GODS IN JAINISM

Jainism is not a religion of coming down. In Jainism it is we who must go up. We

only have to help ourselves. In Jainism we have to become God. That is the only
thing.

Anne Vallely
Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community (Anthropological Horizons),2002 See
also Jainism,Anne Vallelly,The Oxford Handbook of Atheism,Edited by Stephen Bullivant and Michael Ruse,2013
The Jains do not believe in gods or a god as creators of the world. The status of gods and
goddesses among Jain followers is disputed. Some Jains do not worship deities but many Jains
pay homage to gods and goddesses as mediators between the perfected souls of the Jinas and the
imperfect world of human experience. Divine figures are very common in Jain temples and are
frequently at the centre of religious rituals.

The focus of worship among Jains is the 24 Jinas. Believers respect and worship the Jinas, who
are teachers and sources of the doctrine. The Jinas are fully liberated beings who have escaped
the world of rebirths. They are perfect souls, who cannot, therefore, interact in any way with
followers of the Jain religion. As unsurpassable models or ideals, they are beyond all possible
requests coming from humans. They are thus totally different from gods, to whom worshippers
pray to get various benefits.

The Jinas have reached the summit of the Jain universe – the siddha-śilā – and do not belong to
any of the realms of the three worlds. In these kingdoms, however, lives a wide range of deities
who are integrated into the system of Jain values to different extents. Living in allocated places
in the Jain universe, the pantheon of Jain deities comprises various groups and some key
individual figures. The divinities may have various roles and may be associated with concepts
such as knowledge and worldly matters such as childbirth and wealth. Lesser gods are also
worshipped in Jainism, who may be local divinities or sets of deities who represent or personify
certain features or ideas.

Many of the major deities are known under the same names or different names in other Indian
religious traditions. For example, Śrī or Lakṣmī is a major goddess for Hindus as well as Jains.
Their Jain names may be identical to or in differing forms from those found in other Indian
faiths. This does not necessarily mean that Jainism has 'borrowed' them. The origins of Jain gods
and goddesses are complex and have to be specially investigated.
Although they may be members of groups of deities, some Jain divinities have personalities as
individual figures and are worshipped as such. Associations with wealth or childbirth, for
example, partly account for their popularity and they may be the focus of special religious rites.
Other Jain gods and goddesses are worshipped primarily as groups. There may not be much
substantial difference among the individual members although each usually has divine attributes
and a divine vehicle.

Evidence of the deities' presence in iconography around images of the Jinas or as independent
figures is growing, with investigations being carried out in regions which had previously been
neglected, such as Bihar and Bengal or Tamil Nadu. In addition, recent examinations of
sculptures, such as Mevissen, show that groups of deities, such as the guardians of directions –
dik-pālas – and the nine planets – nava-grahas – are more common than scholars had so far
thought.

Some gods are local deities connected with specific places, who may be worshipped only by
people from that area. However, some have gained broader popularity in recent decades, such
as Nākoḍā Bhairava, whose appeal has spread far and wide from his original home in Rajasthan.
All these deities may be part of Tantric modes of worship, where they are invoked and their
statues or paintings placed on diagrams – yantras – for meditation (Jhavery 1944: 331, etc.).

Contested status
The sources of the Jain doctrine are the Jinas and the long route to liberation is an individual
path. Gods and goddesses are part of the world of rebirths and are not self-controlled, instead
demonstrating passions – kaṣāyas – as do human beings. Thus occasional voices deny that they
have anything to do with the protection of Jain teaching and refuse their integration into
the Jain system of values (Sethi n.d.). They consider them to be ‘popular’ or ‘folk’ deities, whose
worship, if any, should be kept separate from ceremonies focused on the Jinas. Many image-
worshipping Jains, however, pray to divinities as part of the general practice of their faith.

There have been heated debates within and between monastic orders in the Śvetāmbara sect as to
whether the cults of these deities are justified in scripture. The issue includes whether hymns to
the ‘deities of knowledge’ – śruta-devatās – and ‘guardian deities’ – kṣetra-devatās – should be
part of the pratikramaṇa – the repentance ritual (Balbir 2003: 271–273).

For example, the Tapā-gaccha and the Kharatara-gaccha refer to the scriptural tradition, which,
they say, teaches such worship and gives high credit to these deities. They quote examples of
great monks whom deities helped. They assert that worshipping gods and goddesses helps to
destroy the karma that keeps souls trapped in the cycle of birth, provided there
is auspicious meditation. These sects consider these deities protect and help the teaching, deserve
proper worship and are compatible with religious duties.

In the 13th century a new monastic order separated from the Pūrṇimā-gaccha after disagreements
over the status of Jain deities. The new group took the name Tristutika-gaccha – ‘the three-
hymned monastic order’ – or Āgama-gaccha – ‘the Scripture monastic order’ – because they
rejected three homage formulas to Jain deities. Though they accepted the concept of praying to
divinities, they held that 'right believers' should not accept such formulas. This subject still needs
scholarly investigation.
Mendicants and deities
 Śvetāmbara writings often link monks and nuns with deities in positive ways. Present-
day mendicants are frequently active in promoting the worship of gods among lay followers,
which is intended to complement worship of the Jinas, not to replace it.

There are several episodes which show that great Jain teachers – ācāryas – could play the role
of māntrikas – knowers and practitioners of Tantric modes of worship – and could write Tantric
works connected with Jain deities. Stories show that kings could call upon such teachers for help
or rescue, asking them to use their powers in matters relating to the state or political power.
Several teachers of the Kharatara-gaccha, an important Śvetāmbara monastic order found mostly
in Rajasthan, are well known for their capacities in this area. Revered for having such abilities,
they are known as the Dādā-gurus.
In modern times there is evidence that leading Jain mendicants are the primary movers in
revivals or creations of cults to deities among local lay communities. These efforts are meant to
deter Jain followers from worshipping non-Jain deities and to associate the quest
for liberation with ways to satisfy worldly needs within the context of Jainism. Such instances
are the cults of:

 Nākoḍā Bhairava
 Ghaṇṭākarṇa Mahāvīra
 Māṇibhadra Vīra
 more generally, yakṣas such as Brahmadeva or Padmāvatī, who have become independent
gods and goddesses.
As part of contemporary worship, Jain deities are also popular among the diaspora.

Deities and the Jain universe

All the deities that make up the various groups of the Jain pantheon are supposed to live in one
of the three worlds of the Jain universe, namely the:
1. lower world – adho-loka
2. middle world – madhya-loka
3. upper world – ūrdhva-loka.
This is one way to group them (Jain and Fischer 1978). But there are also some categories that
cut across this system, such as the dik-kumārīs.
Moreover, clan or family deities – kula-devatās – who are generally recognised and quite
widespread, are not part of the Jain pantheon because they are local divinities who are not
allocated places in the Jain universe.
Part of the Jain
universe Group
1. yakṣas and yakṣīs
2. dik-pālas
Lower world 3. nava-grahas, who are part of the planetary gods – the Jyotiṣkas
4. vidyā-devīs, who are connected to vidyā-dharas
5. dik-kumārīs
Middle world 6. goddesses of the lakes
Upper world – lower 7. Śakra with Hariṇaigameṣin and other indras
levels 8. Sarasvatī
 Part of the Jain
universe Group
9. Lakṣmī
10. Kṣetra-pālas

Groups of deities in the Jain universe

Yakṣas and yakṣīs

With complex origins, this group of divinities has come to be considered as the male and female
attendant deities to the 24 Jinas. Living in the lower world, they have names and individual
characteristics, such as vehicles and divine attributes, though these vary in the different Jain
sects. They have special roles as protectors of the Jinas' message and as intermediaries
between devotees and the Jinas. Information on the yakṣas and yakṣīs is explored in a detailed
article.
Some of the yakṣas and yakṣīs have developed cults of their own, which are celebrated either
throughout India or chiefly in given regions. These are mainly the goddesses:
1.Ambikā
2.Cakreśvarī
3.Jvālamālinī
4.Padmāvatī.

The only male yakṣa who can compare with them as an independent deity is Brahmadeva.
Dik-pālas

The Dik-pālas – 'Guardians of Directions' – form a category found in many Indian religions.
There are eight or ten Jain Dik-pālas, depending on whether the deities of the upper and lower
directions are included. The sect of the Digambaras does not include these deities, so there are
always eight Digambara Dik-pālas.
These deities, who live in the lower world, serve the Jinas. The best known is Śakra, who
intervenes at key points in the Jinas’ biographies.
There is a lot of variation in the attributes given to them in the available sources, namely ritual
texts (Bhattacharya 1974: 109–116). Images of Dik-pālas depicted individually or in groups are
carved on the outside walls or on the ceilings of temples in western India and Karnatak (Shah
1981 with plates). Recent research in eastern India has yielded interesting examples of Dik-pālas
depicted as the entourage – parikara – of Jina images (Mevissen).
Dik-pāla Direction Summary
 the elephant Airāvata is his divine vehicle
Indra
 or  a vajra or thunderbolt is his attribute
1 Śakra east  his wife is Śacī
 a ram is his divine vehicle
 a spear is his attribute
 he bears seven flames
2 Agni
 south-east  his wife is Svāhā
 a buffalo is his divine vehicle
 a staff is his attribute
3 Yama
 south  his wife is Chāyā
 a corpse or goblin is his divine vehicle, he wears a tiger-
skin and holds a club or sword and a bow – Śvetāmbara
 a bear is his divine vehicle and his divine attribute is a club
4 Nairr̥ta south-west – Digambara
 Dik-pāla Direction Summary
 a dolphin or fish is his divine vehicle
5 Varuṇa west  he wears the ocean and holds a noose
 a deer is his divine vehicle
6 Vāyu north-west  he holds a thunderbolt or banner
 a man is his divine vehicle
 his attributes are gems and a club
7 Kubera north  he has a chariot named Puṣpaka – Digambara
 a bull is his divine vehicle
 his attributes are a bow and trident
8 Iśāna north-east  he has the symbol of a skull – Digambara
 four-headed
 a swan is his divine vehicle
upper  his attributes are a book and lotus
9 Brahmā regions  Digambaras do not accept him
 a lotus is his divine vehicle
lower  his attribute is a snake
10 Nāga world  Digambaras do not accept him
Dik-pālas

Nava-grahas

The Nava-grahas – 'Nine Planets' – are known in all the religious traditions that arose in India.
They are part of the Jain universe as they form one of the classes of gods – the Jyotiṣka-devas.
As gods allotted homes in the lower world of Jain cosmology, they have been described
in cosmological, iconographical and ritual texts. But descriptions of the Jyotiṣkas are not
systematic in Śvetāmbara works and may be unavailable in Digambara sources. They are
depicted as gods or humans in painting and sculpture.
Indian
English name name Summary
 rides on a chariot drawn by seven horses
Sun Sūrya  holds two lotuses as his attributes
 Indian
English name name Summary
 rides on a chariot drawn by ten white horses
Moon Candra  holds an urn of nectar as his attribute
 stands on the earth
Mars Mangala  holds a shovel as his divine attribute
 a swan is his divine vehicle and he holds a book
 or rides a lion and holds a sword, shield and club while
Mercury Budha making the gesture of giving a boon – varada-mudrā
 a swan is his divine vehicle and he holds a book
 or has four hands holding a rosary, staff and water pot and
Jupiter Br̥haspati making the gesture of giving a boon
 a snake is his divine vehicle
Venus Śukra  an urn is his attribute
 a tortoise is his vehicle
Saturn Śani  an axe is his divine attribute
God who creates  a lion is his vehicle
eclipses Rāhu  an axe is his divine attribute
 a cobra is his divine vehicle
Comet Ketu  a cobra is his attribute
Their presence is more collective than individual. Eastern Indian sculpture shows that some or all
of them can be carved as the entourage – parikara – of Jina images, either as astral symbols or as
figural representations (see Mevissen).
In Tamil Nadu, images of the nine planets are often depicted outside the main temple in a
specific enclosure, where they may take non-human forms.

Vidyā-devīs

The Sanskrit word vidyā and its Prakrit counterpart vijjā refer to magic powers which can be
obtained through meditation and ascetic practice. Of feminine gender, the term vidyā-devīs came
to be used rather early only for 16 goddesses who personify individual magical qualities. The
vidyā-devīs are said to live on the slopes of Mount Vaitāḍhya, in the middle world of the
Jain universe.
The presence of vidyās is evidenced especially in two early Prakrit works which are likely to
date back to the first six or seven centuries of the Common Era:
 Vimala-sūri’s Pauma-cariya
 Vasudeva-hiṇḍī.
The Pauma-cariya is a Jain version of the Rāmāyaṇa epic poem, which was composed
in Sanskrit. It lists the 16 classes of vidyās and explains their origins. The people who possess
the vidyās are called vidyā-dharas and their kings are called Nami and Vinami. They gained their
powers as the result of their worship of the first Jina, R̥ṣabhanātha or Lord R̥ṣabha. In this
version of the Rāmāyaṇa, the monkeys – vānaras – and demons – rākṣasas – belong to lineages
of vidyā-dharas.
The Vasudeva-hiṇḍī is a story work where the acquisition of vidyās plays an important role in the
hero’s progress.
The notion of vidyās gradually develops into individual goddesses. They are then fixed as a
group of 16, which is first available in Digambara sources, then later adopted
in Śvetāmbara sources as well.
The individual vidyā-devīs vary but the best-known list is given in the table.

Approximate English
Number Name meaning Appearance
she makes the seed of merit four-armed, six-armed, eight-
1 Rohiṇī ‘grow’ up armed, multi-armed forms
she has wide knowledge and
2 Prajñapti helps in shape changing two, four or multiple arms
 two, four, six or multiple
after her main attribute of a arms
3 Vajra-śr̥ṅkhalā strong chain  a lotus is her vehicle
after her attributes of the  two, four or multiple arms
4 Vajrāṅkuśā thunderbolt and goad  an elephant is her vehicle
 Approximate English
Number Name meaning Appearance
 also a yakṣī
Apraticakrā or  characterised by the disc –
5 Jambunadā cakra
6 Puruṣadattā origin of name unclear two, four or multiple arms
7 Kālī after her dark complexion two, four or multiple arms
 four or multiple arms
 a man is her vehicle
8 Mahā-kālī ‘very dark’  a bell is her symbol
 two, four or multiple arms
 crocodile is her vehicle
9 Gaurī ‘of light complexion’  lotus as her symbol
10 Gāndhārī no convincing explanation two, four or multiple arms
 also a yakṣī
 associated with flames
Mahājvālā  two, four, eight or multiple
11 or Jvālāmālinī arms
 two, four or multiple arms
12 Mānavī name unclear  tree is her symbol
for the removal of enmity,
13 Vairoṭī or Vairoṭyā connected with snakes two, four or multiple arms
Acyuptā,  two, four or multiple arms
14 Acchuptā, Acyutā cannot be defiled by sins  a man is her vehicle
15 Mānasī ‘born from the mind’ four arms
no convincing explanation of four or multiple arms
16 Mahā-mānasī her name

Śvetāmbara and Digambara ritual or iconographic texts provide details about

their iconography (Bhattacharya 1974: 124–132). However, representations of the individual
vidyā-devīs are not common, especially among Digambaras.
Even so, there are some well-known carvings of the 16 vidyā-devīs as a group. The most famous
ones are the group sculptures adorning:
 the ceiling of the dome in the main hall of the Vimala Vasahi, probably dating back to
1088 CE, when the original temple was constructed, which presents them standing with four
arms each
 a corridor ceiling in front of cell number 41 of the Vimala Vasahi, showing them with six
arms each
 the ceiling of the Lūṇa Vasahi at Mount Abu in Rajasthan, built by Tejaḥpāla in 1232 CE
 the outer wall of the shrine of the Kharatara Vasahi, also at Mount Abu, dating back to the
16th century, which displays a set of seated images and another of standing goddesses
 the domed ceiling of the temple at Ranakpur, in Rajasthan.
There are also possibly two vidyā-devīs and other goddesses in the Mahāvīra temple at
Kumbharia,in Gujarat.
Vidyā-devīs are also occasionally represented in manuscripts, especially on palm leaf, usually
with four arms (Shah 1947).
Dik-kumārīs

The ‘Princesses of the Directions’ – dik-kumārīs – live on the different summits of Mount
Meru and Rucaka-dvīpa in the middle world of the Jain universe. They act as attendants to the
mother of a Jina, and have a very specific role in the ceremonies performed in honour of a
newborn Jina.
They are listed and described in Śvetāmbara canonical works such as the Jambūdvīpa-prajñapti
and the Kalpa-sūtra. Some Digambara texts also give the same role to dik-kumārīs.
There are 56 dik-kumārīs, distributed into two categories of 32 and 24. There are eight deities for
the four quarters of the Rucaka mountains, who are known from Jain and Buddhist sources
(Alsdorf). Śvetāmbara texts also detail 24 additional goddesses, but disagree over where they
live and come from.
Hemacandra's version (Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita, Johnson’s translation, volume I: 105–107)
has become the standard Śvetāmbara list, and states there are:
 eight dik-kumārīs living in the lower world
 eight living in the upper world
 eight living on the eastern Rucaka mountains, on the Rucaka continent
 eight living on the southern Rucaka mountains
 eight living on the western Rucaka mountains
 eight living on the northern Rucaka mountains
 four living on the Rucaka mountains at the intermediate points of the compass
 four living on the Rucaka continent.
Dik-kumārīs are occasionally shown in Kalpa-sūtra miniature paintings depicting the Jinas’ birth
celebrations. It is uncertain whether a set of female figures shown in two circular rows at the
Vimala Vasahi temple on Mount Abu in Rajasthan represent this group of deities (northern
Paṭṭaśālā, bhāva number 37 in front of cell number 47; Shah 1982: 281). They carry pitchers, fly-
whisks and so on, which may be associated with religious ceremonies.

Goddesses of the lakes

These are six goddesses who live on islands in the middle of the six lakes – hrada – located on
the six ranges of mountains which divide the Jambū-dvīpa in the middle world. They are
personifications of feminine concepts.
 Name of goddess Lake Mountain range
Śrī – ‘prosperity’ Padma Himavant
Hrī – ‘sense of shame’ Mahāpadma Mahā-himavant
Dhṛti – ‘patience’ Tigiñcha Niṣadha
Kīrti – ‘glory’ Kesarī Nīla
Buddhi – ‘intelligence’ Mahāpuṇḍarīka Rukmin
Lakṣmī – ‘prosperity’ Puṇḍarīka Śikharin

They are often called mahā-devīs – ‘great goddesses’ – and their names are often mentioned
in Tantric modes of worship and other contexts. Representations are rare or difficult to identify.

Śakra and other indras

The Sanskrit word indra is used as a noun for the king of a group of gods. Śvetāmbaras admit a
total of 64 indras (Shah 1984).
Classes of gods Number of groups Number of indras
Bhavanavāsin 10 2 indras for each group = 20
Vyantara 8 2 indras for each group = 16
Vāṇa-Vyantara 8 2 indras for each group = 16
Vaimānika distributed over the 12 heavens 12 indras

Kings and gods in the upper world

These divinities live in the upper world of the Jain universe, in the kalpas or heavens. The most
famous is Śakra, the lord of the gods who reside in the Saudharma, the lowest of the 12 kalpas in
the upper world.
Śakra intervenes at key points in the lives of the Jinas, as shown in both the Kalpa-sūtra text and
miniature paintings in manuscripts of the work. He is usually portrayed sitting on a lion throne in
his court, depicted with four arms and holding a thunderbolt – vajra. His vehicle is the elephant
Airāvata. JAINpedia provides numerous examples of digitised manuscripts with illustrations of
Śakra, with notable examples including:
 a depiction of him sitting on his throne in his court in the Saudharma heaven and another
portrayal of the same subject
 getting up from his throne to praise Mahāvīra’s embryo
The story of the previous birth of his mount Airāvata is also illustrated.
Figures of Śakra's commander-in-chief Hariṇaigameṣin may be replacements of vidyā-devīs –
goddesses of magical knowledge – in sculpture, like here in the Mahāvīra temple at
Kumbharia, Gujarat.
Another indra of importance is Īśāna, lord of the second kalpa, the Aiśāna.
The indras are described among classes of gods in cosmological manuscripts, with details of
their attributes, identifying animals and so on. They are commonly carved on temple walls and
painted on paper manuscripts or cloth paintings of the yantra type.
 Hariṇaigameṣin

This deity is mainly known among Śvetāmbaras, as the god who performs the embryo transfer of
the 24th Jina, Mahāvira, and he is thus associated with pregnancy and childbirth.
As Śvetāmbara Jains narrate in the Kalpa-sūtra text, Hariṇaigameṣin is the commander-in-chief
of Śakra. The divine king orders Hariṇaigameṣin to transfer Mahāvira’s embryo from the womb
of the Brahmin lady Devānandā to that of Queen Triśalā.
Hariṇaigameṣin is familiar to Śvetāmbaras from his depiction in manuscript paintings of
the scripture called the Kalpa-sūtra. Some examples on JAINpedia are:
 Hariṇaigameṣin waiting for Śakra’s orders
 Śakra and Hariṇaigameṣin depicted in popular style in this Kalpa-sūtra manuscript with a
Gujarati commentary.

His name means 'antelope-headed' and the standard representation of Hariṇaigameṣin is of a
male figure with the head of an antelope, ram or goat. The oldest image comes from the early site
of Mathurā, in Uttar Pradesh.
Hariṇaigameṣin seems to have been regarded as a god who can grant the boon of pregnancy and
he is worshipped to this effect. The Jain version of the story of Kr̥ṣṇa found in the Antagaḍa-
dasāo, the eighth Aṅga of the Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures, shows how the childless
woman Sulasā worshipped him. She had an image made of Hariṇaigameṣin, to which she
performed rites every day, and revered him. In compassion for her, Hariṇaigameṣin caused her to
become pregnant. When it happened that her children were born dead, the god carried them to
Devakī and brought her living children to Sulasā for her to care for instead (Barnett 1907: 67).
 Sarasvatī

Jains call the goddess of speech and knowledge Sarasvatī, which is also her name among Hindus.
She is also known as:
 Śruta-devatā – ‘the divinity of learning’
 Śruta-devī – ‘goddess of knowledge’
 Vāg-īśvarī – ‘the goddess of speech’
 Śāradā.
Sarasvatī lives in the lower levels of the upper world of the Jain universe, where gods and
goddesses live. She is very popular and is honoured by writers in particular. In addition, worship
of Sarasvatī is one of the key parts of the annual festivals of knowledge.
Sarasvatī's antiquity in the Jain tradition is supported by references in early texts, including some
of the Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures.
Numerous statues of Sarasvatī are available. The oldest is a headless image dated 132 CE from
the Kankāli Tila site at Mathurā, in modern Uttar Pradesh. One of the most famous Sarasvatī
images is the marble figure in Rajasthan, dating from the 12th century and known as ‘Bikaner or
Pallu Sarasvatī', which is kept in the National Museum, New Delhi.
The main identifying characteristics of Sarasvatī in iconography are:
 her divine vehicle – vāhana – of a swan or peacock, the latter mainly in Digambara sources
 attributes of a manuscript or book, and a lotus
 the presence of a lute – vīṇā.
 Painted images of Sarasvatī are often found in manuscripts. Writers who wish for a well-received
work frequently pay homage to Sarasvatī in her capacity as the goddess of speech at the
beginning or end of their manuscripts.
Several of the manuscripts digitised on JAINpedia show instances of this, such as:
 the four-armed image of Sarasvatī on a swan and holding a manuscript, lute and lotus, found
at the end of a manuscript of the Līlāvatī, a mathematical treatise
 the painting of Sarasvatī on a swan and holding a manuscript and lute at the beginning of a
manuscript of a commentary on Hemacandra’s 12th-century Sanskrit thesaurus,
the Abhidhāna-cintāmaṇi
 the depiction of Sarasvatī riding a swan at the start of the Śrīpāla-rāsa, a very
popular Śvetāmbara story
 the image of Sarasvatī sitting on a swan inside a temple at the beginning of a manuscript of
the Ādityavāra-vrata-kathā, a popular story among Digambara circles.
Sarasvatī is worshipped especially at the yearly Jain festivals connected with knowledge and
teaching:
 the Śruta-pañcamī among the Digambaras
 the Śvetāmbara Jñana-pañcamī.
The Tantric mode of worship characteristic of the worship of yakṣīs such
as Padmāvatī and Jvālāmālinī can also be used to honour Sarasvatī. Rituals
implying meditation on mantras and yantras, and propitiatory rites are described in kalpa texts
such as Malliṣeṇa-sūri’s Sarasvatī-mantra-kalpa and Bappabhaṭṭi’s Sarasvatī-kalpa (Nawab
1937/1996: 151–166 and Jhavery 1944: 316–320). The mantra hrīṃ-kāra is particularly
connected with Sarasvatī.

Śrī or Lakṣmī

Śrī, who resides in the lake at the top of Mount Himavant, is also the Jain goddess of wealth and
prosperity. She is also known as Lakṣmī, more rarely Padmā or Ramā. She has the same names
 among Hindus. In the Jain universe she lives in the lower levels of the upper world, the home of
gods and goddesses.
She is specially worshipped by lay Jains, among whom business is one of the main occupations,
on the day known as Dhana-terasa – ‘Wealth Thirteenth’ – before the festival of Dīvālī. This is
done through a pūjā that ‘involves sprinkling auspicious red powder and pañcāmr̥t or ‘five
nectars’ of milk, curd, clarified butter, honey, and sugar onto silver coins’ (Cort 2001: 164).
Śrī or Lakṣmī is found in early sources, as she features among the 14 or 16 dreams announcing
the birth of a future Jina, which the mother experiences while pregnant. As such, she is painted
on manuscript pages or embroidered on cloth manuscript covers, and usually appears in larger
size than the other dreams. Among items digitised on JAINpedia, noteworthy examples are:
 Kalpa-sūtra manuscripts, for instance this page depicting the Śvetāmbara dreams
 two manuscript covers, IS 20-1978 and IS 50-1983
 a vijñapti-patra or invitation scroll that shows the goddess under a pink canopy.
Kṣetra-pālas

This generic designation refers to deities who are considered ‘guardians of land or territory’.
This means either a large area or, more narrowly, the temple precincts. They live in the lower
levels of the upper world of the Jain universe.
There are three main classes of kṣetra-pāla gods among Jains:
 yoginīs
 bhairavas
 vīras.
As protective deities, the kṣetra-pālas are fierce and can be aggressive so devotees may placate
them in religious ceremonies. They also have the power to grant wishes if worshipped correctly.
When kṣetra-pālas are shown in Jain temples, they are found mainly at the sides of doors, as if to
protect the entrance.
Yoginīs
The yoginīs form a category familiar in other Indian religions. Thought of as guardians of land or
territory, the 64 yoginīs are mostly seen as terrifying and therefore need to be pacified. Thus they
appear in Tantric modes of worship and are invoked, with their images placed on yantras
or maṇḍalas in various stotras (see for instance Nawab 1937/1996: 186 and Jhavery 1944: 333–
335).
The available lists show variations in the names of the yoginīs. They feature in a number
of Jain writings, which portray them as malevolent deities who can take possession of human
beings. Texts from the 12th century relate how famous Jain teachers performed rites to free
people from their evil influence.
In one example, Hemacandra is said to have persuaded the goddess Saindhava-devī at Broach or
Bharuch in Gujarat to order the yoginīs to quit the minister Ambaḍa. He had fallen ill due to their
influence (Jhavery 1944: 220).
In another case, Jinadatta-sūri is said to have won control over the yoginīs and other groups of
deities as well (Jhavery 1944: 214).
According to another anecdote, the 64 yoginīs took over the 64 towers around the new
Ahmedabad fort. Harassed by the deities, Sultan Ahmed Shah sought aid from the Jain teacher
Ratnasiṃha-sūri, who was able to help him by using a mystical diagram.The upper text is from a
Contribution by Nalini Balbir

The Concept of Godliness in each Soul: In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality
of every soul. This quality, however, is subdued by the soul's association with karmic matter. All
souls who have achieved the natural state of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge (kevala jnana),
infinite power and infinite perception are regarded as God in Jainism. Jainism rejects the idea of
a creator deity responsible for the manifestation, creation, or maintenance of this universe.
According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents (soul, matter, space, time, and
principles of motion) have always existed. All the constituents and actions are governed by
universal natural laws and perfect soul, an immaterial entity cannot create or affect a material
entity like the universe.[1]
From the essential perspective, the soul of every living organism is perfect in every way, is
independent of any actions of the organism, and is considered God or to have godliness. But the
epithet of God is given to the soul in whom its properties manifest in accordance with its
inherent nature. There are countably infinite souls in the universe.
According to Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra (a major Jain text):
आप्ते नो च्छिनदोषेण सर्वज्ञेनागमे शिना।
भशर्तव्यं शनयोगेन नान्यथा ह्याप्तता भर्ेत्।।५।
In the nature of things the true God should be free from the faults and weaknesses of the
lower nature; [he should be] the knower of all things and the revealer of dharma; in no
other way can divinity be constituted.
क्षु च्छिपासाजराजरातक्ड जन्मान्तकभयस्मयााः।
न रागद्वे षमोहाश्च यस्याप्ताः स प्रकीर्त्वते ।।६।।
He alone who is free from hunger, thirst, senility, disease, birth, death, fear, pride,
attachment, aversion, infatuation, worry, conceit, hatred, uneasiness, sweat, sleep and
surprise is called a God.
In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality of every soul (or every living
organism) characterizing infinite bliss, infinite power, Kevala Jnana (pure infinite
knowledge),[3] infinite perception, and perfect manifestations of (countably) infinite other
attributes. There are two possible views after this point. One is to look at the soul from
the perspective of the soul itself. This entails explanations of the properties of the soul, its
exact structure, composition and nature, the nature of various states that arise from it and
their source attributes as is done in the deep and arcane texts
of Samayasāra, Niyamasara and Pravachanasara. Another view is to consider things apart
from the soul and its relationships with the soul. According to this view, the qualities of a
soul are subdued due to karmas of the soul. Karmas are the fundamental particles of
nature in Jainism. One who achieves this state of soul through right belief, right
knowledge and right conduct can be termed a god. This perfection of soul is
called Kevalin. A god thus becomes a liberated soul – liberated of miseries, cycles of
rebirth, world, karmas and finally liberated of body as well. This is
called nirvana or moksha.

Jainism does not teach the dependency on any supreme being for enlightenment. The
Tirthankara is a guide and teacher who points the way to enlightenment, but the struggle
for enlightenment is one's own. Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine
being, but a result of an innate moral order in the cosmos; a self-regulating mechanism
whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the workings of the
karmas.

Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic
bonding, one must practice the ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words
(speech) and action. Such a practice through lifelong work towards oneself is regarded as
observing the Mahavrata ("Great Vows").

Gods can be thus categorized into embodied gods also known as arihantas and non-
embodied formless gods who are called Siddhas. Jainism considers the devīs and devas to
be souls who dwell in heavens owing to meritorious deeds in their past lives. These souls
are in heavens for a fixed lifespan and even they have to undergo reincarnation as
humans to achieve moksha.

Thus, there are infinite gods in Jainism, all equivalent, liberated, and infinite in the
manifestation of all attributes. The Self and karmas are separate substances in Jainism,
the former living and the latter non-living. The attainment of enlightenment and the one
who exists in such a state, then those who have achieved such a state can be termed gods.
Therefore, beings (Arihant) who've attained omniscience (kevala jnana) are worshipped
as gods. The quality of godliness is one and the same in all of them. Jainism is sometimes
regarded as a transtheistic religion, though it can be atheistic or polytheistic based on the
way one defines "God".

Pañca-Parameṣṭhi
Stella depicting Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings) worthy of veneration as per
Jainism
In Jainism, the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (Sanskrit for "five supreme beings") are a fivefold
hierarchy of religious authorities worthy of veneration. The five supreme beings are:
1. Arihant
2. Siddha
3. Acharya (Head of the monastic order)
4. Upadhyaya ("Preceptor of less advanced ascetics")
5. Muni or Jain monks

Arihant (Jainism)
A human being who conquers all inner passions and possesses infinite right knowledge
(Kevala Jnana) is revered as an arihant in Jainism.[5] They are also
called Jinas (conquerors) or Kevalin (omniscient beings). An arihant is a soul who has
destroyed all passions, is totally unattached and without any desire and hence is able to
destroy the four ghātiyā karmas and attain kevala jñāna, or omniscience. Such a soul still
has a body and four aghātiyā karmas. Arihantas, at the end of their human life-span,
destroy all remaining aghātiyā karmas and attain Siddhahood. There are two kinds
of kevalin or arihant:
 Sāmānya Kevalin–Ordinary victors, who are concerned with their own salvation.
 Tirthankara Kevalin–Twenty-four human spiritual guides (teaching gods), who show
the true path to salvation.

Tirthankara

Image of Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara (Photo:Samanar Hills)
The word Tīrthaṅkara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage
across a sea. The Tirthankara show the "fordable path" across the sea of interminable
births and deaths. Jain philosophy divides the wheel of time in two halves, Utsarpiṇī or
ascending time cycle and avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle. Exactly
24 Tirthankara are said to grace each half of the cosmic time cycle. [9] Rishabhanatha was
the first Tirthankara and Mahavira was the last Tirthankara of avasarpiṇī.
Tirthankara revive the fourfold order of Shraman, Shramani, Śrāvaka, and
Śrāvika called sangha. Tirthankara can be called teaching gods who teach the Jain
philosophy. However it would be a mistake to regard the tirthankara as gods analogous
 to the gods of the Hindu pantheon despite the superficial resemblances between Jain and
Hindu ways of worship. Tirthankara, being liberated, are beyond any kind of transactions
with the rest of the universe. They are not the beings who exercise any sort of creative
activity or who have the capacity or ability to intervene in answers to prayers.
Tirthamkara-nama-karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to
the supreme status of a tirthankara.

Siddha

Although the siddhas (the liberated beings) are formless and without a body, this is how the Jain
temples often depict them.

Ultimately all arihantas become siddhas, or liberated souls, at the time of their nirvana.
A siddha is a soul who is permanently liberated from the transmigratory cycle of birth
and death. Such a soul, having realized its true self, is free from all the Karmas and
embodiment. They are formless and dwell in Siddhashila (the realm of the liberated
beings) at the apex of the universe in infinite bliss, infinite perception, infinite knowledge
and infinite energy.

The Acharanga Sutra 1.197 describes siddhas in this way:

The liberated soul is not long nor small nor round nor triangular nor quadrangular nor
circular; it is not black nor blue nor red nor green nor white; neither of good nor bad
smell; not bitter nor pungent nor astringent nor sweet; neither rough nor soft; neither
heavy nor light; neither cold nor hot; neither harsh nor smooth; it is without body,
without resurrection, without contact (of matter), it is not feminine nor masculine nor
neuter. The siddha perceives and knows all, yet is beyond comparison. Its essence is
without form; there is no condition of the unconditioned. It is not sound, not colour, not
smell, not taste, not touch or anything of that kind. Thus I say.
Siddhashila as per the Jain cosmology

Siddhahood is the ultimate goal of all souls. There are infinite souls who have
become siddhas and infinite more who will attain this state of liberation. According to
Jainism, Godhood is not a monopoly of some omnipotent and powerful being(s). All
souls, with right perception, knowledge and conduct can achieve self-realisation and
attain this state. Once achieving this state of infinite bliss and having destroyed all
desires, the soul is not concerned with worldly matters and does not interfere in the
working of the universe, as any activity or desire to interfere will once again result in
influx of karmas and thus loss of liberation.

Jains pray to these passionless Gods not for any favors or rewards but rather pray to the
qualities of the God with the objective of destroying the karmas and achieving the
Godhood. This is best understood by the term vandetadgunalabhdhaye – i.e. "we pray to
the attributes of such Gods to acquire such attributes"

Deva (Jainism)

Idol of Padmāvatī devī, śāsanadevī of Lord Parshvanatha at Walkeshwar Temple. She is

one of the most popular demi-goddess amongst the Jains. According to Digambar
Terapanth, worship of such deities is considered as mithyātva or wrong belief. However,
in the Bispanthi Digambar tradition and the Shwetambar tradition, Padmavati is a popular
Jain goddess.
Jain cosmology offers an elaborate description of heavenly beings (devas), but these
beings are neither viewed as creators nor are they immortal; they are subject to suffering
and change like all other living beings, and must eventually die. In this way, they are
similar to the devas of Buddhism. English-language material tends to retain the term
"deva" or describe these beings as "deities", "gods" and "goddesses."
Jainism describes existence of śāsanadevatās and śāsanadevīs, the attendants of
a Tirthankara, who create the samavasarana or the divine preaching assembly of
a Tirthankara. Such heavenly beings are classified as:-
 Bhavanapatis – Devas dwelling in abodes
 Vyantaras – Intermediary devas
 Jyotiṣkas – Luminaries
 Vaimānikas – Astral devas
The souls on account of accumulation of meritorious karmas reincarnate in heavens as
devas. Although their life span is quite long, after their merit karmas are exhausted, they
once again have to reincarnate back into the realms of humans, animals
or hells depending on their karmas. As these devas themselves are not liberated, they
have attachments and passions and hence not worthy of worship.
Ācārya Hemachandra decries the worship of such devas:
These heavenly beings (devas above) tainted with attachment and passion; having women
and weapons by their side, favour some and disfavour some; Such heavenly beings
(devas) should not be worshipped by those who desire emancipation.
Worship of such devas is considered as mithyatva or wrong belief leading to bondage of
karmas.

Jainism and non-creationism

Jain scriptures reject God as the creator of the universe. Further, it asserts that no god is
responsible or causal for actions in the life of any living organism. Ācārya Hemacandra
in the 12th century put forth the Jain view of the universe in the Yogaśāstra.
This universe is not created nor sustained by anyone; It is self-sustaining, without any
base or support.

Besides scriptural authority, Jains also resorted to syllogism and deductive reasoning to
refute the creationist theories. Various views on divinity and the universe held by
the Vedics, samkhyas, mīmāṃsās, Buddhists and other schools of thought were analyzed,
debated and repudiated by various Jain Ācāryas. However, the most eloquent refutation
of this view is provided by Ācārya Jinasena in Mahāpurāna, which was quoted by Carl
Sagan in his 1980 book Cosmos.

Some foolish men declare that creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was
created is ill advised and should be rejected.
If God created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was
transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have
made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then
the world, you are faced with an endless regression.
 If you declare that this raw material arose naturally you fall into another fallacy, for
the whole universe might thus have been its own creator, and have arisen quite
naturally.
If God created the world by an act of his own will, without any raw material, then it is
just his will and nothing else — and who will believe this silly nonsense?
If he is ever perfect and complete, how could the will to create have arisen in him? If,
on the other hand, he is not perfect, he could no more create the universe than a potter
could.
If he is form-less, action-less and all-embracing, how could he have created the world?
Such a soul, devoid of all modality, would have no desire to create anything.
If he is perfect, he does not strive for the three aims of man, so what advantage would
he gain by creating the universe?
If you say that he created to no purpose because it was his nature to do so, then God is
pointless. If he created in some kind of sport, it was the sport of a foolish child, leading
to trouble.
If he created because of the karma of embodied beings (acquired in a previous
creation), then he is not the Almighty Lord, but subordinate to something else.
If out of love for living beings and need of them he made the world, why did he not
make creation wholly blissful free from misfortune?
If he were transcendent he would not create, for he would be free: Nor if involved in
transmigration, for then he would not be almighty. Thus the doctrine that the world
was created by God makes no sense at all.
And God commits great sin in slaying the children whom he himself created. If you say
that he slays only to destroy evil beings, why did he create such beings in the first
place?
Good men should combat the believer in divine creation, maddened by an evil doctrine.
Know that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning or end, and is
based on the principles, life and rest. Uncreated and indestructible, it endures under
the compulsion of its own nature.
— Mahapurana (Jainism) (The Great legend), Jainasena (India, ninth century)

Goddess Ambika : images in sculpture

In Jainism, Ambika (Sanskrit: अम्बिका, Odia: ଅମ୍ବି କା Ambikā "Mother").or Ambika Devi (अम्बिका
दे वी Ambikā Devī "the Goddess-Mother") is the Yakṣi "dedicated attendant deity" or Śāsana
Devī "protector goddess" of the 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha. She is also known
as Ambai, Amba, Kushmandini and Amra Kushmandini.She is often shown with one or more
children and often under a tree. She is frequently represented as a pair (Yaksha Sarvanubhuti on
the right and Kushmandini on the left) with a small Tirthankar image on the top. The
name ambika literally means mother, hence she is Mother Goddess. The name is also a common
epithet of Hindu Goddess Parvati. Goddess Ambika is of a golden colour and her vehicle is the
lion. She is depicted as a four armed goddess. In her two right hands she carries a mango and in
the other a branch of a mango tree. In one of her left hands, she carries a rein and in the other she
has her two sons, Priyankara and Shubhankara. This underlines her connection with motherhood
and children. Many temples are dedicated to her in Rajasthan and other places across India.
According to Jain text, Ambika is said to have been an ordinary woman named Agnila who
became a Goddess. She lived with her husband Somasarman and her two children Shubhanakar
and Prabhankara in Girinagar. One day, Somasarman invited Brahmins to
perform Śrāddha (funeral ceremony) and left Agnila at home. [5] Varadatta, the chief disciple of
Neminatha, was passing by and asked for food from Agnila to end his month-long
fast. Somasarman and Brahmins were furious at her as they considered the food to be impure
now. Somasarman drove her out of the house along with her children; she went up to a hill. She
was blessed with power for her virtue, the tree she sat down under became a Kalpavriksha, wish-
granting tree, and dry water tank has overflown with water. Gods were angry at the treatment
with Angila and decided to drown everything in her village but her house. After seeing this
Somasarman and Brahmins felt this was because of saintliness and went to beg for her
forgiveness. Upon looking at her husband afraid of punishment Angila committed suicide by
jumping off the cliff but was instantly reborn as Goddess AmbikaHer husband was reborn as a
lion and he came to her, licked her feet and became her vehicle. Neminatha initiated her two sons
and Ambika became Neminath's yakshi.
Ambika is the yakshi of Neminatha with Sarvanha (according to Digambara tradition) or
Gomedha (according to Śvētāmbara tradition) as yaksha
Worship

Ambika as Gullikayi ji in front of Gommateshwara statue

Worship of Ambika is very old, a number of images and temples of ambika are found in
India. Goddess Ambika along with Padmavati, Chakreshvari are held as esteemed deities and
worshipped in Jains along with tirthankaras. Ambika and Padmavati are associated
with tantric rituals. These tantric rites involves yantra-vidhi, pitha-sthapana and mantra-
puja. Ambika is also called Kalpalata and kamana devi a goddess that fulfils. In Vimal
Vasai Ambika is carved kalpalata, a wish fulfilling creeper. Ambika is also associated with
childbirth and prosperityAmbika and Sarvahana is the most favoured yaksha-yakshi pair in
western parts of India. Ambika is also worshiped as Kuladevi or gotra-devi. Ambika is the kula-
devi of the Porwad(Pragvat) Jain community. While she is worshipped by all murtipujak Jains,
she is specially revered by the Porwads.
According to legend, after completing construction of Gommateshwara
statue, Chavundaraya organised a mahamastakabhisheka with five liquids, milk, tender coconut,
sugar, nectar and water collected in hundreds of pots but liquid could not flow below the navel of
the statue. Kushmandini appeared disguised as a poor old woman holding milk in the shell of
half of a white Gullikayi fruit and the abhisheka was done from head to toe. Chavundaraya
realised his mistake and did abhishek without pride and arrogance and this time abhisheka was
done from head to toe. Worship of Kushmandini devi or Ambika is an integral part of Jain rituals
in Shravana

As per Svetambara tradition Ambika is a wife and the mother of two children in Gujarat.
Her husband makes her leave the house because she gives food to a Jain monk. She goes to a
nearby forest with her children and settle down under a withered mango tree. But the mango tree
provides fruit and a dried-up lake fills with water for them, so they survive. When her repentant
husband comes to look for them, she misunderstands and escapes him by jumping into a well
with her sons. She is reborn as the yakshi to Neminatha and her husband is reborn as her
lion vahana or vehicle. This account is from the Ambikadevi-kalpa.

The image of Goddess Ambika shown below at Kalugumalai in Tamil Nadu displays the
attributes commonly associated with this goddess, namely the mango tree, her two male children
and the lion. Ambika here is depicted as a two-armed goddess and stands with her right hand
placed on the head of a small female attendant. The male figure on her right has been identified
as Ambika’s agitated husband prior to his transformation into a vahana, the lion.

The sculpture at the south end of the verandah of the Indra Sabha rock-cut temple at
Ellora, a group of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain cave temples which extend for over 2 km on the
west face of a basalt cliff in Maharashtra. Indra Sabha is the largest of the Jain caves, excavated
under Rashtrakuta patronage in the 9th century. Depicted below is a carved figure of the
Goddess Ambika with two hands, with a male child seated on her lap and a lion beneath. The
mango tree is also represented.The columns next to her image have foliate motifs.
Goddess Ambika, sculpture,8th-9th century,Kalugumalai, Tamil Nadu.By Balajijagadesh – Own work, CC BY-SA
3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=21456326

Goddess Ambika, sculpture,6th-7th century, Bihar.

I, Sailko [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)%5D,
via Wikimedia Commons
Goddess Ambika, Cave 34, 9th century,Ellora, Maharshtra.
By Henry Mack Nepean [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons To the RIGHT(BELOW)
Goddess Ambika,12th century,grey chlorite, V & A Museum, U.K.By Jonathan Cardy – Own work, CC BY-
SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16276702.Goddess Ambika, medieval
period,Rataul ,Government Museum, Mathura.Biswarup Ganguly
http://www.jainpedia.org/themes/practices/deities/contentpage/4.html