp and peel flours. While navy bean flour
particle size and protein content affect cake baking and batter
quality.
VCM cakes by replacing refined wheat flour (maida) increased
redness, yellowness, reduced lightness of cakes, and affects the
hardness, adhesiveness gumminess and chewiness of cake.
Chlorine treated flour for use in high-ratio cake production causes
the necessary changes in starch behavior by reacting with the
noncarbohydrate surface contaminants on the granules.

References
1. Ben Jeddou K, Bouaziz F, Zouari-Ellouzi S, et al. Improvement of
texture and sensory properties of cakes by addition of potato peel powder
with high level of dietary fiber and protein. Food Chem. 2017;217:668-77.
2. Aziah AA, Min WL, Bhat R. Nutritional and sensory quality
evaluation of sponge cake prepared by incorporation of high dietary fiber
containing mango (Mangifera indica var. Chokanan) pulp and peel flours.
Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2011;62(6):559-67.
3. Baeva MR, Panchev IN, Terzieva VV. Comparative study of texture
of normal and energy reduced sponge cakes. Nahrung. 2000;44(4):242-6.
4. Singh M, Byars JA, Liu SX . Navy Bean Flour Particle Size and Protein
Content Affect Cake Baking and Batter Quality (1). J Food Sci. 2015;
80(6):E1229-34.
5. Srivastava Y, Semwal AD. Effect of virgin coconut meal (VCM) on
the rheological, micro-structure and baking properties of cake and batter.
J Food Sci Technol. 2015;52(12):8122-30.
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6. Gough BM, Whitehouse ME, Greenwood CT. The role and function
of chlorine in the preparation of high-ratio cake flour. CRC Crit Rev Food
Sci Nutr. 1978;10(1):91-113.

FAT REDUCTION & REPLACERS

Fernandes & Salas-Mellado (1) mentioned that breads and
chocolate cakes were prepared with different levels of chia mucilage
dried at 50°C or lyophilized as fat, resulting in healthier products.
Results indicated that breads and chocolate cakes made with chia
mucilage can replace up to 50% of fat without affecting the
technological and physical characteristics. The replacement of 75%
of fat, for both types of mucilage, had a significant reduction in fat
content of 56.6% in breads and 51.6% in cakes, producing a slight
decrease in the technological characteristics of the products.
Sensorial parameters showed good acceptability, with greater
purchase intent for both products when added with chia mucilage
dried at 50°C. Therefore, chia mucilage proved to be a new
alternative for replacing fat in food products, preserving the quality
attributes and making them healthier foods (1).
Psimouli & Oreopoulou (2) noticed that fat at 35% to 100% was
replaced in cakes by maltodextrin (dextrose equivalent = 3), inulin
(high performance and granulated), oligofructose, citrus pectin, and
microparticulated protein. Fat replacement by 35% did not induce
significant differences in general. Above 65% fat replacement
resulted in statistically significant (p<0.05) decreased viscosity
(except for pectin) that was followed by statistically significant
decrease in air incorporation and broader bubble size distribution.
The starch gelatinization temperature showed a statistically
significant increase when fat was replaced by fructose
oligosaccharides. The cakes presented statistically significant
increase of hardness, elasticity, and decrease of volume development
as fat replacement increased above 65%. Also cakes with increased
fat replacement received lower scores on taste and flavor, whereas
at total fat replacement they were evaluated as not acceptable.
Nevertheless, at 65% fat replacement, the samples presented
acceptable textural, physical, and sensorial attributes (2).
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Diez-Sánchez & al. (3) assessed the effect of substituting 30% of

fat by soluble, insoluble fiber, or a mix of both fibers in sponge cake
quality, structure, acceptability, and starch digestibility. The
apparent viscosity of the different formulations was measured and
micro-baking was simulated. Texture profile tests were carried out
and the crumb structure was examined. In vitro digestion was
performed to study the digestibility of starch and a sensory test was
carried out to know consumer acceptance. The soluble fiber
(maltodextrin) affected the structure and quality of the cakes less
than the insoluble fiber (potato fiber) and the use of soluble fiber in
the formulation resulted in lower glucose release under in vitro
conditions. The consumer did not find differences among the control
cake and the cakes prepared with soluble fiber. Considering the
results as a whole, soluble fiber may be used for partial replacement
of fat in sponge cake formulations and may constitute an appropriate
strategy for obtaining healthy sponge cakes (3).
Eslava-Zomeño & al. (4) mentioned that the fat was partially
replaced in a sponge cake formulation (0%, 30%, 50%, and 70%) with
OptiSol™5300. This natural functional ingredient derived from flax
seeds, rich in fiber and alpha-linoleic acid, provides a natural
substitute for guar and xanthan gums, avoiding E-numbers on labels.
The structure and some physicochemical properties of the
formulations were examined, sensory analysis was conducted and
changes in starch digestibility due to adding this ingredient were
determined. Increasing quantities of OptiSol™5300 gave harder
cakes, with less weight loss during baking, without affecting the final
cake height. There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in
texture, flavor and overall acceptance between the control and the
30% substitution cake, nor in the rapidly digestible starch values.
Consequently, replacing up to 30% of the fat with OptiSol™5300 gives
a new product with health benefits and a clean label that resembles
the full-fat sponge cake (4).
Rodríguez-García & al. (5) studied the effects of several fat
replacement levels (0%, 35%, 50%, 70%, and 100%) by inulin in
sponge cake microstructure and physicochemical properties. Oil
substitution for inulin decreased significantly (p<0.05) batter
viscosity, giving heterogeneous bubbles size distributions as it was
observed by light microscopy. Using confocal laser scanning
microscopy the fat was observed to be located at the bubbles'
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interface, enabling an optimum crumb cake structure development

during baking. Cryo-SEM micrographs of cake crumbs showed a
continuous matrix with embedded starch granules and coated with
oil; when fat replacement levels increased, starch granules appeared
as detached structures. Cakes with fat replacement up to 70% had a
high crumb air cell values; they were softer and rated as acceptable
by an untrained sensory panel (n=51). So, the reformulation of a
standard sponge cake recipe to obtain a new product with additional
health benefits and accepted by consumers is achieved. In this study,
fat is replaced by inulin in cakes, which is a fiber mainly obtained
from chicory roots. Sponge cake formulations with reductions in fat
content up to 70% are achieved. These high-quality products can be
labeled as "reduced in fat" according to U.S. FDA (2009) and EU
regulations (European-Union 2006) (5).
Andrade & al. (6) evaluated potential replacers of fat in sponge
cake formulations. This investigation consisted initially of monitoring
the physical-chemical changes in sponge cake batters caused by
gradually replacing the vegetable fat/margarine of a control sample
(standard sponge cake recipe) with galactomannan extracted from
the seeds of Cassia grandis. Several samples were prepared where a
100% concentration of vegetable fat was substituted with
galactomannan in different concentrations. Both microscopic and
macroscopic characteristics of pure fat cake batter formulations and
formulations were compared with controlled fat/galactomannan
mixtures. At this first stage, rheometry and optical microscopy were
employed to characterize the rheological features and air bubble
distribution in the batters. In the second stage, the effects of fat
substitution with galactomannan, now for the final baked cakes,
were also monitored. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
standard sensorial tests were performed in order to correlate the
final color, texture, and taste characteristics of the final sponge cake
and those characteristics obtained initially for the batter. According
to the statistical analysis of the data, a 75% fat replacement with
galactomannan at only 1.0% concentration was achieved, while
successfully maintaining surface microstructure, sensory acceptance,
and rheological behavior similar to the original formulation
containing only fat. Regarding vegetable fat substitution with
galactomannan, the results allow to conclude that rheometry and
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bubble distribution tests on the initial batters are useful indicators of

the final cake quality (6).
Khalil (7) studied physical and sensory characteristics of cakes
prepared with either the carbohydrate-based fat replacers N-Flate,
Paselli MD 10 and Litesse (0, 25, 50 and 75% of fat weight) or fat
replacers plus emulsifier (mono- and diglycerides; 0 and 3% of flour
weight). Specific gravity of the batter was significantly (p ≤ 0.05)
improved by using the carbohydrate-based fat replacers, especially at
the 25 and 50% replacement levels. The combination of the
emulsifier with either Paselli MD 10 or Litesse also enhanced the
specific gravity. Cakes prepared with fat replacers at the 25 and 50%
levels had higher volumes, specific volume and standing heights than
those of the control. Cakes prepared with fat replacers at the 25, 50
and 75% levels were more compressible than the control. Cakes
prepared with Paselli MD 10 had the highest volumes, specific
volume, standing heights and compressibilities. Incorporation of
emulsifier with fat replacers improved cake volumes, standing
heights and compressibilities. Cakes prepared with fat replacers
exhibited higher crust and crumb color values compared to the
control. Cakes prepared with 25 or 50% fat replacers had higher
mean scores for flavor, softness and eating quality than the control.
Incorporation of emulsifier with fat replacers did not affect the crust
color, crumb color and flavor, but significantly (p≤0.05) improved
softness and eating quality (7).
Román & al. (8) studied the effects of three levels of fat
replacement (1/3, 2/3, and 3/3) by extruded flour paste and the
effects of the presence of emulsifier on layer cake batter
characteristics and final cake quality. Replacement of oil by extruded
flour paste modified the batter density and microscopy, reducing the
number of air bubbles and increasing their size, while emulsifier
incorporation facilitated air entrapment in batter. Emulsifier addition
also increased the elastic and viscous moduli of the batter, while oil
reduction resulted in a less structured batter. Emulsifier
incorporation leads to good quality cakes, minimizing the negative
effect of oil reduction, maintaining the volume and reducing the
hardness of cakes. Consumer acceptability of the reduced fat cakes
was improved by the addition of emulsifier. Thus, the results
confirmed the positive effect of partial oil substitution (up to 2/3) by
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extruded flour paste on the quality of reduced fat cakes when

emulsifier was incorporated (8).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-8) shows that reduction or

replacement of fat contents in cakes can be achieved by addition of
chia seed mucilage, maltodextrin (dextrose equivalent = 3), inulin
(high performance and granulated), oligofructose, citrus pectin, and
microparticulated protein, insoluble fiber, or soluble fiber or a mix of
both fibers, OptiSol™5300, and galactomannan extracted from the
seeds of Cassia grandis.
Fat replacement presents acceptable textural, physical, and
sensorial attributes. New alternatives for replacing fat preserve the
quality of cakes and make them healthier.

References
1. Fernandes SS, Salas-Mellado ML. Addition of chia seed mucilage for
reduction of fat content in bread and cakes. Food Chem. 2017;227:37-44.
2. Psimouli V, Oreopoulou V. The effect of fat replacers on batter and
cake properties. J Food Sci. 2013;78(10):C1495-C1502.
3. Diez-Sánchez E, Llorca E, Quiles A, Hernando I. Using different fibers
to replace fat in sponge cakes: in vitro starch digestion and physico-
structural studies. Food Sci Technol Int. 2018 Jan 1:1082013218771412.
4. Eslava-Zomeño C, Quiles A, Hernando I. Designing a clean label
sponge cake with reduced fat content. J Food Sci. 2016;81(10):C2352-
C2359.
5. Rodríguez-García J, Puig A, Salvador A, Hernando I. Optimization of
a sponge cake formulation with inulin as fat replacer: structure,
physicochemical, and sensory properties. J Food Sci. 2012;77(2):C189-97.
6. Andrade FJET, de Albuquerque PBS, de Seixas JRPC, et al. Influence
of Cassia grandis galactomannan on the properties of sponge cakes: a
substitute for fat. Food Funct. 2018;9(4):2456-68.
7. Khalil AH. The influence of carbohydrate-based fat replacers with
and without emulsifiers on the quality characteristics of low fat cake.
Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 1998;52(4):299-313.
8. Román L, Santos I, Martínez MM, Gómez M. Effect of extruded
wheat flour as a fat replacer on batter characteristics and cake quality. J
Food Sci Technol. 2015;52(12):8188-95.
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ALTERNATIVE SWEETENERS
Psimouli & Oreopoulou (1) investigated whether certain polyols
(mannitol, maltitol, sorbitol, lactitol), fructose, oligofructose and
polydextrose can replace sugar (by an equal amount of each
substitute) in cake formulations. The rheological behavior of the
cake batter and the physical characteristics of the cakes containing
sugar substitutes were compared with the respective attributes of
the control cake. Differential scanning calorimetry was used to
investigate the effect of sugar substitutes on starch gelatinization.
Sensorial characteristics were evaluated by instrumental
measurements and sensory evaluation. The correlation of the batter
characteristics with the textural attributes of the final product was
also attempted. The best results were obtained by using
oligofructose, lactitol or maltitol as sugar replacers, which exhibited
similar behavior to sucrose in terms of batter rheology and increased
starch gelatinization temperature. Fructose and mannitol led to
cakes of poor quality characteristics, as was demonstrated by
instrumental measurements and sensory evaluation. The data show
that batter rheological behavior as well as the ability of sugar
substitutes to increase starch gelatinization temperature proved to
be controlling factors of the textural properties and volume of the
cakes. The sensory evaluation indicated that overall acceptance
followed closely the scores of tenderness and taste (1).
Lecerf & al. (2) evaluated the glycemic and insulinaemic
responses, in healthy adults, to short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides
(scFOS) from sucrose used to replace sugars in foods. Two study
populations aged 18-50 years were recruited and they consumed
dairy desserts or pound cakes containing either standard sugar
content or scFOS to replace 30 % of the sugar content. For each
study, the two products were tested once under a double-blind and
cross-over design with at least 7 days between the two tests.
Glucose and insulin were measured using standard methods in blood
samples collected with a venous catheter for 120 min during a kinetic
test. For the dairy desserts, replacing 30% of the sugars with scFOS
significantly reduced postprandial glycemic (AUC0-120 min; p=0.020)
and insulinaemic (AUC0-120 min; p=0.003) responses. For the pound
cakes, the glycemic response was not altered (AUC0-120 min;
p=0.322) while the insulinaemic response tended to be lower (AUC0-
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

120 min; p=0.067). This study showed that scFOS can be used to
replace sugars with the benefit of lowering the postprandial glycemic
response without increasing the insulinaemic response. The effect
might be modulated by other parameters (e.g. fat content) of the
food matrices (2).
Miller & al. (3) mentioned that several commercially available
alternative sweeteners have potential in reducing the caloric content
of baked products. Sugar alcohols and natural sweeteners have
similar bulk as sucrose and can replace sucrose directly. High
intensity sweeteners have high potency but light weight so bulking
agents are often added. This study determined alternative
sweeteners and combinations of alternative sweetener and a bulking
agent that produced good quality white layer cakes. Cakes made
with maltitol were acceptable but erythritol and fructose produced
undesirable cakes. Maltodextrin and polydextrose were acceptable
bulking agents, producing cakes that were similar to control cakes.
The flavor of cakes sweetened with sucralose was acceptable but
those with stevia had a disagreeable metallic aftertaste. Cakes made
with sucralose plus maltodextrin were preferred over those
containing sucralose plus polydextrose. Consumer acceptance of
flavor, texture and overall liking of cakes containing maltitol was
similar to sucrose and both were preferred over cakes containing
maltodextrin plus sucralose. The data indicate that replacing sucrose
with maltitol in white layer cakes reduced the caloric content by 16%
with no loss in quality (3).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-3) indicates that certain polyols

(mannitol, maltitol, sorbitol, and lactitol), fructose, oligofructose and
polydextrose can replace sugar (by an equal amount of each
substitute) in cake formulations.
scFOS can be used to replace sugars with the benefit of lowering
the postprandial glycemic response without increasing the
insulinaemic response.
Replacing sucrose with maltitol in white layer cakes reduces the
caloric content by 16% with no loss in quality.

References
1. Psimouli V, Oreopoulou V. The effect of alternative sweeteners on
batter rheology and cake properties. J Sci Food Agric. 2012;92(1):99-105.
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2. Lecerf JM, Clerc E, Jaruga A, et al. Postprandial glycaemic and

insulinaemic responses in adults after consumption of dairy desserts and
pound cakes containing short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides used to
replace sugars. J Nutr Sci. 2015 Oct 12;4:e34.
3. Miller RA, Dann OE, Oakley AR, et al. Sucrose replacement in high
ratio white layer cakes. J Sci Food Agric. 2017;97(10):3228-32.

RICE CAKES
Goto & al. (1) evaluated the whiteness of cooked rice and rice
cakes using a portable spectrophotometer with a whiteness index
(WI). Also, by using boiled rice for measurement of Mido values by
Mido Meter, it was possible to infer the whiteness of cooked rice
without rice cooking. In the analysis of varietal differences of cooked
rice, 'Tsuyahime', 'Koshihikari' and 'Koshinokaori' showed high
whiteness, while 'Satonoyuki' had inferior whiteness. The whiteness
of rice cakes made from 'Koyukimochi' and 'Dewanomochi' was
higher than the whiteness of those made from 'Himenomochi' and
'Koganemochi'. While there was a significant correlation (r = 0.84)
between WI values and whiteness scores of cooked rice by the
sensory test, no correlation was detected between the whiteness
scores and Mido values, indicating that the values obtained by a
spectrophotometer differ from those obtained by a Mido Meter.
Thus, a spectrophotometer may be a novel device for measurement
of rice eating quality (1).
Buttery & al. (2) obtained volatiles from commercially prepared
and laboratory-prepared rice cakes using high-flow dynamic
headspace isolation with Tenax trapping. Analysis was carried out by
capillary GC/MS. More than 60 compounds were identified Major
volatiles included 1-hydroxy-2-propanone, furfuryl alcohol, 2, 5-
dimethylpyrazine, 2-methylpyrazine, pyrazine, hexanal, furfural,
pentanol, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone (acetoin), and ethyl-3, 6-
dimethylpyrazine. Although not ideally applicable to a dry product,
concentration/threshold ratios indicated that the compounds with a
high probability of contributing to the aroma and flavor included 3-
methylbutanal, dimethyl trisulfide, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, 4-
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vinylguaiacol, hexanal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, 2-methylbutanal, 2-

acetyl-1-pyrroline, 1-octen-3-ol, and 1-octen-3-one (2).
Sae-Eaw & al. (3) evaluated consumer acceptance and purchase
intent of nonwheat butter cake formulations prepared with Thai
jasmine rice flour. Three nonwheat rice butter cakes were prepared
with varying amounts of powdered emulsifier (propylene glycol
ester:diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglyceride, 8:2) at 0%
(product A), 7.5% (product B), and 15% (product C) of the margarine
content (15%) in the cake formulation. A commercial wheat-based
butter cake served as the control. Consumers (n=400) evaluated
acceptability of 9 sensory attributes using a 9-point hedonic scale.
Overall acceptance and purchase intent were determined with a
binomial (yes/no) scale. At least 81% of consumers accepted
products B and C, of which 42.1% and 47%, respectively, would
purchase the products if commercially available. Product A was
neither liked nor disliked with an overall liking score of 5.39. The
butter cake products were differentiated by textural acceptability
(overall texture, softness, and moistness) with a canonical correlation
of 0.71 to 0.79. Overall liking and taste influenced overall acceptance
and purchase intent. Odor influenced purchase intent (p=0.0014),
but not overall acceptance. The odds ratio of overall liking was 3.462
for purchase intent, indicating the probability of the product being
purchased is 3.462 times higher (than not being purchased,
p<0.0001) with every 1-unit increase of the overall liking score.
Based on the logit model, overall acceptance and purchase intent
could be predicted with 89.3% and 83.3% accuracy, respectively. The
study demonstrated feasibility of completely substituting wheat flour
with Thai jasmine rice flour for production of butter cake products
acceptable to American consumers (3).
Yoon & al. (4) investigated whether the consumption of Korean
rice cakes enriched with dietary fiber with or without polyphenol rich
plants might decrease the risk factors of metabolic syndrome (MetS).
Rice cakes were manufactured using fructooligosaccharides, resistant
starch, and psyllium as sources of dietary fibers with and without
polyphenol rich Artemisia annua and Gynura procumbens Merr.
(RC+FP and RC+F, respectively), and prepared in three forms
(songpyeon, seolgidduk, and chaldduk). Ninety subjects with at least
one MetS risk factor were recruited for 6 weeks of dietary
intervention. Sixty subjects were finally included for the analysis.
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Compared to the initial values, RC+FP group had decreased levels of

fasting blood glucose (FBG), HOMA-IR and blood pressure after 6
weeks, whereas RC+F group didn't have significant changes in them.
Regarding the improvement of individual MetS risk factors, RC+FP
group showed significant reduction in FBG and blood pressures but
RC+F group only had reduction in systolic blood pressure. After the
intervention, a reduction in the number of MetS risk factors was
greater in the RC+FP group than in the RC+F group. The data indicate
that dietary fiber enriched rice cakes with or without polyphenols
decreased the number and/or the levels of MetS risk factors.
Polyphenol rich plant components may provide additional health
benefits in controlling FBG and blood pressure (4).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-4) shows that whiteness of cooked

rice and rice cakes can be evaluated by using a portable
spectrophotometer.
Thai jasmine rice flour for production of butter cake products is
acceptable by American consumers.
Rice cakes containing dietary fiber supplemented with or without
Artemisia Annua and Gynura Procumbens Merr alleviate the risk
factors of metabolic syndrome.

References
1. Goto H, Asanome N , Suzuki K, et al. Objective evaluation of
whiteness of cooked rice and rice cakes using a portable
spectrophotometer. Breed Sci. 2014;63(5):489-94.
2. Buttery RG, Orts WJ, Takeoka GR, Nam Y. Volatile flavor
components of rice cakes. J Agric Food Chem. 1999;47(10):4353-6.
3. Sae-Eaw A, Chompreeda P, Prinyawiwatkul W, et al. Acceptance and
purchase intent of US consumers for nonwheat rice butter cakes. J Food
Sci. 2007;72(2):S92-7.
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4. Yoon NR, Yoon S, Lee SM. Rice cakes containing dietary fiber
supplemented with or without Artemisia Annua and Gynura Procumbens
Merr. alleviated the risk factors of metabolic syndrome. Clin Nutr Res.
2016;5(2):79-88.

GLUTEN FREE CAKES

Pineli Lde & al. (1) mentioned that the extraction of oil from baru
almonds produces a waste that carries part of their nutritional
qualities and antioxidants. It can be used to produce partially
deffated baru flour (PDBF). This study aimed to evaluate the
applicability of PDBF and the effect of the addition of xanthan gum
(XG) to produce gluten free cakes. Cakes were prepared with 100%
wheat flour (WF cake) and with 100% PDBF and four different levels
of XG (0%-PDBF cake, 0.1%-X1, 0.2%-X2 and 0.3%-X3 cakes), and
evaluated for composition, antioxidants, moisture, specific volume,
texture and sensory acceptance. PDBF cakes showed lower
carbohydrate values, but higher protein, lipids, calories and
antioxidant contents. They were rich in fiber, as well as iron, zinc and
copper. The replacement of WF by PDBF resulted in an increased
hardness and adhesiveness and a decreased cohesiveness, elasticity
and moisture. Chewiness of X2 cake was similar to that of WF cake.
X2 and X3 cakes showed specific volume closer to that of WF cake.
No difference was found among the treatments for texture and
appearance acceptances. Flavor of X2 and X3 cakes were more
accepted than WF cake. Acceptance of all cakes was in the liking
region of hedonic scale. PBDF associated to XG is a feasible option to
substitute WF in gluten free cake, improving its nutritional quality (1).

Gluten free sponge cake.

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Majzoobi & al. (2) mentioned that carrot pomace powder (CPP) is
a valuable by-product of carrot processing containing nutrients and
fiber and can be utilized for enrichment of gluten-free products. The
main purpose of this study was to determine the effects of various
levels of CPP (0, 10, 20, and 30%) and a mixture of hydrocolloids (HC)
including pectin and xanthan (1.5% of each) on the quality of batter
and gluten-free cakes. With increasing the level of CPP and inclusion
of HC the viscosity of the batter increased significantly from 87 mPa s
for the control to >7000 mPa s for 30%CCP + HC sample. The density
of the control batter was 1.2 g/cm3 which reduced significantly to
0.899 g/cm3 for HC sample. The pH of the cake reduced from 7.23 to
6.78 with addition of CPP but increased slightly with inclusion of HC.
The density of the cake reduced from 0.510 g/cm3 for the control to
0.395 g/cm3 for 20%CCP + C sample. The texture of the cakes
became softer, more springy and chewable with addition of CPP,
CPP + HC, and HC. The control sample had the lowest uniformity
index (0.178) which improved with addition of CPP and CPP + HC and
a highly uniform cake with a uniformity index of 0.045 was obtained
for the 30%CCP + HC cake. Addition of CPP increased the dark color
of the cakes while inclusion of HC had no effect on the appearance of
the cake and coor. It was concluded that inclusion of maximum
30%CCP and 20%CPP + HC promoted the quality and sensory
attributes of gluten-free cakes. Although different types of gluten-
free products are available in the market, most of them contain
insufficient amount of fiber and nutrients. Despite popularity,
gluten-free cakes are poor in fiber and nutrient contents. Therefore,
improving the nutritional value of these products has received an
increasing attention by the food industry. Carrot pomace powder
(CPP) is an available source of fiber and nutrients and hence can be
utilized for enrichment of gluten-free products. This study showed
that the inclusion of up to 30% CPP or 20% CPP with a mixture of
xanthan and pectin (3%, 1:1) improved the quality and sensory
attributes of the cakes. Industrial implications of this study may lead
to new product development and improved marketing due to the
enhancement of quality, sensory attributes, and nutritional value of
the products (2).
Levent & Bilgiçli (3) studied the effect of debittered lupin flour
(LF) and whole buckwheat flour (BF) on the nutritional and sensory
quality of gluten-free cake. LF (10, 20, 30 and 40%) and BF (5, 10, 15
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and 20%) were partially replaced with corn starch and rice flour
mixture (1:1 w/w) in the gluten-free cake recipe. LF increased the
protein, calcium, iron, manganese, phosphorus and zinc contents of
the cakes, while BF caused a significant increase (p<0.05) especially in
potassium and magnesium contents of the gluten-free cakes.
According to the overall acceptability rating, gluten-free cake could
be produced with satisfactory results by the addition of LF and BF up
to 30% and 10%, respectively (3).
Tsatsaragkou & al. (4) investigated the effect of resistant starch
(RS) addition on gluten-free cakes from rice flour and tapioca starch
physical and sensorial properties. Increase in RS concentration made
cake batters less elastic (drop of G'(ω), G''(ω) values) and thinner
(viscosity decreased). Cakes specific volume increased with an
increase in RS level and was maximized for 15 g/100 g RS, although
porosity values were significantly unaffected by RS content. Crumb
grain analysis exhibited a decrease in surface porosity, number of
pores and an increase in average pore diameter as RS concentration
increased. During storage, cake crumb remained softer in
formulations with increasing amounts of RS. Sensory evaluation of
cakes demonstrated the acceptance of all formulations, with cake
containing 20 g/100 g RS mostly preferred. Gluten-free cakes with
improved quality characteristics and high nutritional value can be
manufactured by the incorporation of RS (4).
Gambuś & al. (5) mentioned that gluten-free confectionery
products were used as controls for comparison with the products,
which included different supplements such as linseed meal,
amaranth and/or buckwheat. The latter were expected to increase
nutritional values of confectionery products. Cookies were analyzed
in terms of volume, selected textural parameters (hardness,
cohesiveness), organoleptic quality, shelf-life, and different chemical
components. All supplemented gluten-free products received high
consumer scores, exceeding in some cases those of control samples.
Supplementation of gluten-free confectionery products with linseed
meal, amaranth and/or buckwheat flours enhanced their final
nutritional quality. A significant rise was observed in the protein
content and dietary fiber, and in the case of linseed meal also alpha-
linolenic acid. All of the supplemented gluten-free confectionery
products contained more macro-elements and micro-elements (i.e.
potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, iron, manganese, zinc
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

and copper), as compared with the controls. Taking into account the
amino-acid composition, amaranth proved a more beneficial
supplement of gluten-free products than linseed (5).
Itthivadhanapong & al. (6) compared the effects of 1% addition of
four selected hydrocolloids (xanthan, guar,
hypdroxypropylmethylcellulose and carrageenan) on quality
characteristics of batter and of black waxy rice steamed cake
compared to a control without hydrocolloids. Dynamic frequency
sweeps of the batters at 25°C indicated that all formulations
exhibited gel-like behavior with storage moduli (G') higher than loss
moduli (G″). Hydrocolloids increased the apparent viscosity and the
thixotropic behavior, depending on the type of hydrocolloids.
Xanthan had the greatest effects on both moduli, whereas
carrageenan had the smallest effects. During a storage period of 4
days the cakes with xanthan remained softer than control samples.
The overall acceptability of cake with xanthan and guar were higher
than control. This study is the first report on using black waxy rice
flour as a main raw material in gluten free cake. The results of this
study provided useful information for selection hydrocolloids as
ingredients that can help to improve the physical properties of waxy
rice steamed cake (6).
Agrahar-Murugkar & al. (7) developed gluten free eggless cake
using gluten free composite flour made of finger millet, sprouted soy
and amaranth, for patients with celiac disease. Gluten free eggless
cake prepared (T2), were analyzed for physical, textural, rheological
and nutritional properties and compared with control cake (C) made
using refined wheat flour and eggs and eggless composite flour cake
made using whole wheat flour, malted finger millet, sprouted soy
flour and amaranth (T1). There was no significant difference
between T2 and C batter in terms of textural properties, flow
behaviour index and consistency index. T2 had higher volume (454.4
cm3) as compared to T1 (437.1 cm3) cake. Insignificant differences in
textural analysis were observed between cakes in terms of
springiness, resilience and cohesiveness. The nutritional quality of T2
cake was significantly (p<0.05) higher in case of phosphorous (224.0
mg/100 g) and iron content (7.39 mg/100 g). Therefore, gluten free
eggless cake of high nutritional composition with good quality
characteristics is a good substitute for refined flour egg and
composite flour eggless cake. Higher mineral content due to
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germinated ingredients made it a nutritious and palatable naturally

gluten free food option for the people with celiac disease (7).
Román & al. (8) noticed that carob flour is a product rich in fiber
obtained from by-products of the locust bean gum extraction
processing. The flour is commercialized with different degrees of
roasting in order to improve its organoleptic characteristics. In this
study, carob flour with three different roasting degrees was used to
replace rice flour (15%) in gluten-free cakes and cookies. The
influence of this replacement was studied on the psychochemical
characteristics and acceptability of the final products. The
incorporation of carob flour increased the viscosity of cake batters
and increased the solid elastic-like behavior of the cookie doughs,
indicating a stronger interaction among the formula ingredients. The
inclusion of carob flour, with a low time of roasting, did not lead to
any significant differences in the specific volume and hardness of the
cakes, but reduced cake staling and the thickness and width of the
cookies. Darker colors were obtained when carob flour was
incorporated into the product. The acceptability of cakes was only
reduced with the addition of highly roasted carob flour, while in the
case of cookies there was a decline in the acceptability of all carob
flour cookies, which was mostly perceived with the highest roasting
degree, something mainly attributed to the bitter taste of the
products (8).
Drabioska & al. (9) described the successful development of new
gluten-free (GF) mini sponge cakes fortified with broccoli leaves. The
aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of broccoli leaf powder
(BLP) on the content of biologically active compounds and the
antioxidant capacity of GF mini sponge cakes. Broccoli leaf powder
was a good source of nutritional components, including proteins and
minerals, as well as bioactive compounds such as glucosinolates and
phenolics. Glucosinolate content was higher than expected, which
points to a synergistic interaction between bioactive compounds and
the food matrix. The incorporation of BLP into GF mini sponge cakes
significantly (p<0.05) increased their antioxidant capacity. The
overall sensory acceptance of GF mini sponge cakes was affected by
increasing BLP content. The addition of 2.5% BLP as a starch
substitute resulted in an optimal improvement in the nutraceutical
potential of GF cakes without compromising their sensory quality (9).
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TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-9) shows that various products can
be used to produce gluten-free cakes. These include: baru (Brazilian
almond) waste from physical extraction of oil, carrot pomace
powder, debittered lupin flour and whole buckwheat flour, resistant
starch, linseed meal, amaranth and/or buckwheat flours, black waxy
rice flour, carob flour a product rich in fiber obtained from by-
products of the locust bean gum extraction processing, and broccoli
leaf powder.
Gluten free eggless cake is developed using gluten free composite
flours made from sprouted and malted ingredients.

References
1. Pineli Lde L, de Aguiar LA, de Oliveira GT, et al. Use of baru
(Brazilian almond) waste from physical extraction of oil to produce gluten
free cakes. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2015;70(1):50-5.
2. Majzoobi M, Vosooghi Poor Z, Mesbahi G, et al. Effects of carrot
pomace powder and a mixture of pectin and xanthan on the quality of
gluten-free batter and cakes. J Texture Stud. 2017;48(6):616-23.
3. Levent H, Bilgiçli N. Enrichment of gluten-free cakes with lupin
(Lupinus albus L.) or buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum M.) flours. Int J
Food Sci Nutr. 2011;62(7):725-8.
4. Tsatsaragkou K, Papantoniou M, Mandala I. Rheological, physical,
and sensory attributes of gluten-free rice cakes containing resistant starch.
J Food Sci. 2015;80(2):E341-8.
5. Gambuś H, Gambuś F, Pastuszka D, et al. Quality of gluten-free
supplemented cakes and biscuits. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2009;60 Suppl 4:31-
50.
6. Itthivadhanapong P, Jantathai S, Schleining G. Improvement of
physical properties of gluten-free steamed cake based on black waxy rice
flour using different hydrocolloids. J Food Sci Technol. 2016;53(6):2733-41.
7. Agrahar-Murugkar D, Zaidi A, Dwivedi S. Development of gluten
free eggless cake using gluten free composite flours made from sprouted
and malted ingredients and its physical, nutritional, textural, rheological
and sensory properties evaluation. J Food Sci Technol. 2018;55(7):2621-
30.
8. Román L, González A, Espina T, Gómez M. Degree of roasting of
carob flour affecting the properties of gluten-free cakes and cookies. J
Food Sci Technol. 2017;54(7):2094-103.
9. Drabioska N, Ciska E, Szmatowicz B, Krupa-Kozak U. Broccoli by-
products improve the nutraceutical potential of gluten-free mini sponge
cakes. Food Chem. 2018;267:170-7.
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CONTAMINATION
Mmongoyo & al. (1) reported that aflatoxin, a mycotoxin found
commonly in maize and peanuts worldwide, is associated with liver
cancer, acute toxicosis, and growth impairment in humans and
animals. In Tanzania, sunflower seeds are a source of snacks, cooking
oil, and animal feed. These seeds are a potential source of aflatoxin
contamination. However, reports on aflatoxin contamination in
sunflower seeds and cakes are scarce. The objective of the current
study was to determine total aflatoxin concentrations in sunflower
seeds and cakes from small-scale oil processors across Tanzania.
Samples of sunflower seeds (n=90) and cakes (n=92) were collected
across two years, and analyzed for total aflatoxin concentrations
using a direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA). For seed samples collected June-August 2014, the highest
aflatoxin concentrations were from Dodoma (1.7-280.6 ng/g), Singida
(1.4-261.8 ng/g), and Babati-Manyara (1.8-162.0 ng/g). The highest
concentrations for cakes were from Mbeya (2.8-97.7 ng/g), Dodoma
(1.9-88.2 ng/g), and Singida (2.0-34.3 ng/g). For seed samples
collected August-October 2015, the highest concentrations were
from Morogoro (2.8-662.7 ng/g), Singida (1.6-217.6 ng/g) and Mbeya
(1.4-174.2 ng/g). The highest concentrations for cakes were from
Morogoro (2.7-536.0 ng/g), Dodoma (1.4-598.4 ng/g) and Singida
(3.2-52.8 ng/g). Thus, humans and animals are potentially at high risk
of exposure to aflatoxins through sunflower seeds and cakes from
micro-scale millers in Tanzania; and location influences risk (1).
Wang & al. (2) evaluated the microbial contamination in rice cake
materials and products during processing and in the operation
environment in nonhazard analysis [and] critical control point
factories. The environmental health of the processing facilities and
the bacterial and fungal contamination on the workers' hands were
investigated. Pour plate methods were used for enumeration of
aerobic plate count (APC), yeast and molds (YM), Bacillus cereus,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Clostridium perfringens, whereas
Petrifilm count plates were used for enumeration of coliforms and
Escherichia coli. The respective microbial levels of APC, coliforms,
YM, and B. cereus were in the range of 2.6 to 4.7, 1.0 to 3.8, not
detected (ND) to 2.9, and ND to 2.8 log CFU/g in the raw materials
and in the range of 2.3 to 6.2, ND to 3.6, ND to 2.7, and ND to 3.7 log
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CFU/g during processing of the rice cake products. During the

processing of rice cakes, APC, coliforms, YM, and B. cereus increased
during soaking and smashing treatments and decreased after
steaming treatment. E. coli, S. aureus, and C. perfringens were not
detected in any of the raw materials and operating areas or during
processing. B. cereus was detected on the operators' hands at
microbial contamination levels of 1.9 ± 0.19 to 2.0 ± 0.19 log CFU/g.
The results showed that B. cereus in the end product was presumably
the main concern for rice cakes. In addition, the high contamination
level of B. cereus during manufacturing processes, including soaking,
smashing, and molding, and the absence of B. cereus from the air
sampling plates indicated that the contaminated equipment showed
the potential risk to cause cross-contamination (2).
Solhan & al. (3) described the epidemiological, microbiological
and environmental investigations conducted during an outbreak of
Salmonella gastroenteritis in Singapore. A case-control study was
undertaken to identify the vehicle of transmission. Microbiological
testing was performed on fecal, food and environmental samples.
Isolates of Salmonella were further characterized by phage typing
and ribotyping. There were 216 gastroenteritis cases reported from
20 November to 4 December 2007. The causative agent was
identified as Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serotype
Enteritidis for 14 out of 20 cases tested. The vehicle of transmission
was traced to cream cakes produced by a bakery and sold at its retail
outlets (p<0.001, OR 143.00, 95% CI 27.23-759.10). More than two-
thirds of the 40 Salmonella strains isolated from hospitalized cases,
food samples and asymptomatic food handlers were of phage type 1;
the others reacted but did not conform to any phage type. The
phage types correlated well with their unique antibiograms. The
ribotype patterns of 22 selected isolates tested were highly similar,
indicating genetic relatedness. The dendrogram of the strains from
the outbreak showed distinct clustering and correlation compared to
the non-outbreak strains, confirming a common source of infection.
The data indicate that the cream cakes were likely contaminated by
one of the ingredients used in the icing. Cross-contamination down
the production line and subsequent storage of cakes at ambient
temperatures for a prolonged period before consumption could have
contributed to the outbreak (3).
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Friedman & al. (4) determined the source of a norovirus outbreak

among attendees of 46 weddings taking place during a single
weekend. Norovirus-compatible illness was experienced by 332
(39%) of wedding guests surveyed; the outbreak affected up to 2,700
persons. Illness was associated with eating wedding cake provided
by a bakery common to the weddings (adjusted RR 4.5, p<0.001). A
cake requiring direct hand contact during its preparation accounted
for the majority of illness. At least two bakery employees
experienced norovirus-compatible illness during the week preceding
the weddings. Identical sequence types of norovirus were detected
in stool specimens submitted by two wedding guests, a wedding hall
employee, and one of the ill bakery employees. It is likely that one or
more food workers at the bakery contaminated the wedding cakes
through direct and indirect contact. These findings reinforce the
necessity of proper food-handling practices and of policies that
discourage food handlers from working while ill (4).
Ward & al. (5) investigated an outbreak of 54 cases of Salmonella
Typhimurium phage type 9 (STM9) with a specific antibiotic
resistance pattern. Sequential analytic studies were used: two
retrospective cohort studies, a case-control study, and a modified
case-control study. An outbreak of salmonellosis due to Salmonella
Typhimurium PT9 SSu (resistant to streptomycin and sulphafurazole)
was identified. Fifty-four cases had illness onset from November
1998 to March 1999. Notifications commenced following a
restaurant birthday party in December 1998. An initial cohort and
case control study found no association with consumption of custard
cake. However, case follow-up identified another cohort of people
who had attended a birthday party in February at which 8/27 people
who consumed a continental custard cake were ill compared to 0/10
who did not (p=0.07). A revised case control study found illness that
was strongly associated with consumption of a particular continental
custard cake (Mantel-Haenszel matched OR infinity, p=0.00004). This
report highlights the epidemiological value of using sequential study
types, and persisting with the investigation of apparently sporadic
food-borne outbreaks (5).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-5) shows that contamination of cakes

can occur. The high contamination level of B. cereus occurred during
manufacturing processes, including soaking, smashing, and molding.
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An outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by Salmonella enterica

serotype Enteritidis was traced to cream cakes. An outbreak of
norovirus gastroenteritis associated with wedding cakes. While a
salmonellosis outbreak was linked to continental custard cakes.

References
1. Mmongoyo JA, Wu F, Linz JE, et al. Aflatoxin levels in sunflower
seeds and cakes collected from micro- and small-scale sunflower oil
processors in Tanzania. PLoS One. 2017;12(4):e0175801.
2. Wang J, Park JH, Choi NJ, et al. Microbiological analysis of rice cake
processing in Korea. J Food Prot. 2016;79(1):157-62.
3. Solhan S, Chan PP, Kurupatham L, et al. An outbreak of
gastroenteritis caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis traced
to cream cakes. Western Pac Surveill Response J. 2011;2(1):23-30.
4. Friedman DS, Heisey-Grove D, Argyros F, et al. An outbreak of
norovirus gastroenteritis associated with wedding cakes. Epidemiol Infect.
2005;133(6):1057-63.
5. Ward B, Andrews R, Gregory J, Lightfoot D. The use of sequential
studies in a salmonellosis outbreak linked to continental custard cakes.
Epidemiol Infect. 2002;129(2):287-93.

ADVERSE REACTIONS
Kiyohara & al. (1) reported that Japanese rice cake ("mochi") is a
major cause of food-choking accidents in Japan. However, the
epidemiology of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests (OHCAs) due to
suffocation caused by rice cakes is poorly understood. OHCA data
from 2005 to 2012 were obtained from the population-based OHCA
registry in Osaka Prefecture. Patients aged ≥20 years who
experienced OHCA caused by suffocation that occurred before the
arrival of emergency-medical-service (EMS) personnel were
evaluated. Patient characteristics, prehospital interventions, and
outcomes were compared based on the cause of suffocation (rice
cake and non-rice-cake). The primary outcome was 1-month survival
after OHCA. In total, 46 911 adult OHCAs were observed during the
study period. Of the OHCAs, 7.0% (3,294/46,911) were due to
suffocation, with choking due to rice cake as the cause in 9.5% of
cases (314/3,294), and of these, 24.5% (77/314) occurred during the
first 3 days of the New Year. In crude analysis, 1-month survival was
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17.2% (54/314) in those with suffocation caused by rice cake and

13.4% (400/2,980) in those with suffocation due to other causes. In
the multivariable analysis for all-cause suffocation, younger age,
arrest witnessed by bystanders, and earlier EMS response time were
significantly related to better 1-month survival. The data show that
approximately 10% of OHCAs due to suffocation were caused by rice-
cake choking, and 25% of these occurred during the first 3 days of the
New Year. Further efforts for establishing preventive measures as
well as improving the early recognition of choking and encouraging
bystanders to call EMS sooner are needed (1).
Gerfaud-Valentin & al. (2) mentioned that bakers are exposed
daily to flour and may be susceptible to immunologic occupational
diseases. A 30-year-old, nonsmoking, female baker was referred for
progressive dyspnea on exertion, basal crackles on auscultation,
restrictive lung function, decreased diffusing capacity of the lung for
carbon monoxide, ground glass hyperdensities with a mosaic pattern
on high-resolution CT scan, 25% lymphocytosis by BAL, and cellular
chronic bronchiolitis with peribronchiolar interstitial inflammation by
lung biopsy specimen. Cultures from flours isolated nine species,
including Aspergillus fumigatus. Twenty-six antigens were tested.
Serum-specific precipitins were found against A fumigatus, the flour
mite Acarus siro, and total extracts from maize and oat. Outcome
was favorable with cessation of occupational exposure to flours and
transient therapy with prednisone and immunosuppressive agents.
This report is a well-documented case of hypersensitivity
pneumonitis (HP) due to sensitization to fungi- and mite-
contaminated flours. HP, and not only asthma and allergic rhinitis,
should be suspected in bakers with respiratory symptoms (2).
Paris & al. (3) reported that argan is now used worldwide in
numerous cosmetic products. Nine workers from a cosmetic factory
were examined in the occupational medicine department, following
the diagnosis of a case of HP related to handling of argan cakes.
Operators were exposed to three forms of argan (crude granulates,
powder or liquid) depending on the step of the process. All workers
systematically completed standardized questionnaires on
occupational and medical history, followed by medical investigations,
comprising, in particular, physical examination and chest X-rays, total
IgE and a systematic screening for specific serum antibodies directed
against the usual microbial agents of domestic and farmer's HP and
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antigens derived from microbiological culture and extracts of various

argan products. Subjects with episodes of flu-like syndrome several
hours after handling argan cakes, were submitted to a one-hour
challenge to argan cakes followed by physical examination,
determination of Carbon Monoxide Diffusing Capacity (DLCO) and
chest CT-scan on day 2, and, when necessary, bronchoalveolar lavage
on day 4. Six of the nine workers experienced flu-like symptoms
within 8 hours after argan handling. After challenge, two subjects
presented a significant decrease of DLCO and alveolitis with mild
lymphocytosis, and one presented ground glass opacities. These two
patients and another patient presented significant arcs to both
granulates and non-sterile powder. No reactivity was observed to
sterile argan finished product, antigens derived from argan cultures
(various species of Bacillus) and Streptomyces marokkonensis
(reported in the literature to contaminate argan roots). HP is related
to argan powder in two patients. This implies preventive measures
to reduce their exposure and clinical survey to diagnose early
symptoms. As exposure routes are different and antibodies were
observed against argan powder and not the sterile form, consumers
using argan-based cosmetics should not be concerned (3).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-3) demonstrates side effects of cakes

that include suffocation due to Japanese rice cake, HP due to
sensitization to fungi- and mite-contaminated flours, and HP due to
handling argan cake.
Humans and animals are potentially at high risk of exposure to
aflatoxins, a mycotoxin found in maize and peanuts associated with
liver cancer, acute toxicosis, and growth impairment in humans and
animals, through sunflower seeds and cakes from micro-scale millers
in Tanzania.

References
1. Kiyohara K, Sakai T, Nishiyama C, et al. Epidemiology of out-of-
hospital cardiac arrest due to suffocation focusing on suffocation due to
Japanese rice cake: a population-based observational study from the
Utstein Osaka project. J Epidemiol. 2018;28(2):67-74.
2. Gerfaud-Valentin M, Reboux G, Traclet J et al. Occupational
hypersensitivity pneumonitis in a baker: a new cause. Chest. 2014;145(4):
 88

Ben-Nun L. Cakes
,
3. Paris C , Herin F, Reboux G, et al. Working with argan cake: a new
etiology for hypersensitivity pneumonitis. BMC Pulm Med. 2015 Mar
6;15:18.

INHIBITORY EFFECT/DETOXIFICATION
Lee & al. (1) determined the antimicrobial effects of green tea and
rosemary added to foods as antagonists to foodborne pathogens
were determined in laboratory media and oriental-style rice cakes.
The growth of each pathogen (Bacillus cereus, Salmonella
Typhimurium, Enterobacter sakazakii, Escherichia coli O157:H7,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes) in tryptic soy
broth or rice cake with or without addition of green tea or rosemary
leaf powders before autoclaving or cooking, respectively, was
investigated after inoculation. The addition of 1% green tea or
rosemary produced similar results for inhibiting the growth of
pathogens in tryptic soy broth. However, green tea was more
effective than rosemary for inhibiting the growth of L.
monocytogenes. Both botanicals had inhibitory effects against all
pathogens tested in this study. Green tea was particularly effective
against B. cereus, S. aureus, and L. monocytogenes, and rosemary
was strongly inhibitory against B. cereus and S. aureus. The addition
of 1 or 3% green tea or rosemary to rice cakes did not significantly
reduce total aerobic counts; however, levels of B. cereus and S.
aureus were significantly reduced in rice cakes stored for 3 days at
room temperature (22 degrees C). The order of antimicrobial
activities against B. cereus in rice cake was 1% rosemary < 1% green
tea < 3% rosemary = 3% green tea. These results indicate that the
use of natural plant materials such as green tea and rosemary could
improve the microbial quality of foods in addition to their functional
properties (1).
Hong & al. (2) mentioned that there has been an increasing
interest in the use of natural plant materials as alternative food
preservatives. The antimicrobial effects of natural plant materials
used as additives against foodborne pathogens were examined in
laboratory media and Sulgidduk, oriental-style rice cakes. Cinnamon,
mugwort, and garlic powder solutions (3%) were tested for their
antimicrobial activities against pathogens in laboratory media.
Sulgidduk prepared with different amounts of cinnamon powder (1,
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

3, and 6%) was inoculated with a Staphylococcus aureus or Bacillus

cereus cocktail. The samples were air or vacuum packaged and
stored at 22 ± 1°C for 72 hours, and microbial growth was
determined. Cinnamon powder showed more inhibitory properties
against pathogens such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium,
Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, S. aureus, and B.
cereus than did mugwort or garlic powder. The populations of S.
aureus and B. cereus in Sulgidduk containing cinnamon powder were
significantly lower than in the control during storage time. Different
packaging methods did not result in a significant difference in
pathogen growth. In a sensory evaluation, Sulgidduk containing 1
and 3% cinnamon powder did not significantly differ from the control
sample in any of the attributes tested other than flavor. These
results indicate that natural plant materials such as cinnamon
powder could be used as food additives to improve the
microbiological stability of rice cakes (2).
Samarakoon & al. (3) evaluated the antibacterial effect to
determine the benefits of high speed drying (HSD) and far-infrared
radiation drying (FIR) compared to the freeze drying (FD) method.
Citrus press-cakes (CPCs) are released as a by-product in the citrus
processing industry. Previous studies have shown that the HSD and
FIR drying methods are much more economical for drying time and
mass drying than those of FD, even though FD is the most qualified
drying method. The disk diffusion assay was conducted, and the
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal
concentration (MBC) were determined with methanol extracts of the
dried CPCs against 11 fish and five food-related pathogenic bacteria.
The disk diffusion results indicated that the CPCs dried by HSD, FIR,
and FD prevented growth of all tested bacteria almost identically.
The MIC and MBC results showed a range from 0.5-8.0 mg/mL and
1.0-16.0 mg/mL respectively. Scanning electron microscopy
indicated that the extracts changed the morphology of the bacteria
cell wall, leading to destruction. These results suggest that CPCs
dried by HSD and FIR showed strong antibacterial activity against
pathogenic bacteria and are more useful drying methods than that of
the classic FD method in CPCs utilization (3).
Giddey & al. (4) studied the process described up to an industrial
pilot scale. In this article, the basic knowledge on the process and the
technological conditions of pilot application for detoxifying peanut
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

cakes polluted by up to 3,500 ppb Aflatoxine (2,300 ppb B1) was

summarized. The nutritional experiments carried out on rats and
other mammals are described, and the toxicological and biochemical
evaluation of the cakes on Bacillacea are reported and discussed.
The data collected show that the MMA/Ca(OH)2 process offers
promising possibilities for industrial application on the basis of
technological and economic criteria, as well as from the point of view
of efficiency and safety (4).
Lee & al. (5) mentioned that fresh cooked rice cakes for retail sale
are typically held at room temperature because refrigeration
dramatically reduces their quality. Room temperature, high water
activity, and a pH of > 4.6 provided an environment conducive to
pathogen growth. To date, no studies have been published regarding
survival and growth of foodborne pathogens in fresh cooked rice
cakes. This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of steam
cooking on foodborne pathogens and their subsequent growth in five
varieties of rice cakes made from flours of regular rice, sweet rice,
white rice, tapioca, and mung bean. Bacillus cereus spores were
detected in white rice, tapioca, and mung bean samples. The rice
cake flours were inoculated with non-spore-forming foodborne
pathogens (Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella enterica serovar
Typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus)
or spore-forming bacteria (Bacillus cereus) and steam cooked (100
degrees C) for 30 min. Steam cooking significantly reduced (> 6 log
CFU/g) non-spore-forming foodborne pathogens in all samples and
inactivated spores of B. cereus by 1 to 2 log CFU/g. Although spores
of B. cereus survived steam cooking and germinated during 3 days of
storage at room temperature, populations in most rice cakes
remained below 106 CFU/g, which is the threshold for producing
toxin. Rice cakes made from mung bean flour supported growth and
germination of B. cereus spores above that critical level. In mung
bean rice cakes, enterotoxin production was detected by the second
day, when B cereus cell populations reached about 6.9 log CFU/g.
The toxin concentration increased with storage time. However, the
results suggest that rapid growth of total mesophilic microorganisms
by more than 7 to 8 log CFU/ml during the first day of storage
produced off flavors and spoilage before B. cereus was able to grow
enough to produce toxins. Therefore, steam-cooked rice cakes made
from a variety of flours including mung bean flour are safe for sale for
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Ben-Nun L. Cakes

up to 1 day after storage at room temperature and are free of B.

cereus toxins (5).
Okahisa & al. (6) evaluated the risk of food poisoning and growth
of spoilage bacteria in Awa-Uirou, a sticky rice cake containing sweet
red bean paste. Toxin-producing bacteria such as Staphylococcus
aureus and Bacillus cereus are the main causes of food poisoning
linked to this kind of food. The water activity in this product is in the
range suitable for growth of S. aureus, B. cereus, and B. subtilis. The
viable count of S. aureus or B. cereus spore cocktail was significantly
reduced to 2.3 log colony-forming units (CFU)/g after 70 minutes
steaming treatment at 100 degrees C. However, the heat-resistant
endospores of B. subtilis germinated during storage at 30 degrees C
to cause appreciable syneresis of the starch gel matrix in 4 days. The
addition of 0.5% glycine before steaming treatment was found to
effectively suppress the growth of B. cereus but was not effective in
controlling S. aureus throughout the 7 days incubation period at 30
degrees C. On the other hand, S. aureus and B. cereus could grow >
5.0 log CFU/g in an inoculated sample without glycine within 3 days
when stored at 30 degrees C. Addition of 0.5% glycine before the
steaming process did not have any significant effect on color, texture,
or taste of sticky rice cake. Therefore, results of this study
demonstrated that the addition of 0.5% glycine before the steaming
process could inhibit B. cereus and B. subtilis multiplication in the
steamed rice confection which in turn may help reduce the risk of
food poisoning or quality loss (6).
Baek & al. (7) mentioned that the antifungal activity of organic
acids greatly improves the shelf life of bread and bakery products.
However, little is known about the effect of lactic acid fermentation
on fungal contamination in rice cakes. Lactic acid fermentation in
rice dough can greatly retard the growth of three fungal species
when present in rice cakes, namely Cladosporium sp. YS1,
Neurospora sp. YS3, and Penicillium crustosum YS2. The antifungal
activity of the lactic acid bacteria against these fungi was much better
than that of 0.3% calcium propionate. Organic acids including lactic
and acetic acid, which are byproducts of lactic fermentation or can be
artificially added, were the main antifungal substances. Some
Leuconostoc citreum and Weissella confusa strains could be good
starter species for rice dough fermentation. These results imply that
 012

Ben-Nun L. Cakes

these lactic acid bacteria can be applicable to improve the

preservation of rice cakes (7).

TO SUM UP: this chapter (1-7) shows that green tea is effective
against B. cereus, S. aureus, and L. monocytogenes, and rosemary is
inhibits B. cereus and S. aureus.
Cinnamon powder shows more inhibitory properties against
pathogens such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium,
Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, S. aureus, and B.
cereus than do mugwort or garlic powder.
CPCs dried by HSD and FIR shows strong antibacterial activity
against pathogenic bacteria and are more useful drying methods than
that of the classic FD method in CPCs utilization.
Detoxifying process can be used for peanut cakes polluted by up
to 3,500 ppb Aflatoxine (2,300 ppb B1).
Steam-cooked rice cakes made from a variety of flours including
mung bean flour are safe for sale for up to 1 day after storage at
room temperature and are free of B. cereus toxins.
Addition of 0.5% glycine before the steaming process could inhibit
B. cereus and B. subtilis multiplication in the steamed rice confection
which in turn may help reduce the risk of food poisoning or quality
loss.
Lactic acid fermentation in rice dough can retard the growth of
three fungal species present in rice cakes, namely Cladosporium sp.
YS1, Neurospora sp. YS3, and Penicillium crustosum YS2.

References
1. Lee SY, Gwon SY, Kim SJ, Moon BK. Inhibitory effect of commercial
green tea and rosemary leaf powders on the growth of foodborne
pathogens in laboratory media and oriental-style rice cakes. J Food Prot.
2009;72(5):1107-11.
2. Hong YJ, Bae YM, Moon B, Lee SY. Inhibitory effect of cinnamon
powder on pathogen growth in laboratory media and oriental-style rice
cakes (sulgidduk). J Food Prot. 2013;76(1):133-8.
3. Samarakoon K, Senevirathne M, Lee WW, et al. Antibacterial effect
of citrus press-cakes dried by high speed and far-infrared radiation drying
methods. Nutr Res Pract. 2012;6(3):187-94.
4. Giddey C, Bunter G, Larroux R, et al. Detoxification of aflatoxin-
polluted peanut cakes with monomethylamine/Ca(OH)2: pilot industrial
application, nutrition experiments, toxicity evaluation. J Environ Pathol
Toxicol Oncol. 1992;11(1):60-3.
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5. Lee SY, Chung HJ, Shin JH, et al. Survival and growth of foodborne
pathogens during cooking and storage of oriental-style rice cakes. J Food
Prot. 2006;69(12):3037-42.
6. Okahisa N, Inatsu Y, Juneja VK, Kawamoto S. Evaluation and control
of the risk of foodborne pathogens and spoilage bacteria present in Awa-
Uirou, a sticky rice cake containing sweet red bean paste. Foodborne
Pathog Dis. 2008;5(3):351-9.
7. Baek E, Kim H, Choi H, Yoon S, Kim J. Antifungal activity of
Leuconostoc citreum and Weissella confusa in rice cakes. J Microbiol.
2012;50(5):842-8.

SUMMARY

Cake is a form of sweet dessert that is typically baked. In its oldest

forms, cakes were modifications of breads, but cakes now cover a
wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate, and that
share features with other desserts such as pastries, meringues,
custards, and pies.
Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial
occasions, such as weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. There are
countless cake recipes; some are bread-like, some are rich and
elaborate, and many are centuries old.
The Biblical description studied in this research shows that cakes
were already used in Biblical times to receive guests. Over the years,
thanks to scientific evaluation of this delicious food, the production
of cakes reached professional level. Many types of cakes are
produced all over the world, each with their own special taste and
appearance. Cakes can reflect the norms and culture of each society.
Their external appearance with special decorations attracts special
attention.
The consistency of cakes is being continuously improved, and it is
now possible to find cakes with low fat content, and the use of
alternatives to sugar for sweetening.
In spite of occasional contamination and very rare adverse
reactions, cakes similarly to the described in the Bible play a part in
human nutrition.

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