ENGLISH EUPHEMISM AS USED BY NATIVE SPEAKERS

OF ENGLISH AND OF THAI

A MASTER’S PROJECT

BY

ROMMAYASIN KAOSA-AD

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Master of Arts Degree in English

at Srinakharinwirot University

September 2009
ENGLISH EUPHEMISM AS USED BY NATIVE SPEAKERS

OF ENGLISH AND OF THAI

A MASTER’S PROJECT

BY

ROMMAYASIN KAOSA-AD

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Master of Arts Degree in English

at Srinakharinwirot University

September 2009

Copyright 2009 by Srinakharinwirot University

ENGLISH EUPHEMISM AS USED BY NATIVE SPEAKERS

OF ENGLISH AND OF THAI

AN ABSTRACT

BY

ROMMAYASIN KAOSA-AD

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Master of Arts Degree in English

at Srinakharinwirot University

September 2009
 การใช้คาํ เสาวพจน์ภาษาอังกฤษโดยเจ้าของภาษาอังกฤษและชาวไทย

บทคัดย่อ
ของ
รมยศิลป์ ขาวสะอาด

เสนอต่อบัณฑิตวิทยาลัย มหาวิทยาลัยศรี นคริ นทรวิโรฒ เพื อเป็ น่ วสนหนึ งของการศึกษา

ตามหลักสู ตรศิลปศาสตรมหาบัณฑิต สาขาวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
กันยายน 2552
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would really like to express my deepest appreciation and gratitude to my

master’s project advisor, Assistant Professor Dr. Nitaya Suksaeresup, for her goodwill

and encouragement throughout my M.A. study.

My heartfelt appreciation and overwhelming gratitude is owed to my special

reader, Associate Professor Dr. Tipa Thep-Ackrapong, for taking good care of me and my

master’s project as well as being my idol in the academic world. Also, she has given a

number of valuable suggestions and shown great patience in supporting me.

In addition, I would like to thank my readers, Assistant Professor Tuanta

Laosooksri and Mr. Martin Grose from the Faculty of Humanities, for their meaningful

and useful advice.

Importantly, I sincerely express my profound appreciation to Mr. Somboon

Pojprasat from the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, my most beloved senior

classmate, and life-advisor, for all of his devotion in assisting me to reach my life goal.

Last but not least, I am indebted to my dear parents, Mr. Cha-On and Mrs. Pensee

Kaosa-Ad, who have never been exhausted in their efforts to bring me up to be an

efficient Thai citizen.

Rommayasin Kaosa-Ad
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………… 1

Background of the Study……………………………………………………. 1

Research Objectives………………………………………………………… 2

Scope of the Study………………………………………………………….. 2

Significance of the Study…………………………………………………… 2

2 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE………………………………... 4

Definition of Euphemism…………………………………………………… 4

History and Importance of Euphemism……………………………………... 5

Types of Euphemism………………………………………………………... 7

Use of Euphemism………………………………………………………….. 13

Previous Studies…………………………………………………………….. 14

3 METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………… 18

Research Informants………………………………………………………… 18

Research Instrument………………………………………………………… 18

Procedures…………………………………………………………………... 18

Data Analysis……………………………………………………………….. 19

4 FINDINGS……………………………………………………………………… 20

5 CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION………………………………………….. 35

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………. 40

APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………….. 43

VITAE……………………………………………………………………………... 56
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Five Most Frequent Euphemisms for Buttocks Used by the Native-Speakers

of English and Thais………………..……………………………...……… 20

2 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Woman’s Outer Sexual Organ Used

by the Native-Speakers of English and Thais ……………...…………..… 21

3 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Man’s Outer Sexual Organ Used by

the Native-Speakers of English and Thais.........…..……………………… 22

4 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Bosom Used by the Native-Speakers

of English and of Thais...………………………………………………. 22

5 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Fat Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and Thais...………………………………………………………. 23

6 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Short Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and Thais...………………………………………………………. 24

7 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Ugly Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and Thais...………………………………………………………. 24

8 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Feces Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and Thais...………………………………………………………. 25

9 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Urine Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and Thais...………………………………………………………. 25

10 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Fart Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and Thais...………………………………………………………. 26

 LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table Page

11 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Menstruation Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and Thais..……………………….…………………. 27

12 Five Most Frequent Euphemisms for Die Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and of Thais..……………………………………………….……. 27

13 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Pregnant Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and Thais.…..………………………………………. 28

14 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Stupid Used by the Native-Speakers

of English and Thais……………….……...……………...……………. 29

15 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Having Sexual Intercourse Used by

the Native-Speakers of English and Thais.…………………………….. 29

16 Five Most Frequent Euphemisms for Poor Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and Thais...………….…………………...………………………. 30

17 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Mental Illness Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and Thais..…….……………………………………. 30

18 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Handicapped Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and Thais..…………..……………………………… 31

19 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Cancer Used by the Native-Speakers

of English and Thais...…………………......…………………………….. 32

20 The Percentage of Types of Euphemism Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and Thais……………………………………………………… 32

 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Words are used in certain situations depending on such factors as formality,

speaker-listener relationship, and social norms. Take the three sentences below as an

example.

Grandmother died years ago.

Grandmother earned her rest years ago.
Grandmother passed away years ago.

The word die is often used among friends or acquaintances in an informal setting,

while the expression earn one’s rest, which has the same meaning as die, seems to sound

more polite and acceptable. In a situation where high formality is required, pass away is

the best substitute. This awareness is vital in every society, but most people ignore it. As

a consequence, euphemism, the use of more acceptable words or expressions in place of

unpleasant counterparts, should be systematically studied.

To Thai people, English euphemism seems to be more distant as it is not taught in

schools. A lack of this knowledge leads to an ignorance of appropriate language use.

Most Thai students cannot make a good word choice in their speaking or writing.

As a result of its importance, euphemism should really be one of the main focuses

taught in institutions.
 2

In order to make the use of euphemism better known among Thai educators and

students, this study aims to present the use of English euphemism by native and Thai

speakers of English.

Research Objectives

This study has three main objectives.

1. To survey the use of English euphemism by both native-speakers of English

and Thais.

2. To figure out frequencies and types of euphemistic words.

3. To analyze and compare the use of euphemism by native speakers of English

and of Thai.

Scope of the Study

The study focused on the use of English euphemism by native and non-native

speakers. Nineteen words were examined ranging from sex, death, and disease to

excretion, body-parts, and social status. Ten English native speakers and ten Thai

speakers were asked to answer the provided questionnaire.

Significance of the Study

The study is expected to offer the following benefits.

1. A better body of knowledge of English euphemism used by native and non-

native speakers of English.

2. A guideline to further studies related to euphemism.

 3

In brief, there are three main objectives: to survey the use of English euphemism

by both native and non-native speakers of English, to figure out frequencies and types of

euphemistic words, and to analyze and compare the use of euphemism by native and non-

native speakers.
 4

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, there are five main sections discussing the following topics:

definition of euphemism, history and importance of euphemism, types of euphemism, use

of euphemism, and previous studies.

Definition of Euphemism

The term euphemism is derived from two Greek words, eu meaning well or

sounding good, and pheme signifying speech. Many linguists have made an attempt to

define this term for clarity.

Euphemism refers to a kind of linguistic elevation or amelioration specifically

directed toward finding socially acceptable words for concepts that many people cannot

easily speak of (Williams, 1975), while this term, according to Neaman and Silver (1983),

is a way to substitute an inoffensive or pleasant word for a more explicit, offensive one,

thereby veneering the truth by using polite words. Alternatively, Rawson (1983) describes

it as mild, agreeable or roundabout words used in place of coarse, painful, or offensive

one. Allan and Burridge (1996) suggest that “a euphemism is used as an alternative to a

dispreferred expression in order to avoid possible loss of face, either one’s own or, by

giving offense, that of the audience, or of some third party.”

 5

Until 1989, this word became an entry in Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary

of Current English meaning an “example of the use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or

phrases in place of more accurate or direct one” (p. 394).

To illustrate the definitions proposed above, here are certain examples. Those who

have lived long lives are usually called senior citizens, Golden Agers, or simply the

mature. Politicians speak of community charges, levies, or even voluntary contributions,

rather than of taxes or tolls; and the push for nonsexist usage has rendered words like

stewardess and actress taboo, replacing them with flight attendant and actor under the

influence of the feminist movement during 1980’s. Mr. Brown gets up from the table,

explaining that he has to go to the little boy’s room or see a man about a dog. The two

italicized phrases both denote going to the toilet.

In short, euphemism can be seen as the use of more acceptable words or

expressions in place of unpleasant counterparts.

History and Importance of Euphemism

Euphemism is believed to date back to Ancient Greek (Neaman & Silver, 1990, p.

1), where the principal purpose for its existence related to religion. Gods or other divines

were words reserved only for the priest to utter in fear of blasphemy and supernatural

danger. Therefore, the laymen resorted to using such words as the Thunderer, the Rock,

and the Lord. These words were derived from the god’s characteristics, such as the

Thunderer—thunder being the mighty weapon which Zeus used to assume celestial

sovereignty.
 6

In the Anglo-Saxon era, the golden age in the expression of language and the

source of four-letter words which were innuendos and direct references to sex (Williams,

1975), euphemism was in wide use, as evident in Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury

Tales. The tales contain a range of euphemisms in place of taboo words, such as eyelash

for a woman’s intimate part (sexual organ). Later in the sixteenth century, euphemisms

proliferated, especially those associated with royalty, religion, and sexual affairs. Classic

examples are to put one to misery, and put one to sleep, meaning death.

In the nineteenth century, euphemism had played a vital role for the middle- and

lower-classes. The rhyming slang among Cockneys drew on common experience and

canny observation. Hundreds of words were coined to replace negative concepts of labor,

money, sex, death, and sin. For example, the word servant and garbage collector were

euphemized to domestic engineer and sanitation engineer.

During the twentieth century, political and cultural influences had an enormous

impact on language, especially American English. This led to a linguistic revolution

lasting until the present time. One day it may amuse a linguistic historian to note the

richest subjects for American euphemism were money, disease, politics, and war.

It appears that euphemism has long been in use as a social device for various

purposes. Its principal objective is to avoid offensive words, however. Euphemisms also

manifest the society and time in which they are used.

 7

Types of Euphemism

Euphemisms can be categorized into a variety of groups on the basis of semantic

procedure, or how euphemistic words are linguistically created. Euphemism is classified

into five types (Williams 1975; Shipley 1977; Rawson 1983; Neaman & Silver 1983;

Allan & Burridge 1991) as follows:

Shortening

When encountering words we dare not mention, we replace them with a shortened

word. There are a number of different processes:

a. Abbreviation

Rawson (1983) states that words which may create dismay if used in

public are acceptable when shortened to their initial letters e.g. B.S. (bullshit)

and T.S. (transsexual). A shortened word such as Ladies (Ladies’ room) is

also included in this type.

b. Apocopation

This process can be defined as the way to shorten or omit the last

syllable of a word e.g. Vamp for Vampire (Shipley, 1977).

c. Backformation

According to Neaman and Silver (1983), to backform words refers to

the substitution of one part of speech with a shortened form for another. The

word burgle, which is derived from burglar, is a euphemism for rob.

 8

d. Diminutive

This procedure is the formation of a new term by shortening a name

and adding a suffix to indicate affection or smallness. For example, the word

buttocks is euphemized by heinie which is the diminutive of hind end

(Williams, 1975).

e. Omission

This involves leaving out the letters of taboo words after the initial,

such as f--- for having sex, or s--- instead of shit (Allan & Burridge, 1991).

f. Clipping

According to Shipley (1977), clipping is the deletion of some part of a

longer word to give a shorter word with the same meaning e.g. nation

(damnation), bra (brassiere), jeeze (Jesus Christ).

Circumlocution

Allan and Burridge (1991) call using longer expressions circumlocution.

Euphemisms which have more letters and syllables are deployed in place of a single one.

For instance, Middle Eastern dancing sounds better than belly dance. A little girl’s room

means a toilet. Postconsumer secondary material is used instead of garbage.

Excrementitiously human kidney means urine; or solid human waste is a euphemism of

feces.
 9

Remodelling

The sound of words can be altered to conceal something that is offensive. This can

involve a variety of processes of largely verbal play (Allan & Burridge, 1991, p. 3).

a. Phonological Distortion

Euphemism can be created when the speakers intentionally distort the

pronunciation of words. For instance, expressions for Christ are pronounced

cripes, crust, crumbs, and crockery. Also, hell is euphemized by heck or shit

by shite or shoot.

b. Blending

Blending is formed by squeezing together two or more words both

orthographically and phonetically, as in gezunda (a chamber pot), which is

derived from the fact that this object goes under the bed (Williams, 1975).

Alan and Burridge (1991) propose that most blendings involve portmanteau

words, such as strewth (God’s truth), zounds (God’s wounds), and drat

(God’s rot).

c. Reduplication

Reduplication, a repetition of a syllable or letter of a word, is

particularly present in children’s bathroom vocabulary such as jeepers

creeper (Jesus Christ), pee-pee (piss), twiddle-diddles (testicles), tuzzy muzzy

(vagina), and rantum-scantum (copulate).

 10

Semantic Change

A number of semantic processes can be tools to create new euphemisms:

a. Semantic shift

Semantic shift, with reference to Rawson (1983), is the substitution of

the whole, or a similar generality, for the specific part we do not choose to

discuss. For example, rear end becomes bottom, or to sleep with somebody is

transformed into to go to bed with somebody.

Additionally, Allan and Burridge (1991) propose the same strategy in

euphemizing expressions into two categories: general-for-specific and part-

for-whole euphemisms. The general-for-specific strategy is a one-to-one

substitution, such as the use of go to bed instead of having sex. The part-for-

whole euphemism is the reference to specific ideas such as when we need to

go to the lavatory, we spend a penny. This derives from the payment for a

public toilet of a penny.

b. Metaphorical transfer

This procedure is a comparison of things of one order to things of

another such as a comparison of one flower to another variety. Therefore, the

word pimple is euphemized as blossom (Williams, 1975).

Allan and Burridge (1991) exemplify metaphorical euphemism with

Barber’s Cockney’s Lament (1979) where The cavalry’s come means I’ve got
 11

my period, and go to the happy hunting grounds is a euphemism for die. The

hyperbole such as flight to glory can signify death.

c. Widening

When becoming too painful or vivid, a specific term is moved up in

the ladder of abstraction. According to Williams (1975), widening minimizes

the impact of semantic features of a word by moving up one level of

generality to name a superordinate set, usually omitting the specific features

that would unequivocally identify the referent e.g. growth (cancer),

foundation (girdle), solid human waste (feces).

d. Liotes

This type of euphemism is created by replacing a word with the

negative expression of its opposite. Thus, we may say untidy or unclean

instead of dirty, not bad for fair, untruthful for lying, unwise for foolish

(Brook, 1981).

e. Understatement

Understatement reduces the risk in showing an apparent meaning. For

example, a nuclear reactor that is said to be above critical is actually out of

control, and an active defense means an attack (Rawson, 1983). To exemplify

further, Allan and Burridge (1991) provide the words sleep for die, and not

bright for fool.

 12

f. Indirection

Too touchy topics and terms may be alluded to in various ways by

mentioning one aspect of the subject, a circumstance involving it, a related

subject, or even by saying what it is not. An assembly center is an indirect

euphemism for prison. Soldiers stop fighting when they break off contact with

the enemy which means they retreat (Rawson, 1983 p. 12).

g. Abstraction

Some words (it, problem, situation, and thing) help cast ideas in the

widest possible terms and make ideal cover-up words. For instance, an

economic thing might refer to the state of slump, recession, or depression

(Rawson, 1983).

Borrowing

Using words borrowed from foreign languages to function as euphemisms is a

common characteristic of many languages.

a. External Borrowing

According to Rawson (1983), most taboo words are usually rendered

in French or Latin. For example, affaire, amour, and liaison are euphemisms

for love; personnel, sortie, and triage for war, and brassiere, chemise; and

lingerie for women’s underwear. In this case, Williams (1975) also suggests

the idea of borrowing words from other languages which are less freighted
 13

with negative associations, e.g. halitosis from the Latin halitus meaning

breath for bad breath and dead for /tai/ in Thai.

b. Internal Borrowing

Euphemisms can also be from different sublanguages such as jargons

or technical terms. For instance, a disease such as syphilis can be made less

offensive by using technical jargon as trepenemal disease, luetic disease, or

spirachoetal disease (Allan & Burridge, 1991).

In summary, euphemism can be created through several linguistic methods. The

most effective one is based on semantic procedures which affect the meaning of taboo

words. Their meaning may be less direct, understated, or distorted.

Use of Euphemism

Nowadays, euphemism is widely used as a social tool to avoid offending other

people and to be polite. Stern (1968) explains that euphemism is used for three reasons.

These are to avoid taboo words, to create social politeness, and not to offend other people.

In addition, some people believe that euphemism can protect them from misfortune. Even

more, the use of taboo words is banned in most societies and those who use them will be

reprimanded. Euphemism is used in every level of society. Among proletarians,

euphemism is employed when they have to speak to their employers. This is to show their

respect, humility, and politeness. Also, the bourgeoisie opt for euphemism to make their

language less domineering. This also creates a good relationship between the working

class people and themselves. High-class people usually reveal and maintain their social
 14

status with the use of euphemism as it is regarded as a social norm that they use well-

chosen language.

In addition, the use of euphemism depends heavily on context. For instance,

politicians employ euphemism in order to make eloquent language when they are in

public or the assembly. In diplomacy, euphemism helps maintain a good relationship

between nations. Or even in everyday life, people use euphemism as an integral part of

their language. Bureaucracies, such as the military and large corporations, frequently coin

euphemisms of a more deliberate nature. For instance, militaries at war frequently kill

people both deliberately and mistakenly; in doublespeak, the first may be called

neutralizing the target and the latter collateral damage. Organizations spawn expressions

to describe objectionable actions in terms that seem neutral or inoffensive, so industrial

unpleasantness, such as pollution, may be toned down to outgassing or runoff —

descriptions of physical processes rather than their damaging consequences (McGlone &

Pfiester, 2006, p. 261). Some of this may simply be the application of precise technical

terminology in the place of popular usage, but beyond precision, the advantage of

technical terminology may be its lack of emotional undertones, while the disadvantage is

the lack of real life context.

Previous Studies

There are some previous studies which are relevant to this study. They focus on

the use of euphemisms both in Thai and in English.

Charncharoen (1989) focused on three main aspects of Thai euphemism:

describing the characteristics of euphemistic words in Thai, analyzing their denotative

 15

and connotative meanings, and studying the Thai values and world view reflected in these

words. The results showed that there were four ways of forming euphemistic words in

Thai: distortion of a taboo word by abbreviation or phonetic corruption, using a foreign

word, understatement, and use of metaphor. In the analysis of the meaning of euphemistic

words, the study showed that the denotative meanings usually referred to abstract and

concrete objects such as animals, nature, happiness and love. The connotative meanings

covered politeness, love, happiness, etc. All these meanings reflect significant Thai social

values, such as prosperity, happiness, love, power and also reveal two aspects of the Thai

world view: the world of discrepancy between men and women and the world of merit

and demerit.

Thiyajai (1992) also analyzed the patterns and connotative meaning of Thai

euphemism in substituted words or expressions which were contextually taboo, together

with analyzing some social values reflected in these euphemistic terms. The findings

revealed that these euphemistic terms employed circumlocution resulting in an increase in

the number of syllables. Furthermore, there were six structural devices employed in

coining the euphemistic terms: the use of words with neutral or good connotative

meaning, the use of words implying politeness, the use of words with less specific

meaning than the original taboo words, the use of words with negative meaning paired

with another one opposite in meaning to the original taboo word, the use of words

connoting significance and recognition, and the use of words with a non-accusing tone.

Regarding the connotative meaning, the findings also showed that such euphemistic terms

were distinctively composed of seven semantic features, which were politeness, positive

connotation, personal significance, recognition, work or business features, human

characteristics or actions and specificity. Three categories of social values as reflected in

 16

these euphemistic terms included the values of politeness, the values of personal

significance and the values of recognition. Such social values were found to be in

accordance with the main Thai social values which are distinctively reflected through the

respect of seniority, recognition of individuality and equality.

In terms of textual analysis, Thurntor (2001: p. 90-94) studied patterns of

communication presented in IRC (Internet Relay Chat) networks. The study indicated that

Internet users avoided using impolite words by means of clipping and blending.

Furthermore, users employed a way which was distinguished from other media—writing

in spelling forms.

With reference to the study of language used on the Internet, Jangjorn (2004) took

a close look at Internet users’ techniques in avoiding impolite words in discussion

messages on the web boards by analyzing the data into percentages. The findings showed

that the most common ways to avoid the use of impolite words found were pausing,

changing letters, clipping, spelling in English, loanwords, and metaphor. The least found

technique was abbreviation. The researcher also found additional techniques, such as

writing in spelling forms, using slang, reversing words, using signs or icons instead of

letters, and using more than one technique.

Ham (2005) diachronically studied the formation of English euphemism by

extracting examples from three British novels: Jane Austen’ Emma, D. H. Lawrence’s

Lady Chatterly’s Lover, and Fiona Walker’s Well Groomed. In studying euphemism

formation, Warren (1992)’s Model of Classification of the Main Devices for Constructing

Euphemisms is examined and the rules and categories suggested by this model are tested

against euphemisms from the novels. It transpired that improvements were required of the

model in order for it to account for all examples. A modified version of this model is
 17

proposed to encompass all of these euphemisms, as well as other examples from notable

sources.

Fernàndez (2006) explored the euphemistic language on obituary pages from the

mid-nineteenth century. The study traced an account of the different conceptual

metaphors aiming at substituting the notions of death and dying in Irish early Victorian

newspapers within Lakoff (1980)’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory. The results obtained

supported the idea that there was a tendency to present sentimental obituaries in which the

taboo of death can be accounted for by various conceptual metaphors, most of which

view death as a desirable event under the influence of Christian beliefs.

The study by Hai-Long (2008) paid particular attention to two topics: the

relationship between cross-cultural communication and euphemisms, and the necessity of

learning and teaching euphemisms. The researcher studied the intercultural

communication of English and Chinese by investigating how meanings changed, how

they were coined, and how English euphemisms were assimilated into Chinese culture.

Additionally, the application for teaching English euphemism was proposed as there are

not enough instances of euphemisms in textbooks published in China. Teachers of

English should provide additional materials to students. For example, teachers may have

students watch a film full of euphemisms. This would be of great help.

In brief, a large number of past studies have been dedicated to the use, forms, and

structures of euphemisms. They have revealed insufficient knowledge of euphemism

among non-native speakers. This calls for further study on this topic.
 18

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents four main sections of research methodology: research

informants, the research instrument, research procedure and data analysis.

Research Informants

The informants for this study were ten English native-speakers and ten non-native

speakers who were instructors at state universities in Thailand.

Research Instrument

The researcher developed a questionnaire to survey the use of English euphemism

by the informants. The questionnaire consisted of 19 words covering various topics.

These entries were selected on the basis of their frequent use in everyday life (see

Appendix 2).

Procedures

The study went through the following procedures.

1. The informants were asked to complete the open-ended questionnaire. Each

informant was asked to write as many euphemisms as possible.

2. The informants’ answers were collected and the data gained was prepared for

the analysis.
 19

3. The frequency of use of euphemistic words provided by the informants was

calculated as a percentage. The data was then tabulated.

4. The researcher analyzed the data to find out plausible explanations as to why

and how often the euphemistic words were used as well as their types.

5. The conclusions as well as suggestions for further study were finally

presented.

Data Analysis

After the information collection, an analysis was made. Each of the euphemistic

words given by the informants was first tallied to find out its frequency. At the same time,

the answers were ordered on the basis of frequent use. These two pieces of information

were applied to analyze and compare the distinctions between the use of euphemism by

the native-speakers of English and the Thais. In methodology, the semantic approach was

applied to answer why the informants used such words. Finally, the findings of the study

were tabulated.
 20

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

This chapter presents the findings corresponding to the following research

objectives:

1. To survey the use of English euphemism by both native speakers of English

and of Thai.

2. To figure out the frequencies and types of euphemistic words.

3. To analyze and compare the use of euphemism by native-speakers of English

and the Thais.

For each research objective, the findings are presented in the following tables.

Each table presents five euphemisms most used by the native-speakers of English and the

Thais. In some cases, the most frequently used euphemisms were insufficient. Therefore,

the ranking could be only ranged from two to five.

Table 1 Five Most Frequent Euphemisms for Buttocks Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and the Thais

Euphemism for Buttocks

Rank of Occurrence
Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 rear end bottom

2 bottom backside

3 butt butt

4 behind ass

5 bum behind
 21

As shown in Table 1, the five frequently used euphemisms for buttocks by the

English native speakers were rear end, bottom, butt, behind, and bum respectively, while

those used by the Thais were bottom, backside, butt, ass, and behind. Interestingly, the

English native speakers used the word rear end the most, but it was not present in the

Thais’ answers. The word ass by contrast was not at all used among the English natives.

Possibly it was considered an offensive word. Probably, the Thai informants did not

realize that it was an abusive term.

Table 2 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Woman’s Outer Sexual Organ Used

by the Native-Speakers of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Woman’s Outer Sexual Organ

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 private parts that part

2 love organ garden
3 - reproductive organ

In Table 2, the English native speakers used private parts, and love organ

whereas the Thais used that part, garden, and reproductive organ to euphemize woman’s

outer sexual organ. Obviously, the phrase private parts or that part was the substitute that

held the highest rank among both groups. In addition, these two groups employed the

same word organ.

 22

Table 3 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Man’s Outer Sexual Organ Used by

the Native-Speakers of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Man’s Outer Sexual Organ

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 penis penis
2 weenie balls
3 John John

Table 3 illustrates that both English native speakers and Thais used the word penis to

substitute for man’s outer sexual organ the most. The second word used by the English

was weenie and that by Thais was balls while the third word John was shared by both

groups. In fact, the answers were so various that no words could be ranked in the fourth

place, for instance, his gun, pole, wood, weapon, stopper, etc.

Table 4 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms of Bosom Used by the Native Speakers

of English and of Thai

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Bosom

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 breast breast
2 boobs chest
3 chest boobs
4 - tits
 23

In Table 4, the three most frequent euphemisms for bosom chosen by the English

native speakers were breast, boobs, and chest respectively. The Thais used breast, chest,

boobs, and tits in place of bosom. The first three euphemisms of the Thais and English

native speakers were the same but slightly different in ranks.

Table 5 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Fat Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Fat

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 overweight chubby

2 obese plump

3 chubby obese

4 plump heavy

Table 5 shows almost the same frequently used euphemisms for fat between the

native speakers of English and of Thai. However, there are certain differences. The most

frequently used word by the English native speakers was overweight, but it did not appear

in their Thai counterparts’ lists. Likewise, the word oversized offered by Thais was not

found in the English native speakers’ selections.

 24

Table 6 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Short Used by the Native-Speakers

of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Short

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 not tall not tall

2 petite petite
3 vertically challenged small
4 - vertically challenged

As illustrated in Table 6, the English and Thai speakers used almost the same

euphemisms for short, and they were similarly ranked: not tall and petite. Yet the words

small and tiny were not at all used by the English informants.

Table 7 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Ugly Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Ugly

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 homely unattractive
2 plain not good-looking
3 unattractive homely
4 fearsome not attractive

Table 7 shows that the English native-speakers chose homely, plain, unattractive,

and fearsome to replace ugly whereas the Thais used unattractive, not good-looking, and

homely. It is interesting that the word homely and unattractive were found, though at

different ranks, in both groups. A huge difference is that certain words were only present
 25

in one group, for example, plain and fearsome in the English native speakers’ group and

not good-looking, not attractive, and beauty challenged in the Thais’ lists.

Table 8 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Feces Used by the Native-Speakers

of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Feces

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 excrement excrement
2 waste waste
3 stool stool
4 - poo

Table 8 reveals a similarity of the selections in both the words themselves and of

their ranks. There is one difference, however. The word poo was chosen by Thais but not

by the English native speakers.

Table 9 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Urine Used by the Native Speakers

of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Urine

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 pee pee
2 #1 piss
3 whiz liquid waste
4 - #1
 26

In Table 9, the word pee came first in the list offered by both groups of informants

as a euphemism for urine. Also, the alternative symbol #1 was included in both groups’

answers. The third rank is different: whiz by the native speakers of English and liquid

waste by the Thais.

Table 10 Four Most Frequent Euphemisms for Fart Used by the Native Speakers of

English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Fart

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 pass gas pass gas

2 break wind release the gas
3 - break wind
4 - cut the cheese

Table 10 reveals that the English native speakers’ answers were so various that

they could not be ranked, e.g. flamer, make wind, cut wind, etc. This phenomenon was a

contrast to the Thai counterparts whose answers held both a high level of variety and a

low level of frequency. In short, the euphemisms pass gas and break wind were both

present in the two groups’ answers but release the gas and cut the cheese were found only

in the Thai answers.

 27

Table 11 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Menstruation Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Menstruation

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 period period
2 that time of the month menses
3 her time -

In Table 11, due to limited answers, the euphemisms given could be ranked only

at three levels. Both native-speakers of English and the Thais mainly euphemized

menstruation into period. Also, three other euphemisms found were: that time of the

month, her time, and menses.

Table 12 Five Most Frequent Euphemisms for Die Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Die

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 pass away pass away

2 pass on go to heaven
3 kick the bucket rest in peace
4 go to heaven kick the bucket
5 - decease
 28

As illustrated in Table 12, the English and Thai speakers used almost the same

euphemisms for die, but they were in dissimilar ranks: pass away, kick the bucket, and go

to heaven. The euphemisms rest in peace and decease were not offered by the English

native speakers.

Table 13 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Pregnant Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Pregnant

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 in the family way going to have a baby

2 have a bun in the oven have a bun in the oven
3 eating for two in the family way

As shown in Table 13, the euphemisms for pregnant used by English native

speakers were in the family way, have a bun in the oven, and eating for two respectively

while those used by Thais were have a baby, have a bun in the oven, and in the family

way. Interestingly, the English native speakers used in the family way the most, but it was

present in the third rank of the Thais’ answers. Going to have a baby in turn was not at all

offered by the English natives whereas such word was often used by Thais who did not

use eating for two.

 29

Table 14 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Stupid Used by the Native-Speakers

of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Stupid

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 dumb foolish
2 unintelligent dumb
3 foolish unintelligent

Table 14 obviously shows the similarity of the selections of both the words and

their ranks. The English native speakers often thought of the word dumb when

euphemizing the word stupid, while the Thai counterparts mainly used the word foolish.

Table 15 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Having Sexual Intercourse Used by

the Native-Speakers of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Having Sexual Intercourse

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 make love sleep with

2 have sex make love
3 sleep together have sex

In Table 15, the English native speakers mostly used make love in place of having

sexual intercourse while the Thais selected sleep with, which was present in the third rank

of the English native speakers’ answers. The rest of the answers were so various that they

could not be grouped. They were get it on, do it, go all the way etc.
 30

Table 16 Five Most Frequent Euphemisms for Poor Used by the Native-Speakers of

English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism of Poor

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 broke broke

2 penniless impoverished

3 needy -

4 on the street -

5 destitute -

In Table 16, the English native-speakers used broke, penniless, needy, on the

street, and destitute whereas the Thais used broke and impoverished to euphemize poor.

Obviously, the word broke was the substitute holding the highest rank in the two groups.

In addition, the answers of the native speakers of Thai were so various and frequent that

no words were ranked third.

Table 17 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Mental Illness Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Mental Illness

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 crazy insanity

2 psychotic lunatic

3 mentally challenged psychotic

 31

As shown in Table 17, the euphemisms for mental illness employed by the

English native speakers were crazy, psychotic, and mentally challenged while those used

by the Thais were insanity, lunatic, and psychotic. The English native speakers used the

word crazy the most, but it was not present in the Thais’ answers. The word insanity, on

the contrary, was not used among the English native speakers. However, such a word was

often used by the Thais. The rest of the answers of the native speakers of Thai were so

various that they could not be ranked.

Table 18 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Handicapped Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Handicapped

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 physically challenged disabled

2 disabled physically challenged
3 limited -

Table 18 reveals that the three euphemisms for handicapped most chosen by the

English native speakers and by the Thais were physically challenged, disabled, and

limited respectively. The first two euphemisms of the Thais and the English native-

speakers were the same but slightly different in ranks.

 32

Table 19 Three Most Frequent Euphemisms for Cancer Used by the Native-

Speakers of English and the Thais

Rank of Occurrence Euphemism for Cancer

Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

1 the Big C tumor

2 malignancy the Big C
3 - CA

Table 20 illustrates that the native speakers of English employed the Big C and

malignancy to euphemize the word cancer whereas the Thais chose tumor, the Big C, and

CA. The rest of the answers were so various that they could not be ranked. They were

lesion, serious disease, big disease etc.

Table 20 The Percentage of Types of Euphemism Used by the Native Speakers of

English and of Thai

Types of Percentage of Occurrence

Euphemism Native Speakers of English Native Speakers of Thai

Shortening 1.12% 0.90%

Circumlocution 8.66% 7.16%

Remodelling 2.51% 2.69%

Semantic Change 85.47% 88.96%

Borrowing 2.23% 0.30%

Total 100.00% 100.00%

 33

The findings showed the similarities and differences of the occurrence of the five

types of euphemisms used by both the native speakers of English and of Thai. The

findings clearly revealed that both groups of informants employed all five types of

euphemisms: shortening, circumlocution, remodelling, semantic change, and borrowing.

The English native-speakers’ answers tended to use semantic change (85.47%) the most,

followed by circumlocution (8.66%), remodelling (2.51%), borrowing (2.23%), and

shortening (1.12%) respectively. The Thais preferred semantic change (88.96%) the most,

followed by circumlocution (7.16%), remodelling (2.69%), shortening (0.90%), and

borrowing (0.30%). The highest percentage of frequency among the English native

speakers and the Thai was the semantic change, 85.47% and 88.96% respectively. The

second highest rank of percentage was circumlocution, 8.66% offered by the English

native speakers and 7.16% by the Thais. The third highest rank of percentage was

remodelling, 2.51% by the English native speakers and 2.69% by the Thais. The fourth

highest rank of percentage in the English native speakers was borrowing (2.23%) while

that of the Thais was shortening (0.90%). The fifth highest rank of percentage of type of

euphemism offered by the native speakers of English was shortening (1.12%), but for the

Thais, it was borrowing (0.30%).

Summary

In conclusion, this chapter has displayed and discussed the findings of the use of

English euphemisms by the native-speakers of English and by the Thais. These findings

revealed a variety of English euphemisms and their types employed by both groups. In

terms of types of euphemisms, semantic change played a vital role in euphemizing

offensive words or phrases among the two groups of informants. Another frequent type

was circumlocution. Other findings included shortening, remodelling, and borrowing. The
 34

results of the findings from both groups were almost the same. Both the native speakers

of English and the Thais preferred to use euphemisms based on semantic change,

circumlocution, and remodelling respectively. However, the English native speakers used

more loanwords or borrowing than the Thais. Shortening was presented by more Thais

than the English native speakers.

 35

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the conclusion of the analysis, discussion, limitations of the

study and suggestions for further studies.

This study examined and compared the use of English euphemisms by native-

speakers of English and the Thais. The researcher developed a questionnaire comprising

20 open-ended questions asking the formants to euphemize 20 taboo words. Then all the

euphemisms were tallied for frequency and analyzed for types.

Conclusion

Regarding the first objective, to survey the use of English euphemisms by both

native-speakers of English and the Thais, 20 copies of an open-ended questionnaire

asking about the use of euphemisms were distributed to the informants of this study, ten

English native-speakers and ten non-native speakers who were instructors at state

universities in Thailand. In all, 561 euphemisms received from the two groups were

analyzed based on their frequencies of occurrence.

With regard to the second objective, five types of euphemistic words—

shortening, remodelling, circumlocution, semantic change, and borrowing—were

categorized. The most frequently used type in both groups was semantic change which

accounted for 85.47% of the answers of the native-speakers of English and 88.96% of the

Thai’s answers.
 36

Finally, in regard to the third objective, the English euphemisms acquired from

the two groups were analyzed and compared. It appeared that the English native speakers

and the Thais had a similar collection of euphemisms. For example, euphemisms found

used by both groups were almost the same. These were euphemisms referring to buttocks,

man’s outer sexual organ, bosom, fat, feces, short, die, stupid, and handicapped.

Discussion

This section discusses three interesting findings, the ranking of occurrence of

English euphemisms, euphemisms themselves, and their types.

First, the ranking of occurrence was slightly different. A number of answers

provided by both groups held almost the same ranks. While certain words such as vagina,

penis, breasts, not tall, broke, excrement, pee, period, and pass away appeared at the

same rank in both groups, other words such as make love, boobs, obese, physically

challenged, bottom and dumb were in a slightly different rank. This reveals that the

cultural awareness and pragmatic knowledge of both groups was approximately the same.

With regard to the English euphemisms provided, it appears that the native

speakers of English and of Thai had a similar collection of euphemisms. For example, the

answers for a number of headwords, such as buttocks, man’s outer sexual organ, bosom,

fat, feces, short, die, stupid, and handicapped presented by both groups, are almost the

same. This suggests the Thai informants were competent in finding suitable English

euphemisms. Nevertheless, the overwhelming variety of euphemisms offered by the Thais

indicates a lack of cultural awareness and pragmatic knowledge, such as the word ass.

Most of the Thais’ selections are not present in the answers of the native speakers of

English, such as reproductive organs, privy part for women’s outer sexual organ;
 37

defecate and evacuate for feces; decease and stop living for die; underresourced and

impoverished for poor. It is obvious that the Thais’ answers tend to be polysyllabic,

technical, and highly elaborative, which is a sharp contrast to those used by the native

speakers of English. These euphemisms offered by the Thais are gravitationally

challenged for fat, excrement for feces, gaseous evacuation for fart, and underprivileged

for poor.

The English euphemisms chosen by both groups of informants reflected the

strategies used to euphemize taboo words of each group. According to Williams (1975),

Shipley (1977), Rawson (1983), Neaman and Silver (1983), Allan and Burridge (1991),

there are five basic types of euphemisms: shortening, circumlocution, remodelling,

semantic change, and borrowing. The two groups’ most frequent answers were based on

semantic change, followed by circumlocution, remodelling, borrowing, and shortening,

the last two of which were ranked fourth and fifth for native speakers of English and vice

versa for the native speakers of Thai. This result pointed out the coincidence of meaning

and euphemism to replace taboo words. The other types were found less frequently

because these euphemisms require knowledge and skills other than meaning. Shortening

and remodelling, e.g. CA, hind, and wee, have more specificity which makes them less

understandable to outsiders. Borrowing such as petite for short and poitrine for bosom

requires the users’ knowledge of foreign languages, so it is less used by most people,

especially monolinguals. Circumlocution (make some fertilizer for feces) is also less used

as it seems outdated and too formal.

Interestingly, both groups revealed their misconception about euphemism as

evidenced by their answers, for instance, vagina, clitoris, crippled, and humping. None of

these words are fundamentally euphemisms.

 38

In short, this section presented the discussion of the three interesting findings that

the ranking of occurrence of English euphemism from both groups was slightly different,

both groups of informants shared a similar collection of euphemisms, and that of the five

types of euphemism (shortening, circumlocution, remodelling, semantic change, and

borrowing) semantic change had the highest percentage of occurrence.

Limitations of the Study

1. The findings would have been more promising if the study had included other

groups of informants, such as students or translators.

2. The questionnaire did not ask the informants to order their answers in terms of

frequency of use. Therefore, such important information was not obtained in this

study.

Suggestions for Further Studies

1. The study of euphemism translation in various texts such as movies and

publications should be carried out to see the strategies employed and cultural

differences.

2. In order to make a sociolinguistic record of English euphemism usage, it is

suggested that the research informants be other than native speakers of English

and of Thai. This could also include other different ethnic groups.

In short, this chapter has presented the conclusion of the analysis which was

conducted along the three main objectives of the study, discussion of the research

findings that portrays interesting points of the use of English euphemisms by both groups
 39

of informants, limitations of the study and suggestions to be guidelines for future research

in English euphemisms and related fields.

 40

REFERENCES
 41

REFERENCES

Allan, K. and Burridge, K. (1991). Euphemism & dysphemism: Language used as shield

and weapon. New York: Oxford University Press.

Allan, K. and Burridge, K. (2007). Forbidden words: Taboo and the censoring of

language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Charncharoen, C. (1990). Euphemism in Thai. A Thesis, M.A. (Linguistics). Bangkok:

Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University. Photocopied.

Fernàndez, E. (2006). The language of death: Euphemism and conceptual

metaphorization in Victorian obituaries. SKY Journal of Linguistics. 19, 101-130.

Hai-Long, J. (2008). Intercultural study of euphemisms in Chinese and English. Sino-Us

English Teaching. 8, 54-58.

Ham, K. (2005). The linguistics of euphemism: A diachronic study of euphemism

formation. Journal of Language and Linguistics. 2, 227-263.

Hornby A. S. (1989). Oxford advanced learners’ dictionary of current English (4th ed.).

New York: Oxford University Press.

Jangjorn, W. (2004). A study of Internet users’ techniques in avoiding impolite words on

the web boards. A Master’s Project, M.A. (Educational Linguistics). Bangkok:

Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University. Photocopied.

McGlone, M.S., Beck, G., and Pfiester, R.A. (2006). Contamination and camouflage in

euphemisms. Communication Monographs, 73, 261-282.

 42

Neaman, J. S. and Silver G. C. (1990). Kind words: A thesaurus of euphemisms. New

York: Facts on File Publications.

Rawson, H. (1995). Rawson's dictionary of euphemisms and other doubletalk: Being a

compilation of linguistic fig leaves and verbal flourishes for artful users of the

English language. New York: Crown Publishers.

Shipley, J. (1977). In praise of English. New York: New York Times Book.

Stern, G. (1968). Meaning and change of meaning. London: Indiana University Press.

Thiyajai, R. (1992). Euphemism in Thai: An analysis of social values. A Thesis, M.A.

(Thai). Songkla: Graduate School, Prince of Songkla University. Photocopied.

Thurntor, W. (2001). The pattern of communication presented in IRC networks. A Thesis,

M.A. (Mass Communication). Bangkok: Graduate School, Chulalongkorn

University. Photocopied.

Williams, J. M. (1975). Origins of the English language: A social and linguistic history.

New York: Free Press.

 43

APPENDIX
 44

APPENDIX 1

A List of English Euphemisms and Their Frequencies Answered by

Native Speakers of English and of Thai

All the answers are shown below and their frequencies are in parentheses. The first

number is the frequency of the English speakers and the second of the Thai.

buttocks:

behind (3, 3), rear end (5, 2), bottom (5, 5), backside (2, 4), butt (4, 4), ass (2, 4),
rear (2, 0), hind (1, 0), hinny (1, 0), bum (3, 1), gluteus maximums (1, 0), fanny (1, 0),
seat (1, 0), rump (1, 0), posterior (2, 0), tail (2, 0), tail end (1, 0), seat of the pants (1, 0),
derriere (2, 0), the part under one’s waist (0, 1), hip (0, 1), bootie (0, 1)

woman’s outer sexual organ:

vagina (5, 5), pussy (1, 1), muff (1, 0), mound (1, 0), clitoris (2, 0), love organ (1, 0),
privates (1, 0), private parts (3, 0), twat (1, 0), labia (2, 0), box (1, 0), the part (0, 1),
that part (0, 3), cunt (0, 1), garden (0, 2), little boat (0, 1), mouse trap (0, 1), trench (0, 1),
slit (0, 1), pit (0, 1), cavern (0, 1), furrow (0, 1), ring (0, 1), field (0, 1), fanny (0, 1),
privy parts (0, 1), private (0, 1), lips (0, 1), female private part (0, 1), genital (0, 1),
reproductive organ (0, 1), flower (0, 1)

man’s outer sexual organ:

penis (7, 5), cock (1, 2), John (1, 1), testicles (1, 1), balls (1, 2), that part (1, 2),
his gun (1, 1), pole (1, 1), tail (1, 1), stem (1, 1), column (1, 1), hanger (1, 1),
obelisk (1, 1), shaft (1, 1), pecker (1, 1), stopper (1, 1), Javelin (1, 1), rod (1, 1),
weapon(1, 1), peter (1, 1), weenie (3, 1), genitals (1, 2), man’s reproductive organ (1, 1),
hard bone (1, 1), wood (1, 0), Johnson (1, 0), pecker (1, 0), manhood, (1, 0), reproductive
organ (1, 0), man gland (1, 0), lizard (1, 0), joystick (1, 0), dick (1, 0), his member (1, 0),
gonad (1, 0), nuts (1, 0), family jewel (1, 0), privates (1, 0), private parts (1, 0),
crotch (1, 0)
 45

bosom:

chest (1, 4), breasts (8, 6), jugs (1, 0), tits (1, 2), titties (1, 0), knockers (2, 1),
woofers (1, 0), hooters (1, 2), nipples (1, 0), boobs (2, 3), lamp-chops (1, 0), bust (1, 2),
poitrine (1, 0), fun bags (1, 0), cherries (1, 0), jubilees (1, 0), milk (1, 0)

fat:

heavy (2, 2), Pillsbury doughboy (1, 0), humongous (1, 0), larders (1, 0),
pleasingly plump (1, 0), rubenesque (1, 0), full-figured (1, 0), overweight (5, 3),
rounded (1, 0), curvy (1, 0), shapely (1, 0), well-covered (2, 0), obese (4, 3), plump (1, 4),
looking like a pig (1, 0), gross (1, 0), large (1, 0), dumpy (1, 0), frumpy (1, 0),
large boned (1, 0), giant (1, 0), chubby (2, 7), big as a house (1, 0), well-fed (0, 1),
a little bit plump (0, 1), big (0, 1), thick (0, 1), bulge (0, 1), oversized (0, 1),
full bodied (0, 1), wide-ish (0, 1), heavy-weight talent (0, 1), couch potato (0, 1),
generously proportioned (0, 1), gravitational challenged (0, 1), fleshy (0, 1)

short:

runt (1, 0), midget (1, 0), short stuff (1, 0), cute (1, 0), not tall (3, 7), petite (2, 4),
teenie-weenie (1, 0), slight (1, 0), slight in statue (1, 0), diminutive (1, 0),
short shadow (1, 0), vertically challenged (1, 2), Napoleon (1, 0), mouse (1, 0),
dwarf (1, 0), small (0, 3), pocket-sized (1, 0), tiny (0, 2), little (0, 2), quite short (0, 1),
wee (0, 1), pint-sized (0, 1)

ugly:

a dog (2, 0), butt face (1, 0), plain (3, 3), homely (4, 3), unpleasant face (1, 0),
ordinary (1, 0), ill-shaped (1, 0), gross (1, 0), unattractive (2, 7),
hit with ugly stick (1, 0), disgusting (1, 0), wretched (1, 0), arresting (1, 0), rugged (1, 0),
craggy (1, 0), grotesque (1, 0), fearsome (1, 0), not attractive (0, 2), ill-favored (0, 1),
hideous (0, 1), not good-looking (0, 4), miserable(0, 1), unsighted(0, 1),
average looking(0, 1), an unfortunate face (0, 1), unconventional looks (0, 1),
challenged for beauty (0, 1), missing some handsome (0, 1), lacking look (0, 1),
beauty impaired (0, 1), unlovely (0, 1), unpretty (0, 1)

feces:

dung (0, 2), waste (2, 4), excrement (3, 5), stool (1, 3), defecate (0, 1),
make a deposit (0, 1), make some fertilizer (0, 1), log out (0, 1), drop a bomb (0, 1),
evacuate (0, 1), bake a brownie (0, 1), blow mud (0, 1), chop a log (0, 1),
build a dookie castle (0, 1), poo (1, 2), poop (2, 1), droppings (0, 1), # 2 (2, 1),
 46

crap (2, 1), poo-poo (2, 1), Douglas Hurd (0, 1), solid body waste (0, 1), sugar (1, 0),
kaka (2, 0), doo doo (2, 0), turd (2, 0), waste matter (1, 0), dregs (1, 0), dog doo (1, 0),
dump (2, 0), cow patties (1, 0), cow pies (1, 0), animal droppings (1, 0),
animal spores (1, 0), excretia (1, 0)

urine:

#1 (2, 1), pee (3, 6), acid fluid (1, 0), pee-pee (1, 5), leak (2, 0), whiz (1, 1),
yellow stream (1, 0), piss (2, 4), draining the lizard (1, 0), hit the can (1, 0), water (1, 1),
urinate (0, 1), pass water (0, 1), liquid (0, 1), liquid waste (0, 2), living water (0, 1),
whizzie winkles (0, 1), take a leak (0, 1), piddle (0, 2), tinkle (0, 1), wee-wee (0, 1),
gypsies kiss (0, 1), spend a penny (0, 1), Jimmy Riddle (0, 1), pee-wee (0, 1)

fart:

release the gas (1, 4), break wind (1, 3), pass wind (0, 1), let the bowels’ air (0, 1),
gaseous evacuation (1, 0), butt trumpet (0, 1), cut the cheese (1, 1), exhaust gas (0, 1),
butt blast (0, 1), flamer (0, 1), anal salute (0, 1), airbrush your boxers (0, 1),
playing the trousers tuba (0, 1), raspberry (0, 1), blow a raspberry tart (0, 1), guff (0, 1),
pass gas (6, 6), buff in the ass (0, 1), cut wind (1, 0), fart (1, 0), expelling wind (1, 0),
fluctuate (1, 0), make wind (1, 0), stump up the place (1, 0)

menstruation:

that time of the month (4, 0), on the ray (1, 0), her time (1, 0), period (5, 1),
periodic discharge (1, 0), being on the rag (1, 0), menses (0, 1),
riding the cotton pony (0, 1), Kate Bush-ing (0, 1), falling to the communists (0, 1),
checking into the red roof inn (0, 1), red skelton dropped by(0, 1),
getting down with the O.B. (0, 1), monthly period (0, 1)

die:

pass away (8, 9), go to better place (2, 0), not with us anymore (2, 2), expire (2, 2),
meet his/her maker (2, 0), buy the farm (2, 0), depart (2, 1), perish (2, 0), decease (2, 1),
go to happy hunting ground (1, 0), kick the bucket (3, 2), eat it (1, 0), go to heaven (1, 4),
join god (1, 0), pass on (4, 0), meet his/her demise (1, 0), lose his/her life (1, 1),
cash in (1, 0), check out (1, 0), go to Davey Jones’s locker (1, 0), be taken (1, 0),
in the sky (1, 0), sleep forever (0, 1), end (0, 1), be done in (0, 1), be gone (0, 4),
stop living (0, 2), rest in peace (0, 3), go for good (0, 1), be deceased (0, 2),
breath your last (0, 1), lay down your life (0, 1), come to the end (0, 1),
fight a long battle with (0, 1), meet your maker (0, 1), snuff it (0, 1), six feet under (0, 1),
 47

push up daisies (0, 1), be gone to a better place (0, 1), be gone for good (0, 1), go to
kingdom come (0, 1)

pregnant:

have a bun in the oven (3, 2), knocked up (3, 1), pregnant (1, 1), have a baby (0, 3),
expect a baby (0, 2), carry a baby (0, 1), in the family way (0, 4),
losing the immunity challenge (0, 1), suing Trojan (0, 1),
buying sardine and pickle futures (0, 1), carry (0, 1). Childing (0, 1), conceive (0, 1),
enceinte (0, 1), gestate (0, 1), gravid (0, 1), with child (3, 1), baby on board, (0, 1),
mother-to-be (0, 1), preggers (1, 0), in trouble (1, 0), expecting (3, 0), up the pole (1, 0),
bearing child (1, 0), grand (1, 0), impregnated (1, 0), ready to burst (1, 0),
approaching motherhood (1, 0), one on the way (1, 0), eating for two (1, 0)

stupid:

dense (3, 0), slow (3, 0), mentally challenged (2, 0), obtuse (2, 0),
one sandwich short of a picnic (1, 0), booby (1, 0), foolish (1, 4), not so clever (1, 0),
idiotic (1, 1), cretin (1, 0), imbecile (1, 0), retarded (2, 1), moronic (2, 0), silly (1, 2),
dim (1, 0), witless (1, 0), slow-witted (1, 0), slow-learner (1, 0),
intellectually-challenged (1, 0), dull (1, 2), dumb (3, 2), ignorant (1, 0),
unintelligent (2, 1), without clue (1, 0), no one’s home (1, 0), in the dark (1, 0),
uneducated (1, 1), goofiness (1, 0), thick (1, 1), nonsensical (0, 2), brainless (0, 1),
not smart (0, 1), need to be improved (0, 1), not so good (0, 1), simple-minded (0, 1),
all foam, no beer (0, 1), his elevator doesn’t go to the top floor (0, 1),
his yeast went bad (0, 1), the light is on, but nobody’s home (0, 1),
a few cans short of a six-pack (0, 1), unknowing (0, 1), impolitic (0, 1), unwise (0, 1),
asinine (0, 1), senseless (0, 1), slow-learner (0, 1), unlikeable (0, 1)

having sexual intercourse:

copulate (2, 1), sleep with (0, 6), make love (6, 6), knock of (0, 1), being with him (0, 1),
have an affair (0, 1), go to bed with (0, 1), have sex (2, 2), getting it on (2, 2),
doing it (2, 1), playing with (0, 1), couple (0, 1), mate (0, 1), have intercourse with (0, 1),
lie with (0, 1), go all the way (2, 1), commerce (0, 1), play the doctor (0, 1),
making intimacy with (2, 1), boffing (1, 0), bonking (1, 0), rogering (1, 0),
laying a little pipe (1, 0), humping (1, 0), blissful moment (1, 0), bliss (1, 0),
consummate (1, 0), get together (1, 0), screwing (1, 0), sleeping together (1, 0),
balling (1, 0), fool around (1, 0), play around (1, 0), spending the night together (1, 0),
do wild thing (1, 0), fornicate (1, 0), make whoopee (1, 0)
 48

poor:

poor (1, 0), needy (3, 2), not to have a pot to piss in (1, 0), penniless (4, 2),
unfortunate (1, 0), not well off (1, 0), feel the pinch (1, 0), broke (5, 2), deprived (1, 0),
poor like a church mouse (1, 0), on the street (2, 0), disadvantageous (1, 1),
destitute (1, 2), economically disadvantaged (1, 0), indigent (1, 0), bankrupt (1, 0),
in the red (1, 0), down on his/her luck (1, 0), ruined (1, 0), hard up (1, 0),
poverty stricken (1, 0), in a hole (1, 0), in dire straits (1, 0),
unable to make ends meet (1, 0), insolvent (1, 0), on the rocks (1, 0),
having seen better days (1, 0), doing from hand to mouth (1, 0),
don’t have much money (0, 1), unwealthy (0, 1), low-income (0, 1),
financially advanced (0, 1), under resourced (0, 1), underprivileged (0, 1),
miserable (0, 1), impoverished (0, 1), misfortunate (0, 1), pauperism (0, 1),
impecunious (0, 1), less fortunate (0, 1)

mental illness:

wacko (1, 0), looney tunes (1, 0), no one home (1, 0), to have issues of his/her own (1, 0),
crazy (3, 2), phychotic (2, 1), mentally challenged (1, 0), slow (1, 0), insanity (2, 1),
madness (1, 1), craziness (1, 0), imbecility (1, 0), dementia (1, 0), neurotic (1, 0),
eccentricity (1, 0), quirkiness (1, 0), gone ivory (1, 0), nutty (1, 0), out of mind (1, 3),
out of head (1, 0), taken (1, 0), out of touch (1, 0), out of lunch (1, 0), lose sense (1, 1),
have loose screw (2, 0), disturbs (2, 0), retarded (2, 0), sick in the head (2, 0), wild (0, 1),
eccentric (0, 1), daft (0, 1), having some mental problems (0, 1), lunatic (0, 2),
psycho (0, 1), mental health (0, 1), kooky (0, 1), oddball (0, 1), a space cadet (0, 1),
a basket case (0, 1), a wreck (0, 1), mental disorder (0, 1), psychosis (0, 1),
paranoid (0, 1), mental deficiency (0, 1), demented (0, 1), special (0, 1)

handicapped:

physically challenged (6, 1), physically impaired (1, 2), differently-abled (1, 0),
mentally challenged (1, 0), unable one (2, 0), blind (1, 0), blind as a bat (1, 0), deaf (1, 0),
deaf as a doornail (1, 0), usually impaired (1, 0), hearing impaired (1, 0), limited (1, 0),
non-ambulatory (1, 0), disabled (2, 7), crippled (3, 2), non-functional (1, 0),
disadvantaged (0, 2), physically disabled (0, 2), differently disabled (0, 1),
defective (0, 1), deformed (0, 1), physically ill (0, 1), incapable of (0, 1)

AIDS:

incurable disease (1, 0), transmitted disease (1, 0), HIV (5, 4), the syndrome (1, 0),
immune deficiency (1, 0), serious sexual disease (0, 1), silent killer (0, 1),
indiscriminate killer (0, 1), a long illness (0, 1), lung disease and cold (0, 1),
a viral disease (0, 1)
 49

cancer:

the big C (3, 2), tumor (1, 3), big disease (0, 1), serious disease (0, 1), malignancy (1, 2),
lesion (0, 1), growth and dark spot (0, 1), CA (0, 1), malignant tumor (0, 1),
serious illness (0, 1), fatal disease (0, 1), carcinoma (0, 1), melanoma (0, 1)
 50

APPENDIX 2

Questionnaire on the Use of English Euphemism

This questionnaire is designed to survey the use of English euphemisms by both native
speakers of English and of Thai. The informants of this questionnaire are instructors of
English at state universities in Thailand.

Part A: Demographics

Directions Please put a tick () in the box matching your personal information.

1. Sex

 Male  Female

2. Age

 under 20 years  20-30 years

 31-40 years  41-50 years
 more than 50 years

3. Years of English Teaching Experience

 1-5 years  6-10 years

 11-15 years  16-20 years
 Others (Please specify _________________________________ )

4. Education

 Bachelor’s Degree  Master’s Degree

 Doctoral Degree  Post-graduate
 Others (Please specify _________________________________ )

5. The Length of Your Stay in Thailand: ________________________________

6. Nationality

 British  American

 Australian

 Others (Please specify _________________________________ )

 51

Part B: The Survey of the Use of English Euphemisms

Directions: Please write as many polite words that correspond to each of the following
descriptions as you can in the blanks.

A. Body Parts

1. buttocks
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. woman's outer sexual organ
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. man’s outer sexual organ
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. bosom
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 52

B. Physical Appearance

5. fat
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
6. short
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
7. ugly
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

C. Body Waste

8. feces
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 53

9. urine
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
10. to fart
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
11. menstruation
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

D. Action or State

12. to die
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 54

13. pregnant
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
14. stupid
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
15. having sexual intercourse
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
16. poor
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
17. mental illness
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 55

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
18. handicapped
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

E. Illness

19. AIDS
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
20. cancer
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Thank you very much for your kind cooperation.

 56

VITAE
 57

VITAE

Name : Mr. Rommayasin Kaosa-Ad

Date of Birth : February 27, 1982

Place of Birth : Muang, Chon Buri

Address : 604P Soi U-tayaan, Baan Khoad, Amphoe Muang.

Chon Buri. 20000

Education Background :

2009 Master of Arts (English)

from Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok

2004 Bachelor of Education (English)

from Burapha University, Chon Buri

1999 Certificate of English-French program

from Chonratsadon-Amroong School, Chon Buri